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7 



HAYDN'S 
DICTIONARY OF DATES; 

COMPREHENDING 

REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN : 

THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, 

SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — AND THEIR CIVIL, 

MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC INSTITUTIONS. 



I HAYDN'S b^ 

Dictionary of Dates, 

RELATING 

TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. 



UNIVERSAL REFERENCE. 



Edited by BENJAMIN VINCENT, 

ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND KEEPER OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN ; 



AND REVISED FOR THE USE OF AMERICAN READERS. 






NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
1869. 



^ 



r 



,\^>'\ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District of New York. 



PEEFACE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



This yahiable work was taken in hand by the American Pubhshers upon 
its first appearance in England ; but it was found in many respects inade- 
quate to the wants of American readers. There was nnich that might be 
omitted without detracting from its vahie, and very much that needed to 
be added. During the years that elapsed in the preparation of new mat- 
ter, new editions appeared of the English volume, containing very import- 
ant additions ; and the rapid progress of this country during those years in 
material prosperity and in social development, rendered it necessary for the 
Publishers to continually incorporate fresh records and statistics. Even 
while the work has been passing through the press, alterations and addi- 
tions have been continually made. 

Thus this Dictionary of Dates, w^hich is at the same time a chronicle 
and a chronology of the World's Progress, has been brought down to the 
present year. AVliile the census of 1860 has been generally adopted as the 
basis of American statistics, every effort has been made to obtain still fresh- 
er materials. 

The matter which has been added has not been thrown into a supple- 
ment, but has been incorporated into the body of the work. This makes 
the work more convenient for reference. 

This work has during its preparation passed through several hands, and 
in the selection of editors regard has been had to special departments. The 
events of the Revolution, of the War of 1812, of the Mexican, and of the 
Indian Wars were incorporated into the work by Mr. Benson J. Lossing. 
The events of the recent Civil War were, in like manner, compiled and ar- 
ranged by a separate editor, who had made those events the study of sev- 
eral years. All these contributions have been carefully arranged and re- 
revised. 

The Publishers are confident that in issuing this Dictionary they are of- 
fering the Public the best and completest work of the kind ever published. 

Fkaxklin Square, SejJtcmher, 1SG9. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. 



The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the great- 
est body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, and 
to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its 
possession material to every individual — in the same manner that a London 
Directory is indispensable, on business aifairs, to a London merchant. 

He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether 
upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from histo- 
rians of the first rank, and the most aiithentic annalists ; and the Dictionary 
OP Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turn- 
ing over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, 
order, and featu^res of any particular occurrence. 

The volume contains upward of Fifteens" TnousANb Articles, alphabetic- 
ally arranged ; and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important 
to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether 
connected with the professions or engaged in trade. 

It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose Avorks the Compiler 
of this A'olume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the clas- 
sics, Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen, in general chro- 
nology, Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe Lenglet Dufresnoy. 
For the events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Vol- 
taire, La Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the N'ouveaio Dictionnaire^ and chief 
authors of their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his au- 
thorities are Cave's Historia LUeraria^ Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of 
equal repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, 
Baker, Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Rapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, etc. Be- 
sides these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments .that have 
brought facts and dates more prommcntly forward ; and he is largely indebted 
to Chambers, Aspin, Beatson, Anderson, Beckmann, the Cxjdopoidias, Annual 
Register^ Statutes at Large, and numerous other compilations. In almost 
every instance the authority is quoted for the extract made and date assigned, 
though inadvertence may have prevented, in some few cases,. a due ackuowl- 
ed foment. 



viii PREFACE. 

The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern kingdoms, 
are to be found in the annals of each respectively, as in the cases, for instance, 
of Greece, Rome, the Eastern Empire, England, France, and Germany. 
But, independently of this plan of reference, when any historical occurrence 
claims, from its importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate 
article, according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of En- 
gland, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, the institution 
of honorary orders, and signature oi Magna Charta; we find, in those annals, 
the periods of our civil wars, and remarkable eras in our history, set down as 
they have occurred; but if more ample information be necessary to the Reader, 
and if he desire to know more than the mere date of any fact or incident, the 
particulars are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, the pages 
of Battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all instances 
where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is memorable or mo- 
mentous, the chief features of it are stated in another part of the volume. 

The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary op Dates will be re- 
ceived as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, to 
things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the 

range or design of such publications. 

Joseph Haydn. 

London, May, 1841. [Died Jan. IT, 1S56.] 



PREFACE TO THE TWELFTH EDITION. 



In 1855, "«'hen the printing of tlie Seventli Edition of this Dictionaiy 
liad beo-un and Mr. Haydn's failing health prevented the continuance of 
his labors, I acceded to the request of the publisher to correct the press and 
supply the continuations of the articles. In doing so I soon perceived that 
the execution of the work was far from being equal to the merit of its con- 
ception ; and, after much consideration, I was eventually mduced to under- 
take its gradual revision and completion, in order to render the book more 
worthy of its established reputation. During the last ten years the chrono- 
logical tables have been examined and continued ; a great number of arti- 
cles have been rewi-itten, and new ones inserted, and much geographical, 
biographical, literary, and scientific information supplied, together with a 
Table of the Populations and Governments of the various countries of the 
world; and the Index has been greatly augmented by the insertion of dates 
relating to eminent persons of past and present times. With the present 
edition is given a Table of Contemporary European Sovereigns since the 
]^orman Conquest. To afford room for these additions, the size of the page 
and the bulk of the volume have been enlarged, and very many articles 
have been condensed. My aim has been throughout to make this book not 
a mere Dictionary of Dates, but a dated Encyclopaedia, a digested summary 
of every department of human liistory brought do^ai to the very eve of 
publication. The latest Additions and Corrections will be found at the 
end of the volume. 

BENJAinN ViXCENT. 
FEEurARY, 1 8GG. 



POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 

(According to the Alinanachde Gotlmfor 18GG.) 



COUXTKIES. 



pori-LATiox. 



Anhalt, Po^mlation in Dec.,1864 193,046 

Argentine Confederation 1S59 1,171,800 

Austrian Empire Oct.,1857 35,018,988 

Baden Dec, 1864 1,434,754 

Bavaria Dec, 1864 4,807,440 

Beliilum Dec, 1863 4,893,021 

Bolivia 1858 1,987,352 

Brazil 1S56 7,677,800 

Bremen (free city) Dec,1864 104,091 

Brnnswick-Wolfeubuttel,Dcc.,1864 293,388 

Chili (estimated) 1857 1,599,000 

Ciiinesc Empire (estimated). . .1849 415,000,000 

Costa Rica (estimated) 1861 135,000 

Denmark and colonies 1865 1,825,220 

Equator (estimated) 1858 1,040,371 

Egypt 1859 5,125,000 

France and colonies (est.) 1862 43,534,245 

Frankfort (free city) Dec, 1864 91,180 

Great Britain and colonies (est.)1861 228,820,099 
Greece and Ionian Islands (est.)1865 1,325,341 

Guatemala 1S5S 850,000 

Hamburg (free city) 1860 2-29,941 

Hanover Dec.,1864 1,923,492 

Hayti and St. Domingo (est.). .1865 572,000 

Hesse-Caasel '. . . .Dec,1864 745,063 

Hesse-Darmstadt Dec, 1864 853,315 

Hesse-Homburg Dec.,1864 27,374 

Holland and colonies 1863 21,805,007 

Holstein 1865 5.54,510 

Honduras 18.58 350,000 

Italy (estimated) 1864 22,104,789 

Japan (estimated) 35 to 40 mil. 

Liehtenstein 1858 7,150 

Lippe Dec, 1864 111,336 

Liibeck (free citv) 1862 50,614 

Mecklenburg-Schweriu . .Dec, 1864 552,612 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1860 99,060 

Mexico (estimated) 1865 8,218,080 

Monaco 1864 1,687 

Montenegro (estimated) 1859 125,000 

ISIorocco about 8,0OD,OOi 

Nassau Dec, 1864 

New Granada 1864 

Nicaragua 1858 

Oldenburg Dec.,1864 

Pauamd 1864 

Papal States (estimated) 1363 

Paraguay 1857 

Persia (estimated) 1859 

Peru 1859 

Portugal and colonies . . .Dec, 1863 

Prussia Dec, 1865 

Reuss-Greiz Dec, 1864 

Reuss-Schleiz Dec, 1864 

Rouinauia (Dan. Prucip.) est.. 1862 

Russia, Poland, etc. (est.) 1865 

Sandwich Islands (Hawaii,etc) 1861 

San Marino 1858 

San Salvador 1858 

Saxony Dec, 1864 

Sa.xe-Altenburg Dec, 1864 

Saxc-Coburg-Gotha Dec, 1864 

Saxe-Meiiiiiigen Dec.,lS64 

Saxe-Wcimar-Eisenach. .Dec. ,1864 

Schaumburg-Lippe Dec, 1864 

Schwartzb.-Rudolstadt . .Dec, 1864 
Schwartzb.-Soudershausen " 1864 

Servia 1865 

Sleswig 1865 

Spain and colonies 1S&4 

Sweden and Norway (est.) 1863 

Switzerland Dec.,1860 

Turkish Empire (estimated). . .1865 

Uruguay 1860 

Venezuela 18.59 

Waldeck Dec, 1864 

Wiirtemberg Dec.,1864 

United States of America 1860 



Oct. 1,1794.. 



Aug. 18, 1830 
Sept. 9, 1826. 
Aug. 26, 1845. 
April 9, 1835, 



Dec 2, 1825. . 
April 25,1806 
April 5, 1855. 
ApriYsVisis! 



Leopold, Duke 

Bartolomeo Mitre, President. . . 

Francis-Joseph, Emperor 

Frederick, Grand-duke 

Louis 11.^ King 

Leopold II., king 

Gen. M. Melgarejo, President. . 

Pedro II., Emperor 

C. Mehr, Burgomaster 

William, ifwie 

Jose J. Perez, President 

Ki-tsiang, Emperor 

J. Ximenes, President 

Christian IX., King 

G. Carrson, President 

Ismail Pacha, Viceroy. '. 

Napoleon lll.jEnqjeror 

Two Burgomasters. 

Victoria, Queen 

George I., Ki^ig 

Vincent Cerna, President 

Senate. 

George Y.,King 

N. Fabre Geflrard, President. . . 
Frederick-William I., Elector . . 

Louis III., Grand-duke 

Ferdinand, Landgrave I April 26, i783, 

William III., King |Feb. 19, 1817.. 

Ildd bji Austria. 

J. M. Medina, President. . 

Victor-Emmanuel, King jMarch 14,1820 

Mikado {Kjnritual} ; Tycoon {tem,poral). 

John II., Prince Oct. 5, 1840. . . 

"' ~ " 'Sept. 1,1821.. 

Feb. 28, 1823.. 
Oct. 17, 1819. 
July 6, 1832.. 
Dec. S, 1818. . 
1840 



April 20, 1808, 

May 24, 1819. . 
Dec. 24, 1845. 



May 27, 1819.. 

Aiig.' 20,1802. 
June 9, 1806. 



Leopold, Prince 
BuriTomasters and Senate. 
Frederick-Fvimcis, Grand-duke. 
Frederick- William, Grand-duke 

Maximilian I., Emperor 

Charles, Prince 

Nicholas I., Prince 

Sifl i Mohammed, Sultan 

46s,Hl 1 '• A d. .1 phus, Btike 

2,794,473 .M. Murillo, President 

4UU,0U0 T. :Martinez, President 

301,812 ~ 

2,784,473 

700,000 

1,337,431 

10,000,000 

2,500,000 

8,037,194 

19,304,843 

43,924 

86,472 

4,003,000 

80,255,430 



July 24, 1817.. 



Peter, Grand-duke July 8, 1827 . 

Jil Coluuje, Governor 

Pius IX., Pope May 1.3,1792.. 

F. S. Lopez 

Nassir-ed-Deen, Shah 1829 

M. Canseco, President 

Louis I., King Oct. 31, 1838 . . 

William L, King March 22,1797 

Henry XXII., Prince March 28,1846 

Henry LXIX., Prince 'May 19, 1792.. 

Alex. John I. (Cousa) Hospodar March 10,1820 

Alexander II., Czar April 29, 1818. 

69, '-^OK Kam ■hanK'lia V Dec 11, 1830.. 

si.OllO Cupitdiii rC'iqcnti. 

600,OU0,F. Duenas, President 

2,343,994 John, King Dec. 12, 1801. . 

141,839 Ernest, Duke Sept. 16, 1826. 

164,.527l Ernest II., Duke June 21, 1818. 

178,065iBernard,£»Mi-e Dec. 17, 1800. . 

280,201 1 Charles-Alex.ander,G'rand-^^M^•e June 24, 1818. 

31,382 Adolphns, Prin<;e I Aug. 1, 1817 . . 

73,7!52|Guuthcr. Prince iNov. 6, 1793. . 



Sept. 24,1801. 
Sept. 4, 1825. . 



Oct. 10,1830., 
May 3, 1826. . , 



66,189 (imther, I'rinre 

1,220,000 M ichael III. (Milosch) 

4116, 4Si; //,/,/ 1,11 Prussia. 

21,(i;!l,2.')S lsal)ella II., Queen 

5,7iHi,(MlO C'hniic.'^ XV., King 

2.61 o,,H14 Ann mil I'n'si'lcnt. 

39,0(10,(10(1 Ab<liil-A/,iz, Sultan 

24((,9G5 (ien. V. Flores, Prov. President 

1,5(;.%.')00 J. E. Falcon, President 

.59,14:! George v., /■'mice 

1, 748, 32S; Charles, King [March 6, 1823, 

31,445,08J| Andrew Johnson, President . . .1809 



Feb. 9, 1830.. 



Jan. 14, 1831. 



Aug. 9, 1817. 
Oct. 12,1862. 
Dec 2, 1848. 
April 24, 1852. 
March 10,1864. 
Dec. 10, 1865. 
Dec, 1864. 
April 7, 1831. 
Dec. 31, 1863. 
April 25, 1831, 
Sept. 18,1861. 
Aug. 22,1861. 
April 3, 1863. 
Nov. 15, 1862. 
1865. 

Jan. 18, 1863. 
Dec. 2, 1853. 

June 20, 1837. 
June 5, 1863. 
May 3, 1865. 

Nov. IS, 1851. 
Jan. 23,1859. 
Nov. 20, 1847. 
June 16, 1848. 
Sept. 8,1848. 
March 17,1849. 

Feb., 1804. 
March 17,1861. 

Nov. 12, 1858. 
Jan. 1, 1851. 

March 7, 1842. 
Sept. 6,1860. 
April 10, 1864. 
June 20, 1856 
Aug. 14, 1860. 
Sept., 1859. 
Aug. 20, 1839. 
April 1, 1864. 
March 1, 1859. 
Feb. 27, 1853. 
March 10,1865. 
June 16. 1846. 
Sept., 1862. 
1S4S. 

Nov., 1865. 
Nov. 11, 1861. 
Jan. 2,1861. 
Nov. 8, 1859. 
Sept. 16, 1856. 
Jan., 1859. 
March 2, 1S55. 
Nov., 1863. 

April, 1805. 
Aug. 9, 1854. 
Autr. 3, 1853. 
JaiT. 29, 1844. 
Dec 24, 1803. 
July 8,1853. 
Nov. 21, 1860. 
April 28, 1807. 
Aug. 19, 1,835. 
Sept. 26, 1860. 

Sept. 29, 1833. 
July 8,1859. 
July 4, 1864 
June 25, 1861. 
Feb., 1865. 
March 18,1865. 
May 15, 1845. 
June 2.5, 1864. 
April 15, 1S65. 



TABLE OP CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 




Peninsula. 








France. 




Germany. 


Hungary. 


England. 


Scotland. 


Castile. 


Akagon. 


Portugal. 


1066.Will. 1. 


1057. Male. 3. 
1093. DoDald 


1060. Philip 1. 


1066. Sancho 2. 


1065. Sancho. 


1065. Sancho of 

Castile. 


1056. Hen. 4, 
emperor. 


1064. Solom. 


lOST.Will. 2. 


1094. Dune. 
1094. Douald 




1072. Alfonso 6. 




1072. Alfonso 6. 




1075. Geisa. 
1070. Lad. 1. 




agaiu. 






1094. Peter. 


1093. Henry, 




1098. Colo- 




1098. Edgar. 








count. 




man. 


llOO.Ueu.l. 


1107. Alex.1. 
1124. Dav. 1. 


1108. Louis 6. 


1109. Urraca and 
Alfonso 7. 
1126. Alfonso 7. 


1104. Alfonso 1. 


1112. Alfonso, as 
count. 


1106. Hen.5. 
1125. Loth. 2. 


1114. Step. 2. 
1131. Bela 2. 


1135. Steph. 




1137. Loui.5 7. 




1134. Ramiro. 








1154. Hen.2. 


1153. Mai. 4. 




1157. Sancho 3. 

1158. Alfonso 8. 


1137. Petrouella 
and Raymond. 


1139. Alfonso 1, 
as king. 


1138. Conr.3. 


1141. Geisa 3. 


1172. (Irelcl. 


1165. Will. 










1152. Fred. 1. 


1161. Step. 3. 


anncxsd.) 




1180. Philip 2. 




1163. Alfonso 2. 






1173. Bela 3. 


llSg.Eich.l. 










1185. Saucho 1. 


1190. Hen. 6. 




1199. John. 








1196. Peter 2. 




1198. Philip. 


1196.Emcric. 


1216. Heu.3. 


1214 Ales.2. 


1223. Louis 8. 
1226. Louis 9. 


1214. Henry 1. 
1230. Ferdin. 3. 


1213. James 1. 


1212. Alfonso 2. 
1223. Sancho 2. 


1208.Otho.4. 
1215. Fred. 2. 


1204. Lad. 2. 

1205. And. 2. 

1235. Bela 4. 




1249. Ales.3. 




1252. Alfonso 10. 




1248. Alfonso 3. 


1250. Cour.4. 
1254. Will. 
1257. Rich. 




1272. Ed. 1. 




1270. Philip 3. 




1276. Peter 3. 


1279. Dionysius, 


1273. Ro- 


1270. Step. 4. 
1272. Lad. 3. 


1282. {Wales 


Interregnum. 




1284. Sancho 4. 




or Denis. 


dolph. 




annexed.) 


1292. John 
Baliol. 


1285. Philip 4. 




1285. Alfonso 3. 




1292. Adolp. 










1295. Ferdin. 4. 


1291. James 2. 




129S. Alb. 1. 


1290. And. 3. 


1307. Ed. 2. 


1306. Robert 










1308. Hen. 7. 


1301. Charo- 




(Bruce) 1. 


1314. Louis 10. 
1316. John. 


1312. Alfonso 11. 


1327. Alfonso 4. 


1325. Alfonso 4. 


1314. Lou. 5. 


bert. 


1327. Ed. 3. 


1329. Dav. 2. 

1332.Ed.Bal. 

1342. Dav. 2 

again. 


Phil. 5. 

1321. Chas.4. 
1328. Phil. 6. 

1350. John. 


1350. Peter. 


1336. Peter 4. 


13.57. Peter. 


1347. Chas. 4. 


1342. Louis. 


1377.Ricli.2. 


1371. Robert 


1364. Chas. 5. 


1369. Henr}^ 




1367.Ferdiuand. 1378. Wen- 






2 (Stuart). 


1380. Chas. 6. 


1379. John 1. 


1387. John 1. 


13S3. John 1. 


ceslas. 


1382. Mary. 
1387. Mary & 


1399.Hen.4. 


1390.Robt.3. 




1390. Henry 2. 


1395. Martin. 




UOO.Rupert. 


Sigismund. 


1413. Hen.5. 


1406. Jas. 1. 




1406. John 2. 


1410. Inttrreq. 




1410. Sigismund. 


1422. Hen.G. 


1437. Jas. 2. 


1422. Chas. 7. 


1454. Henry 4. 


1412. Ferdinand 

of Sicilv. 

1416. Alfonso 5. 


1433. Edward. 
1438. Alfonso 5. 


1438. Albert. \ 










14.58. John 2. 




1440. Fred. 3. 


1440. Lad. 4. 


1461. Ed. 4. 


1460. Jas. 3. 


1461.Louis 11. 


1474. Isabella. 


1471). Ferdin. 2. 






144.5. Lad. 5. ': 
1458. Mat- 




















Spain. 






thias. 


14S3. Ed. 5. 














14S3!Eic'h.3. 




14S3. Chas. 8. 


1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 


1481. John 2. 


1493. Max. 1. 


1 


1485. Heu.7. 


14SS. Jas. 4. 








1499. Sioitz. 


1 






1498.Loui8 12. 




1495. Emanuel. 


independ. 


1490. Lad. 6. 





EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 





Scandinavia. 






Italy. 






Poland. 


Eastern 
Empire. 












SWEPKN. 


NOEWAY. 


Denmabk. 






Pori'B. 


Naples and Sicily. 


1U60. Halstau. 


1069. Olaf. 


104T. S\veyu2. llOSS. Boles- 


1068. Eom. 4. |l061. Alex. 2. 








1076. Harold. las. 












1080. Canute 4. 1082. Ladis- 


1071. Mich. 7. 


1073. Greg. T. 








1086. Olaus 4. 


las. 




1086. Victor 3. 




1090. Ingo. 


1093. Magnus. 


1095. Eric 1. 




1078.Nicep.3. 
1081. Alexius. 


1088. Urban 2. 
1099. Pascal 2. 




lir.'. Philip. 


1103. Sigurd 1, 


1105. Eric 2. ! 1102.Boles.3. 


1118. John 


1118. Gelas 2. 




Ills. IlliJO-.'. 


and others. 






Comnenus. 


1119. Calixt.2. 




ll'J9. Sweiker. 


1122. Sigurd 1. 








1124. Honor. 2. 
1130. Imioc. 2. 

1143. Celest. 2. 

1144. Lucius 2. 


1131. Eoger 1. 




1130. Magnus 4, 


1137. Eric 3. 


113S. Lad. 2. 


1143. Manuel 


1145.Eugeu.3. 




1155. Eric 1. 


and others. 


1147. Sweyn 3. 


1145.Boles.4. 


Comnenus. 


1153.An.asta.4. 
1154. Adrian 4. 


1154.WilIiam 1. 


1161. Char. 7. 


Civil war and 


Canute 5. 






1159. Alex. 3. 


1166. William 2. 




anarchij. 


1157.Walde- 


1173. Miecis- 




1181. Lucius 3. 




116T. Canute. 




mar. 


las 3. 


1180. Ales. 2. 


1185. Urban 3. 










1178. Casi- 


1183. Andro- 


1187. Greg. 8. 


1189. Tancred. 








mir 2. 


nicus C. 


Clem. 3. 


1194. William 3. 




11S6. Swerro. 


11S2. Canute 6. 




11S5. Isaac 2. 


1191. Celest. 3. 




1109. Swerker 2. 






1194. Lesk. 5. 


1195. Alex. 3. 


1198. Innoc. 3. 


1197. Fred. 2, of Gcrra'y. 


1210. Eric 2. 


1202. llako 3, 


1202.Walde. 2. 


1200. Miec. 3. 


1204. Theodo.i 1216. Honor. 3. 




1216. John 1. 


and others. 




1202. Lad. 3. 


1222. John 1227. Greg. 9. 






120T. Hako 4. 




1227.Boles.5. 


Ducas.il241.Celest. 4. 




1222. Eric 3. 










1243. Innoc. 4. 
1254. Alex. 4. 


1250. Conrad. 
1254. Conradiu. 






1241. Eric 4. 




1255. Theo. 2. 


1261. Urban 4. 


1258. Manfred. 






1250. Abel. 






1265. Clem. 4. 


1206. Charles of Aujou. 


1250. Birgcr, Jarl 




1252. Christo. 




125S. John 


1268-9. Vacant. 






1263. Magnus 6. 


1259. Eric 5. 




Lascaris. 


1271. Greg. 10. 




12G0.Waldcmar. 








1259. Mich. 8. 


1276. Innoc. 5. 

Adrian 5. 

1276. John 21. 


Sicily. 


12T5. Magnus 1. 






1279. Lesk. 6. 




1277.Nichol. 3. 




1280. Eric. 








1281. Martin 4. 
1285. Honor. 4. 


12S5.Chas.2. 1282.Peter 
ofAragou. 








1289. ^?iflfrc. 


1282. Andro- 


1288.Nichol. 4. 


1285. Jas. 








1290. Premis- 


nicus 2. 


1292-3. rac««<. 










las. 




1294. Celest. 5. 




1290. Birger 2. 


1299. Hako 5. 




1296.Ladis.4. 




Bonif. 8. 


1295.Fred.2. 








1300.Winces- 




1303. Bene. 11. 


1309. Robt. 


1319. Maguus 2. 


1319. United to 
Sweden. 


1320. Christo. 2. 


las. 




1305. Clem. 5. 

(A viirnon.) 

1314-15. r«c7. 








1334. Interreg. 


1333. Cas. 3. 


1332. And. 3. 


1316. John 22. 
1334. Bene. 12. 


1337. Pet. 2. 


1.^50. Eric 4. 




1340.Walde. 3. 




1341. John 5. 


1342. Clem. 6. 


1343. Joan. 2 1342. Louis. 


13.^9. Magnu 


S3. 








1.3.52. Innoc. 6. 


&And'w 1355.Fred.3. 


1363. Albert 




1375. Interreq. 

1376. Olaus 5. 


1370. Louis. 




1362. Urban 5. 
(Rome.) 


of Hung. 
1349. Louis. 1376.Maria 




13S0. United to 




1382. Mary. 




1370. Greg. 11. 


& Martin. 


1389. Margaret. 


Denmark. 


1387. Margaret. 


13S4. Hedw. 


1391. Manuel 


1378. Urban 6. 


1.3Sl.Chas.3. 


■ 






1396. Lad. 5. 


6. 1389. Bonif. 9. 


1385.Ladislas. 












1404. Innoc. 7. 


1402.Mart.l. 


1412. Eric 13 






1434. Lad. 6. 


1425. John 6. 


1406. Greg. 12. 

1409. Alex. 5. 

1410. John 2.3. 


1409.Mart.2. 

1414. Joan. 2. (United to 

Araqon.) 


1440. Christ( 


ipher 3. 






1448. Con- J1417. Martin 5. 


1410.Fe'rd.2. 






144S.Christ'nl. 


1445. Casi. 4. 


stant. 13.,1431.Eugeu.4. 


1416.Alfo.l. 


144S. Charles 8. 








l-i.il. IMCIl. O. 












Turkey. 


1455. Calix. 3. 


14.35. Alfonso 1. 


145". Clirist; 


aul. 






1458. Pins 2. 


1458. Ferd. 1.1458. John. 








1433. Moham- 


1464. Paul 2. 












med 2. 


1471. Sixtus 4. 


1494.Alfo.2. 1479.Ferd. 


14S3. John 


f Dcnmarlc. 


1481. John. 


1492. Albert. 


1481. Bajaz. 2. 


1484. Innoc. 8. 1495.Ferd.2. 
1492. Alex. 6. 1496.Fred.2. 











TABLE OP CONTEMPORARY 


Great Britain. 




Peninsula. 








France. 




Germany. 


Hungary. 


England. 


S00TL,\NI). 


Castile. 


AliAGON. 


Portugal. 


1509. Hen.S. 






1504.Joannaaud 








1516. Lou. 2. 




1513. Jas. 5. 


1515.Fr'ncisl. 


Philip 1. 


Ferdinand 2. 


1521. John 3. 


1519. Chas. 5 
(1 of Spain). 


1526. Jn. Za- 
polski and 








1512. Ferd. 5 (Cast.) 2 (Aragon). 






Ferdiu. 2. 


1547. Ed. 6. 


1542. Mary. 


l.')47. Henry 2. 


1516. Charles 1 (5 of Germ. 1519). 






1553. Mary. 




1559.Fr'ncis2. 






(Kings of Hungatiy.) 


1558. Eliz. 


15G7. Jas. G. 


1560. Cbas. 9. 






1558. Ferdinand. 








1556. Philip 2. 




1557. Sebastian. 


1504. Maximilian 2. 






1574. Henry 3. 




Holland. 


1578. Henry. 


1576. Eodolph 2. 


1579. William of 










Orange, stadt- 














holder. 










15S9. Heury4. 


1598. Philip 3. 


1587. Maurice. 


1580. Annexed to 
Simin. 




1603. James 1(6 of Scot). 


1610. Louis 13. 








1612. Mathias. 


1025. Cliarles 1. 




1621. Philip 4. 


1025. Fred. Hen. 


Kingd. restored. 


1619. Ferdinand 2. 
1637. Ferdinand 3. 


1619. Commonwealtli. 


1643. Louis 14. 




1047. William 2. 
1050-72. No 


1640. John of 
Braganza. 




1650. diaries 2. 




1665. Charles 2. 


stadtholder. 


1650. Alfonso 6. 
1607. Peter, 


1658. Leopold 1. 


16S5. James 2. 






1672. Will. Hen. 


regent. 




16S9. William and Mary. 






(William 3 of 


1083. Peter 2. 




1695. William 3. 






England). 






1T02. Anne. 




1700. Philip 5 


1702-47. No 


1706. John 5. 


1705. Joseph. 


Prussia. 


1714. George 1. 


1715. Louis 15. 


{abdicated). 


stadtholder. 




ITll. Chas. 0. 


172T. George 2. 




1724. Louis. 
Philip 5 
again. 






1742. Chas. 7. 


1701. Fred. 1. 
1713. Fred. 
William 1. 






1T4G. Ferdin'd 6. 


1747.Win.Hen. 


1750. Joseph. 


1745. Fr'ncis. 


1740. Fred. 2. 






1759. Charles 3. 


1757. William 4. 








1760. George 3. 


1774. Louis 16. 


1T88. Charles 4 
(abdicated). 




1777. Maria and 
Peter 3. 
1786. Maria 

alone. 


1705. Jos. 2. 


1786. Fred. 
William 2. 




1793. Louis 17. 




1795.Annexed to 




1790.Leop.2. 


1797. Fred. 




Rcjniblic. 




France. 


1791. John, reg''t. 


1792. Fran. 2. 


William 3. 


1S12. (George, Prince of 
Wales, rer/ent.)* 


lS02.C'us'i'te. 


ISOS. Ferdin'd 7 


1806. Lou., kiiia. 




Austria. 




lSn4.Napol.l. 
1S14. Louis 18. 


{dethroned). 
Jos. Bonap. 




1S16. John 6. 






Netherlands. 








1814. Ferdin'd 7 




18'J6. Peter 4. 


1800. Fran.l. 




1S20. George 4. 


lS24.Chas.l0. 


{restored). 


lS14.Will.Fred. 

king.* 


Maria 2. 
1828. Miguel. 






1S30. William 4. 




- 




1833. Maria 2. 


1835. Ferd.2. 




1S37. Victoria. 


ISDO.L.Philip. 


1833. Isabella 2. 


1S40. William 2. 




• 


1840. Fred. 




l8ia,.RcpuhVc. 




lS49.William 3. 




1848. Francis 
Joseph. 


William 4. 




1852.Napol.3. 






1853. Peter 5. 
1861. Louis 1. 




1860. Will. 1. 



' BELGIUM.— 1831. Leopold 1 ; 1805. Leopold 2. 



EUROPEAN SOVBIREIGNS.— Continued. 



Scandinavia. 






Italy. 




Poland. 


Eastern 










Empire. 






Sweden. 


Norway. 


DeN')I.\KK. 






Popes. 


Naples and Sicily. 






1501. Alex. 




1503. Pius 3. 


1501. Unit£d to Spain. 




1513.Christn.2. 


1506. Sig. 1. 


1512. Selim. 


Julius 2. 




1520. Christian 2. 








1613. Leo 10. 
1522. Adrian 6. 




1523. Gustavns 




1523. Freder. 1, 




1520. Soly- 


1.523. Clem. 7. 




Vasa. 


Russia.* 


and Norway. 




mau 2. 


1534. Paul 3. 
1.550. Julius 3. 








1533. Ivan 4. 


1534.Christn. 3. 


1548. Sig. 2. 


15G6. Selim 2. 


1555. Marcel.2. 

Paul 4. 
1559. Pius 4. 




15G0. Eric 14. 




1559. Freder. 2. 






1566. Pius 6. 
1572. Greg. 13. 




15GS. Juhu 3. 






1573. Henry. 


1574. Amu- 


15S5. Sixtus 5. 






15S4. Feodor 1. 


15SS.Christn.4. 


1575. Steph. 
1587. Sig. 3. 


rath 3. 


1590. Urban 7. 

Greg. 14. 

1591.Inuoc.9. 




1592. Sigismund. 


1C9S. Boris. 






1.595. Mah. 3. 


1592. Clem. 8. 




1004. Charles 9. 


1606. Basil. 






1603.Ach.l. 


1605. Leo 11. 




lOU.Gustavus 


1614. Michael 






1617. Must. 1. 


Paul 5. 




Adolphus. 


(Romauofl"). 




lG32.Lad.7. 


1618. Osni. 2. 
16-22. Musta- 


1621. Greg. 15. 
1623. Urban S. 


• 


1633. Christina. 






164S.JohuC. 


pha again. 


1644. Inuoc.lO. 






1C45. Alexis. 


1G4S. Freder. 3. 


1660. Mich'l. 


1623. Amur. 4. 


1665. Alex. 7. 




1C54. Charles 10. 






1G74. John 


1040.1brahim. 


1667. Clem. 9. 




1(560. Charles 11. 


1676. Feodor. 
16S2. Ivan 5 and 


1670.Christn. 5. 


Sobieski. 


1648. Mah. 4. 
lGS7.Solym.3. 


IGTO. Clem. 10. 
1676.Innoc.ll. 






Peter 1. 




1697.Fredk. 


1691. Ach. 2. 


1689. Alex. 8. 




1C97. Charles 12. 


16S9. Peter 1. 


1699. Freder. 4. | August. 1. 


1095. Must. 2. 


1691. Innoc.12. 




1 




1704. Stan. 1. 


1703. Ach. 3. 


1700. Clem. 11. 


Naples and 




1719. Ulrica and 


1725.Cathar. 1. 




1709. Fredk. 






Sardinia. 


Frederick 1. 


1727. Peter 2. 




Augustus, 




1721.Innoc.13. 


Sicily. 






1730. Anne. 


1730.Chrlstu. 6. 


TCStofcd. 


1730. Mah. 5. 


1724. Bene. 13. 








1733. Fredk. 












1740. Ivan 6. 




August. 2. 




17.30. Clem. 12. 


1713.Chas.3, 




1741.Frederickl. 


1741. Elizabeth. 


1746. Freder. 5. 






1740. Bene. 14. 


Xaplcs. 


1720. Victor 


1751. Adolphus 








1754. Osm. 3. 




Victor 


Amadeus. 


Frederick. 






1764. Stan. 2. 


1757. Must. 3. 




Am. of Sa- 


1730. Chas. 




1762. Peter 3. 


1766.Christn. 7. 






1758. Clem. 13. 


voy, .SYc?7;/. 


Emman. 1. 




Cathar. 2. 








1769. Clem. 14. 


1720. ..4 ?mea;. 




17Tl.Gustavus3. 








1774. Ach. 4. 


1775. Pius 6. 


to Germ. 


1773. Victor 






17S4. Prince 




1789. Selim 3. 




1738. Chas.4, 


Amade.2. 






Fred., rerjcnt. 


1795. Parti- 






Naples. 
1759.Fred.4, 


179C.Chas. 


1792. Gnstavns 4. 179G. Paul 1. 




tion. 




1800. Pius 7. 


Sicily. 


Emman. 2. 


1S09. Charles 13. jlSOl. Alexan. 1. 


1S08. Freder. 6. 


Greece. 


1807. Must. 4. 




Naples. 


1802. Victor 


1S14. Xorwaij an- 
nexed. 


182S. Nicholas. 


1S14. Norwaij 
taken away. 




1808. Mah. 6. 


1823. Leo 12. 


Emman.l. 

lS05.Annex. 






ISIS. Charles 14. 




lS39.Christn.8. 


1S32. Otho 1. 


1839. Abdnl 
Medjid. 


1829. Pius 8. 
1831. Greg. 16. 


1806. Joseph 

Bonaparte. 

1S08. Joach. 

Murat. 


to kinqdom 
ofltdly. 

1814. Victor 
Emmau.l. 

1821. Chas. 
Felix. 
















Naples and 


1831. Chas. 


1 1S44. Oscar. 




1848 Freder. 7. 






1846. Pius 9. 


Sicily. 


Albert. 




1S55. Alesan. 2. 










1S49. Victor 


1S59. Charles 15. 








1861. Abdul 




1815.Ferd.l. 
lS25.Fran.l. 
lS30.Ferd.2. 
1859.Fran.2. 
1S60. Annex, 
to Italy. 


Emman. 2. 


Italy. 


1861. Victor Emmanuel. 






1863.Christn. 9. 


1863. Geo. 1. 


Aziz.| 





' See Article Russia for preceding Eulers. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



AAE 

AARGAU (Switzerland), formerly included in Berne, 
was formed into an independent canton iu 1803, and 
finally settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed 
by religious dissensions iu 18-41-44. 

ABACUS, the capital of the Corinthian order of ar- 
chitecture, ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 B.C. — 
This name is also given to a frame traversed by stiff 
wires, on which beads or counters are strung, used by 
the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. M. Lalaune pub- 
lished an AHACos at Paris in 1845. — The multiplication 
table has been called the Pythagorean abacus. 

ABANCAY. A town in Peru, 05 miles from Cuzco. 
Here Almanzo gained a complete victory over Alvara- 
do iu the civil wars among the Spaniards, July 12th, 
1537. 

ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In ISIO 
Napoleon decreed that live should be erected near 
Paris; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was 
erected at Edinburg in 1851; and abattoirs form part 
of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened 
on June 13, 1855. There was some discussion in the 
newspapers of New York during 1SG.3-C4 about the in- 
troduction of abattoirs into that city. They began to 
be introduced iu ISGG. 

ABBASSABAD. A Persian city and fortress. The 
Russians beat the Persians in two battles here, June 
20th and July I8th, 18-JT, and on July 31st took the fort. 

ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mohammed's uncle. 
Abbas- Ben -Abdul-Motalleb. Abul Abbas defeated 
Werwan II., the last caliph of the Ommiades, iu 750, 
and became the ruler of the faithful. The Abbasside 
color was black. Thirty-seven caliphs of this race 
reigned from 750 to 1'258, when their reign was over- 
thrown by the Mongols. 

ABBAYB, a military prison near St. Germain des 
Pre-, Paris, where U"4 prisoners were murdered by in- 
furiated Republicans led by Maillard, September 2 and 
3, 17'J-.'. 

ABBE, the name of a class of semi-clerical persons 
in France before the Revolution of 17U3. They were 
unmarried, had studied theology more or less, and 
waited for an income given by "the king out of some 
ecclesiastical revenue. 

ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women. See 
Munaclii.'im and Convent'i. The tirst abbey founded in 
England was at Bangor in 5G0 ; in France, at Poitiers, 
about 3G0 ; in Ireland iu the 5th century ; in Scotland 
in the 6th century. 110 monasteries and priories were 
suppressed in Eugland, 2 Henry V., 1414. — Salwon. 
These institutions (containing then about 47,721 per- 
sons) were totally suppressed throughout the realm by 
Henry VIII., 153'.i.* Abbeys were suppressed in J rauce 
iu 17'J0; and in the kingdom of Italy' in 18G1. 

ABBEVILLE. Three treaties were made here Aug. 
1st, 1527, between Francis I. and Wolsey for Henry VIII. 
of England, and were ratitied at Amiens Auirust Sth. 
Fliut-knives aiul a human jaw-bone discovered near 
it have recently been an important source of discus- 
sion and investigation in relation to the pre-Adamite 
or pre-historic num. 

ABBOT (from .1 h, father), the head of an abbey. 
In England, uiitre<l abliots were lords of Parliament ; 
there were twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus 
distinguished in 132!t ; but the number was reduced to 
twenty-live in 13'.t(;.— Cote. The abbots of Reading, 
Glastonbury, and St. John's, Colchester, England, were 



• Viz., 374 Inrge monnsteries (revenue £104,919 13j. 3rf.), 180 less 
-monasteries (revenue i:33,479 1.3». IVci.j.and 48 houses of the knichta 
hospitnlers (revenue i,'*23ti5 1'23. Sd.) : totiil, houses, 608 : reveuue, 
X14U,784 19». C¥rf. 

B 

) 



ABE 

hanged and quartered for denying the king's suprem- 
acy, and not surrendering their abbeys, 1539. See 
Glastonhuri/. "Abbot of Misrule," also "Abbot of 
Fools," and in Scotland "Abbot of Unreason," the 
master of Christmas festivities iu the Middle Ages and 
subsequently. After the Reformation the term Lord 
of Misrule was substituted. 

ABBOTSFORD, the residence of Sir Walter Scott. 
He bouf^ht the land in ISll, and completed the house, 
a splendid and fantastic pile, iu 1824, eight years before 
his death. 

ABC CLUB. A name adopted by a number of Re- 
publican enthusiasts in Paris, their object being to re- 
lieve the abaisses or depressed. They broke out into 
an insurrection on Juue 5, 1832, which was suppressed 
with bloodshed, after Paris had been put into a state 
of siege on June G. These events are described by 
Victor Hugo iu Les Miserables, published in 1SG2. 

ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary and com- 
pulsory, are numerous in history. The following are 
the most remarkable : 

Sylla, Roman Dictator B.C. 7!) 

Diocletian, Roman emperor A.D. 305 

Stephen II., of Hungary 1131 

Albert, the Bear of Brandenburg 1142 

Lescov v., of Poland 1200 

Uladislaus III., of Poland 120G 

JohnBaliol, of Scotland 130G 

Otho (of Bavaria), of Hungary 1309 

Eric IX., of Denmark, etc 1439 

Pope Felix V 1449 

Charles V. as emperor 1555 

" as King of Spain 1556 

Christina, of Sweden 1G54 

John Casimir, of Poland 1GG9 

James II., of England IGSS 

Frederick Augustus II., of Poland 1704 

Philip v., of Spain (resumed) 1724 

Victor Amadeiis, of Sardinia 1730 

Charles, of Naples 1759 

Stanislaus, of Poland 1795 

Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia June 24, 1802 

Francis II., of Germany, who became Emperor of 

Austria Aug. 11, 1804 

Charles IV., of Spain, in favor of his son, March 

19; in favor of Bonaparte. See Spain, May 1, 1808 

Gustavus IV., of Sweden 1809 

Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain).. June 1, 1808 

Louis, of Holland July 1, 1810 

Jerome, of Westphalia Oct. 20, 1813 

Napoleon, of France April 5, 1814 

Victor Emmanuel, of Sardinia March 13, 1821 

Pedro IV., of Portugal May 2, 1826 

Charles X., of France Aug. 2, 1830 

Pedro I., of Brazil April 7, 1831 

Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it). .May 26, 1834 

William 1., of Holland Oct. 8, 1840 

Louis Philippe, of France Feb. 24, 1848 

Louis Charles, of Bavaria March 21, 1848 

Ferdinand of Austria Dec. 2, 1848 

Charles Albert, of Sardinia March 26, 1849 

Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany July, 1859 

ABECEDARIANS, followers of Storck, an Anabap- 
tist in thelGth century, dcriviuir their name from their 
rejection of all worldly knowledge, even of the alpha- 
bet. 

ABELARD and H6loise, celebrated for their pas- 
sionate love, which commenced at Paris, 1118, when 
Heloise (a canon's dauahter) was under seventeen 
years of age. Abelard built the convent of the Para- 
clete and "made her abbess in 1121. Here he taught 
what was condemned as heresy, 1122 and 1140. After 



ABE 



18 



ABR 



euffeiaag an isnomiuious injury, he became a monk of 
the Abbey of St. Denis, and died of grief in 1142, at 
St. Marcel. H61oise begged his body, buried it in the 
Paraclete, and was interred beside him in 11G3. The 
ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French 
Monuments in ISOO ; and the Museum having been 
subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to 
the burying-ground of Pere la Chaise in 181T. Their 
works and letters were published in one volume in 
1816. Pope's unitatious of the latter are well known. 

ABELITES, ABELIANS, ABELONIANS, a reliii- 
ious sect near Hippo, 4th ceuturj'. They were forbid- 
den to have children, though they allowed man and 
woman to live together as if married. They took their 
name from Abel, because he did not marry. They did 
not continue long in existence. There was also a se- 
cret society of that name in the ISth century, who pro- 
fessed to cultivate the good qualities of Abel, 

ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe of 
Granada, opposed to that of the Zegris. From 14S0 to 
1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and 
hastened the fall of the kingdom. They were exterm- 
inated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who 
was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 ; his 
dominious were annexed to Castile. 

ABENSBERG. See Eckmuhl. 

ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been found- 
ed in the ad century after Christ. Gregory the Great 
conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen iu 803. Old 
Aberdeen was made a royal burgh in 1154 ; it was burnt 
by the English in liiSO ; and soon after New Aberdeen 
was built. The University was founded by Bishop 
William Elphinstone, who had a bull from the Pope 
Alexander VI. in 1494. King's College was erected iu 
1500-0. Marischal College was founded by George 
Keith, Earl Marischal of Scotland, iu 1593 ; rel)uilt in 
1837. In 1858 the universities and colleges were unit- 
ed. — Malcolm III., having gained a great victory over 
the Danes in the year 1010, resolved to found a new 
bishupric in token of his gratitude for his success, and 
pitched upon Mortlach iu Banflshire, where St. Beanus 
was first bishop, 1015. The see, removed to Aberdeen 
early in the twelfth century, was discontinued at the 
Revolution, 1089, and is now a post-revolution bishop- 
ric, instituted in 1T21. See Bishops. 

ABERDEEN AD]MINISTRATION, called the Coa- 
lition MiniKtry, as including Whigs, Radicals, and fol- 
lowers of !!^ir R. Peel. Formed in consequence of the 
resignation of the first Derby administration ; sworn 
in Dec. 28, 1S52 ; resigned Jan., 1855 ; succeeded by the 
Palmerston administration, lohich see. 
Earl of Aberdeen,* First Lord of the Treasury. 
Lord Crauworth, Lord Chancellor. 
Earl Granville, President of the Council 
Dnke of Argyll, Lord Privy Seal. 
Lord John JiiisseU,f Foreiyn. 
Viscount Palmerston, Home Secretary, 
Duke of Newcastle,! Colonial and War Secretary. 
William Ewart Gladstone, Chancellor of Exchequer. 
Sir James Graham, First Lord of the Admiralty. 
Sir Charles ^V^)od, President of the India Board. 
Edward Cardwell, President of the Board of Trade. 
Hon. Sidney Herbert, Secretary at War. 
Sir William Molesworth, Chief Commissioner of Works. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without oflice). 
Viscount Canning, Lord Stanley of Alderley, Right 

Hon. Edward Strutt, etc. 

ABERDEEN, Eaki,s of, Scotch peers. A branch of 
the Gordon family. The earldom was conferred in 
1682 on Sir George Gordon, Lord High Chancellor of 
Scotland. 

ABHORRERS, a political court party in England, in 
the reign of Charles II., the opponents of the Address- 
ers (afterward Whifis), so called from their address to 
the king praying for the immediate assembly of the 
Parliament, which was delayed on account of its being 
adverse to the court. The "first meutiimed (afterward 
Tories) expressed their abhorrence of those who en- 
deavored to encroach on the royal prerogative, 16S0.§. 
— Hume. 



* Born in 1784 ; enpa^ed in foreipn diplomacy, 1S13 ; bt^came foreign 
secretary, Jan., 1828 j joined the party of Sir R. Peel, 1846 ; died, Dec. 
14,1860. 

t Lord John Russell was succeeded as Foreign Secretary by the Earl 
of Clarendon, but continued a member of the cabinet, without office : 
he afterward became President of the Council in the room of Earl Gran- 
ville, appointed to the Duchy of Lancaster. 

t On June 11, 1854, the olflces were separated ; the Duke of Newcas- 
tle remained Secretary of War^ and Sir George Grey was made Cvlmiial 
Secretary, 

§ The Commons expelled several members for beinfj Abhorrers, 
amonK them Sir Francis Withens (whom they sent to the Tower), and 
prayed his majesty to remove others from places of trust. They also 



ABINGDON LAW. In 1045, Lord Essex and Wal-. 
ler held Abingdon, in Berks, England, against Charles' 
I. The town was unsuccessfully attacked by Sir Ste- 
phen Hawkins in 1044, and by Prince Rupert in 104.5. 
On these occasions the defenders put every Irish pris- 
oner to death without trial ; hence the term "Abing- 
don law." 

ABJURATION of certain doctrines of the Church 
of Rome was enjoined by statute 25 Charles II., 1072. 
The oath of abjuration of the Pope and the Pretender 
was first administered by statute 13 William III., 1701 ; j 
the form was changed in after reigns. By 21 and 22 I 
Vict., c. 48 (1S5S), an alteration in this oath was author- I 
ised for Jews. 

ABJURATION OF THE REALM. An oath to quit 
England and not to return except by the king's license. 
This law was modified under Henry VIIL, and abol- 
ished ui 1624. ' 

ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, was,' I 
till 1809, capital of Swedish Finland. It has suflered 
much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; was seized 
by the Russians in Feb., ISOS ; ceded to them in 1809 ; 
and rebuilt by them after the fire in 1827. A univer- 
sity was erected by Gustavus Adolphus and Christina, 
1040, ct seq., and removed to Helsingfors iu 1827. The 
peace of Abo, between Russia and Sweden, was signed 
in 1743. 

ABOLITION, ABOLITIONISTS. During the Revo- 
lution, and when the Constitution was made, various 
societies were formed for the abolition of slavery. The 
first of these originated in Philadelphia, April 14, 1775, 
Benjamin Franklin, president. John Jay, and after 
him Alexander Hamilton, were the first presidents of 
a second society for the same purpose, formed in 
New York, Jan. 25, 1785. Others followed in difterent 
parts of the Union. The meetings, publications, and 
petitions of these bodies were treated respectfully un- 
til the development of the cotton planting in the early 
part of the 19th century raised the value of slaves. 
Then began the struggle between the anti-slavery and 
pro-slavery interest, which culminated iu the emanci- 
pation proclamation of Jan. 1, 1803. In Feb., 1806, a 
bill was passed by the requisite majority abolishing 
slavery forever from the territories of the United 
States. The great leaders of the abolition movement 
were William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips. 

ABORIGINES (from ab oriyine, without origin), a 
name given to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy 
(whence came the Latiui); now applied to the original 
inhabitants of any country. — The Aborigines Protec- 
tion Society was established in 1888. Reports on the 
condition of the aborigines in the British colonies 
were presented to Parliament in 1834 and 1837. 

ABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. The bay 
is famous for the defeat of the French fieet by Nelson, 
Aug. 1, 1798. See Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 
was defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 
July 25, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
General Sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and Abou- 
kir surrendered to them after an obstinate and san- 
guinary conflict with the French, March S, l&Ol. See 
A lexatidria. 

ABRAHAM, Era of, used by Eusebius ; so called 
from the patriarch Abraham, who died B.C. 1821. It 
began Oct. 1, 2010 B.C. To reduce this era to the 
Christian, subtract 2015 years and three mouths. 

ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, Lower Cana- { 
da. The French were defeated here by General Wolfe, 
who fell in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. See 

Quebec. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect which adopted the errors 
of Paulus, and was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patri- 
arch of Antioch. In the 9th century there sprang 
up a community of monks under a like designation ; 
it, too, was suppressed, or rather exterminated, for 
worshiping images. A mongrel sect of this name was 
banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABRANTES, a Portuguese town commanding some 
of the frontier roads made into Spain. Boldly seized 
by Junot, Nov. 23, 1807, who was thus enabled to push 
on and occupy Lisbon, and for his decision and daring 
was made Duke ofAbrantes. Treaty of Aiskantes, 
sometimes called of Madrid, because ratified there ; 
signed Sept. 29, 1801, between Spain and Portugal, un- 
der the influence of Bonaparte. It closed the Portu- 
guese ports to England. 



resolved " that it ia the undoubted ripcht of the subject to petition for 
the calling of a Parliament, and that to traduce such petitions as tu- 
multuous and seditious is to contribute to the design of altering the 
Constitution." Oct., 1860. — Salmon. 



ABR 



19 



ACA 



ABRAXAS, ii stone with natural lines, thoxight to 
represent some animal or jjersou ; or carved with such 
lines, on which the word " abraxas" is cut. Such 
stones were used as talismans or amulets among the 
Gnostic sects about A.D. C4 to 300. 

ABSALOJrS REBELLION, ending in his death 
(10'-'4-3 B.C.), is described in 2 Sam. xv.-xix. 

ABSENTEE TAX (four shillings iu the pound) was 
first levied iu Ireland in 1715 on the incomes aud pen- 
sions of absentees (persons who derive their iucome 
from one country and spend it iu another), but ceased 
in 1T53. A tax of 2s. iu the pound was vaiuly proposed 
by Mr. Flood in 1773, aud by Mr. Molyueux in 1783. 

ABSOLUTION, Ecclesiastioai,. Till the 3d cen- 
tury the consent of the congregation was necessary to 
absolution ; but soon after'the power was reserved to 
the bishop; and in tlie 12th century the form "/ ab- 
eolve thee" had become geueraL 

ABSTINENCE. It is said that St. Anthony lived to 
the age of 105 on twelve ounces of bread aud water 
daily, and James the Hermit to the age of 104. St. 
Epiphanius lived thus to 115; Simeou'the Stylite to 
112; aud Kentigern, cnmmouly called St. Muugo, to 
1S5 years of iiiXi'.—Sjxitt i.iirood. Ann Moore, the fast- 
ing woman of Tutlnu y, Staffordshire, was said to have 
lived twenty mouths without food ; but her imposture 
was detected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov., ISOS. At 
Ncwry, in Ireland, a mau named Cavanagh was re- 
ported to have lived two years without meat or driuk, 
Aug., 1S40. His imposture was afterward discovered 
iu England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov., 
1S41. See Fast.'i. 

ABSTINENTS, ascetics that wholly abstained from 
wine, llesh, and marriage, appeared in France aud 
Spain in the 4th century. 

ABYDOS, on the Hellespont, said to have been col- 
onized from Miletus, 715 B.C. 

ABYSSINIA, a large country iu N.E. Africa. Its 
ancient history is very uncertain. The kingdom of 
AuxumitoB (frimi its cliief town Ausume) flourished in 
the 1st aud 2d ceuturies after Christ. The religion of 
the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of Christianity in- 
troduced about 329 by Frumentius. About OOO, Judith, 
a Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal 
family, and reigned forty years. The young king es- 
caped, and the royal house was restored iu 12CS in the 
person of his descendant Icon Amlac. In the Middle 
Ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete 
Jauui. The Portuguese missions commenced in the 
15th century, but were expelled in 1032 in consequence 
of the tyranny of Mendez aud the Jesuits. The en- 
croachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon 
after broke up the empire into petty governments. 
Missions were sent from England in 1S29 and 1841. 
Much information respectiui; Abyssinia has been given 
by Bruce (1790), Salt (1S05-'J), Riippell (1839), and'Par- 
kyns (1853).* 

ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the creation, 
which the Abyssinians place iu the 5493d year befoi-e 
our era, on the 29th of Aug., old style ; and their dates 
consequently exceed ours by 5492 years and 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 
5492 years and 125 days. 

ACADEMIES. Acadcmia was a shady grove with- 
out the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Academus for 
gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philoso- 
phy, and his followers took the title of Academics, 378 
B.C. — Stanh'i/. Rome had no academies. — Ptolemy 
Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alexau- 
fcdria about 314 B.C. Abderahman I., caliph of Spain, 
f )unded academies about A.D. 773. Theodosius the 
Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are also named as 
founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its acad- 
emics; and Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were 
iu the city of Milau. The following are among the 
principal academies: 



In H.Sl the Emper- 
•in-lavv Tlieodore, the late ruler, 



* Abyssinia has Idny been in a state of 
or Rfts Ali was deposed by hi 

who invited the Euroiiean sovereigns to join him in a crusade aRainst 
his neighbors the Turks. The British consul (Plowden) at Massowah 
imprudently joined this soverei^, and lost his life while opposing an 
insurrection ; and his successor (Col. Cameron) and other persons were 
imprisoned by Theodore, who was jealous of their favoring the Turks. 
The subject was discussed in Parliament in July, 1865, and the consul 
was censured by government for having disregarded his instructions. 
The refusal of King Theodore to release the pris 'iiers led to war be- 
tween him and Great Britain. General Sir Robert Napier, command- 
er-in-chief of the expedition sent for the rescue of the prisoners, arrived 
iu Abyssinia January 2, Is68. At that time, through intestine com- 
motions, Theodore's army had been reduced from 150,0(0 to about 
6000. Napier's armv consisted of 12,000 men, of whom a considerable 
portion was drawn (rom India. On the 10th of April he encountered 
King Theodore in his stronghold at Magdala, and succeeded in the ob- 
ject of his expedition. Thei.dore, finding he could not maintain his 
position, committed suicide. 



American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 17S0. 
American Philosophic Society, 1743 ; Fine Arts, 1697 ; 

Natural Science, 1818. 
Amiens, 1750. 

Ancona, of the Carjli nasi, lGi2. 
Augers, liellcn Letircs, 1685. 
Basil, 1400. 
Berlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 

1799. 
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1CS7 ; Mathematics, 1G90 ; Sci- 
ences and Arts, 1712. 
Bordeaux, Arts, Sciences, and Belles Lettres, 1703. 
Brescia, of the Erranti, 1026. 
Bre^t and Toulon, ISUlitary, 1682. 
Brussels, BcUcn Lettres, 1773. 
Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 
Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 
Cortoua, Antiquities, 1726. 
Dijon, 1740. 

Dresden, Fine Arts, 1697. 

Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, etc., 1S23. 
Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
Faenza, the Philopuni, 1012. 

Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now uuited 
with the Florentine, aud merged under that name), 
1582 ; Del Cimento, 1037 (by Cardinal de' Medici); An- 
tiquities, 1807. 
Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
Genoa, Painting, etc., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
Germany, Xaturce Curiosi, uovi LeoiMlditie, 1062. 
Gottingen, 1750. 
Haerlem, the Sciences, 1700. 
Irish Academy, Roj'al, Dublin, 17S2. 
Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 
Loudon. See Societies. Royal Academy of Fine Arts, 

1708; of Music, 1734-43; and IS'22. 
Lycms, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics added, 

1758. 
Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730 ; Paint- 
ing and the Arts, 1753. 
Manheim, Sciences, 1755; Sculpture, 1775. 
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
Marseilles, Belks Lettres, 1726. 
Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 
Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 
Montauban, 1744. 
Munich, Arts aud Sciences, 1750. 
Naples, Bossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; Sciences, 

1695 ; Herculaneimi, 1755. 
New Haven, Connecticut, Academy of Arts aud Sci- 
ences, 1799. 
New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 
Nismes, Roval Academy, 1082. 
Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 
Palermo, Medical, 1045. 

Paris, Sorbunne, 1253 : Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 and 
1072 ; French (by Richelieu), 1035 ; Fine Arts, 1648 ; 
InscrixMons et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1003; Sci- 
ences (by Colbert), 1600 ; Architecture, 1071 ; Sur- 
gery, 1731 ; Military, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. 
Parma, the Innominati, IS.'iO. 
Perousa, Inscnsati, 1501 ; FiUgirti, 1574. 
Philadelphia, Arts aud Sciences, 1749. 
Portsmouth, Naval, 1T22 ; enlarged, 1806. 
Rome, Umoristi, 1611 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Itifecondi, 1653 ; 
Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; English, 1752 ; Lined, 
about 1600 ; Niwvi Lincei, 1847. 
Rouen, Science and Art, 1737. 
Soissons, 1675. 
St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the 

School of Arts, 1764. 
Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agri- 
culture, 1781 ; Roval Swedish, 1766. 
Toulon, Military, 16S2. 
Toulouse, Floral Games {Jeux Floreavx), 1323 ; Science, 

luscriptious, and Belles Lettres, 1TS2. 
Turin, Sciences, about 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
Turkey, Military School, 1775. 

United States American Institute of Instruction, 1830 ; 
American Association fir the Advancement of Edu- 
cation, 1849 ; American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, 1845; Association of American Ge- 
ologists, 1840. 
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
Venice, Medical, etc., 1701. 
Veroua, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
Vienna, Sculpture aud the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 1783 ; 

Oriental, 1810. 
Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
Washington, United States, America, 1863. 
Woolwich, Military, 1741. 

ACADE5IY, Mn.iTAKY. A special school for the in- 
struction of youth in military or naval science and art. 
Such arc, for instance : 



ACA 



20 



ACH 



Adcliscombe, East India Company ISIS 

Alabama, U. S., Military 1S31 

Auuapolis, Maryland, Naval 1845 

Brest, Military 18G2 

Kentucky, Military 1S40 

Lexington, Virginia, Military 1S39 

University of Chicago, Military 1806 

Louisiana, Military 1859 

Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, Military 1SG6 

North Carolina, Military 1T89 

Norwich, Vermont, Military 1S20 

Portsmouth, England, Naval 1722 

St. Cyr, Military 1803 

St. Petersburg, Military 1732 

Sandhurst, Military 1812 

Toulon, Military 1082 

Turin, Military 1675 

Vincennes, Military 1775 

West Point, Military* 1802 

Woolwich, Artillery and Engineering 1741 

ACADEMY. An educational institution between a 
school and a college, and generally prepares students 
for business or for farther education. In 1860 there 
were in the United States 0877 of these academies, v/ith 
16,247 teachers and 46.5,023 pupils. Among the most 
im])ortant are the Free Academy of New York, es- 
tablished 1851 ; Phillips Academy, of Andover, found- 
ed 1780; Phillips Academy, of Exeter, 1781; Groton 
(Mass.) Academy, 1793 — name changed to Lawrence 
Academy, 1845. 

ACADIA. See Xova Scotia. 

ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes of the 
Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 
B.C. 

ACAPULCO, a Spanish galleon from Acapulco, la- 
den with gold and precious wares (estimated at above 
£1,000,000 sterling), taken by Lord Anson, who had 
previously acquired booty in his voyage amounting to 
£600,000. He arrived at Spithead in the C<:nturkm, 
after having circumnavigated the globe, June 15, 1744. 

ACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people became 
prominent in the Peloponnesian War, having invited 
the help of the Athenians against the Ambracians, 432 
B.C. The Acarnanians were subdued by the Lacedse- 
monians in 390; they took part with Macedon against 
the Romans in 200, by whom they were subjugated in 
197 ; tinally, in 145. 

ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are 
written without accents, and without any separation 
of words ; nor was it until after the 9th century that 
the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. 
Michaeiis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of ac- 
cents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, A.D. 
45S. Accents were first used by the French in the 
reign of Louis XIII. (about 1010). 

ACCEPTANTS, also called Constitutionists. A 
party in the French Roman Catholic Church, which 
accepted the Bull Unigeuitus, issued by Clement XI. 
in 1713, which bull condemned as heretical 101 propo- 
sitions from the commentary of Quesuel on the New 
Testament (published 1087). Their opponents, mostly 
Jansenists, were termed Recusants, or Ajjpellants, and 
underwent much persecution for opposing the bull, 
particularly from about 1713 to 1730. 

ACCESSION, The, ?. e., that of the house of Hanover 
to the throne of England in the person of George I., 
elector of Hanover, the son of Sophia, the daughter of 
Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. He succeeded to 
the crown Aug. 1, 1714, by virtue of the act of settle- 
ment passed in the reign of William III., June 12, 1701, 
which limited the succession to his mother (as a Prot- 
estant) in the event of Queen Anne dying without 
issue. 

ACCESSORIES to Crimes. The English law re- 
specting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 

ACCIDENTS. See Coal, Fires, Railways, etc. For 
compensation for accidents, see CamphelVa Act and 
Passengers. 

* This admirable institution has supplied the Dation with 22UO ac- 
complished officers, of which any army mi^ht well be proud ; has filled 
every arm of the service with talent, efficiency, and integrity ; lias ma- 
terially aided in successfully conducting three great wars ; has con- 
structed and armed our fortifications, improved our harbors, lakes, and 
rivers, defined our boundaries, surveyed and lighted our coasts, and ex- 
plored the length and breadth of our land ; has given to our militia and 
volunteers large numbers of valuable officers, and to our colleges able 
presidents and professors ; has furnished distinguished civil engineers, 
who have bound our territory together witli a network of railways and 
canals ; and through the contributions and text-books of its grad- 
uates, has greatly elevated the scientific stand.ard of most of the educa- 
tional institutions throughout our country, and even extended its influ- 
ence abroad."— ff.ir. Cullom, 



ACCLIMATIZATION of Animals. This has been 
prosecuted with great vigor since the establishment 
of the Zoological Society of Loudon in 1829, and of the 
Societo d'Acclimatation in Paris. Numbers of Euro- 
pean animals have been naturalized in Australia; the 
camel has been conveyed to Brazil (1859) ; alpacas are 
bred at Paris ; and ostriches in Italy (1859). On Oct. 
6, 1860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened 
as a zoological garden, containing only acclimatized 
animals. An English acclimatization society was 
founded June 10, i860, by Hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. 
J. Crockford, Mr. F. Buckland, etc., and the Prince of 
Wales became president in April, 1865. An acclima- 
tizing garden was established at Melbourne, Australia, 
in Feb., 1861, and efforts are being made to naturalize 
English birds, fishes, etc. 

ACCORDION, a small wind-instrument with keys, 
introduced into England from Germany about 1S28. 

ACCOUNTANT GENERAL in Ciianoery. The of- 
fice was appointed in 1720, and abolished in 1841 ; it 
was always held by a Master in Chancery. — Hardy. 

ACCUSERS. By the occult writers, such as Agrip- 
pa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, whose chief 
is called Asteroth, or Spy. In the Revelation, ch. xiL, 
10, the devil is called "the accuser of the brethren." — 
False accusers were to be hanged by 24 Henry VI., 
1440 ; and burnt in the face with an F, by 37 Henry 
VIIL,1545.— ^'totc. 

ACELDAMA, a field, said to have been the one 
bought with the thirty i)ieces of silver given to Judas 
Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to travel- 
ers. It is covered with an arched roof, and retains the 
name Aceldama, that is, "the field of blood," to this 
day.— Matthew xxvii.,8; Acts i., 19. This name was 
given to an estate purchased by Judge Jeffreys after 
the "Bloody Assizes" in 1685. 

ACEPHALI, persons without a head or leader, 
first applied to those who neither followed Cyril nor 
John of Antioch in the disputes at the Council of 
Ephesus (431). Also to the Eutychians for difl"ering 
with bishops, A.D. 451 and afterward. It has been ap- 
plied to other sects without leaders. 

ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resem- 
bling coal gus, discovered by Berthelot, and made 
known in 1802. 

ACHAIA (N.Peloponnesus), Greece ; the capital was 
settled by Achteus, the son of Xuthus, about 1330 B. 
C.(?) The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject 
to the^tolians until about 284 B.C. The Achaji, de- 
scendants of Achicus, originally inhabited the neigh- 
borhood of Argos ; but when the Heraclidse drove 
them thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled 
the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz., Pel- 
lene, ^gira, .^Egium, Bura, Tritiea, Leontium, Rhypes, 
Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrie, Dyme, and Pharae, 
forminc: the Acii.kan League, which was broken up 
soon after the death of Alexander of Macedon, 323 B.C. 

Achaia invaded by Epaminondas B.C. 366 

The Achiean League revived by four cities .. . about 2S0 

Aratus made prajtor 245 

The league joined by Corinth, Megara, etc 243-236 

Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson 229 

War with the Spartans ; the Achteans defeated at 
Ladocea by the Spartans under Cleomenes III., 

326 ; but totally defeat them at Sellasia 221 

The Social War begun ; battle of Caphyce, in Arca- 
dia ; Aratus defeated 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the .^itoliaus 219 

Aratus poisoned at ^gium 213 

Phi!o])(Emen, leader of the league, defeats the 

Spartan tyrant Machanidas 208 

Alliance of the league with the Romans 198 

Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle. . 194 

Sparta joined to the league 191 

War with Messene ; Philopoameu made prisoner 

and slain 183 

The Achseans overrun Messenia with fire and 

sword 182 

The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers 
of the people, among whom is the celebrated 

Polybius 165 

Metellus enters Greece 147 

The Achssans defeated by Mummius at Leucope- 
tra; the league dissolved by Mummius; Corinth 
taken ; Greece subjected to Rome, and named 

the Province of Achaia 146 

Achaia made a Latin principality, A.D.1205; found- 
ed by William of Champlitte, 1205; obtained by 
Geoffrey Villehardouin, 1210; by Geoffrey II., 
121S ; by his brother William, 1246 ; who con- 
quers the Moors, 1248 ; makes war with the Em- 



ACII 

peror Michael, 1250, and pains three fortresses, 
I'iO'i ; succeeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries 
Florenz of llainaiilt, 1'291; their daujjjliter Maud, 
Ijrinco^s, l:!U ; thrice married; forcibly married 
to John de (Jraviiia, aud dies in prison ; Achaia 

subject to the kings of Naples 1324 

Conquered by the Turks about 1540 

ACHEEN, a native kingdom in the northwest of 
Sumatra ; first visited by the Portuguese, 1509 ; by the 
English, 1605. 

ACniLLES PUZZLE. This is an argument that 
Achilles could never catch a tortoise, because while 
the man was running the intervening distance, the 
tortoise would still get some distance ahead, and so 
on to infinity. Invented by Zeno the Eleatic about 455 
B.C. 

ACIIONRY, Sligo (N. Ireland) ; a bishopric founded 
by St. Finian, who erected the Church of Acliad, usu- 
ally called Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his 
disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), the flrst bishop. 
The see, held with Killala since 1012, was united with 
Tuam in ls34. 

ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which color is 
got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, and de- 
scribed in riiil. Tmns. of the Koyal Society, London, 
1753-S. 

ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are gen- 
erally soluble in water, redden organic blues, decom- 
pose carbonates, and destroy the properties of alka- 
lies, forming alkaline salts. The number was in- 
creased by tlie Arabs ; Geber (Sth century) knew nitric 
acid and "sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution 
of acids were put forth by Becher (1009), Lemery 
(1075), and Stahl (1723). After the discovery of oxygen 
by Priestley, Aug. 1, 1774, Lavoisier (177S) concluded 
that oxygen was a constituent of all acids ; but about 
ISIO, Davy, Gay-Lnssac, and others, proved the exist- 
ence of acids free from oxygen. In 1810 Dulong pro- 
posed the binary or hydrogen theory of acids, aud in 
1837 Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong 
to explain the constitution of several organic acids. 
Oxygen acids are now termed anhydrides. An in- 
numerable number of acids have been discovered 
through the advance of organic chemistry. — Watts. 

ACLEA, Battle op. Ethehvolf and his sou Ethel- 
bald defeated the Danes, 851. The place is now Ock- 
ley, in Surrey, England. 

ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin 
Church, unknown to the Greek Church for four hun- 
dred years after Christ. 

ACOUSTICS (from ako7ir,, Greek, I hear), the science 
of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th century. 
The commuuicatiou of sounds to the air by the vibra- 
tions of the atmosphere, strings, etc., was explained 
by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aristotle 330 
B.C. 
The speaking trumpet is said to have been used by 

Alexander the Great, 335 B.C. 
Galileo's discoveries, about A.D. IGOO. 
His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated 
by Dr. Brook Taylor in 1714 ; farther perfected by 
D'Alembert, Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at 
various periods of the ISth century. 
Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the strik- 
ing of the teeth of brass wheels, 1081. 
Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belong- 
ing to a given note, about 1700. 
Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by 
Gassendi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, Romer, aud others ; 
908 by Newton, about 1700. 
Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent sci- 
ence) published his important discoveries on the fig- 
ures jjroduced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, 
etc., in 17S7, and since. 
Cagniard-Latour invented the sirhtc (ichich sfc), 1810. 
Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Ilelmholtz, Tyn- 
dall, and others in the present century have greatly 
increased our knowledge of acoustics. 
ACRE. This rrjeasure was formerly of uncertain 
quiintiiv, and difl'ered in various parts ofEngland, un- 
til made standard by statute 31 Edward I.,"l303, and 
fixed at 40 poles or ])erchos in length, and 4 in breadth 
— or 10(1 square jioles, containing 4S40 scjuare yards, or 
43,500 square feet. In certain counties and places the 
measure is larger. — Pardon. 

ACRE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was 
taken by the Saracens in 03s ; by the Crusaders, under 
Baldwin I., in 1104; by Saladin,"in 11S7; and again by 
Richard I. and other Crusaders, July 12, 1101, after a 
eiege of two years, with a loss of archbishops, 12 



21 



ACT 



bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It 
was then named ,SY. Jean d'Acre. It was retaken by 
the Saracens in 1291, when 00,000 Christians perished. 
This capture was rendered memorable by the murder 
of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress 
the lust of the infidels.— Acre, gallantly defended by 
Djezzar Racha against Bonaparte, in July, 1798, was 
relieved by Sir Sidney Smith, who resisted twelve iit- 
tempts by the French, between March 16 aud May 20, 
1799, when Bonaparte retreated.— St. Jean d'Acre, as a 
pachalic subject to the Porte, was seized July 2, 1832, 
by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On Nov. 3, 1840 
it was stormed by the British fleet under Sir Robert 
Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few 
hours, the Egyptians losing upward of 2000 in killed 
and wounded, and 3000 prisoners, while the British 
had but 12 killed and 42 wounded.- See Stjria and 
Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, was built on a 
rock, and accessible only on one side ; Minerva had a 
temple at the bottom. The roof of this vast pile, which 
had stood above 2000 years, was destroyed by the Ve- 
netians, who took Athens in 1087. 

ACROSTIC. A poem, the initial or final letters of 
whose lines form a word or phrase. The later Greek 
poets composed acrostics, and they have prevailed 
wherever quaiutness and conceits have characterized 
poetry, as in the time of Queen Elizabeth. 

ACS (Hungary). The Hungarians under Gorgey 
were defeated here by the Austrians and Russians on 
July 10, 1849. 

ACT OF Settlement, etc. See Accession, Succession, 
Suprcmaci/, and Uniformitij Acts. 

ACTA SANCTORUM (acts of the saints), a work 
commenced by the Jesuits in the 17th century. The 
first volume appeared in 1043 ; the publication was in- 
terrupted in 1734, when the flftj'-third volume was pub- 
lished, but was resumed in 1S40, and is still in prog- 
ress, having advanced in the order of the months .is 
far as October. From one of the first editors, Bollaud, 
the writers have been named Bollandists. 

ACTIAN GAMES. Celebrated in ancient times .at 
Actiuni every third year in honor of Apollo, with wrest- 
ling, horse-racing, and sea-fights. 

ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure the 
power of the solar rays, invented by Sir J. F. Herschel 
about 1825. See Sun. 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, W. Greece, 
near which was fought, on Sept. 2, 31 B.C., the battle 
between the fleets of Octavius Ciesar on the one side, 
and of Marc Antony aud Cleopatra on the other, which 
decided the fate of Antony, 300 of his galleys going 
over to Cffisar. This victory made Octavius master of 
the world, aud the Roman empire is commonly dated 
Jan. 1, 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror built 
Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted the Actian 
games. — Blair. 

ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to the 
ancients, men or eunuchs performing the female parts. 
Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public 
appearance of women on the stage in England, in 
1002 ; but the queen of James I. had previously per- 
formed in a theatre at cowi-t. —Thcal. Bioij. Mrs. Col- 
man was the first actress on the stage ; she performed 
the part of lanthe in Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," 
in 1656. — Victor. The most celebrated actresses have 
been Mrs. Siddons, England, born 1755, died 1831 ; Fan- 
ny Kemble, England, born isll ; Mademoiselle Rachel, 
French Jewess, born 1820, died 1838 ; Madame Ristori, 
Italian, born 1821. 

ACTS OF Parliament, or Statutes. See Parlia- 
ment. The following are among the most celebrated 
early statutes : 

Statutes of Clarendon, to restrain the power of the 
clergy, enacted in 10 lien. II., 1164. Provisions of 
Mer'tim, J235-6. Statute of Marlborough, 1267. Of 
Bigamy, 1275-6. Of Gloucester, the ea'rliest statute 
of which any record exists, 6 Ed w. I., 1278. Of Mort- 
main, 1270. Quo Warranto, Oct., 1280. Statutes of 
Wales, 1284. Of Winchester, Oct., 1284. Of West- 
minster, 12S5. Statute forbidding the levying of 
taxes without the consent of Parliament, 1297. Mag- 
na Charta, 1207. Of Praimunire, 1306. 
Between 1823 and 1829, 1120 acts were wholly repealed, 
and 443 repealed in part, chiclly arising out of the 
consolid.alion of the laws by Mr. (afterward Sir Rob- 
ert) Peel ; of these acts 1344 related to the kingdom 
at large, and 225 to Ireland solely ; aud in 1856 many 
obsolete statutes (enacted between 12S5 and 1777) 
were repealed. 



ACT 



22 



ADM 



By the Statute Law Revision Act of ISGl, 770 acts were 
wholly repealed, and a great many partially. By the 
similar act of 1SG3, a great number of enactments 
were repealed, commencing with the Provisions of 
Mertou, 20 Henry III. (I'-'^O), and ending with 1 
James II. (1CS5). 
The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
since ISOO was 570 in 1840 (the railway year) ; 40'2 
were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public 
acts. In 1S41, only 13 were passed (the lowest num- 
ber), of which two were private. In three instances 
only, the annual number was under a hundred. The 
average number of the first ten years of the present 
century was 132 public acts. In the ten years end- 
ing 1850, the\ average number of acts of public in- 
terest was 112. 
The number of public general acts passed in 1851 was 
106 ; in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 
134 ; in 1S56, 120 ; in 1857, 8G ; in 1858, 109 ; in 1859, 
101 ; in 1800, 154; in 1801, 134 'in 1802, 114; in 1803, 
125; in 1864, 121. 
In 1830, 13 Vict., c. 13, was passed to curtail Repetitions 

in statutes. 
Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. 
Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George 
I., printed from the original records and MSS., in 12 
vols, folio, under the direction of commissioners ap- 
pointed in 1801,1811-28. 
The statutes passed during each session are now print- 
ed annually in 4to and Svo. Abstracts are given in 
the Cabinet Laioyer. 

ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Ro- 
mans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace (Art of Po- 
etry) as the rule (about B.C. 8). 

ACTUARY, AoTUAEius, the Roman accountant. 
The Institute of Actuaries, founded in 1848, publishes 
its proceedings in the "Assurance Magazine." 

ADAM AND EVE, Eka of, set down by most Chris- 
tian writers as being 4004 B.C. There "have been as 
many as one hundred and forty opinions on the dis- 
tance of time between the creation of the world and 
the birth of the Redeemer ; some make it 3016 years, 
and some as great as 6484 years. See Creation. 

ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 130, 
and to have assembled quite naked in their places of 
worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there 
would have been no marriages. Their chief was 
named Prodicus; they deified the elements, rejected 
prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Christ. 
— Eusebius. A similar sect arose at Antwerp in the 
12th century, under Tandemus, or Tauchelin, whose 
followers, 3000 soldiers and others, committed many 
crimes under spiritual names. The sect became ex- 
tinct soon after' the death of its chief; but another of 
the same kind, named Turlupins, appeared shortly aft- 
er in Savoy and Dauphiny. A Fleming, named Picard, 
revived this sect in Bohemia about 1415 ; it was sup- 
pressed by Ziska. 

ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pitt, hav- 
ing engaged to procure Roman Catholic emancipation 
to secure the union with Ireland, and being unable to 
do so as a minister, resigned, Feb. 3, 1801. A new min- 
istry was formed by Mr. Addiugton, March, 1801 ; aft- 
er various changes it terminated May 11, 1804 : 
Henry Addiugton,* First Lord of the Treasury and 

Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Lord Eldon, Lord Chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, Lord President. 
Earl of Westmoreland, Lord Privij Seal. 
Lord Pelham, Uome Secretary, 
Lord Hawkesbury, Foreign Secretary. 
Lord Hobart, Colonial Secretary. 
Earl St. Vincent, Admiralty. 
Earl of Chatham, Ordnaiice. 
Charles Yorke, Secretary at War. 
Viscount Lewisham, Lord Auckland, etc. 

ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, Surrey, 
England, established by the East India Company in 
1S09 for the education of candidates for the scientific 
branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1801. 

ADDLED PARLIAMENT. See Parliament, 1614. 

ADDRESSERS. Qee. Ahhorrers. 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was 
founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inhabitants in 
1S50, and 18,259 in 1855. It was made a bishopric in 
1847. 



ADELPHI (Greek for brothers), a series of streets 
on the south side of the Strand, London, erected about 
1768 by the brothers John, Robert, James, and Wil- 
liam Adam, after whom the streets are named. Adel- 
phi Theatre, see under Theatres. 

ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia, 
where in 1837 a British ship was wrecked and plunder- 
ed. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to 
cede the place to the English. The sultan's son refus- 
ing to fulfill this agreement to Captain Haynes, a naval 
ami military force, under Captain H. Smith, of the Vo- 
lage, was dispatched to Aden, which captured it, Jan. 
19, 1839. It is now a coal diiput for Indian steamers, 
etc. 

ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the Attstrians 
defeated the French on March 26, 30, and April 5, 1799. 

ADIPOCERE, a sttbstance much like spermaceti, 
which forms from dead bodies long buried in damp 
places. First found at Paris in 17S7, on removing the 
bodies from the Cemetery of the Innocents. 

ADMnsriSTRATIONS of England and of Great 

Britain.* For a fuller account of each, since 1700, see 

separate articles headed with the name of the peemiee. 

Henry VIII. — Abp. Warham; Bps. Fisher and 
Fox ; Earl of Surrey, etc A.D.1509 

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, etc 1514 

Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, etc.. .1523 

Sir Thomas More ; Bishops Tunstall and Gardiner, 
and Cranmer (afterward Abp. of Canterbury). ..1529 

AV)p. Cranmer ; Lord Cromwell, aft. Earl of Essex ; 
Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, etc 1532 

Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey ; 
Thomas, lord Audley ; Bishop Gardiner ; Sir 
Ralph Sadler, etc 1540 

LordWriothesley ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk; Lord 
Lisle; Sir William Petre; Sir William Paget, etc. 1544 

Edward VI.— Lord Wriothesley,noi« Earl of South- 
ampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, earl 
of Hertford, lord protector, created Duke of Som- 
erset ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of Arim- 
del ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; Sir William Paget ; 
Sir William Petre, etc 1547 

John Dudley, late Lord Lisle and Earl of Warwick, 
created Dulie of Northumberland ; John, earl of 
Bedford ; Bishop Goodrich ; Sir William Cecil, 
etc 1551 

Maev.— Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester ; 
Edmttnd Bonner, bp. of Loudon ; William, mar- 
quess of Winchester ; Sir Edwd. Hastings, etc. . . 1554 

Elizabetji. — Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward, lord 
Clinton; Sir Robert Dudley, «/M. Earl of Leices- 
ter ; Sir William Cecil, aftd. Lord Burleigh 1553 

Lord Burleigh (minister dining nearly all the 
reign). Sir '^N. Bacon, etc 1572 

William, lord Burleigh ; Sir Thomas Bromley ; 
Robert Deverejtx, earl of Essex (a favorite) ; Earl 
of Leicester ; Earl of Lincoln ; Sir Walter Mild- 
may ; Sir Francis Walsingham, etc 1579 

Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex; Sir Christo- 
pher llattou, etc 1587 

Tliomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, a.fterward Earl 
of Dorset ; Sir Thomas Egerton, afterward Lord 
Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley ; Sir Robert 
Cecil, etc 1599 

James I. — Thomas, earl of Dorset ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thom- 
as, earl of Suflblk ; Edward, earl "of Worcester ; 
Robert Cecil, aftcrivard Earl of Salisbury, etc. . .1603 



* Born nST, became Viscount Sidmouth in 1805, held various offices 
aftcrwiird, and died in 1S44. His circular to the lords lieutenants, 
d;ited March '21, 1S17, directing them to adopt severe measures against 
the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- 
sured, and not carried into efifeot. 



* Until the Restoration, there was not, in fact, any thing that could 
be exclusively called a Cabinet. The sovereign latterly governed by 
ft collection of privy councilors, 'sometimes of larger, sometimes of 
smaller number, the men ami offices being frequently changed. The 
separation of the Cabinet from the Privy Council became greater dur- 
ing the reign of William III., and the control of the chief, now termed 
the "premier," was established in the reign of Anne. "The era of 
ministries may most properly be reckoned from the day of the meeting 
of the Parliament after the general election of 1698." — Lord Macaulay. 
"In Walpole's time there was an interior council, of Walpole, the 
chancellor, and secretaries of state, who, in the first instance, consulted 
together on the more contidential points." — Croker^s Memoirs of Lord 
Ilcrvey, Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the follow- 
ing twelve members : First lord of the Treasury ; lord chancellor ; lord 
president of the Council ; chancellor of the Exchequer ; lord privy 
seal ; home, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the Admi- 
ralty ; president of the Board of Trade ; president of the Board of Con- 
trol ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850 the number was 
fifteen, and included the secretary at war, the postmaster general, and 
the chief secretary for Ireland. In the Palnierston-Russell cabinet 
(which see), the president of the Poor-law Board replaced the secretary 
for Ireland. The average duration of a ministry has beef, sst down at 
fopr, five, and six years; but instances have occurred of the duration 
of a ministry for much longer periods. Sir Robert Walpole was min- 
ister from 1721 to 1742(51 years); Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years); 
and Lord Liverpool, 1812 to 1827 (15 years'). Several ministries have 
not endured beyond a few months, as the CoaHlion Ministry in 1783, 
and the " Talents" Ministry in 1806. The " Short-lived" administra- 
tion lasted Feb. 10 to 12, 1746. 



ADM 



23 



ADM 



Kobert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord El- 
lesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Charles, 
earl of Nottinj,'ham ; Thomas, carl of Suffolk, 
etc 1G09 

Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord Ellcs- 
mere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; Sir Ralph 
Winwood ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Kob- 
ert, viscount Rochester, afterward Earl of S(>m- 
crset, etc 1012 

Thomas, lord Ellesmcre ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; 
Charles, earl of Nottintrham ; Sir George Villiers 
(a favorite), a/^')"»'rtrrf Viscount Villiers, and suc- 
cessively Earl, Marquess, and Duke of Bucking- 
ham 1615 

Sir Henry Montagu, afterward Viscount Mande- 
ville and Earl of Manchester 1620 

Lionel, lord Cranfield, aftervard Earl of Middle- 
sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl of 
Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; 
George Villiers, now Marquess of Buckingham ; 
Sir Edward Conway, etc 1621 

Chaklkb I.— Richard, lord Weston, aftenvard Earl 
of Portland ; Sir Thomas Coventry, afterward 
Lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- 
ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in 
turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterioard vis- 
counti^ Conway) ; William Laud, bishop of Lon- 
don ; Sir Albert Morton, etc 1628 

William Laud, now Archbishop of Canterbury; 
Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marquess of 
Hamilton; Edward, "earl of Dorset; Sir John 
Coke; Sir Francis Wiudebank, etc 1635 

William Juxon, bishop of London ; Sir John Finch, 
afterward Lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; 
Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland ; James, marquess of Hamil- 
ton: Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; Sir Fran- 
cis Windebank ; Sir Henry Vane, etc 1640 

[The king beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649.] 

CoMMo.vwEALTn. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
named a council, the number at no time to ex- 
ceed twenty-one members, or be less than thir- 
teen 1653 

Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the 
death of the latter. A council of officers ruled 
at Wallingford House 1653 

Charles II.— Sir Edward Hyde, afterward Earl of 
Clarendon ; George Monk, created Duke of Al- 
bemarle ; Edward Montagu, created Earl of 
Sandwich ; Lord Saye and Sele ; Earl of Man- 
chester ; Lord Seymour; Sir Robert Long, etc.. 1660 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made tirst Com- 
missioner of the Treasury, etc 1067 

"Cabat" Ministry: Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Arlington, Lauderdale. (See Cabal.) 1G70 

Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftes- 
bury ; Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of 
Anglesey ; Sir Thomas Osborne, created Vis- 
count Latimer; Henry Coventry; Sir George 
Carteret ; Edward Seymour, etc 1672 

Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterioard Earl of Dan- 
by, made lord high treasurer June 26, 1673 

Arthur, earl of Esses (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hyde, afterward Earl of Rochester) ; Robert, 
earl of Sunderland, etc 1679 

[The king nominated a new council on April 21, 
consistmg of thirty members only, of whom the 
principarwere the great officers of state and the 

treat officers of the household.] 
ney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Ro- 
chester; Daniel, earl of Nottingham; Robert, 
earl of Sunderland; Sir Thomas Chicheley ; 
George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- 
don ; Earls of Bath and Radnor, etc 1684 

James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester; George, 
marquess of Halifax ; Sir George Jeffreys, after- 
ward Lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
Sir John Ernley ; Viscount Preston, etc 1685 

The Earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, 
lord Belasyse, made first Commissioner of the 
Treasury in his room, Jan. 4; the Earl of Sun- 
derland made President of the Council; Viscount 
Preston, secretary of state ; and various other 
changes took place in this and the following 
year 1687 

[The king left Whitehall in the night of Dec. 17, 
and, quitting the kingdom, landed at Amble- 
teuse, in France, on Dec. 23, 1088.] 

William III. and Mauy.— Charles, viscount Mor- 
daunt; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created 
Marquess of Carmarthen, afterward Duke of 
Leeds ; George, marquess of Halifax ; Arthur 
Herbert, afterward Lord Torrington ; Earls of 
Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland; Earl 



of Dorset and Middlesex ; William, earl (after- 
ioard duke) of Devonshire ; Lord Godolphin ; 
Lord Montagu ; Lord De la Mere, etc 1689 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of Danby ; 
Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; 
Henry, viscount Sydney; Daniel, earl of Not- 
tingham, etc 1690 

Sir John Somers became Lord Somers in 1097, and 
lord chancellor; Charles Montagu, afterward 
Lord Halifax, was made first Commissioner of 
the Treasury, May 1, 1098, succeeded by Ford, 
earl of Tankerville, in 1099. 

Anne.— Sidney, lord {afterward earl of) Godolphin; 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke, etc May, 1702 

Robert Harley, earl of Oxford; Sir Simon Har- 
court, etc June 1, 1711 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer 
three days before the queen's death, etc. 

Jitly 30, 1714 

Geokge I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on 
his death by the Earl of Carlisle), etc 1714 

Robert Walpole, first Lord of the Treasury and 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, etc 1715 

James (afterward earl) Stanhope; William, lord 
Cowper, etc 1717 

Charles, earl of Sunderla,nd,_ etc 1718 

Robert Walpole, afterward Sir Robert Walpole, and 
Earl of Orford, etc 1721 

Geokge II. — Robert Walpole, continued 1727 

[Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one 
years ; numerous changes occurring in the time. 
See Walpole.'] 

Earl of Wilmington; Lord Hardwicke, etc 1742 

Henry Pelham, in the room of Earl of Wilming- 
ton, deceased Aug., 1743 

"Broad Bottom" Administration — Henry Pelham; 
Lord Hardwicke, etc Nov., 1744 

" Short-lived" Administration — Earl oiBath ; Lords 
Winchilsea and Granville Feb. 10-12, 1746 

Henry Pelham, etc., again Feb. 12, 1746 

Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle ; Earl of Hol- 
dernesse, etc April, 1754 

Duke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, etc Nov., 1756 

Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterward Earl of 
Chatham, etc June, 1757 

Geokge III.— Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's min- 
istry, continued 1760 

Earl of Bute ; Lord Henley, etc May, 1762 

George Qrenville; Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, 
etc April, 1763 

Marquess oi Rockingham ; Earl of Winchilsea, etc. 

July, 1765 

Earl of Chatham ; Duke of Grafton, etc Aug., 170G 

Duke of Grafton ; Lord North, etc Dec, 1707 

Frederick, lord Xorth ; Earl Gower, etc Jan., 1770 

[Lord North was minister during the whole of the 
American war.] 

Marquess of Rockingham ; Lord Camden ; C. J. 
Fox ; Edmund Burke, etc March, 1782 

Earl of Shelburne (afterward Marquess of Lans- 
downe) ; William Pitt, etc July, " 

"Coalition Ministry," Duke of Portland; Lord 
North; C.J. Fox; Edmund Burke, etc.. .April, 1783 

William Pitt; Henry Dundas, etc Dec, " 

[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, numerous 
changes in the ministry took place.] 

Henry Addington; Duke of Portland; LordEldon, 
etc March, et seq., 1801 

William Pitt; Lord Eldon ; George Canning, etc. 

May, c<scg., 1804 

[Mr. Pitt died Jan. 23, 1806.] 

"All the rrtfc/i^s" Administration— Lord Grenville; 
Lord Henry Petty ; Lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox ; 
Sir Charles Grey (afterward Earl Grey) . . .Feb., 1800 

[Mr. Fox's death, Feb. 13, 1800, led to numerous 
changes.] 

Duke of Portland; Lord Eldon, etc.* March, 1807 

Spencer Pcrcemi; Earl of Liverpool; Viscount Pal- 
merston, etc Nov. and Dec, 1809 

Regency.— Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by Belling- 
ham. May 11, 1812), etc., continued Feb. 5, 1811 

^m\ oi Liverpool; LordEldon; Mr. Vansittart ; 
Lord Melville ; Viscount Castlereagh, etc. 

May, June, 1812 

Geoege IV.— Earl of Liverpool, etc., continued 

Jan. 29, 1S20 

[During Lord Liverpool's long administration, nu- 
merous changes in, and accessions to, office oc- 
curred.] 

George Canning; Lord Lyndhurst ; Viscount God- 
erich ; Mr. Huskisson ; Lord Palmerston ; Duke 
of Clarence , etc April, 1827 

* The duel between Lord Castlerengh and Mr. Canning, Sept. 22, 
1S09, led to the breaking up of this administration. 



ADM 



rMr. Canning died Aus;. S, 182T.] 
Viscount Goderich; Viscount Palmerston ; Mar- 
quess of Lansdowne ; Mr.Huskisson.etc .Aug.,182T 
Dn^l of Wellington; Robert Peel; ^r. Huskjson,^^^^ 

rThe mVnVstry was reconVtVuVtVd on' the'retiremeu't 
■■of the Earl of Dudley; Lord Palmerston ; Mr. 

Grant -and Mr. Huskisson.] May and June, 

William IV._Duke of Wellinoton, etc., '^^ntvm^l^^,^^ 

Earl Grev; Marquess of Lansdowne ; Lord Broiigli- 
am- Viscount Althorpe; Earl of Durham; Vis- 
counts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; 
Sir James Graham; Lord John Russell^etc. ^^ 

[Earl Grey resigns office, owing to a majority 
against him in the Lords on the Reforni Bill, 

May 10, but resumes his post] May 18, Ibd^ 

Viscount Melbourne, etc.. . ...... .• • • •.• ■ • •,.- • "^^^'J' ^^^^ 

[Viscount Melbourne's administration dissolvecl, 
Nov 1834 The Duke of Wellington held the 
seals'of office until the return of Sir Robert Peel 
from Italy, Dec, 183-1.] _ , - ttt i 

Sir Robert Pee;, • Lord Lyndhurst ; Duke of Wei- 
linc-ton ; Earl of Aberdeen, etc.. .Nov. and Dec., 

Viscount Melbourne, etc , -P"!'/ 

VioTOKiA.-Viscount Melbourm, etc., '^^'^^^'^f^^r^^ 

[Among the subsequent accessions were F.T. Bar- 
ing ; 'Earl of Clarendon ; T. B. Macaul»T, etc] 
[Viscount Melbourne resigns, and Sir Robert Peel 
receives the queen's commands to form a new 
administratiou, May 8. This command is with- 
drawn, and on May 10, Lord Melbourne and his 

friends return to power] V ' "V V ' " i' 

Sir Robert Peel; Duke of Wellington ; Lord Lynd- 
hurst; Sir James Graham; Ear of Aberdeen ; 

Lord Stanley, etc v;.-;^"";,""? .^.f P^ ^ 

[Among the accessions were Sidney Uerbeit, W. 

E. Gladstone, etc.] , „ , ^ -c. ^ 

Lord John Russell; Viscount Palmerston, Earl 

Grey etc July,1840 

[Among the accessions were Earl Granville -Mr. 
FoxMaule; Earlof Carlisle ; Sir Thomas Wilde, 
created Lord Truro, etc.] -, . .-u 

FFeb ''4 Lord John Russell announced to the 
Commons, and the Marquess of Lansdowne to 
the Lords, that the ministers had resigned, ow- 
int' to their defeat on Mr. Locke King's motion 
relpecting the franchise, the majority against 
them being 48 (100 to 52) ; and on March 8, the 
Bame personages informed Parliament that it 
havinc been found impossible to construct a co- 
alition ministry, the queen, by the advice of the 
Duke of Wellington, had called upon her late 
TOiui><ters to resume office. Lord Stanley (since 
Earl of Derby) had been charged by her majes- 
ty, in the interval, to form a new cabinet, but 

had not succeeded] ; ■ • • -ISSl 

Lord John liussell and his colleagues contuiued 

March, " 
Earl of Derby {late Lord Stanley) ; Lord St. Leon- 
ards • Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; 
EarlofMalmesbnrv; Sir John Pakington ; Duke 

of Nm-thumberlancl, etc Feb. 2T, 1852 

Earl o{ Aberdeen; Lord John Russell; Viscount 

Palmerston, etc P®^^*' " 

[In this last ministry various changes of offices 
took place ; a fourth secretary of state was ap- 
pointed, by a separation of the war from the colo- 
nial department. See Secretaries of State. -i 
[The retirement of Lord J. Russell, Jan. 24, 1855, 
and a majority in the Commons against minis- 
ters of 15T (305 to 148) on Mr. Roebuck's motion 
respecting the conduct of the war, led to the re.s- 
io-nation of Lord Aberdeen and his colleagues, 
Jan. 30 ; the cabinet was reconstructed under 
Lord Palmerston.] 
Yiscoant Palmerston; LordCrauworth, etc. Feb. i, 1855 
[Viscount Palmerston, owing to the secession of 
Sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and Mr. S. Her- 
bert, had to reconstruct his ministry.] 
Viscount Palmerston; Lord John Russell ; Earl of 
Clarendon ; Sir G. Grey ; Sir G. C. Lewis ; Sir 

W. Molesworth, etc Feb. 24, 

On the second reading of the Foreign Conspiracy 
Bill, the government (defeated by a vote of cen- 
sure being passed by a majority of 19, on the 
motion 6i Mr. Milner Gibson) resigned imme- 

diately i; •,• • 'F^'^V ^\'^^^^ 

Earl ot Derby; B. Disraeli; Spencer Walpole; Lord 
Stanley ; Sir F. Thesiger (Lord Chelmsford), etc. 

Feb. 20, " 
[The Derby Administration, in consequence of a 



24 ADM ' 

vote of want of confidence in it being carried by 
a majority of 13, June 10, 1850, resigned the next 
day Earl Granville attempted to form an ad- 
ministration in vain ; and Lord Palmerston and 
Lord John Russell came into office.] 

Pai mekston-Rusbell Administration.— Viscount 
Palmerston; Lord John {since Earl) Russell, etc. 

June 18, 1859 

[The death of Palmerston, Oct. IS, 1865, led to a 
change of ministry.] ,, , „ ^^ 

Earl limsell; Earl Granville; Lord Cranworth ; 
Duke of Argyle ; W. E. Gladstone, etc. . . . . . . . . . .1805 

rThe Reform Bill of the Russell-Gladstone Admin- 
istration being defeated led to the resignation 
of the ministry, July 6, 1866.] 

Earl Derby ; B. Disraeli, etc 1'^°° 

B.Disraeli, etc ^^^"^ 

ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States. The 

following is a list of the Presidents of the United 

States and their respective cabinet officers from the 

commencement of the Federal government to 1808. 
riEBT administration— 1789 to 179T. 

President: George Washington, of Virginia. 

Vice-President : 'John Adams, of Massachusetts. 

Secretaries of State: Thomas Jeflfereon, of \a , Sept 
20 1789; Edmund Randolph, ot Va., Jan. 2, 1(94; 
Timothy Pickering, ofMass., Dec. 10, 1<95. 

Secretaries of the Treasury : Alexander Hamilton, of 
N. Y., Sept. 11, 1789 ; Oliver Wolcott, of Conn., teb. 

SeSries of War: Henry Kbos, of Mass Sept 12 

1789- Timothy Pickering, of Mass., Jan. 2, li95; 

James M'Henrv, of Md., Jan. 27, 1790. 
Secretaries of the Navy: No Navy Department was 

organized during Washington's administi-atiou 
Postmaster Generals :. Samuel Osgood, of Mass Sept 

26 1789 ■ Timothy Pickering, of Mass., Nov. 7, lil4; 

Joseph Habersham, of Geo Feb. 25, 1795 
Attorney Generals: Edmund Raiifo'pli' o^ ^„a-' ^-^ll*" 

20 1789; William Bradford, of Penu., Jan. 27, 1794; 

Charles Lee, of Va., Dec. 10, 1795. 

SECOND ad.ministkation— 1797 TO 1801. 
President : John Adams, of Massachusetts. 
Vice-President : Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. 
Secretaries of State : Timothy Pickering, continued m 

office ; John Marshall, of Va., May 13, 1800. ■ 

Secretaries of the Treasury : Oliver Wolcott, continued 

in office ; Samuel Dexter, of Mass., Dec. 31, IbOO. 
Secretaries of War: James M'Henry, continued in ot- 

fice ; Samuel Dexter, of Mass., May 13, 1800 ; Roger 

Griswold, ofConn., Feb..'?, 1801. 
Secretaries of the Navy: George Cabot, of Mass., May 

3, 1798, declined ; Benjamin Stoddert, of Md., May 

21, 179S. , .. 1 •„ 

Postmaster General : Joseph Habersham, continued m 

office. ,. , . „, 

Attorney General : Charles Lee, continued in office. 

TUIRD ADMINISTRATION— 1801 TO 1809. 

President: Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. 
Vice-Presidents: Aaron Burr, of N. Y., from 1801 to 

1805 ; George Clinton, of N. Y., from March 4, 1805. 
Secretary of State : James Madison, of Va., March 5, 

1801. ^. , 

Secretaries of the Treasury : Samuel Dexter, continued 

in office ; Albert Gallatin, of Pa., Jan. 20, 1802. 
Secretary of War: Henry Dearborn, of Mass., March 5, 

Secretaries of the Navy: Benjamin Stoddert, contin 
ued in office ; Robert Smith, of Md., Jan. 2(., 1802 ; Ja- 
cob Crowniushield, of Mass., March 2, 1805. 

Postmaster Generals : Joseph Habersham, continued 
in office : Gideon Granger, of Conn., Jan. 20, 1802. 

Attorney Generals: Levi Lincoln, of Mass., March 5, 
1801 : Robert Smith, of Md., March 3, 1805 ; John 
Breckinridge, of Kv., Jan. 17, 1806 ; Cssar A. Rod- 
ney, of Del., Jan. 20, 1807. 

FOUETn ADMINISTRATION— 1809 TO 1817. 

President: James Madison, of Virginia. ,. , . ., 

Vice-Presidents: George Clinton, of N. Y., died April 
20, 1812 • Elbridge Gerry, of Mass., March 4, 1813— 
died Nov. 23, 1813. ,,., ,r v ,- 

Secretaries of State: Robert Smith, of Md., March 0, 
1809 ; James Monroe, of Va., April 2, ISll. 

Secretaries of the Treasury : Albert Gallatin, contui- 
ued in office ; George W. Campbell, of Teiin., Feb. 9, 
1814 ; Alexander J. Dallas, of Penu., Oct. 6, 1S14. 

Secretaries of War: William Eustis, of Mass., March 7, 
1S09 ; John Armstrong, of N. Y., Jan. 13, 1813 ; James 
Monroe, of Va., Sept. 27, 1814, acting secretary ; Wil- 
liam II. Crawford, of Geo., March 3, 1815. ^ ,^ , 

Secretaries of the Navy: Paul Hamilton, of S. C, March 



ADM 



25 



ADM 



7, isno ; William Jones, of Penn., Jan. 12, 1S13 ; Beu- 
jainiu W. Crowniiishield, of Mass., Dec. 17, 1S14. 

Postmastt'i- Generals: Gideon Granger, continued in 
office ; Keturn J. IMcigs, of Oliio, March 17, ISU. 

Attorney Generals : Ciesar A. Rodney, continued in of- 
tice ; William Pincknev, of Md., Dec. 11, ISll ; Rich- 
ard Rush, of Penn., Feb. 10, 1S14. 

FIFTH AT>MIN18TKAT10N — 1817 TO IS'25. 

President: James Monroe, of Virginia. 
Vice-President: Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York. 
Secretary of State : John Q. Adams, of Mass., March 5, 

ISIT. 
Secretary of the Treasury: William H. Crawford, of 

Geo., March 5, 1S17. 
Secretaries of War: Isaac Shelby, of Ky., March 5, 

IsiT, declined the appointment; George Graham, of 

Va., April 7, 1S17 ; John C. Calhoun, of S. C, Oct. 8, 

1S17. 
Secretaries oftheNavy : Benjamin W. Cro^\aiinshield, 

continued in office Smith Thompson, of N. Y., Nov. 

i), 1S18 ; John Rogers, of Mass., Sept. 1, 1S23 ; Samuel 

L. Southard, of N. J., Sept. 10, 1823. 
Postmaster Generals : Return J. Meigs, continued in 

office John M'Lean, of Ohio, June 20, 1823. 
Attorney Generals: Richard Rush, continued in office; 

William Wirt, of Va,, Nov. 13, 1817. 

SIXTH ADMIiSISTKATION — 1825 TO 1829. 

President : John Qiiincy Adams, of Massachusetts. 

Vice-President: John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. 

Secretary of State : Henry Clav, of Kentucky, March 7, 
1825. 

Secretary of the Treasury : Richard Rush, of Penn., 
JIarch 7, 1825. 

Secretaries of War : James Barbour, of Va., March 7, 
1825 ; Peter B. Porter, of N. Y., May 20, 1828. 

Secretary of the Navy: Samuel L. Southard, continued 
in office. 

Postmaster General: John M'Lean, continued in of- 
fice. 

Attorney General : William Wirt, continued in office. 

SEVENTH ARMINISTE.VTTON — 1820 TO 1837. 

President: Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. 

Vice-Presidents: John C. Calhoun, of S. C— resigned 
Dec. 28, 1832 ; Martin Van Buren, of N. Y., March 4, 
1833. 

Secretaries of State : Martin Van Btiren, of N. Y., 
March 0, 1829 ; Edward Livingston, of La., Mav 24, 
1831; Louis M'Lane, of Del., March 29, 1833; John 
Forsyth, of Geo., June 27, 1834. 

Secretaries of the Treasury: Samuel D. Ingham, of Pa., 
March 0, 1820; Louis M'Lane, of Del., Aug. 8, 1831; 
William J. Duane, of Penn., May 20, 1833 ; Roger B. 
Taney, of Md., Sept. '23, 1833— not confirmed by the 
Senate ; Levi Woodbury, of N. II., June 27, 1S34. 

Secretaries of War: John H.Eaton, of Tenu., March 
0, 1820 ; Lewis Cass, of Mich., Aug. 1, 1831— resigned 
November, 1836. 

Secretaries of the Navv: John Branch, ofN. C, March 
9, 1829; Levi Woodbury, of N. IL, May 23, 1831; 
Mahlon Dickerson, of N. J., June 30, 18.34. 

Postmaster Generals : Wm. T. Barry, of Ky., March 0, 
1829. Previous to this date, the Postmaster General 
had not been recognized as a member of the Presi- 
dent's cabinet. Amos Kendall, of Ky., May 1, 18.35. 

Attorney Generals : John M'Pherson Berrien, of Ga., 
March 0, 1S20 ; Roger B. Taney, of ]\Id., Dec. 27, 1831; 
Benjamin F. Butler, of N. Y., June 24, 1834. 

EIOHTn ADMTNISTKATION — 1837 TO 1841. 

President: Martin Van Buren, of New York. 
Vice-President ; Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky. 
Secretary of State: John Forsyth, continued in office. 
Secretary of the Treasury : Levi Woodbury, continued 

in office. 
Secretary of War: Joel R. Poinsett, of S. C, March 7, 

1^37. 
Secretaries oftheNavy: Mahlon Dickerson, continued 

in office ; James K. Paulding, of N. Y., June 20, 1^38. 
Postmaster Generals: Amos Kendall, continued in 

office ; John M. Niles, of Conn., May IS, 1840. 
Attorney Generals : Benjamin P. Butler, continued in 

office ;■ Felix Grundy, of Tenn., July 7, 1838; Henry 

D. Gilpin, of Pa., Jan. 10, 1840. 

NINTH ADMINISTEATION — 1841 TO 1845. 

President: William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. Died 
April 4, 1S41, when John Tyler, the Vice-President, 
became President. 

Vice-President: John Tyler, of Virginia. 

Secretaries of State: Daniel Webster, of Mass., March 
5, 1841— resigned May 8, 1843 : Ilusrh S. Legare, of 
S. C, Mav 0, 1843— died June 20, 1843 ; Abel P. Up- 
shur, of Va., July 24, 1843— killed by the bursting of 



a cannon, Feb. 28, 1844 ; John Nelson, of Md. (acting 
Secretary), Feb. 29,1844; John C. Calhoun, of S. C, 
March 0, 1844. 

Secretaries of the Treasury: Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, 
March 5, 1S41— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ; Walter For- 
ward, of Penn., Sept. 13, 1841 — resigned March 1, 
1843; Caleb Cushing, of Mass., rejected by the Sen- 
ate ; John C. Spencer, of N. Y., March 3, 1843 ; Geo. 
M. Bibb, of Ky., June 15, 1844. 

Secretaries of War: John Bell, of Tenn., March 5, 
1841— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ; John M'Lean, of Ohio, 
Sept. 13, 1841, declined ; John C. Spencer, of N. Y., 
Oct. 12, 1841 ; James M. Porter, of Pa., March 8, 1843, 
rejected by the Senate ; William Williams, of Penn., 
Feb. 15, 1844. 

Secretaries of the Navy: George E. Badger, of N. C, 
March 5, 1841— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ;"Abel P. Up- 
shur, of Va., Sept. 13,1841 ; David Ilenshaw, of Mass., 
July 24, 1843, rejected by the Senate : Thomas W. 
Gilmer, of Va., Feb. 15, 1844- died Feb. 28, 1844; 
John Y. Mason, of Va., March 14, 1844. 

Postmaster Generals : Francis Granger, of N. Y., 
March 6, 1841— resigned Sept. 12, 1841 ; Charles A. 
Wickliffe, of Ky., Sept. 13, 1841. 

Attorney Generals : John J. Crittenden, of Ky., March 
5, 1841— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ; Hugh S. Legare, of 
S. C, Sept. 13, 1841 ; John Nelson, of Md., July 1, 
1843. . . J- . 

TENTH ADHltNIBTEATION — 1845 TO 1849. 

President: James K. Polk, of Tennessee. 
Vice-President : George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. 
Secretary of State : James Buchanan, of Penn., March 

5, 1845. 
Secretary of the Treasury : Robert J. Walker, of Miss., 

March 5, 1845. 
Secretary of War: William L. Marcj', of N. Y., March 

5, 1845. 
Secretaries of the Navy: George Bancroft, of Mass., 

March 10, 1845 ; John Y. Mason, of Va., Sept. 9, 1846. 
Postmaster General: Cave Johnson, of Tenn., March 

5, 1845. 
Attorney Generals : John Y. Mason, of Va., March 5, 

1845 ; Nathan Clift'ord, of Maine, Oct. 17, 1846 ; Isaac 

Toucey, of Conn., June 21, 1848. 

ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION — 1849 TO 1853. 

President: Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana. Died July 
9, 1850, and was succeeded by the Vice-President. 

Vice-President: Millard Fillnnn-e, of New York. 

Secretaries of State : John M. Clayton, of Del., March 
7, 1849— resigned July 10, 1850; "Daniel Webster, of 
Mass., July 20, 1S50— died Oct. 24, 1S52 ; Edward Ev- 
erett, of Mass., Dec. 9, 1852. 

Secretaries of the Treasury: William M.Meredith, of 
Pa., March 7, 1849— resigned July 10, 1850; Thomas 
Corvvin, of Ohio, July 20, 1850. 

Secretaries of War : George W. Crawford, of Georgia, 
March 7, 1849- resignecl July 10, 1850; William A. 
Graham, of N. C, July 20, 1S50 — resigned July 15, 
1S52 ; John P. Kennedy; of Md., July 22, 1852. 

Secretaries of the Interior (a new office) : Thomas 
Ewing, of Ohio, March 7, 1849- resigned July 10, 
1850 ; James A. Pearce, of Md., July 20, 1850 ; T. 
M'Kenuon, of Pa., Aug. 15, 1850, and died soon aft- 
erward ; Alexander IL II. Stuart, of Va., Sept. 12, 
1850. 

Postmaster Generals: Jacob Collamer, of Vt., March 
7, 1849— resigned Jitly 10, 1850 ; N. K. Hall, of N. Y., 
July 20, 1850— resigned Aug., 1852 ; Samuel D. Hub- 
bard, of Conn., Aug. 31, 18.52. 

Attorney Generals: Reverdy Johnson, of Md., March 
7^ 1849— resigned July 10, iS50 ; John J. Crittenden, 
of Ky., July 20, 1850. 

TWELFTH ADMINISTRATION — 1853 TO 1857. 

President: Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire. 
Vice-President: William R. King, of Alabama. Died 

April 18, 18.53. 
Secretary of State : William L. Marcy, of New York, 

March 5, 1853. 
Secretary of the Treasury : James Guthrie, of Ky., 

March 5, 1853. 
Secretary of War : Jefferson Davis, of Miss., March 5, 

18.53. 
Secretary of the Navy: James C. Dobbin, of N. C, 

March 5, 18.53. 
Secretary of the Interior: Robert M'Clellan, of Mich., 

March 5, 185.3. 
Postmaster General : James Campbell, of Pa., March 

5, 1853. 
Attorney General : Caleb Cushing, of Mass., March 5, 

1858. 

THIRTEENTH ADMINTSTKATION — 1857 TO 1861. 

President: James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. 



ADM 



26 



ADM 



Vice-President: John C. Breckinrictge, of Kentucky. 
Secretaries of State : Lewis Cass, of Micli., March 6, 

1857— resigned Dec. 14, 1S60. Jeremiah 8. Black, of 

Peun., succeeded him. 
Secretaries of the Treasury: Howell Cobb, of Ga., 

March 6, 1857 — resigued Dec. 10, 1860; Philip F. 

Thomas, of Md.— resigued Jan. 11, 1861 ; Johu A. 

Dix, ofN.Y. 
Secretaries of War : John B. Floyd, of Va., March 6, 

1857 — resigned Dec. 29, 1860 ; Joseph Holt, of Ky., 

Dec. 30, 1S60. 
Secretary of the Navy : Isaac Toucey, of Conn., March 

6, 1857. 
Secretary of the Interior: Jacob Thompson, of Miss., 

March 6, 1857— resigned Jan. 8, 1861. 
Postmaster Generals : Aaron V. Brown, of Tenn., 

March 6, 18.57— died March 8, 1859. Joseph Holt, of 

Ky., July, 1859 ; Horatio King, of Me., Feb. 12, 1861. 
Attorney Generals : Jeremiah &. Black, of Pa., March 

6, 1857 ; Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, Dec, 1860. 

rOUETEENTII ADMINISTKATION — 1861 TO 1869. 

Presidents : Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois— died April 

1.5, 1865. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, succeeded 

Abraham Lincoln, April 15, 1865. 
"Vice-Presidents: Hannibal Hamlin, ofMe. ; Andrew 

Johnson, of Tenn., March 4, 1SG5. 
Secretary of State : William H. Seward, of New York, 

March, 1861. 
Secretaries of the Treasury: Salmon P. Chase, of 

Ohio, March, 1861 ; William P. Pessenden, of Maine, 

Sept., 1864 ; Hugh M'Culloch, of Ind., March, 1865. 
Secretaries of War: Simon Cameron, of Pa., March, 

1861 ; Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, Jan., 1862. 
Secretary of the Navy : Gideon Welles, of Conn., 

March, 1861. 
Secretaries of the Interior : Caleb B. Smith, of Ind., 

March, 1S61— resigued Dec, 1862 ; John P. Usher, of 

Ind., Jan., 1863 ; James Harlan, of Iowa, May, 1865 ; 

O. H. Browning, of 111., July, 1866. 
Postmaster Generals : Montgomerv Blair, of Md., 

March, 1861 ; William Denuison, of Ohio, Oct., 1S64 ; 

Alexander W. Kandall, of Wis., July, 1866. 
Attorney Generals : Edward Bates, of Mo., March, 

1861 ; James Speed, of Ky., Dec, 1864 ; H. F. Stan- 

ber}', of Ky., July, 1866. 

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSOCIATION de- 
rived its origin from a general opinion that the disas- 
ters which occurred to the army in the Crimea in 1S54-5 
were attributable to the inefficient and irresponsible 
management of the various departments of the state. 
The association was organized in London, May 5, 1855. 
A meeting was held in Drury Lane Theatre on June 13, 
and Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in Parliament 
was negatived June 18 following. The association was 
reorganized in 1S56, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming 
chairman, but soon became unimportant. See Civil 
Service. ^ 

ADMIRAL. This distinction does not appear to 
have been adopted in England until about the year 
1300, but the title was in use some time previously in 
France. — Sir Harris Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstau, Edgar, 
Harold, and other kings, had been previously the com- 
manders of their o^vn fleets. The tirst French admiral 
is said to have been appointed 1284. The rank oi Ad- 
miral of the English Seas was one of great distinction, 
and was first given to William de Leybourne by Ed- 
ward I. in 1297. — Spehnan; Rynier. The first Lokd 
High Admikai, in England was created by Richard II. 
in 1385: there had been previously high admirals of 
districts — the north, west, and south. This office has 
seldom been intrusted to single hands, the duties being 
generally execiited by lords commissioners. A simi- 
lar dignity existed in Scotland from the reign of Robert 
III. : m 1673 the king bestowed it upon his natural son, 
Charles Lennox, afterward Duke of Richmond, then 
an infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 1703: 
after the Union it was discontinued. The dignity of 
lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief existence) was 
conferred upon James Butler by Henry VTIL, in May, 
1534. The Admiral of the Fleet is the highest rank in 
the English Royal Navy, corresponding to that of mar- 
shal in the army. There are now three admirals of 
the fleet, twenty-one admirals, and twenty-seven vice- 
admirals (1865). See Kavij. The title of admiral has 
been given to the highest officers in the United States 
Navy'dnrin" the late rebellion, in the place of commo- 
dore, which oefore that time had been the highest title. 

ADMIRALTY, Cofkt of, said to have been erected 
by Edward III. in 1357— a civil court for the trial of 
causes relating to maritime aft'airs. It was enacted in 
the reign of Henry VIII. that criminal causes should 
be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of the judges at 



Westminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. 
The judgeship of the Admiralty was constituted in 
1514, and was tilled by two or more functionaries until 
the Revolution, when it was restricted to one. — Beat- 
sun. The judge has usually been an eminent doctor 
of the civil law. In 1S44 the criminal jurisdiction of 
this court was removed, and by 20 & 21 Vic, c. 77 (1S57) 
the judge of the Probate Court was to be also judge 
of the Admiralty Court. Sir John Dodson, the last ad- 
miralty judge, died in 1S58. The jurisdiction of this 
court was extended in 1801. In the LTuited States the 
Admiralty Courts are merged in the Federal, Circuit, 
and District Courts. 

ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, when Henry 
VIII. appointed commissioners to inspect his ships of 
war, etc. In 1662 the admiralty was first put into com- 
missiou, the great officers of state being the commis- 
sioners. During the Commonwealth the admiralty af- 
fairs were managed by a committee of the Parliament, 
and at the Restoration, in 1660, James, duke of York, 
became lord high admiral. See succeeding changes 
below. In lOSS-9 the admiralty was put into commis- 
sion, and the board appears to have assembled at Ad- 
miral Herbert's lodgings, in Channel Row, Westmin- 
ster, he being at that tiiiie first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 
1S30 various changes were made in the civil depart- 
ments, several offices being abolished or consolidated 
with others. In March, ISOl, a royal commission rec- 
ommended the abolition of the Board of Admiralty 
and the appointment of a minister of the navy depart- 
ment. 

FIRST LOEDS OF THE ADIIIEALTY, ETC. 

1660. James, duke of York, lord hvjh admiral, June 6. 
1673. King Cuarles II., June 14. 

" Pkinoe Rupert, July 9. 
1679. Sir Henry Capel, Feb. 14. 
16S0. Daniel Finch, Esq., Feb. 19. 
lOSL Daniel, lord Finch, Jan. 20. 

1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, April 17. 

1684. King Chaei-eb II. 
1GS5. King James II., May 17. 

Ojfix in Conimission. 

1689. Arthur Herbert, Esq., March S. 

1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 

Jan. 20. 

1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, March 10. 

1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, April 15. 

1694. Edward Russell, Esq. {aft. Earl of Orford), May 2. 

1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, June 2. 

1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, April 4. 

1702. George, peinoe of Den.maek, loi'd high admiral, 

May 20. 

1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, Nov. 29. 

Office in Conmiission. 

1709. Edward, earl of Orford, Nov. 8. 

1710. Sir John Leake, Oct. 4. 

1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, Sept. 30. 
1714. Edward, earl of Orford, Oct. 14. 
1717. James, earl of Berkeley, March 19. 
1727. George, viscount Torrington, Aug. 2. 
1733. Sir Charles Wagner, Knt., June 25. 
1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, March 19. 
1744. John, duke of Bedford, Dec. 27. 
1748. Johu, earl of Sandwich, Feb. 10. 
1751. George, lord Anson, June 22. 

1756. Richard, earl Temple, Nov. 19. 

1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, April G. 
" George, lord Anson, July 2. 

1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, June 19. 

1763. George Grenville, Esq., Jan. 1. 

" John, earl of Sandwich, April 23. 
" John, earl of Egmont, Sept. 10. 

1700. Sir Charles Saunders, Sept. 10. 
" Sir Edward Hawke, Dec. 10. 

1771. John, earl of Sandwich, Jan. 12. 
1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, April 1. 

" Augustus, viscount Keppel, July 18, 
178.3. Richard, viscount Howe, Jan. 28. 
1788. John, earl of Chatham, July 16. 
1794. George John, earl Spencer, Dec. 20. 
ISOl. John, earl St. Vincent, Feb. 19. 
1804. Henry, viscount Melville, May 15. 
1S0.5. Charles, lord Barham, May 2. 
1800. Hon. Charles Grey, Feb. 10. 

" Thomas Grenville, Esq., Oct. 23. 
1807. Henry, lord Mul grave, April 0. 
1809. Charles Yorke, Esq., May 10. 
1812. Robert, viscount Melville, March 25. 

1827. William Henry, duke of Clarenoe, lord high 

admiral, May 2, resigned Aug. 12, 1828. 

1828. Robert, viscount Melville, Sept. 19. 
1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, Bart,, Nov. 25. 
1834. George, lord Auckland, June 11. 



AD]\I 



27 



JEOL 



1834. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Dec. 23. 

1835. George, lord Auckland, April '_'5. 
" Gilbert, earl of Miiito, Sept. 10. 

1841. Thomas, earl of Haddini^'tnn, Sept. 8. 
1840. Edward, earl of i;iliMilu)r(m^'h, Jan. 13. 

" George, earl of Auckland, July '24. 
1840. Sir Frauds Thoruhill Bariug, Jan. 18. 

1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, Feb. 28. 

1853. Sir James Kobert Ge(u-ge Graham, Jan. 5. 
1855. Sir Charles Wood, Bart., Feb. 24. 

1858. Sir JolHi l'akiiiu't<)ii,Feb. 20. 

1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, the peesent first lord 

(1805). 

ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south end of 
Duke Street, Westminster, England, was seated a large 
house, made use of for the Admiralty Office until the 
business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to 
Wallingford House, against Whitehall." It was re- 
built by Ripley about 1T20 ; the screen was erected to 
conceal the ugliness of the building by the brothers 
Adam in 17TG.— Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the 
apartments on January 8, ISOO, and on the next day 
was buried at St. Paul's. 

"AD^tONITION TO TUB Parliament," condemning 
all religious ceremonies but thuse commanded in the 
New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 
15T1. It was answered by Abp. Whitgift. Its pre- 
sumed authors. Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. 

ADRIAN'S WALL (to prevent the irruptions of the 
Scots and Picts into the northern counties of England, 
then under the Roman government) extended from 
the Tyne to Solway Firth, and was 80 miles long, 12 
feet high, and S feet in thickness, with watch-towers ; 
built 121. It was named after its second founder, the 
Emperor Adrian, and was repaired by Severus, 208. 

ADRIANOPLE, in Tnrkej', so named after its re- 
storer, the Emperor Adrian (who died July 10, 13S). 
Near here was fought the battle by which Constantine 
gained the empire, July 3, 323 ; also near here the Em- 
peror Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, 
Aug. 0, 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks un- 
der Amurath in 1301, and was the seat of their empire 
till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Mohammed 
II. was born here in 1430. — Pricstlejl. Adrianople was 
taken by the Russians on Aug. 20, 1820, but was re- 
stored at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See 
Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the Doge of "Venice 
•wedding the Adriatic Sea (instituted about 1173) took 
place annually on Ascension day. The doge dropped 
a ring into the sea from his buceutaur, or state barge, 
being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassa- 
dors. The ceremony was first omitted in"1797. 

ADULTERATION of Food was the subject of legis- 
lation in England in 1207. Much attention was drawn 
to it in 1S22, through Mr. Accum's book, popularly 
called " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 through Dr. 
Hassall's book, "Food and its Adulterations." By an 
act for preventing the adulteration of food, passed in 
1800, parochial chemical analysts may be appointed. 

ADULTERY, by the law of Moses (1400 B.C.), was 
punished with death. Lev. xx., 10. — Lycurgus (S84 B.C.) 
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the 
Locriaus and Spartans tore out the offender's eyes. 
The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a 
gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adul- 
terer. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 
1031. Ordained to be punished capitally under Crom- 
well, May 14, 1050 ; but there is no record of this law 
taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, 
even though the man were unmarried : and several 
suffered under it, 1002. — Hardic. Till 1S57 the legal re- 
dress against the male offender was by civil action for 
a money compensation, the female being liable to di- 
vorce. In England the " action for criminal conversa- 
tion" was abolished, and the " Court for Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes" was established, with power to 
grant divorces for adultery and ill usage. The usual 
punishment for adultery in the United States is by fine 
or imprisonment. It is also good ground for absolute 
divorce on petition of the aggrieved party, as is the 
case mider the Code Napoleon. See Divorce. 

ADVENT {adveniens, coming). The season includes 
four Sundays previous to Christmas, the first being 
the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), be- 
fore or after. Homilies respecting Advent are men- 
tioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1805, Dec. 3 ; 1800, 
Dec. 2 ; 1*07, Dec. 1. 

ADVENTURE BAY, at the S.E. end of Van Die- 



men's Land, discovered in 1773 by Capt. Furneaux, in 
his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from his 
ship Adventure. It was visited by Capt. Bligh in 1788. 
ADVENTURERS, Meeohant, a celebrated compa- 
ny of enterprising merchants, originally formed for 
the discovery of territories and the extension of com- 
merce, by John, duke of Brabant, in 1200, was trans- 
ferred to England in the reign of Edward III. (^ueeu 
Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation in 
1504. — A ndcrson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, as now pub- 
lished, were not general in England till the beginning 
of the 18th century. A penalty of £50 was inflicted on 
persons advertising a reward with "no questions to 
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the 
prmter.— Statutes. The advertuemcnt duty was for- 
merly charged according to the number of lines ; it 
was afterward fixed, in England, at 3.s. Of/., and in Ire- 
laud, at 2s. Orf. each advertisement. The duty was far- 
ther reduced, in England, to Is. Or?., and in Ireland to 
Is. each, in 1833, and was altogether abolished in the 
United Kingdom by 10 & 17 Vic, c. 03 (Aug. 4, 1853).* 
Advektibing Vans, a great nuisance, were prohibited 
by 10 & 17 Vic, c. 33 (1853). 

ADVOCATE, The King's. This office was instituted 
about the beginning of the 10th century; and the ad- 
vocate (always a doctor of the civil law) was empow- 
ered to prosecute at his own instance certain crimes, 
1597. The Loed Abvocate in Scotland is the same as 
the attorney general in England. It was decided in 
the Parliament of Paris, in 1085, that the king's advo- 
cate of France might at the same time be a jiidge; so, 
in like manner, it was allowed in Scotland, where Sir 
John Nesbit and Sir William Oliphant were lord advo- 
cates and lords of session at the same time. — Bcatson. 
The Advocates' Library in Edinburg was established 
by Sir G.Mackenzie in 1802. 

^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 402 B.C. 
There were three degrees of these ofticers, with func- 
tions sinTilar to those of our justices of the peace. 
The plebeian fedjles presided over the more minute af- 
fairs of the state, the maintenance of order, the repa- 
ration of the streets, the supply of provisions, etc. — 
Varro. 

AGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily ; near these, during 
the first Punic War, the Roman consul, Lutatius Catu- 
lus, gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian 
fleet under Hanuo, March 10, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, 
the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 tal- 
ents. 

.(EGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was hum- 
bled by Themistocles, B.C., 485; and taken, 455. Its 
inhabitants, expelled 431, were restored by the Spar- 
tans, 404 ; they renewed war with Athens, 388, and 
made peace, 387. 

^GOSPOTAMOS, the Goat River, in the Chersone- 
sus, whei'e Lysander, the Lacedsemonian, defeated the 
Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the Peloponnesian 
War. 

^LIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of Jerusa- 
lem by the Emperor Adrian, 131. 

.EMILIA, the name given to the provinces of Par- 
ma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sardinia in 
1800, and now part of the kingdom of Italy. 

.(ENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating the ad- 
ventures of .iEneas, written about 24 B.C., by Virgil, 
who died Sept. 22, 10 B.C., before he had finally cor- 
rected the poem. It was first printed in 1409, at Rome. 

ENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C.; 
Judfies xiv., 12) is the earliest on record. The ancient 
ovacles frequently gave responses admitting of per- 
fectly contrary interpretations. Gale attributes senig- 
matical speeches to the Eiryptians. In Nero's time, 
the Romans were often obliged to have recourse to 
this method of concealing truth under obscure lan- 
guage. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond 
(mistress of Henry II., about 1173) is a medieval spec- 
imen : "Hie jacet in tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa 
munda ; Non redolet, sed olet, quaj redolere solet." 

.^OLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal 
branch of the Hellenic race, beginning about 1124 B.C. 
The Cohans built several large cities, both on the 
main land and the neighboring islands; Mityleue, in 
Lesbos, was considered the capital. 

^OLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kir- 
cher, 1053, but it was known before. 



* On Oct. le, IRfil), the whofe of tlie libretto of MacFarren's opera, 
KrMn Hood, was inserted as an advertisement in the Times (4^ col- 
umns). 



^OL 



28 



AFK 



jEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with au orifice in which 
a tube might be screwed, was used iu the ITth century 
as a boiler for experimental steam-eugiues. 

^QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the 
Romans, aud their lands annexed after a conflict, 
471-302 B.C. 

AEROLITES. Metallic masses have often fallen 
from the atmosphere upon all parts of the world, sin- 
gly or in showers. Livy mentions a shower of them 
on the Alban Mount, (J54 B.C., and Plutarch one that 
fell at ^gospotamos, 407 B.C. An aerolite weighing 
2 cwt. fell at Eusisheim, in Alsace, 1492. There was a 
shower of them near Benares, Dec. 19, 179S, and a re- 
markable one iu Normandy, April 20, 1S03, the stones 
weighing from 17^ pounds downward, and scattering 
over moVe than 20 square miles. Two in South Amer- 
ica are thought to weigh respectively 30,000 and 14,000 
pounds. Many valuable records of aerolites are pre- 
served in the American Journal of Science aud Art. 
Chhulni's theory that aerolites are of a planetary na- 
ture was first published 1794, and in full, 1819. La- 
place thought they came from lunar volcanoes. 

AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining 
gases with water have been patented by Thomson iu 
1807 ; Bakewell in 1S32 aud 1S47 ; Tylor in 1840, and 
by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by 
processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1850-7. 

AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in the 
4th century, who held that there was no distinction 
between a bishop aud a presbyter; that there was no 
Pasch to be observed by Christians ; that the Lent and 
other fasts should not be observed, aud that prayers 
should not be offered for the dead. — E2iix>hanius. 

AERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS. See Flying 
aud Dallooiis. 

^SCULAPIUS, the Greek god of medicine. An 
embassy was sent to his shrine at Epidaurus, from 
Rome, about 400 B.C., iu time of sickness. His wor- 
ship was introduced at Rome 293 B.C. The priests 
of ^Esculapius were called Asclepiadse, and practiced 
medicine. 

yESOP'S FABLES, said to have been written about 
619, 5T1, or 505 B.C. They are, no doubt, a compilation 
from various sources. Phiedrus's Latin paraphrases 
in Iambics (about A.D. S) are very elegant. 

ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), 
the science of the beautiful (especially iu art) ; a term 
invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, 
whose work "^sthetica" was published iu 1750. 

jETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after .(Etolus 
of Elis, who, having accidentally killed a sou of Pho- 
roneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and set- 
tled here. After the ruin of Athens aud Sparta, the 
^tolians became the rivals of the Achajaus, and alter- 
nately enemies of Rome. 

The ^tolians join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 

Subdued by Antipater during the Lamiau War. . . . 322 

Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls 279 

Invade tlie Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia 

(.Social War), and defeat the Achffians at Caphyaj 220 
Philip v., of Macedon, invades MIqVlo., and takes 

Thermum— peace concluded 217 

Alliance with Rome 211 

War with Philip, 202 ; deserted by the Romans, 

theiEtolians make peace 205 

They invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and Spar- 
ta to coalesce with them against the Romans. .193-2 

Defeat of the allies near Thermopylae 191 

Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius 189 

Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party. 107 

Made a province of Rome 140 

AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees of 
kindred was prohibitedln almost every age and coun- 
try, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. 
See Leviticus, chap, xviii. (1490 B.C.). In England, a 
table restricting marriage within certain near degrees 
was set forth by authority, 1503. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuous aud unlawful by the 
99th canon m 1C03. All marriages within the forbid- 
den degrees are declared to be absolutely void by stat- 
ute 5 & Will. IV., c. 54, 1835. See Marriage \nf de- 
ceased Wife's Sister). 

APFIRJIATION. See Quakers. The affirmation 
was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April, 1S59. In 
England the indulgence was granted to persons who 
were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from that 
sect, 2 Vic, 1838 ; and extended to other dissenters by 
9 Geo. IV., c. 32 (1828), and IS & 19 Vic, c. 2 (1855). 

AFGHANISTAN, a large country in Central Asia, 



formerly part of the Persian and Greek empires, was 
conquered by the Tartars about 997. 

The Mohammedan dynasty, the Ghaznevides, said to 
have ruled from IISO to 1200. 

They were conquered by Genghis Khan about 1221, 
aud by Tamerlane, 1398. 

Baber conquered Caubul iu 1523. 

On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia aud 
Hindostan. 

The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah iu 1728, who sub- 
dues the whole of the country, 1737. 

On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed Shah, 
au Afghan, forms Afghanistan into an independeut 
kingdom, and reigns prosperously, 1747-73. 

His sou aud successor, Timour, died iu 1793; whose 
son, Zemauu, was dethroned and blinded after reign- 
ing ten years. Since then the history is a series of 
broils, crimes, and murders. 

Runjeet Singh, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a 
large pari of the country iu ISIS. 

Dost'Muhammed becomes ruler, 1829. 

[For the Afghan war with England, see India, 1S3S.] 

Dost Mohammed takes Herat, May 20 ; dies, after des- 
ignating his eldest son. Shir Ali, his successor. May 
29, 1803 ; a war of succession ensues. 

The English remain neutral, June, etc., 1SG3. 

Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1805. 

AFRANCESADOS. Spaniards who took the oath 
of allegiance to Joseph Bonaparte. Such underwent 
much harsh treatment from Ferdinand VII. between 
1S14 and 1S20, and even then, though a general pardon 
was proclaimed, they were kept m a sort of disfran- 
chisement. 

AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the 
three parts of the ancient world, and the greatest peu- 
iuKula of the universe ; said to have been first peopled 
by Ham. For its history, see Hgypt, Carthage, Cyreiie, 
Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, etc. 

Carthage subdued by the Romans, 140 B.C. ; other 
provinces gained by Ponipey, 82. 

N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, 
A.D. 429-35 ; reconquered by Belisarius, 533-5. 

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 037-709. 

Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. 

Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 14S7. 

English merchants visit Guinea iu 1550 ; and Elizabeth, 
granted a patent to an African company iu 15SS. 

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1050. 

Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723, 

Bruce commeuced his travels in 170S. 

Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. 

Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, May 
22, 1705; and his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, but 
from which he never returned (see Park). 

Visited by Salt in 1S05 and 1809 ; Bnrckhardt in 1812; 
Hornemann in 1810; Denham and Clappertou in 
1822 ; the brothers Lander iu 1830. 

The great Niger expedition (for which the English 
Parliament voted £01,000), consisting of the Albert, 
Wilbcrforce, aud Soudan steam-ships, commeuced the 
asceut of the Niger, Aug. 20, 1841 ; but when they 
reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, 
and they were successively obliged to return, the Al- 
bert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition was, iu the 
end, relinquished, owing to disease, heat, aud hard- 
ships, and all the vessels had cast anchor at Clareuce 
Cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, 1841. 

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-0, 
aud in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Oflice) he 
left England to explore Central Africa, accomijani- 
ed by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardsou died, 
March 4, 1851 ; and Overweg, Sept. 27, 1S52. 

Dr. Vijgel sent out with re-enforcements to Dr. Barth, 
Feb. 20, 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- 
sinated. 

Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal 
Geographical Society's medal. May 10, 1S50. His 
travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveler, returned 
to England in Dec, 1850, after an absence of 10 years, 
during which he traversed a large part of the heart 
of S. Africa, aud walked about 11,000 miles, princi- 
pally over country hitherto unexplored. His book 
was published in Nov., 1857. In Feb., 1858, he was 
appointed British consul for the Portuguese posses- 
sions in Africa, aud left England shortly after. 

The publication of M. du Chaillu's travels in Central 
Africa created much controversy aud excilement in 
1801. 

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1S5S. 



AGA 



29 



AGR 



Captains Spckc and Grant aunonnce the discovery of 
the Nile in Luke Nyan/.ii Victoria, Feb. '2S, ISOii. 

[Capt. Spcke was accidentally shot by hiss own gun 
wl>ile aU)ne near Bath, Sept. 15, ISG-l.J 

Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully exi)lore the White 
Nile, and undergo many privations, Jul}', 1803-1804. 

Oxford mission. Bishop Mackenzie sent out; dies, 
1S03. 

Du Chailhi starts on a fresh expedition, C Aug., 1SC3. 

Dr. Liviniistone returns, July '2;i, 1SU4. 

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, Nov. 30, 
1S04. 

[lie was sent as special envoy to the negro tribes 
near the Niger by the Foreign Otlice about 1S54. 
He opened commercial relations with Central Af- 
rica.] 

Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, supposed to be 
another source of the Nile, which he named Lake 
Nyanza Albert, March, 1804. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for Inner Af- 
rica, !Marcli '-'4, ls05. 

African Association, for promoting the exploration 
of Central Africa, was formed in June, ITSS, princi- 
pally by Sir Joseph Banks ; and under its auspices 
many additions were made to African geography by 
Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, Iloruemann, etc. It 
merged into the Royal Geographical Society in 1S31. 

Afiucan Company (merchants trading to Africa), 
arose out of an association in Exeter, formed in 
1588. A charter was granted to a joint-stock com- 
pany in 1018; a third company was created in 1031 ; 
a fourth corporation in 1002 ; another was formed by 
letters-patent in 1072 ; remodeled in 1095. In 1S21 
the company was abolished. 

Afkican Institution, founded in London in ISflT, for 
the abolition of the slave-trade and the civilization 
of Africa. Many schools have been established with 
success, particularly at Sierra Leone. 

AGAP^ {agape, Greek for love, charity), " feasts of 
charity," referred to. hide 12, and described by Tertul- 
liau, of which the lirst Christians of all ranks partook, 
in memory of the last time when Christ ate M'ith his 
disciples. In consequence of disorders creeping in, 
these feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in church- 
es by the councils of Laodicea (300) and Carthage (.300). 
These feasts are still recognized by the Greek Church, 
and are held in their origi'ual form weekly by the San- 
demanians, and also, iu some measure, by the Mora- 
vians and Wcsleyans. 

AGAPEMONIANS, a sect which orieinated with 
Henry James Prince, an ex-clergyman (,f the Church 
of England, who claimed the attributes of omnipo- 
tence, and thereby obtained great intiueiice over his 
wealthy dupes in 1845. They professed to live in a 
Btateof brotherly love, delivering themselves up to in- 
nocent amusements, not vexing themselves with the 
cares of ordinary mortal.s. Various disclosures did not 
at all coniirm these statements. They resided in a 
building called " AgapcmonO" (Greek for "the abode 
of love"), near Bridgewater, iu Somersetshire. 

AGDA, in Prance. A council on Church discipline 
convened there by Alaric, A.D. 500. 

AGE. Chronologers have commonly divided the 
time between the creation and the birth of Christ into 
periods called ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described 
the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages. See Dark 
Ages. 

First Age (from the Creation to the Del- 
uge) B.C. 4004-2349 

Second Age (to the coming of Abraham into 

Canaan) 234S-1022 

TiiiKD Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) 1921-1491 

FooETU Age (to the founding of Solomon's 

Temple) 1490-1014 

Fifth Age (to the cajjture of Jerusalem) 1014- 588 

SiXTn Age (to the birth of Christ) 588- 4 

Seventh Age (to the present time).. .B.C. 4-A.D. 1SG8 

AGE OF Ma.iokity. Varied in different C(rautries. 
Iu Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age for both 
eexes, but a greater age was requisite for the holding 
certain offices ; e.fi., thirty for tribunes, forty-three for 
consuls. In England the minority of a male termi- 
nates at twenty-one, and of a female, in some cases, as 
that of a queen, at eighteen. In l.'Vl", the majority of 
Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at 
eighteen years; previously to completing which age, 
Henry \\\l. had himself assumed the reins of govern- 
ment in 1509. — A male of twelve may take the oath of 
allegiance ; at fourteen he may ccmseut to a marriage 
or choose a guardian ; at seventeen he ma}' be an ex- 
ecutor, and at twenty-one he is of age ; but, according 



to the statute of wills, 1 William IV. & 1 Vict., c. 2G 
1837, no will made by any person under the a^e of 
twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at twelve 
may consent to a marriage; at fourteen she may 
choose a guardian, and at tweutv-one she is of a^e 
In the United States males are of age at twenty-one' 
and females at eighteen ; but at eighteen and sixteen 
respectively they may devise property by will. At the 
ages of fourteen and twelve they may make a leo-al 
marriage. The President of the United States must 
be thirty-five. 

A6INC0URT (N. France), a village, where Henry 
V. of England, with about 9U00 men, defeated about 
60,000 French, on St. Crispin's day, Oct. 25, 1415 Of 
the French, whose leaders acted with little judf-ment, 
there were, according to some accounts, 10,00o'killed, 
nicludmg the Dukes of Alenron, Brabant, and Bar, the 
Archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, nine- 
ty-two barons, and 1500 knights ; and 14,000 prisoners, 
among whom were the Diikes of Orleans and Bour- 
bon, and 7000 barons, kniiihts, and gentlemen The 
English lost the Duke of York, the Earl of Sufi'olk, and 
about 20 others. St. Remy asserts, with more proba- 
bility, that the English lost 1000 men. Henry V. soou 
after obtained the kingdom of France. 

AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed by 
the English army iu 1647 to take care of its interests ; 
each troop or company had two. The Protector Crom- 
well was eventually obliged to repress their seditious 
power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a 
mutiny, shot one instantly, in the presence of his com- 
l)anions and the forces on the ground, and thus re- 
stored discipline. — Wmiuc. Daniel O'Connell, called 
the Afiitatvr of Jri land, -was born in 1775. He began 
to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected^for 
Clare, July 5, 1828 ; the election being declared void, 
he was re-elected, July 30, 1829. After the passing of 
the Catholic Emancipation Bill, he agitated in vain for 
the repeal of the Lhiion, 1834 to 1843. He died May 15, 
1847. Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief 
Anti-corn-law Agitators, 1841-45. 

AGLABITES, a dynasty of rulers of Cairo and Tunis, 
iu Africa, founded by Ibrahim Ben Airlab, A.D. 800, and 
ending after 112 years with Zeyadatala. 

AGNADELLO (N. E. Italy). Here Louis XII. of 
France gained a great victory over the Venetians, 
some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and 
treachery. May 14, 1509. The conflict is also termed 
the Battle of the Rivolta. 

AGNOIT^ (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 1. A 
sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia about 
370— said to have doubted the omniscience of God. 2. 
The followers of Themistius of Alexandria about 530, 
who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and 
doubted his divinity. 

AGNUS DEI. A wax medal with the figure of a 
lamb bearing a cross, as a certificate for baptism. First 
used in the 7th and Sth century. Since the 14th cen- 
tury the popes have consecrated medals of a like pat- 
tern and name for distribution on the first Sunday aft- 
er Easter. 

AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict), also 
termed circiitoref!, a branch of the Douatists {whieli see). 
They preached their heretical doctrines with great bold- 
ness in public places, and hence incurred the severe 
persecution of the emperors in the 4th and Sth cen- 
turies. 

AGRA (N. W. India), fotmded by Akbar iu 15GG, was 
the capital of the Great Mogul. See Mausoleums. In 
1G58 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi. — The fortress of 
Agra, termed the key of Hindostau, iu the war with 
the Mahrattas, surrendered to the British forces, under 
General Lake, Oct. 17, 1803, after one day's siege: 102 
pieces of ordnance and i;240,000 were captured.— In 
June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers 
by the Europeans, who took refuge in the fort, from 
which they were rescued by Major Montgomery and 
Colonel Greatlied. — Allahabad was made capital of the 
N.W. provinces of India instead of Agra in ISCl. 

AGRARIAN LAW {Agraria lex) decreed nn equal 
division among the Roman people of all the lands ac- 
quired by conquest, limiting the acres which each per- 
son should enjoy. It was first proposed by the Consul 
Spurius Cassius, 480 B.C., and occasioned his judicial 
murder when he wont out of office in 485. It was re- 
introduced bv the Tribune Licinius Stolo, 370, and by 
the Tribune Tiberius Gracchus, 132 B.C. The law at 
last proved fatal to the freedom of Rome under Julius 
Cresar, 00 B.C. — Livg ; ]'iissius. In modern times the 
term has been misinterpreted to signify a division of 
the lauds of the rich among the poor, ifrequently pro- 



AGE 



posed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf,* edit- 
or of the Tribun du Pevjilc, in 1X94. 
AGRICOLA'S WALL. See Roman Walls. 
AGRICULTURE. "Abel was a keeper of sheep, 

but Cain was a tiller of the grouud," Gencais iv., 2. 

The Alheuiaus asserted that the art of sowing corn 

began with them, and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyp- 
tians made the same claim. 

Cato the Censor (died 140 B.C.) and Varro (died 2S 
B.C.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 
It was brought into England by the Romans about 
A.D. 2T. 

Fitzherbert's " Book of Husbandry," printed in 1524. 

Tusser's " Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1502. 

Blythe's " Improver," 1U49. 

Hartlib's " Legacy," 1G50. 

Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. 

About the end of the ISth century fallowing was grad- 
ually superseded by turnips and other green crops. 

Agricultcra.!, Societies. — The earliest mejitioned in 
the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of 
Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1T23. The 
Dublin Agricultural Society (1T49) gave a stimulus 
to agriculture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to 
Mr. Prior, of Rathdowncy, Queen's County, in 1731. 
The Bath and West of England Society, established 
1777, and the Highland Society of Scotland, 1793. 
County Agricultural Societies are now numerous. 

London Board of Agriculture established by act of 
Parliament, 1793. 

Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- 
ture, died March 2, 1S02. 

Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, established in 
183S by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by roy- 
al charter, 1S40. It holds two meetings annually- 
one in London, the other in the country ; the first 
country meeting at Oxford, in 1S39. It awards 
prizes, and publfshes a valuable journal. The Lon- 
don meeting at Battersea, in June, 1SG2, was highly 
successful. 

" Chambers of Agriculture" were established in France 
in 1851. 

The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organ- 
ized, iS42 ; chartered, 1845. 

AGuioui/ruEAL Chemistry. — Sir Humphry Davy deliv- 
ered lectures on this subject (afterwarcl published), 
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1S12 ; 
but it excited little attention tillthe publication of 
Liebig's work in 1S40, which made a powerful im- 
pression. Boussingault's "Economic Rurale," an 
equally important work, appeared in 1844. The im- 
moderate expectations from this study having been 
somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction took 
place. Liebig's "Letters on Agriculture" appeared 
in 1859. 

Agrioiti.turai. H.vT.r,, Islington, N. London, chiefly for 
the meetings of the Smithtield Club. The founda- 
tion stone was laid by the president. Lord Berners, 
Nov. 5, 1801. A remarkable exhibition of dogs was 
opened here on June 24, 1802, and of horses and of 
donkeys in July, 1804, 1805. 

In Aug., 1855, a committee presented a report on the 
best mode of obtaining accurate agricultural statis- 
tics, which has not been acted on. There were, in 
1831, 1,055,982 agricultural laborers in Great Britain, 
and in Ireland 1,131,715. 

Cattle first carried to America by Columbus in his 
second voyage, 1493. 

Swine brought into the present territory of the L^uited 
States by'De Soto, 1538. 

First slave labor within present territory of the United 
States at the founding of St. Augustine, 1505. 

Tobacco carried to England from America by Raleigh, 
1586. 

First cattle and swine brought to Massachusetts, 1024. 

Hops first brought to present territory of the United 
States, 1 028. 

First horses in Massachusetts, 1029-30. 

First apples picked in present territory of the United 
States in Boston, 1039. 

Sugar-cane brought into Louisiana, 1751. 

First improved cattle brought into the United States, 
1783. 

South Carolina and Philadelphia Agricultural Socie- 
ties founded, 1784. 

(Most of the other states now have them.) 

First cotton (8 bales) sent from the United States to 
England, and seized by custom-house on the ground 
that the United States can not have produced so 
much, 1784. 



30 AGE 

First recorded United States thresher patent, 1791. 
Thence to ISIO were granted in the United States 30 ' 

patents for reapers ; from ISIO to 1835, 240 more ; and 

many have been granted since. 
Whitney's cotton-gin invented, 1793. 
First cast-iron plow patent issued to Newbold of New 

Jersey, 1797. 
Jefferson investigates scientifically the Mould Ward 

question, 1798. 
Kennebec Agricultural Society in Maine founded, ISOO. 
First Agricultural Exhibition in the United States at 

Georgetown, D.C., May 10, 1810. 
First useful mowing machine (Manning's) patented in 

the United States, 1831. 
N. York State Agricultural Society incorporated, 1832. 
First useful reaper patents in theUnited States, Schneb- 

ley's and Hussey's, both of Maryland, granted, 1833. 
Guano begins to come into use about 1840. 
American Pomological Society founded, 1848. 
Yale College Agricult. Department established, 1852. 
Trial of agricultural implements at Geneva, N.Y.,1S52. 
World's Fair, New York, promotes use of agricultural 

machinery, 1853. 
Pennsylvania Farmer's High School, 1854. 
Michigan passes an act to establish an Agricultural 

College, 1855. 
Great trial of threshing, reaping, and mowing ma- 
chines in France— the American machines gaining 

a complete victory, 1855. 
The United States Government Agricultural Depart- 
ment established by act of Congress, May 15th, 1802. 

The following table gives the value or quantity of 
some of the chief agricultural productions of the 
United States by the censuses of 1850 and ISGO : 

ISofl. 



* In 1796 he conspired against the Directory with the i 
ing a division of property, aud was executed. 



Wheat, bush 

Rye, bush 

Indian corn, bush 

Oats, bush 

Rice, lbs 

Tobacco, lbs 

Cotton, ginned, bales of 400 

lbs 

Wool, lbs 

Pease and beans, bush 

Potatoes, bush 

Potatoes, sweet, bush 

Barley, bush 

Buckwheat, bush 

Orchard products, value. . . . 

Wine, gall 

Market-garden prod., value 

Butter, lbs 

Cheese, lbs 

Hay, tons 

Clover-seed, bush 

Grass-seed, bush 

Hemp, tons 

Flax, lbs 

Flaxseed, bush 

Hops, lbs 

Silk cocoons, lbs 

Maple sugar, lbs 

Cane sugar, hhds. 1000 lbs. . 

Cane molasses, gall 

Sorghum molasses, gall. . . . 

Maple molasses, gall 

Beeswax and honey, lbs 

Home-made manufactures, 

value 

Animals slaughtered, value 

Horses, No 

Asses and mules, No 

Neat cattle. No 

Sheep, No 

Swine, No 

Live-stock, total value ;$544, 180,516 

The following are the totals for a few of the princi- 
pal of the above crops in the United States for 1803 : 

Wheat, bush ' . . .191,008,239 

Rye, bush 20,798,287 

Barley, bush 16,760,597 

Oats, bush 174,858,167 

Indian corn, bush 452,446,128 

Buckwheat, bush 15,821,305 

Potatoes, bush 101,457,144 

Tobacco, lbs 267,302,770 

Hay, tons 20,000,000 

Wool, lbs 79,405,215 

Sorghum molasses, gall 7,700,000 

And the summaries of the condition of the land and 
of the value of manufactured implements for 1850 and 
1800: 



100,485,944 
14,188,813 
592,071,104 
140,584,179 
215,313,497 
199,752,055 

2,445,793 

52,516,959 

9,219,901 

65,797,896 

38,268,148 

5,167,015 

8,956,912 

$7,723,186 

221,249 

$5,280,030 

313,84.5,306 

105,535,893 

13,838,642 

468,978 

416,831 

34,871 

7,709,676 

562,312 

3,497,029 

10,843 

34,253,436 

237,133 

12,700,991 



14,853,690 



$27,493,644 
111,703,142 



171,183,381 
20,976,286 
830,451,707 
172,554,688 
187,140,173 
429,390,771 

5,198,077 

60,511,343 

15,188,013 

110,571,201 

41,606,302 

15,635,119 

17,664,914 

$19,759,361 

1,860,008 

$15,541,027 

460,509,854 

135,875,135 

19,129,128 

929,010 

900,386 

104,490 

3,783,079 

611,927 

11,010,012 

6,562 

38,803,884 

302,205 

16,337,080 

7,235,025 

1,944,594 

26,386,^55 

$24,358,222 

212,871,653 

1,185,514 

166,786 

3,347,009 

1,505,810 

3,467,905 

$1,107,490,216 



AGR 



31 



ALA 



Land in U. S., acres, both yrs.. 
Laud ill U. S., occupied, acres.. 

Laud, improved, acres 

Laud, uuimproved, acres 

Agricultural implements 

made iu tiielJ. S., value 

The followiup; table, drawn u 
ing, C.E., in IS'JT,* is extracted 
of the Emii^ratiou Committee: 



203,560,614 
113,032,614 
180,528,000 



1360. 

1,920,641,280 

409,769,633 

163,261,389 

246,508,244 



$6,842,611 $17,802,514 
1) by Mr. William Coul- 
from the Third Report 



Countries. 


Cultivated. 


Wastes capa- 
ble oflm- 
prove.nent. 


Unprofit- 
able. 


Total. 


En^-liinJ . . . 
Wiiles .... 
S.-otlun,! . . . 
IrelniKl .... 
British Islands 


25,6:i'.',iiiio 
3,117,11(111 
6,at;5,01lll 

l'.>,li5,'.>S0 
383,090 


3',454,OU0 

630,000 

6,950,000 

4,900,000 

166,000 


ACR1£S. 
3,256,400 
1,105,000 
8,523,930 
•2,4I6>BC-t 
569,469 


ACRES. 

32,342,400 
4,752,000 
19,738,930 
19,441,944 
1.119,159 


46,5'2i,U7U 


15,000,000 


15,871,463 


77,394,433 



AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a celebrated city of 
Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by ty- 
rants from 566 to 470 ; among these were Phalaris (see 
Brazen Bull) ; Alcaineues ; Theron, who, with his step- 
father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera ; 
and Thrasyd;eus, his sou, expelled in 470 ; wheu a re- 
public was established, and As'rigentum became opu- 
lent and luxurious. It was taken by the Carthagini- 
ans in 405 B.C., and held, except during short inter- 
vals, till wrested from them by the Romans in 262 B.C. 
From A.D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 

AIBIEDNUGGUR (W. India), once capital of a state 
founded by Ahmed Shah about 1494, which, after hav- 
ing fallen into the hands of the ISIoguls and the 5Iah- 
rattas, was taken from the latter by Arthur Wellesley, 
Aug. 12, 1803, and finally annexed to the British db- 
miuions iu 1S17. 

AIBAR (in Spain). Here the Moors defeated the 
Spaniards, killing their liiug, A.D. SS2. — Garcia. 

AILANTHUS (Glandulosa: there are other species), 
a native of China, brought to England iu 1751, and to 
the United States about 50 years afterward. 

AIR, on Atmosphkre. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 
B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the 
first cause of every thing created. Posidonius (about 
79 B.C.) calculated the height of the atmosphere to l)e 
800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the 
square inch, was discovered by Torricelli A.D. 1645, 
and was found by Pascal, iu 1047, to vary with the 
height. Halley, New%)n, and others, up to the present 
time, have illustrated the agency and influences of this 
great power by various experiments, and numerous iu- 
veutions have followed; among others, the Air-gun of 
Outer, of Nuremberg, about 1650 ; the Air-i-umi', invent- 
ed l)y Otto von Giiericke, of Magdeburg, about 1650 ; 
improved by the illustrious Boylein 1657; and the Aie- 
piPE, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, 
about 1750. The density and elasticity of air were de- 
temiiued by Boyle, and its relation to light and sound 
by Ilooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of 
our atmosphere above the surface of the earth, long 
con.sidered as about 45 miles, was thought by Adminil 
Fitz Roy to be only about 9 or 10 miles (1S62). — Its com- 
position, about 77 parts of uitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 
'2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery va- 
por, a trace of ammonia, etc.), was gradually ascer- 
tained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 
1774), Scheele (1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its 
laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 
1737. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered 
charcoal is ns^ed) were first set up at the INIaiision 
Hou.se, Loudon, in 18.54. In 1858 Dr. R. Angus Smith 
made kuown a chemical method of ascertaining the 



* At tliat period it w.is n 
dom w&a annually cropped i 



Tiputed that the soil of the United King- 
L the following proportions : 



Wheat 

Barley and rye 

Potatoes, oats, and beans 

Turnips, cabbnpes, and other vegetables.. 

Clover, rye-praas, etc 

Fallow 

Hop-grounds. . 



Nursery grounds.. 

Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen, and other gardens . 



PI 



unds 



re-gi 
Land depastureil by cattli 

Hedge-rows, copses, and woods 

Ways, water, etc 

Cultivated land 

It was reckoned bv the Agricultural Committee that the 
of waste lands would yield above £20,000,000 a vear. It 
lated in 1854 that there were in England 32,160,ri(>o acres 
tinn.of the annual value of £37,412,000. Since that time 
has been brought into cultivation. See Wheat. 



7,0(10,000 

1 ,950,000 

6,500,(10(1 

1,150,0(10 

1,750,000 

2,800,1100 

60,(100 

20,000 

110,000 

100,0(10 

21,0110,(100 
2!l(i(Vill(l 



46,54(1,(1 
:ultivatir 



amount of orgauic matter iu the air. The researches 
of Dr. Schilnbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 
1840 and 1859, led to the discovery of two states of the 
oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone 
See Oxijrjcn, Xitror/en, Ozone, Atmospheric Raihrav and 
Pneumatic JJispatch.— The force of compressed air has 
been employed in boring the Cenis Tuuuel, ivliich see. 
AIR-GUN. One was invented by Guter, of Nurem- 
berg, about 1056. The " Elemens d'Artillerie" ot Ri- 
vault, precept(ir of Louis XIII., describes a "uu char(»ed 
ouly with air and jiure water, which he says was'^in- 
vented by Marin, a burgher of Lisieux, who presented 
one to Henri IV. at the end of the 10th century. Bor- 
der (17.>3-1(99) invented au air-gun which operates by 
inflaming the gas which forms the charge by means of 
an electric spark. 

AIR-PUMP. Invented by Otto von Guericke, of 
Magdeburg, in 1654 ; improved by Bovle a few years 
after, and further by Hooke iu 1658-^59. Papiu and 
babiuet have also added improvements. 

AIR-TIGHT STOVE, for economically burning 
wood ; patented by Isaac Orr about 1830. 

AIR-WHISTLE, invented by C. Daboll, of New Lon- 
don, as early as 1S50, as a signal to ships in foggy lo- 
calities. It is a shrill whistle, like that used in steam- 
engines of tremendous power, audible 4 or 5 miles 
against the wind, and worked by au air-pump and con- 
denser. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman city, now 
in Rhenish Prussia. Here Charlemagne was born 742, 
and died 814, havinj; built the minster (790-804), and 
conferred many privileges on the citv, in which fifty- 
five emperors have since been cro«iied. The city was 
taken by the French in 1792; retaken by the'Aus- 
trians, 1793; by the French, 1794 ; reverted to Prussia, 
1814.— The first Treaty of Peace signed here was be- 
tween France and Spain, when France yielded Prauche 
Comte, but retained her couquests in the Netherlands, 
May 2, 1608.— The sec(nKl, or celebrated treafv, was be- 
tween Great Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Spaiu, 
and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia' in 1648, 
of Nimeguen iu 1078 and 1679, of Ryswirk in 1697, of 
Utrecht in 171.3, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alli- 
ance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and 
of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed). 
Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sand- 
wich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748.— A Con- 
gress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, was 
held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, Oct. 
9,1818. The sum then due from France tolhe allies 
was settled at 205,000,000 of francs. 

AJACCIO. See Corsica. 

AJNADIN (Syria). Here the Mohammedans defeat- 
ed the army of the Emperor Heraclius in July, 633. 
They took Damascus in 634. 

AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times 
taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. llere the cele- 
brated treaty between Russia and Turkey was con- 
cluded iu 1826, which secured for the former the navi- 
gation of the Black Sea, recognized the Dantibiau 
principalities, etc. 

AK HALTZEKH. A city or fortress in Armenia. 
Here the Russians defeated the Turks, Aug. 24, 1828. 
A Turkish attack on it was repulsed, Feb., 1829, and it 
was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Adrianople, Sept. 
14,1829. 

AKYAB, in Arracau. Ceded to the English by the 
treaty of Yandabro, Feb. 24, 1826. 

ALABAMA, a Southern slave state, originally part 
of Georgia, Uuited States; made an indepeudent state 
in 1819: commercial metropolis. Mobile. It seceded 
from the Union b.y an ordinance passed Jan. 11, 1861, 
and was reunited in 1865. 

ALAMO. A fort in Texas, near San Antonio. Here 
occurred the massacre of the Alamo, March 6, 1826, on 
which day a Mexican force of 1500 or 2000 men, under 
Santa Anna, after having in vain besieged and bom- 
barded its garrison of 140 Texans, under Col. Travis, 
ever since the 23d of the preceding month, stormed the 
place and took it, after being twice repulsed. But six 
Texans were left alive after the assault, and these were 
murdered in cold blood in Santa Anna's presence, by 
his order, after surrender on promise of protection. 
"Remember the Alamo" was a telling Texan war-cry 
for the rest of the Texan ^yar of independence. 

ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Swe- 
den by Russians, 1809. See Bomarsund. 



ALA 



32 



ALC 



ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They 
ioiued the Huns in invading the Roman empire, were 
defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued 
by the Visigoths, 452, and were eventually incorpora- 
ted with them. 

ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards un- 
der Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally defeated 
by the Moors, July 19, 1195. 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have 
been founded by Ascanius, son of .lEneas, 1152 B.C. 
Its history is of doubtful authenticity. 
Ascanius, son of^neas, 1152 B.C. Sylvius Posthu- 

mus, 1143; .^ueas Sylvius B.C. 1114 

Reign of Latiuus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or Cape- 

tus, 1002; Cai)yi*i976; Capetus 916 

Reign of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in battle 
near the River Albitla, he throws himself into 
the stream, is drowned, and hence this river is 

now called the Tiber 895 

Agrippa ; Romulus Silvius, 864 ; Aventiuus, 845 ; 

Procas, 808 ; Numitor 795 

Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 
794 ; killed by his grandson, Romulus, who re- 
stores Numitor 751 

Romulus builds and fortilies Rome (see Rome) . . . 753 
Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and incorpo- 
rated with Rome 665 

ALBANERISES. A Manichasan sect, of small num- 
l)ers and short duration, in the 8th century. They be- 
lieved in eternal principles of good and evil, a pre-ex- 
istent state, and an immediate millennium. 

ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, former- 
ly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians became 
independent during the decline of the Greek empire. 
They were successfully attacked by the Turks in 1388. 
About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they 
baffled the efforts of Mohammed II. to subdue them 
till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they partially 
submitted. Albania became independent under Ali 
Pacha, of Jauina, in 1812, who defeated the Turkish 
pachas, and governed ably, but cruelly and despotic- 
ally, till Feb., 1822, when "he and his two sons were 
slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of 
safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 

ALBAN'S, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Ve- 
rulam, derived its present name from Alban, the Brit- 
ish protomartyr, said to have been beheaded duriug 
the persecution by Diocletian, June 23, 286. A stately 
monastery to his memory was erected by Offa, king 
of Mercia, about 793, who granted it many privileges. 
Its superior sat as premier abbot in Parliament till'the 
dissolution in 1^39. It was taken from Cassivelau- 
nus by Julius Ciesar, 54 B.C., and retaken with much 
slaughter by Boadicea, or Bunduica, queen of the Ice- 
ni, A.D. 61. On May 22 or 23, 1455, was fought the 
fimt battle of St. Alban's, when the Lancastriaiis were 
defeated, their leader, Edmund, duke of Somerset, 
slain, and King Henry VI. taken prisoner by the Duke 
of York and his partisans. In the second battle, on 
Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 17, 1401, Queen Margaret totallv 
defeated the Yorkists under the Earl of Warwick and 
rescued the king. There was much blood shed in 
these desperate conflicts. St.Alban's was incorpora- 
ted by Edward VI. in 1553, and disfranchised for brib- 
ery, June 17, 1S52. St. Album' raid, see United States, 
1864. 

ALBANY, the capital of the State of New York 
Founded by the Dutch in 1614 ; received a city char- 
ter, 1GS6; became the capital of New Y'ork, 1807. 

ALBANY (oE Aluainn), the ancient name of the 
Scottish Highlands. The brother of Robert III of 
Scotland was made Duke of Albany in 1398 Freder- 
ick, son of George III., was Duke of York and Albany. 
He died Jan. 5, 1827. 

ALBERT MEMORIAL. The Prince Consort died 
on Dec. 14 1S61, deeply lamented by the whole civil- 
ized world. A meeting to organize a method of re- 
ceiving contributions for a great national memorial 
was held at the Mansion House, Jan. 14, 1862 and a 
large sum was quickly subscribed. £36,000 had been 
received on March 1, and £50,220 on June 11, 1862 
I he nature of the memorial was referred to the queen 
herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated Feb 19 
1862, Sir Charles Grey says, on behiilf of her maje'stv! 
_ It woulil be more in accordance with her owii feel- 
ings, and she believes with those of the countrv in 
general, that the monument should be directlv ner- 
sonal to Its object. After giving the subject hdr ma- 
turest consideration, her majesty has come to the con- 
clusion that nothing would be more appropriate nro- 
vided It IS on a scale of sufficient grandeur, than an 



obelisk to be erected in Hyde Park on the site of the 
Great Exhibition of 1851, or on some spot immediate- 
ly contiguous to it. Nor would any proposal that 
could be made be more gratifying to the queen her- 
self personally, for she can never forget that the prince 
himself had highly approved of the idea of a memo- 
rial of this character being raised on the same spot in 
remembrance of the Great Exhibition." In a second 
letter the queen expressed her intention of personally 
contributing toward erecting the memorial, that "it 
might be recorded in future ages as raised by the 
queen and people of a grateful country to the memory 
of its benefactor." Shortly after a committee was ap- 
pointed to fultill her majesty's desire. As a suitable 
block of granite could not be obtained, the proposal 
for an obelisk was given up. On April 22, 1863, the 
queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott 
for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- 
companied bv statues, etc. ; and on April 23, Parlia- 
ment voted £50,000, in addition to the £60,000 received 
by voluntary contributions. The sculptors employed 
are M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, John Bell, and Armis- 
tead ; material, Sicilian marble. (Jan., 1865.) Many 
memorials of the prince have been set up throughout 
the empire.* 

ALBIGENSES, a name given to various bodies of 
persons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of 
the Church of Rome, living at Albiga, iu Languedoc, 
and at Toulouse, in the 12th century. They were perse- 
cuted as Manichseans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed 
by Pope Innocent III.) commenced against tliem iu 
1207. Simon de Montfort (to whom Toulouse was 
given) commanded, and at Bezicres he and the pope's 
legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, "God 
will find his own !" At Minerba he burnt 150 of the 
Albigeuses alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged the gov- 
ernor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the 
governor's wife, and murdering other women. He 
next defeated tlie Count of Toulouse, but was himself 
killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, 
patronized the crusade ; Count Raymond was sub- 
dued in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the 
Inquisition. See Waldenses. 

ALBIOLA, near Venice, in the Lagoons. Here the 
Venetians defeated Pepin, 809, saving their city, and 
the Huns, 906, destroying all the Hunliish vessels and 
nearly all their crews. 

ALBION (probably derived from alhns or a?p, white). 
Britain is said to have been so called by Julius Cffisar 
and others, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its 
coast. 

ALBUERA (or Ai.iirnEKA), Estremadura, Spain, 
where a battle was fought between the French, com- 
manded by Marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo- 
Spanish army, under Marshal, afterward Lord Beres- 
ford. May 16, 1811. The allies obtained the victory, 
one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. 
The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously to 
their retreat ; but the allies lost a large number. The 
chief bruut of the action fell on the British ; Colonel 
Inglis, 22 oflicers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 
who had mounted a hill, fell— out of the 57th regiment 
alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, 
not one third being left standing ; "1500 unwounded 
men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable British sol- 
diers, stood triumphant on this fatal hi\\."—Na2nei: 

ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, near 
which the French Marshal Suchet (afterward Duke of 
Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, Jan. 4, 
1812 : this led to his capture of Valencia on Jan. 9. 

ALCALA DE HENARES (in Spain). The univer- 
sity here was founded by Cardinal Ximenes, 1499 ; re- 
moved to Madrid, 1807. The Complutensian Polyglot 
was printed here under the patronage of Ximenes iu 
1514-15. 

ALCANTARA, an illustrious Spanish military order 
of kni'dithood, established in 1156. The sovereign of 
Spain has been grand master since 1495. 

ALCAZAR-QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. Africa, where 
the Moors totally defeated the Portuguese, whose gal- 
lant king Sebastian was slain, Aug. 4, 1578. The Por- 
tiiguese disbelieved his death, and^anxiously expected 
his return : this led to the successive appearance of 
hve impostors. 



* Insrription on the "Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain overlook- 
ing Balmoral palace : " To the beloved memory of Albert, the great 
and good Prince Consort, erected bv his broken-liearted widow, Victo- 
ria R., 21st Aug., IRC2." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches be- 
low the above, is this quotation: "He being made perfect in a short 
tmie, fulfilled a long time: for his soul pleased the Lord, therefore \ 

hasted he to take him away from among the wicked."— W-'tsrfum of Sol- 
omon, chap, iv., 13, 14. 



ALC 



33 



ALE 



ALCnEMT, the forerunner of the science of chem- 
istry: its chief objects l)eiuij the discovery of the plii- 
losopher's stone ^which was to cft'ect the transmuta- 
tion of metals into sjold), an alkahest or universal 
menstruum, and the elixir of life. Alchemy is said to 
be as old as the Flood ; yet few writers, from Homer 
till 400 years after Christ, mention any such thing. 
The alchemists assert that their founder was Hermes 
Trmtu'iiiftnii (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian 
king. Pliny says the Emperor Caligula was the tirst 
who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold 
of it, but left it otf because the charge exceeded the 
profit. Others say the Egyptians knew the secret. 
Zosimus wrote on the subject about 410. The Arabi- 
ans are said to have invented this art, wherein they 
were vainly fillowcd (in the 13th century) by Roger 
Bacon, AUuTtiis i\[agnus, Aquinas, and Raymond Lul- 
lius, by Basil Valentine (born 1394), and by Paracelsus 
(died lf)41), and others. — In 1404 the craft of multiply- 
ing gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hen. IV., c. 
4, which act was repealed in 1GS9. A license for prac- 
ticing alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals 
was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Bi/mer's 
jpad. Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an ac- 
count of his exi)eriments in this way, and pretended 
to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the 
king, aflinning that they were made by means of a red 
and" white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal So- 
ciety, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to re- 
peat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe 
(some say Higgius); but, after mnch equivocation and 
delay, he took poison and died, Aug., 1783. 

ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine, or hydrated alco- 
hol, was obtained by the distillation of fermented liq- 
uors by Abucasis in the l'.itli century; and the dehy- 
dration of this liquor was first partially eftected liy 
Raymond Lullius iu the 13th century by carbonate of 
potassium. Alcohol has never been reduced to the 
solid state, but becomes viscid at very low tempera- 
tures. In 1820, Faraday and Ilennell obtained traces 
of alcohol by passing olefiant gas (bi-carburetecl hy- 
drogen) through sulphuric acid; and in 1862 this pro- 
cess was examined and confirmed by Berthelot. See 
Listillatidii, S^iirits, Brandy, Gin, liutn. 

ALDERMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was next to 
the king, and frequently a viceroy ; but after the set- 
tlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced 
by that of earl. Aldermen are now next iu dignity to 
the mayor. They were appointed iu London (where 
there are twenty-six) in 1242 ; and iu Dublin (where 
there are twenty-four) iu 1.S23. Aldermen chosen for 
life instead of annually, 17 Richard II., 1394. Present 
mode of election established 11 Geo. I., 1725. Alder- 
men made justices of the peace 15 Geo. II., 1741. 

ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, etc., 
was incorporated with the kingdom by William the 
Conqueror, 1066. The "Race" is celebrated for two 
fatal occurrences: William of Normandy, son of Henry 

I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
the priiicii)al families of France and Britain), were 
overtaken by a storm, and all lost, Nov. 25, 1120. The 
British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, 

' was wrecked here, Oct. 5, 1744; the admiral, Sir John 
Balchan, and all his crew, perished. Through this 
strait the French escaped after their defeat at La 

1 Hogue by Admiral Rooke, May, 1692. 

ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutins, at Venice, 
' where were printed many of the first editions of the 
I Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 
" with MusiEUs. 

ALE, Beek (and Wine), are said to have been in- 
1 ^vented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt, where the soil 
' "was considered nnable to produce grapes. Ale was 
known as a beverage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotus 
1 ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing bar- 
'. ley-wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris. A beverage of this 
kind is mentioned by Xenophou, 401 B.C. "The Ro- 
mans and Germans very early learned from the Egyp- 
' tians the process of preparing a liquor from corn by 
means of fermentation. — Tacitus. Ale-houses are 
made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wesse.x 
(A.D. 688). Booths were set up iu England 728, when 
laws were passed for their retculation. Ale-houses 
were subiected to regulation by 5 & <; Edw. VI., c. 25 
(1D51). By 1 James L, c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the 
best, and two quarts of small ale, were to be sold for 
one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed 
by the Parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles 

II. (1660). See Beer, Porter, iVine. 

ALEMANNI, on Ai-i. Men (?'. e., men of all nations), 
heucQ Allcvuznd, German. A body of Suevi, who took 



this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After sev- 
eral repulses, they invaded the empire under Aurelian, 
who subdued them iu three battles, 270. They were 
again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357. They were de- 
feated and subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zul- 
pich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants. 

ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count and 
duke. 

1268. Peter made count by his father. King Louis IX. 
1293. Charles I., of Valois, made count by his brother, 

King Philip the Pair. 
1325. Charles II., his son, killed at Crecy. 
1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 
1361. Peter, his brother. 
1404. John (his son), made duke in 1414, killed at Ag- 

incourt, 1415. 
1415. John II. (his son), intrigued against the king. 
1470. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, 

and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy 

was absorbed by the crown. 

ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large tovra, N. Syi-ia, 
so named by Seleucus Nicator about 299 B.C. The 
pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of 
Syria. It was taken by the Turks, A.D. 638, who re- 
stored its ancient name Ilaleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 
1193 ; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation 
by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons were 
computed to have perished by it in 1797. It sutfered 
by the plague in 1827, and the cholera in 1832. Aleppo 
suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 
and 1830, and has often been the scene of fanatical 
massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mohammedans at- 
tacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt every 
thing in their way ; three churches were destroyed, 
five others were plundered, thousands of persons were 
slain, and the total loss of property amounted to about 
a million sterling ; no interference was attempted by 
the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 
under the name of Ciesarea by the Milanese and Cre- 
monese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and 
named Alessandria after Pope"Alexauder III. It has 
been frequently besieged and taken. The French took 
Alessanclria iu 1798, but were driven out July 21, 1799. 
They recovered it after the battle of Marengo in 1800. 
Alessandria was strongly fortified by Napoleon. Its 
works were destroyed at the peace in 1814, but a Eu- 
ropean subscription was commenced in 1856 to restore 
them. 

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. Partly discovered by Beh- 
riug, 1741 ; visited by Cook, 177S ; surveyed by the 
Russians, 1781-98. The Russian American Company 
])laced a factory there in 1785. A volcanic island rose 
from the sea in the group, 1795, and in 1807 was 20 
miles in circumference, with lava still flowing. 

ALEXANDER, Er.i of, dated from the de.ath of 
Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 B.C. In the com- 
putation of this era, the period of the Creation was 
considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, 
and, in consequence, the year 1 A.D. was equal to 5503. 
This computation continued to the year A.D. 284, which 
was called 5786. In the next year (A.D. 285), which 
should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and 
the date became 5777. This is still used in the Abys- 
sinian era, which sec. The date is reduced to the Chris- 
tian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and 
after that time by subt'ractiug 5492. 

"ALEXANDRA CASE." See Trials, 1862-64. 

ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof were sis 
miles in circuit, was built by Alexander the Great, 332 
B.C., who was buried here, 322. It became the resi- 
dence of the Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies. 
Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, 

the Pharo, and other edifices, and begins the 

library about B.C. 298 

These works completed by his sou P. Philadel- 

phus and his grandson P. Euergetes 2S3-222 

Alexandria taken by Julius Ccesar ; when a library 

is burned 48 

Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- 

gamus 3(5 

The city restored by Adrian A.D. 122 

Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for 

an old insult •. -. ■ 211 

Alexandria, supporting the usurper Achilleus, is 

taken by Diocletian "after a long siege 29T 

Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Arians 321 

George of Cappadocia was killed 362, and Athana- 

sius finally restored 363 

50,000 persons perish by an earthquake 365 



ALE I 

Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a sec- 
ond library is burned 390 

Alexandria captured by Chosroes II., of Persia, 
616 ; and by Amron, the general of the Caliph 
Omar, who ordered the library to be burned,* 
whereby the baths were supplied with fuel for 
six months Dec. 22, 640 

Cairo founded by the Saracens; which tends to 
the decay of Alexandria 969 

Alexandria surprised and plundered by the Cru- 
saders 1365 

The French invade Egypt and capture Alexan- 
dria July, 1T98 

A British army under Gen. Ralph Abercromljy 
laud, and defeat the French under Menou, 

March 21, ISOl 

Abercromby dies of his wounds, March 28 ; Menou 
and 10,000 French surrender to Hutchinson, who 
transmits them to France Sept., ISOl 

Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 
March 20 ; evacuated by them Sept. 23, 1S07 

Railway to Cairo formed 1851 

ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the Bible in 
Greek, said to have been written by a lady named 
Thecla, in the 6th century, and to have belonged to 
the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented 
to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in the 
British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac-simile, 
1786-1821. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Pmi.osopuv. The 
first school arose soon after the foundation of Alexan- 
dria, 332 B.C. It flourished under the patronage of 
the Ptolemies till about 100 B.C. It included Euclid 
(300), Archimedes (287-212), Apollonius (250), Hippar- 
chus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose 
about A.D. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most 
eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the 
Ptolemaic system (150), Diophautus, the arithmetician 
(200), and Pappus, the geometer (350). 

ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first 
written by Alexander of Paris about 1164, and since 
called after him. The last line of the Spenserian 
stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's Essay on Criti- 
cism, this verse is thus happily exemplified: 

*' A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
Thut, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." 

The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine 
verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published in 1612. 
Chapman's Homer's Iliad (1598) is in this measure. 

ALPORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Bail- 
lie, with a large body of Covenanters, was defeated by 
the Marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645. 

ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the inventor, 
first wrote upon it, probably about 200. It was much 
cultivated in the 9th century by the Arabs, who brought 
it into Spain. Among its votaries in Italy was Leonar- 
do Bouaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paciolo 
published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. 
— Serret. Some of the algebraic signs were introduced 
either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Sti- 
felius of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vie- 
ta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. — Mo- 
rcri. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 
1637. The binominal theorem of Newton, the basis of 
the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 

ALGESIRAS, or Old Gihkaltar (S. Spain). By 
this city the Moors entered Spain in 710, and held it 
till 1.B43.— Two engagements took place here between 
the English fleet under Sir James Saumarez and the 
united French and Spanish fleets, July 6 and 12, 1801. 
In the first the enemy was victorious, the English los- 
ing the Pomjjeij; but their honor was redeemed in the 
latter conflict, the San Antonio, 74 guus, being cap- 
tured. By an unfortunate error, two Spanish ships 
fired on each other and took fire ; of 2000 men on 
board, 250 were saved by the English. — Alison. 

ALGIERS, now Algeria, N.W. Africa ; part of the 
ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by the Ro- 
mans 46 B.C. ; by the Vandals, 439 A.D. ; recovered 
for the empire by Belisarius, 534 ; and subdued by the 
Arabs about 690. 
The town Algiers founded by the Arabs on the 

site of Icosium about 935 

Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, it is cap- 
tured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; but is re- 
taken by Horuc and Hayreddin Barbarossa, and 

* The celebrated Baying of Omar, '* That if the books agreed with 
the book of God, they were useless ; if they disagreed, they were perni- 
cious," is denied by Mohammedans. It is also attributed to Theophi- 
lus, archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to Cardinal Ximeaes (1500.) I 



4 ALI 

made the capital of a state ; governed by a dey, 
nominally subject to the Sultan of Turkey . .1516-20 

The Emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army 
in an unsuccessful expedition against them 1541 

Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 
1655 ; by Du Quesne 1683 

In consequence of the continued piracy of the Al- 
gerines, the city was successfully bombarded by 
the British fleet, under Admiral Lord Exmouth, 

Aug. 27, 1816 

A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was 
abolished. 

Algiers surrendered to a French armament under 
Bourmont and Duperre, after severe conflicts ; 
the dey is deposed, and the barbarian govern- 
ment wholly overthrown, July 5, 1830. The 
French ministry announce their intention to re- 
tain Algiers permanently May 20, 1834 

The Arab chief, Abd-el-Kader, preaches a holy 
war, becomes powerful, and attacks the French, 
at first successfully 1834-5 

Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, 
and enters Mascara Dec. 8, 1836 

General Damremont attacked Coustantina {which 
see) Oct. 13, 183T 

After various engagements Abd-el-Kader surren- ; 

ders Dec. 22, 1847* 

An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
French after several sharp engagements 1851t 

The government intrusted (for a short time) to 
Prince Napoleon 1858 

The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 

^ Oct. 31 and Nov. 6, 1859 " 

Algiers visited by the Emperor Napoleon III., 

Sept., ISCO 

Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakofi", appointed 
governor general of Algeria Nov., 18G0 

Tfie emperor promises a Constitution securing the 
rights of the Arabs, saying, " I am as much Em- 
peror of the Arabs as of the French" Feb., 1863 

Insurrection of the Arabs — May ; submission an- 
nounced June 1.5, 1864 

Death of Pelissier — dies May 22; Marshal M'Ma- 
hon, duke of Magenta, succeeds him Sept. 8, 1SC4 

Fresh revolt ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet, 

Oct. 2, 1864 

The emperor well received during his visit, 

May 3-June, 1805 

More rights and privileges promised to the na- 
tives July, 1SG5 

ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress near 
Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. of Gran- , 
ada about 12.53. It surrendered to the Christians Jan. 
6, 1496. The remains have been described in a mag- 
nificeut work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, pub- 
lished 1842-6. There is a fac-simile of a part of this 
palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. The Pan- 
opticon {which see) was opened as a circus, etc., under 
this name, in March, 1858. The Alhambra Palate 
Company, incorporated in July, 1863, applied for dis- 
solution in Jan., 1865. 

ALI, Sf.ot of, founded by Ali (who married Moham- 
med's daughter Fatima) about 032. He became Mo- 
hammed's vizir, 613, and caliph, 655. Ali was called 
by the Prophet " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" 
and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Kn- 
ran according to Ali, while other Mohammedans ad- 
here to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was assas- 
sinated in 660.t— This sect is called Shiites and Fati- 
mites. 

ALIEN. See Naturalization. An act of Congress 
relieving the children born abroad of United States t 
fiithers from alienage was passed 1864. In 1867, the 
United States attorney general officially asserted that 
a United States citizen may renounce his citizenshij). 
Aliens may readily naturalize themselves in the United 
States. In the United States aliens taay sue and be 
sued, but can not serve a process, vote, or hold olBce. 



* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Toulon on 
Dec. 28 following. He was removed to the castle of Amboise, near 
Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napo- 
leon, Oct. 16, 1862, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa 
again ; he was to reside henceforward at Bronssa, in Asia Minor ; but, 
in consequence of the earthquake at that place, Feb. 28, 1855, he re- 
moved to Constantinople. In July, 1860, Abd-el-Kader held the cita- 
del of Damascus, and there protected many of the Christians whom he 
had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. 
He received honors from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. 

t 600 Arabs in a cave refuse to surrender : suffocated by smoke ; 
said to have been ordered by General Pelissier, June 18, 1845. g 

X The first four successors of Mohammed— Abubeker, Omar, Othman, 
and Ali, his chief agents in establishing his religion and extirpating 
unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords 
of God," all died violent deaths , and his family was wholly extirpated 
within thirty years after his own decease. > 



ALI i 

In regard to the power of holding real estate, Arkan- 
sas, California, Counecticxit, Delaware, Georgia, Indi- 
ana, JIaryland, Maine, Missouri, New York, Rhode 
Island, Tennessee, and Virginia, require a declaration 
of intention to become a citizen. New Hampshire re- 
quires residence. North and South Carolina and Ver- 
mont require resideiice and oatli of allegiance. lu 
New Jersey and Pennsylvania only alien friends can 
hold real estate, and these in tlic latti'r not to exceed 
2000 acres. lu Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Loii- 
isiauaj Massachusetts, Mississip])i, Oliio, and Wiscon- 
sin, aliens have lu property matters equal rights with 
citizens. 

ALIENS, OK FoREiGNEEB, werc banished from En- 
gland in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 
they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical bene- 
fices. By 2 Rich. II., stat. 1, 13TS, they were much re- 
lieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the 
juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 
1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade 
or handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was 
relaxed in 1G63. The celebrated A lien Dill passed Jan., 
1TI)3. Act to register aliens, 1795. — The celebrated Bar- 
on Geramb, a conspicuous and fashionable foreigner, 
known at court, was ordered out of England, April 
6, 1S12. — Bill to abolish their naturalization by the 
holding of stock in the banks of Scotland, June, 1S20. 
New Registration Act, 7 Geo. IV., 1S26. This last act 
was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV., 
1836. The rigor of the alien laws was much mitigated 
by 7 & S Vict., c. 66 (1844). — Alien Priories were sup- 
pressed in England in 1414.* 

ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS, passed by Con- 
gress, 1798. When war with France seemed inevita- 
ble, it was estimated that there were 30,000 French- 
men in the United States organized in clubs, and at 
least 50,000 who had been subjects of Great Britain. 
These were regarded with great distrust as dangerous 
to the commonwealth. Congress passed a law author- 
izing the President to expel from the country any 
alien who should be suspected of conspiracy against 
the republic. Congress also decreed that any pilblica- 
tion calculated to sow sedition, and to weaken the au- 
thority of the Federal government, mii^ht be sup- 
pressed by the President. These laws were unpopu- 
lar because liable to great abuses, and they were soon 
repealed. 

ALIWAL, a village in N. W. India, the site of a bat- 
tle on Jan. 28, 1846, oetween the Sikh army under Sir- 
dar Rnujoor Singh Majeethea, 10,000 strong, supported 
by (18 pieces of cannon, and the British under Sir H. 
Smith, 7000 men, with 32 guns. The contest was ob- 
stinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost 
nearly 6000 killed or drowned in attempting to recross 
the Siitlej. 

ALJUBANTA, in Portugal, where the Portuguese 
defeated the Castiliaus with great slaughter, Aug. 14, 
1385. 

ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for the plant 
from which an alkaline substance was flrst procured) 
are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. Black discov- 
ered the nature of the difference between caustic and 
mild alkalies in 1736. 

The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed by 
Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, Loudon, 
1808. Dr. Ure invented an "alkalimeter, 1810. 
The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lan- 
cashire and Cheshire, are based on the decomposi- 
tion of common salt (chloride of sodium) by a pro- 
cess invented by a Frenchman named Le Blanc, 
about 1702. 
Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 
1814. Various modifications of these processes are 
now in use. 
"Alkali worksV are defined as works for the manufac- 
ture of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, 
and in which muriatic gas is evolved. 
Mr. William Gossage's process for condensing muriatic 

acid gas patented in 1836. 
In consequence of the serious injury to vegetation 
produced by the numerous alkali works in Lanca- 
shire and Cheshire, the Alkali act "for the more ef- 
fectual condensation [of 95 per cent.] of muriatic 
acid Kas" (or hydrochloric acid) was passed, July 28, 
1863, to come into operation Jan. 1, 1804. 

ALKMAER. See Bergen. 

'ALLAHABAD (N.W. Hindostan), the " holy city" of 
the Indian Mohammedans, situated at the junction of 

* " Foreifjner^ have reclHimed 'mr niarslies, drained nur fens, fished 
our seas, imd built our bridf^ea aud harbors." — SmiUSf 1361, 



5 ALL 

the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Alla- 
habad was successively subject to the kings of Delhi 
'i""^ude, but in 1S03 was wholly incorp(n-ated with 
the British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal etc 
was ceded to the English in 1765.— Durinir tlfe Senov 
mutiny several regiments of the East Indfa Comnanv 
rose and niassacrcd their officers, June 4, 1857- Colonel 
Neil_ marched pr(nnptly from Benares and suppressed 
the insurrection. In Nov., 1861, Lord Canniig made 
this city the capital of the N.W. provinces. 

nr^^^^l^^^A ^^?^' ^^"^g^"' Battle" of, fonght 
...^.lifS ^'?'' ^V* evacuation of Atlanta, Hood 

covered the road to Macon. Soon, however, he shifted 
sou hward to the West Point Road, and then boldly 
pushed northward against Sherman's communica- 
tions. Sherniau fo lowed him with the bulk of his 
army, but on Oct. had only reached Kenesaw. Hood 
farther north that day attacked Allatooua Pass, the 
most important station on the road, and stored with 
one and a half million of rations. General Corse con- 
ducted the defense, and all day long held out against 
the assailing force, finally retaining his position- 
Corse was severely wounded. 

ALLEGIANCE. See Oaths. 

ALLEGORY is as old as language, and abounds in 
the Scriptures and Homer: see Jacob's blessing upon 
his sons, Gctiesis xlix. (B.C. 1689), Psalm Ixxx., and all 
the prophets. Spenser's Fa'cris Queene (1590) and Bun- 
yan's Pilr/rim's Progress (1078) are allegories through- 
out ; Addison's writings in the Spectator (1711) abound 
in allegories. 

ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, 
where Breunus and the Gauls defeated the Romans, 
July 16, 300 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and com- 
mitted so much injury that the day was thereafter 
held to be unlucky {ne/as), and no public business was 
permitted to be done thereon. 

ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high Euro- 
pean powers. The following are the principal. See 
Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, etc. 

ALLIANCE. 

Of Leipsic April 9, 1681 

Of Vienna May 27, 165T 

The Triple Jan. 28, 1668 

Of Warsaw March 31, 1083 

The Grand May 12, 1089 

The Hague Jan. 4, 1717 

The Quadruple Ana;. 2, 1718 

Of Vienna Marcla 16, 1731 

Of Versailles May 1, 1756 

Germanic July 23, 1785 

Of Paris Mav 16, 1795 

Of St. Petersburg April 8, 1805 

Austrian March 14, 1812 

Of Sweden March 24, " 

Of TGplitz Sept. 9, 1813 

Holy Alliance Sept. 26, 1815 

Of England, France, and Turkey (at Constanti- 
nople) March 12, 1S54 

Of England and France ratified April 3, " 

Of Sarclinia with the|Western Powers (at Turin), 

Jan. 26, 1855 
Of Sweden with the Western Powers Dec. 19, " 

ALLIED POWERS, declaration of, drawn up at 
Frankfort, and dated Dec. 1, 1813, by the Emperors of 
Russia and Austria, the King of Prussia, and other 
German sovereigns, that they made war, not on 
France, but against the claims of Napoleon. 

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hallows, a fes- 
tival said to have been begun by Pope Boniface IV. 
about 607, and celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, 
and established by Pope Gregory IV. (about 830) for 
the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in 
whose honor no particular day is assigned. The re- 
formers of the English Church, 1549, 'struck out of 
their calendar altogether a great number of anniver- 
saries, leaving only those which at their time were 
connected with popular feeling or tradition. 

ALL SOUL'S DAY (Nov. 2), a festival of the Roman 
Catholic Church to commemorate the souls that are 
in purgatory, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 
or 1000. 

" ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINISTRATION. See 
Grenville A dministrations. 

ALLWJE, in Samnium, now Alife, 10 miles N.N.E. 
of Capua. Here D. Fabius Maximus completely de- 
feated the Samnites 326 B.C. It was a bishopric in 
the 5th century. The town is now nearly deserted on 
account of theuuhealthiness of the climate. 



ALL 



36 



ALP 



ALLYGTJR, in Hinclostan. Near it Lake defeated 
the Mahrattas and French, under Perron, Aug. '29, 1S03. 
The Sepoys here mutinied, May 20, 1857. The Euro- 
peans escaped, and Col. Greatlied retook it Oct. 5, 1S5T. 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which \yas fought 
a great liattle on Sept. 20, 1S54. See Russo-Turkish 
War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turkish 
army (about 57,000 men) moved out of their first en- 
campment in the Crimea on Sept. 19, and bivouacked 
for the night on the left bank of the Biilgauac. The 
Russians (commanded by Prince Meuschikoflf), mus- 
tering 40,000 infantry, had ISO field-pieces on the 
heights, and on the morning of Sept. 20th were joined 
by GOOO cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The En- 
glish forces, under Lord Raglan, consisted of 20,000 
men ; the French of 24,000, under Marshal St. Arnaud. 
At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the 
River Alma was crossed, while Prince Napoleon took 
possession of the village under the fire of the Russian 
batteries. At 4, after a sanguinary fight, the allies 
were completely victorious. The enemy, utterly rout- 
ed, threw away their arms and knapsacks in their 
flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 were 
made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the 
British was 26 oflicers and 327 men killed, and 73 offi- 
cers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23d, 7th, 
and 33d regiments) ; that of the French, 3 officers and 
233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. 
Total loss of allies, about 3300. 

ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to count).* 
The Egyptians computed time by instruments. The 
Alexandrians had almanacs. Log calendars were an- 
ciently in use. In the British Museum and universi- 
ties are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael 
Nostradamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an al- 
manac in the style of Merlin, 1556. — Dufrcsnoy. Pro- 
fessor Augustus de Morgan's valuable '■^Book of Alma- 
nacs, with an index of reference, by which the almanac 
may be found for every year," was published in March, 
1S51. Among the earlier and more remarkable alma- 
nacs were 

John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford 13S0 

One in Lambeth Palace, written in 1460 

First printed one, published at Buda 1472 

First printed in England by Richard Pynson 1497 

Tybalt's Prognostications 1.533 

Almanac Liegeois 1636 

Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 

Poor Robin's Almanac -. 1652 

British Merlin 1658 

Ediuburg Almanac 1683 

Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) 1099 

Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 

Lady's Diary 1705 

Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac 1732 

Season on the Seasons 1735 

Gentleman's Diary 1741 

Nautical Almanac, begun bjr Dr. Neville Maske- 

lyne (materially improved in 183^) 1767 

British Imperial Kalendar 1809 

Hone's Every-day Book 1826 

British Almanac and Companion 1828 

Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd 1832 

Chambers's Book of Days 1862-3 

ALMANZA (S. E. Spaiu). Here, on April 25 (O. S. 
14), 1714, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces, 
under the Earl of Galway, were totally defeated by the 
French and Spanish, commanded by James Fitzjames, 
duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). Most 
of the English were killed or made prisoners, having 
been abandoned by the Portuguese at the first charge. 

ALMAREZ (Spain). Gen. (afterward Lord) Hill took 
the chief outworks here from the French, Jlay 19, 1S12. 
Charles V. built the bridge here over the Tagus, 1552. 

ALMAZAN, Tkeaty of, between Castile and Ara- 
gon, April 12, 1375, negotiating the marriage of the 
Infante John of Castile. 

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by 
Massena, Aug. 17, 1810. The French crossed into 
Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by 
the English, April 6, 1811. Almeida was retaken by 

* Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able 
COmputor of the Nautical Uphemerh) at one time upward of 430,000 
copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. The Stationers' Com- 
pany claimed the exclusive rigjht of publishing almanacs in virtue of 
letters patent from James I. , pranting the privilege to them and the two 
universities ; but the monopoly was brolien up by a decision of the 
Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was 
lost in 1779. The stamp duty on English almanacs, first imposed in 
1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when almanacs have be- 
come innumerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of 
Continental Almanacs, the principal are the *' Almanach de France," 
first published in 1699, and the " Almanach de Gotlia," 1764. 



Wellington (May 10), who eventually compelled Mas- 
sena to retire from Portugal, his route being tracked ' 
by horrid desolation. 

ALMENARA, a village, N. E. Spain, where, on July 
28, 1710, an English and GJerman army defeated the 
Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of 
Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the English general, 
killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict, 
an act almost unexampled in modern warfare. 

ALMERIA (Spain). Taken by the Moorish Almora- 
vides in 1091, by the Spaniards in 1147, often attacked 
by the Moors, and at last ceded by them to Ferdinand 
and Isabella, who entered it in triitmph, December 7, 
1489. 

ALMOHADES, Mohammedan partisans, followers 
of El-Mehedi in Africa, about 1120. They subdued Mo- 
rocco, 1145 ; entered Spain, and took Seville, Cordova, 
and Granada, 1146-56 ; ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa 
till 1278. 

ALMONACID (Spain), Battle or, the French de- 
feating the Spaniards, August 21, 1809. 

ALMONER, an office of uncertain origin, anciently 
allotted to a dignified clergyman, who had the privilege 
of giving the first dish from the royal table to the poor, 
or mstead thereof an alms in money. By an ancient 
canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. 
The grand almoner of France {Uigrand aumonier) was 
the highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom be- 
fore the Revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner 
(now the Bishop of Oxford) or his sub-almoner distrib- 
utes the queen's gifts on yiaundy Thursday (which see). 

ALMORAVTDES, Mohammedan partisans in Afri- 
ca, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invitation, 1086 ; 
were overcome by the Almohades in 1145. 

ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons have 
been erected by very many public companies and be- 
nevolent individuals, particularly since the destruction 
of religions houses at the time of the Reformation in 
the 16th century. A list of them, with useful informa- 
tion, will be found in "Low's Charities of London," 
ed. 1862. 

Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
houses, Westminster 157T 

Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady 

Dacre 1594 

Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, were 
rebuilt near Highgate Hill by the Mercers' Com- 
pany 1826 

The Fishmongers' Company founded almshouses 
in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth Com- 
mon 1S50 

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by 

Robert Aske 1692 

Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613 
(in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), 

were rebuilt by the Brewers' Company 1839 

Bancroft's almshouses. Mile End, were erected 1735 

The London almshouses, in commemoration of the 

passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton 1833 

Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, 
bookbinders, etc. 

ALNEY. A combat is asserted to have taken place 
between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, on 
Alney, an island on the Severn, Gloucestershire, in 
sight of their armies ; when the latter was wounded, 
he proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part 
falling to Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Ox- 
ford shortly after the treaty, according to some by the 
treachery of uEdric Streonj and Canute obtained pos- 
session of the whole kingdom, 1016. 

ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the River Alne, in 
Northumberland, was given at the conquest to Ivo 
de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percies since 1310. 
Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1003, 
when he aud'his sons were killed. It was taken by 
D.avid I. in 1136, and attempted in 1174 by William the 
Lion, who was defeated and taken prisoner. It was 
burnt by King John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. 
Since 1S54 the castle has been repaired and enlarged 
with great taste and at unsparing expense. 

ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the South American 
quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is j 
now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It ' 
was introduced into England about 1836 by the Earl of 
Derby. An alpaca factory, etc. (covering 11 acres), was 
erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. Ti- 
tus Salt, in 1852. 

ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have 
been the author of hieroglyphics, and to have written 



ALP 



37 



AMA 



thus the history of the Egyptiaus, 2122 B.C.— Blair. 

But Josephus atiirms that'hc had seeu inscriptions by 

Seth, the son of Adam ; tliis is deemed fabulous. 

The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memuon, 1S22 
B.C. 

The first letter of the Phcenician and Hebrew alphabet 
was (tl,pli, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbrevi- 
ated by llie moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed 
to be derived from the Phcenician. 

Cadmus, tlie founder of Cadmea, 149.3 B.C., is said to 
have broui^ht the Phcenician letters (tifteen in num- 
ber) into (".'reece, viz. : a, li, r, A, i, K, A, M, N, o, n, p, 
1, T, Y. These letters were originally either Hebrew, 
Phtuuician, or Assyrian characters, and changed 
gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
Eomau letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes 
of Argds invented the double characters, e, X, *, H, 
about 1224 r>.C. ; and Simonides added z, 4', H, a, 
about 4S'.» \',.C.—Annuli'Uit,i Marhks. When the E 
was introduced is not jirecisclv known. The Greek 
alphabet consisted of Ki letters till 399 (or 403) B.C., 
when the Ionic of 24 characters was introduced. The 
small letters, for the convenience of writing, are of 
later invention. The alphabets of the difl'erent na- 
tions contain the following number of letters : 



English 26 

French 26 

Italian 20 

Spanish 27 

German 26 

Slavonic 42 

Kussian 35 

Latin 22 



Greek 24 

Hebrew 22 

Arabic 28 

Persian 32 

Turkish 28 

Sanscrit 44 

Chinese radical char- 
acters 214 



ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, com- 
posed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, and collected 
in 12.^3 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, 
surnamed the Wise, who is said to have expended up- 
ward of 400,0(j0 crowns iu eompletinij the work ; he 
himself wrote the preface. The Spanish government 
ordered the work to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; 
three volumes have appeared, 1863-5. 

ALPS, a European range of mountains. Those be- 
tween France and Italy were passed by Hannibal 218 
B.C., by the Romans 154 B.C., and by "Napoleon I. in 
A.D. ISOO. Roads over Mont Cenis and the Simplon, 
connecting France and Italy, were constructed by or- 
der of Napoleon, between lSOl-6. See SivqAon. A 
sub-alpine tunnel through Mont Cenis to connect Sa- 
voy and Piedmont has oeeu iu progress since 1857.* 
Iu 1Sr>9, the "Alpine Club," which consists of British 
travelers iu the Alps, published their first work, 
" Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers." 

ALRESFORD (Ensrland). Here the Parliamentary 
army defeated the Royalists, March 29, 1644. 

ALSACE (N. E. France), formerly part of the king- 
dom of Austrasia, now the departments of the Upper 
and Lower Rhine. It was incorporated into the Ger- 
man empire in the 10th century. A portion was re- 
stored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Stras. 
burg, in 1697. The precinct of Whitefriars, London^ 
called Alsatia, is described in Scott'.s " Fortunes of Ni- 
gel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished iu 1696. 

ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. (Gen. 
Viii., 20): others by Abraham, 1921 {(Jen. xii., 8). Di- 
recticms for making an altar are given Exnd xx., 24, 
1491 B.C. Altars were raised to Ji'ipiter, in Greece, by 
Cecrops, 15.'56 B.C. lie introduced among the Greeks 
the worship of the deities of Egypt. — Herodotus. The 
term "altar" was applied to the Lord's table for the 
first three centuries after Christ (Ih'h. xiii., 10). Chris- 
tian altars in churches were instituted by Pope Sixtus 
I., A.D. 135 : and were first consecrated by Pope Syl- 
vester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. 
— Stov\ The Church of England terms the table on 
which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time 
of Elizabeth there has been much controversy on the 
subject, aiul the Puritans in the Civil War destroyed 
many of the stone altars, substituting wooden tables. 
In 1S45 it was decided in the Arches Court that stone 
altars were not to be erected in English churches. 

ALTER EGO {(mother or second I), a term applied to 
Spanish viceroys when exercising regal power; used 
at Naples when the crown prince Vas'appointed vicar- 
general during an insurrection in July, 1820. 

ALTON RIOTS. On the night of November T, 1SB7, 

* At first tile boring wns eflected by ordin.iry machinery ; in I860 
fitenm power was eniploye<l ; but afterward compressed air was used as 
a motive power witli jrreat success. It is confidently expected that the 
tunnel will lie completed in 1S70. In 1865 Messrs". Brassey proposed 
Irtyiucr down a line of steeply inclined railway for 47 miles, to be used 
till the tunael is couipleted. 



a mob attacked the premises at Alton, Illinois, where 
the Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy was printing his abolition- 
ist newspaper, "The Observer," in order to destroy his 
press, as had already been done once at Alton and once 
at St. Louis. After the attack had been repulsed once 
or twice by Mr. Lovejoy and a few citizens who stood 
by him, ho was shot as he stepped out of his door. 
The leading rioters were tried and acquitted. 

ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty of 
peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frederick 
Augustus of Poland, was signed, Sept. 24, 1706. Fred- 
erick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne of Poland 
after the defeat of Charles XII. in 1709. 

ALUM is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, 
iu Syria, about 1300 ; it was found in Tuscany about 
1470 ; was brought to perfection in England by Sir T. 
Challoner, who established large aluin works near 
Whitby in 1608 ; was discovered in Ireland iu 17.57 ; 
and iu Anglesey iu 1790. Alum is a salt usecl as a mor- 
dant in dyeing ; and also to harden tallow, to whiten 
bread, and iu the paper manufacture. It may be made 
of i)ure clay exposed to vapors of sulphuric acid, and 
sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but is usually ob- 
tained by means of ore called alum slate. 

ALUMBAGH, a fort near Lucknow, Oude, India, 
seized and heroically defended by the British under 
Sir James Outram during the mutiny iu 1S57. He de- 
feated an attack of 30,000 Sepoys on Jan. 12, 1858, and 
of 20,000 on Feb. 21. He was relieved by Sir Colin 
Campbell in March. 

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumi- 
na {clay), which was shown to be a distinct earth by 
Margraff iu 1754, having been previously confounded 
with lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride of 
aluminium ; and iu 1827 the metal itself was first ob- 
tained by F. Wiihler, but was for some time merely a 
scientific curiosity, the process being expensive. The 
mode of production was afterward .simplified by Bun- 
sen and others, more especially by H. Ste. Claire De- 
ville, who in 18S6 succeeded in procuring considerable 
quantities of this metal. It is very light (sp. g. 2-25), 
malleable, and sonorous ; when pure does not rust, 
and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hy- 
drochloric. These qualities will render it very useful 
when improved processes render it cheaper. In March, 
1856, it was X3 the ounce ; in June, 1857, ll.s. or 12s. ; 
and it is now much cheaper (1865). The eagles of the 
French colors have been made of it, and inauy other 
ornamental and useful articles. Deville's work, "De 
r Aluminium," was published in 1859. An aluminium 
manufsictory was established at Newcastle in 1860 by 
Messrs. Bell. They obtain the metal from a French 
mineral, bauxite. Their aluminium bronze, an alloy 
of copper and aluminium, invented by Dr. John Percy, 
F.R.S., came into use for watch-cases, etc., manufac- 
tured by Messrs. Reid, of Newcastle, in 1862. 

AMADIS OF Gatti,, a Spanish or Portuguese ro- 
mance, stated to have been written about 1342 by Vas- 
co de Lobeiro. It was translated and enlarged by De 
Moutalvo about 1485. 

AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, grandson 
of Esau or Edom, the brother of Jaciib) attacked the Is- 
raelites 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was denounced 
by God against them. They were subdued by Saul 
about 1079 ; by David, 1058 and 1050 ; and by the Sim- 
eonites about 715 B.C. 

AMALFI, a city on the Gulf of Salerno, Naples, in 
the 8th century became the seat of a republic, and 
flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it was taken 
by Roger Guiscard. It eventually was incorporated 
iiito the kingdom of Naples. The Pisans, in their sack 
of the town'in 1135, are said to have found a copy of 
the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced 
the revival of the study of Roman law in Western Eu- 
rope. Flavio Gioia, a native of Amalfi, is the reputed 
discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302. 

AMARANTA, Okder of. Instituted by Christina, 
of Swedeti, 1645 or 1653 ; declined at her joining the 
Romish Church, 1656, and soon became extinct. 

AMAZON, West India mail steam-ship, left South- 
ampton on her first voyage, Friday, Jan. 2, 1852, and 
on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed by fire at 
sea, about 110 miles W.S.W. of Scilly (ascribed to the 
spontaneous ignition of combustible matter placed 
near the engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board, 
102 persons must have perished by fire or drowning. 
21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship; 25 
more were carried into Brest Harbor by a Dutch ves- 
sel passing by; and 13 others were picked up in the 
Bay of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warbur- 



AMA 38 



AME 



ton, a clistiugnisbed writer in general literature, was 
among those lost. 

AMAZONIA (S. America) was discovered by Fran- 
cisco Orellana iu 1540. Comiug from Peru, he sailed 
down tlie Kiver Amazon to the Atlantic, and observ- 
ino- companies of women in arms on its bank, he call- 
ed^the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Ama- 
zon to the river, which had previously been called 
Maranon. 

AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have been 
mentioned— the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. They 
are said to have been the descendants of Scythians in- 
habiting Cappadocia, where their husbands, having 
made incursions, were all slain, being surprised m am- 
buscades by their enemies. Their widows resolved to 
form a female state, and having firmly established 
themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shame- 
ful servitude.— Q!H'«t!«s Cuiiius. They were said to 
have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B. C. The 
Amazons were constantly employed in wars ; and that 
they might throw the javelin with more force, their 
right breasts were burned off, whence their name from 
the Greek, a, no, mazos, breast. Others derive the 
name from inaza, the moon, whom they are supposed 
to have worshiped. About 330 B.C., their queen, Tha- 
lestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pur- 
suing his conquests in Asia ; three hundred females 
were in her train. — Herodottis. 

AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and repre- 
sentatives from one court to another, are referred to 
early ages. The government of the United States has 
at this time thirty at the courts of foreign govern- 
ments. Thirteeu of these are styled " envoys extra- 
ordinary" and " ministers plenipotentiary." Nineteen 
are ministers resident, and three commissioners. The 
usual pay of an envoy is .$12,000 per annum. Of those 
to England and France, $17,500 ; of a resident minis- 
ter, $7500. In most countries they have great privi- 
leges ; and in England, they and their servants are se- 
cured against arrest. England usually has twenty-five 
ambassadors or envoys extraordinary, and about thir- 
ty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclu- 
sive of inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other 
chief agents from abroad at the court of London in 
18C5 were 47. 

The Russian ambassador's being imprisoned for debt 
by a lace-merchant, July 27, 1708, led to the passing 
the statute of 8 Anne, for the protection of ambassa- 
dors, 1709. 
Two men, convicted of arresting the sei-vant of an 
ambassador, were sentenced to be conducted to 
the house of the ambassador, with a label on their 
breasts, to ask his pardon, and theu one of them to 
be imprisoned three months, and the other fined, 
May 12, 1780. 
The first ambassador from the United States of Amer- 
ica to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 
June 2, lfS5; the first from Great Britain to Amer- 
ica was Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 
AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally found 
in the northern parts of Europe, of great repute in the 
world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine 
before the Christian era. Theophrastus wrote upon 
it, 300 B.C. Upward of 150 tons of amber have been 
f(juud in one year on the sands of the shore near Pil- 
lau. — Pliillips. 

AMBERG (Germanv). Here the Austrians defeated 

the French, Aug. 24, 1790. 

AMBLETEUSE, a sea-port near Calais, where Ck- 
sar embarked for Britain, 34 B.C., and James II. land- 
ed, after flying from England, Dec. 3, 1688. 

AMBOISE (C. France). A conspiracy of the Hugue- 
nots against Francis II., Catharine de Medicis, and the 
Guises, was suppressed at this place in Jan., 1500. On 
March 19, 1563, the Pacification of Amboise was pul)^ 
lished, whereby toleration was granted to the Hugue- 
nots. The civil war was, however, soon renewed. 

AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca Isles, discovered 
about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not wholly occupied 
by them till 1580. It was taken by the Dutch in 1605. 
The English factors at this settlement were cruelly tor- 
tured and put to death, Feb. 17, 1623-4, by the Dutch, 



* Much diversity of opinion still prevails amonc^ naturalists and 
chemists respecting the orif^in of amber, some referring it to the veg- 
etable, others to tne mineral, and some to the animal kingdom ; its 
natural history and chemical analysis affording something iu favor of 
each opinion. It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dis- 
solved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed insects. Sir 
D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. M'hen rub- 
bed it becomes electrical, and from its Greet name, ekctron, the term 
Electricity is derived. 



on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from 
the island, where the two nations resided and jointly ' 
shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell com- 
pelled the Dutch to give a sum of money to the de- 
scendants of the sufi'erers. Amboyna was seized by 
the English, Feb. 16, 1796, but was restored by the 
treaty of Amiens in 1802. It was again seized by the 
British, Feb. 17-19, 1810, and again restored at the 
peace of 1814. 
AMBROSIAN CHANT. See Chant. 
AMENDE Honorable, in France, in the 9th cen- 
tury, was an infamous punishment inflicted on trai- 
tors and sacrilegious persons. The ofi'ender was de- 
livered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt vi'as 
stripped ofl', a rope put about his neck, and a taper iu 
his hand ; he was then led into court, and was obliged 
to beg pardon of God and the country. Death or ban- 
ishment sometimes followed. 

AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an of- 
fense done, or pecuniary punishment at the mercy of 
the court, thus differing from a fine directed and fixed 
by a statute. By Magna Charta a freeman can not be 
amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the of- 
fense he has committed, 9 Henry III., 1225. 

AMERICA,* the great Western Continent, is about 
9000 miles long, with an area of about 13,668,000 square 
miles. It is now believed to have been visited by the 
Norsemen or Vikings iu the 10th and 11th centuries; 
but the modern discovery is due to the sagacity and 
courage of the Genoese navigator, Christopher Colum- 
bus, t who, after having his scheme long contemptu- 
ously rejected, sailed on his first expedition from Palos, 
in Andalusia, on Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, with vessels sup- 
plied by the sovereigns of Spain. 
Columbus lands on Guanahani, one of the Baha- 
mas; takes possession of it in the name of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it San 

Salvador Friday, Oct. 12, 1403 

He discovers Cuba, Oct. 28 ; and Hispaniola (now 
Hayti), where he builds a fort. La Navidad, 

Dec. 6, " 
He returns to Spain, March 15 ; sails from Cadiz 
on his second expedition, Sept. 25 ; discovers the 
Caribbee Isles— Dominica, Nov. 3 ; Guadaloupe, 
Nov. 4 ; Antigua, Nov. 10 ; founds Isabella iu 
Hispaniola, the first Christian city in the New 

World Dec, 1493 

He discovers Jamaica, May 3 ; and Evaugelista 
(now Isle of Pines), June 13 ; war with the na- 
tives of Hispaniola 1494 

He visits the various isles, and explores their 

coasts 1495-6 

Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his ene- 
mies June 11, 1496 

Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) dis- 
covers Labrador, on the coast of North Amer- 
ica [he is erroneously said to have discovered 
Florida, and also Newfoundland, and to have 

named it Prima Vista] June 24, 149T 

Columbus sails on his third voyage. May 30 ; dis- 
covers Trinidad, July 31 ; lands on Terra Firma, 
without knowing it to be the new continent, 

naming it Isla Santa Aug. 1, 149S 

Ojeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the Gulf of 

Venezuela 149D 

Vicente Yanez Pinzon discovers Brazil, Smdh 
America, Jan. 'id : and the River Maranon (the 
Amazon) ; Cabral the Portuguese lands in Bra- 
zil (see Brazil) May 3, 1500 

Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador " 

Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Do- 
mingo by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate 



* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine mer- 
chant, who died in 1512. He accompanied Ojeda in his voyage on the 
eastern coasts in 1498 ; and described the country in letters sent to his 
friends in Italy. He is charged with presumptuously inserting " Tier- 
ra de Amerigo" in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the Ap- 
pendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no conclusion. Humboldt 
asserts that the name was given to the continent in the popular works 
of Waldseemiiller, a German geographer, without the Knowledge of 
Vespucci. 

t Christoforo Columbo was born about 1445 ; first went to sea about 
1400 ; settled at Lisbon in 1470, where he married Felipa, the daughter 
of Perestrello, an Italian navigator, whereby he obtained much geo- 
graphical knowledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage 
of discovery before the republic of Genoa in 14^5, and other powers, 
and finally before the court of Spain, where at length the Queen Isa- 
bella became his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel 
Sersecution from his own followers and the Spanish court, he died on 
lay 20, 1506, and was buried with much pomp at Valladolid. His re- 
mains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville ; in 1536, to San Domingo ; 
and in Jan., 1796, to the Havana, Cuba. The original inscription on 
his tomb is said to have been, " A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mimdo did 
Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." Hum- 
boldt says beautifully that the success of Columbus was " a cmniucit 
of refiectlim .'" 



AME 



39 



AMN 



into his conduct, May ; convej-ed to Spain, 

where he is honorably received Dec. 17, 1500 

Columbus sails ou Inafuurth voyage, May "J ; dis- 
covers various isles on the cuast. of Honduras, 
and cxi)lorcs the coast of the i.^iliMuis, July, 
etc. ; discovers and names I'orto Hello. .Nov. "i, 1502 

Nc';ro slaves imported into Ilispauiola 15U1-3 

Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he 
returns to Spain, Nov. 7 ; his friend, (iueen Isa- 
bella, dies Nov. 20, 1504 

He dies while treated with base ingratitude by 

the Spanish government May 20, 150G 

Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan " 

Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the lirst colony ou 

the main land 1510 

Subjugation of Cuba by Velazquez 1511 

The coast of I'lorida discovered by Ponce de 

I.eon 1512 

Vasco de Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Darieu, 

and discovers the South Pacific Ocean 1513 

Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it 

New Spain 151S 

Passage of Magellan's Straits by him 1520 

CNniquest of IMexico by Fernando Cortez 1519-21 

Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito 1520 

lie invades and conquers Peru 1532-5 

Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, and sails up to Montreal 1534-5 

Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortez, dis- 
covers California 1535 

Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the 

adjacent country " 

Chili conquered by Valdivia 1541 

Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea " 

L(niisiana conquered by De Soto " 

Kebelliou in Peru — tranquillity established by 

G a sea 1 54S 

Davis's Straits discovered by him 15S5 

Raleigh establishes the first English settlement— 

at lioauoke, Virginia " 

Falkland Isles discovered by Davis 1592 

De Mouts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia 1G04 

Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settle- 
ment ou the main land, founded by Lord De la 

Warr 1G07 

Quebec founded by the French 160S 

Iludson's Bay discovered by him 1010 

The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam 

(now New York), on the Hudson 1614 

Settlement in New England begun by Capt. Smith " 
New Plymouth built'by the banished English 

Nonconformists 1C20 

Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under Sir Wm. 

Alexander 1622 

Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch 1027 

Massachusetts, by Sir H. Boswell " 

Maryland, by Lord Baltimore 1632 

Connecticut granted to Lord Say and Broke in 
1630 ; but no English settlement was made here 

til 1 1635 

Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts " 

New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, 
1627 ; granted to the Duke of York, who sells it 

to Lord Berkeley ^ 1664 

New York captured by the English " 

Carolina settled by the English 1669 

Pennsvlvania settled by William Penu, the cele- 
brated Quaker 16S2 

Louisiana settled by the French " 

The Mississippi explored 1699 

The Scotch settlement at Darien (169S-9) aban- 
doned 1700 

Now Orleans built 1717 

Geortria settled by General Oglethorpe. 1732 

Kentucky, by Colonel Boone 1754 

Canada conquered by the English, 1759-00 ; ceded 

to (ireat Britain 1763 

American War — declaration of independence liy 

the U. States, 1776 ; recognized by Great Britain 1783 
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1762 ; transferred to 

France, 18(10 ; sold to the United States 1803 

Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
Spain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded 

to the United States 1820 

Revolution in Mexico— declaration of independ- 
ence 1821 

Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence 
established by Chili, ISIO; Paraguay, 1811 ; Bue- 
nos Ayres, and other ])roviuces, 1816 ; Peru 1S26 

Civil War in the I'nited States 1861-5 

(See (/■/ufcci .Vta^c.s, jV('j-)(Y), and other states, through- 
out the volume.) 



AllMERICA, British. See British America. 

AMERICA, Central, including the states of Gua- 
temala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaratrua, and Costa 
Rica, icliirh xcr, declared their independence Sept. 21, 
1821, and separated from the Mexican Confederation' 
July 21, IS'23. The states made a treaty of union be- 
tween themselves March 21, 1847. There has been 
among them since much anarchy and bloodshed, a"-- 
gravated greatly by the irruption of American filibus- 
ters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In Jan., 1863, 
a war began between Guatemala (afterward joined by 
Nicaragua) and San Salvador (afterward supported by 
Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa 
June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 20; the pre.s- 
ident of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the 
dictator of Guatemala, became predominant over the 
Confederacy.— Population, 18.59, about 2,355,000. See 
Xicaraijua, Darien, and Panama. 

AMERICA, SotTTu. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Par- 
aguaij, Unujuay, etc. 

"AMERICA," an American yacht, schooner-built, 
171 tons burden. On Aug. 22, 1851, at Cowes regatta, 
in a match round the Isle of Wight for a cup worth 
XlOO, open to all nations, she came in first by 8 miles, 
due to her superior construction on the wave principle. 

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 
Incorporated in IMassacliusctts, 1831, has met annual- 
ly since in various cities of the United States for edu- 
cational discussions, and has published over thirty 
annual volumes ctmtaining its discussions and lec- 
tures. President Wayland, of Brown University, was 
its first president. 

AMERICAN MUSEUM, in New York Citv. Estab- 
lished by Mr. P. T. Barnum in 1S41 ; burned, 1865, 186S. 

AMERICANISMS : a useful dictionary of these ex- 
pressions was compiled by John K. Bartlett, and first 
published in 1848. 

AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breastplate 
of the Jewish high-priest ; and on it was engraved the 
name Is^aehar. It is of a rich violet color. One worth. 
200 rix dollars, having been rendered colorless, equaled 
a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. — 
De Boot, Hist. Gemtnarwm. Amethysts discovered at 
Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 

AMHARA. The Abyssinian language is the Am- 
haric, which is supposed to be referred to in records 
as old as 120 B.C. It superseded the Geez as the court 
language about the middle of the 13th century. 

AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst, Mass., founded 
1821. 

AMIENS, an ancient city in Picardy (N. France) : 
the cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the 
Spanish and English Sept. 25, 1597. The preliminary 
articles of the memorable peace between Great Britain, 
Holland, France, and Spain, fifteen in number, were 
signed in London by Lord Hawkcsbury and M. Otto, 
on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, ISOl ; and 
the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens on 
March 27, 1802, by the Marquess of Cornwallis for En- 
gland, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, 
and Schimmelpenninck for Holland. — War was de- 
clared again in 1803. 

AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by 
the decomposition of organic substances. Its name 
is ascribed to its having been procured from heated 
camel's dung near the temple of Jupiter Amnion in 
Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of 
nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley 
in 1774. By tlie recent labors of chemists, the oxide 
of the once hypothetical metal ammonium, and am- 
monium amalgam, have been formed ; and specimens 
of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 
by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, who has done very much for 
the chemical history of ammonia. 

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son 
of Lot (1897 B.C.). Thev invaded the land of Canaan 
and made the Israelites' tributaries, but they were de- 
feated by Jephthah, 1143 B.C. They again invaded 
Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put 
out the right eve of all those thev subdued; but Saul 
overthrew theni, 1095 B.C. Thi'v were afterward many 
times vanquished ; and Antiochlis the (Jreat took Rab- 
bah, their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 B.C. 
— Josejjhtts. 

AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturb- 
ances, etc.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the Athenian 
patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants with the as- 
sistance of only thirty friends, 403 B.C. Acts of am- 
nesty were passed after the Civil War in 1651, and after 



AMO 



40 



ANA 



the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745.— After 
his victorious campaign in Italy, Napoleou-.III. of 
France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, 
Aug. 17, 1S59. An amnesty, with certain exceptions, 
was granted to the vanquished Southern States of 
North America by President Johnson, May 29, 1S65. 
A complete amnesty was proclaimed by the same offi- 
cer July 4, 1S6S. 

AMOUR OR AMOOR RIVER. First known to the 
Russians, 1039. After 50 years' effort to annex its val- 
ley, they were excluded from it by treaty with the 
Chinese, 1689. They were allowed to trade there by 
the treaty of 1S47. The whole valley has since been 
annexed to Russia. A steamer (the America) was 
built in New York to explore it, and went some dis- 
tance up it, 1857. 

AMOY. One of the five ports opened to the British 
by the treaty of Aug. 26, 1842. Has a large and flour- 
ishing trade. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally 
to have been established at Thermopylas by Amphic- 
tyon, for the management of all affairs relative to 
Greece. This celebrated council, composed of twelve 
of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities 
of Greece, began 149S [1113, Clinton^ B.C. Other cities 
in time sent also chosen citizens to the Council of the 
Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius they 
were increased to the number of thirty. — Snidas. Its 
immediate oftice was to attend to tlie temples and 
oracles of Delphi. Its interference caused the Sacred 
wars, 595-5S0, and 356-34G. 

AMPIIION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up 
while riding at anchor in "Plymouth Sound, and the 
whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more 
than two hundred and fifty persons, officers and men, 
perished, Sept. 12, 119G.— Butler. 

AMPHITHEATRES, said to have been first con- 
structed by Curio, 76 B.C., and Julius Coesar, 46 B.C. 
In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round 
or oval buildings, the people assembled to see the com- 
bats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibi- 
tions. They were generally built of wood, but Statil- 
ius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Csesar. 
See Coliseuni. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capa- 
ble of holding 87,000 persons) was built between A.D. 
75 and SO ; and is said to have been a regular fortress 
in 1312. The amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, 
and then that of Nismes. 

AMPHITRITE, tue Suip. See Wrecks, Aug. 30, 1833. 

AMPUTATION, in surgery, was greatly aided by 
the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French 
surgeou, in 1674 ; aud of the flap-method by Lowdham, 
of Exeter, in 1679. 

AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Amstel 
was commenced in 1100 ; the building of the city in 
1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the de- 
cay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The Exchange was 
built in 1634, and the noble stadthouse in 1648 ; the 
latter cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. 
It is built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered 
to the King of Prussia, when that prince invaded Hol- 
land, in favor of the Stadtholder, in 1787. The French 
were admitted without resistance, Jan. IS, 1795. The 
Dutch government was restored in December, 1813. 
The Crystal Palace for an industrial exhibition was 
opened by Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, Aug. 
16, 1864. 

AMSTERDAM ISLAND, Indian Ocean. Discover- 
ed by Van Vlanning, 1696. 

AMULETS, OR Charms, employed from the earliest 
times. Amulets were made of the wood of the true 
cross, about 328. They have been sanctioned in mod- 
ern times by medical men— witness the anodyne neck- 
lace, etc. 

AMUSEMENTS. See Cards, Dice, etc. Twenty lead- 
ing places of amusement in New York City received 
from their patrons, during the year ending June, 1805, 
about $1,895,651, of which Barnum's Museum received 
most ($280,342), and Niblo's Garden next ($236,7.35). 
It was computed in July, 1805, that about $25,000 a day 
was commonly paid in New York City alone for amuse- 
ments. 

AMYLENE, a colorless, very mobile liquid, first pro- 
cured by M. Balard, of Paris, in 1844, by distilling fousel 
oil (potato -spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapor 
was employed instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow 
in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals 
here and in France. The odor is more unpleasant 



than chloroform, and more vapor must be used. It is, 
however, thought less dangerous. 

ANA. An Encyclopedie des Ana was published at 
Paris, 1792, aud a collection of them, in 10 vols., edited 
by Garnier, at Paris, 1789-91. Thomas Jefterson's 
"Ana," being his own memoranda of various conver- 
sations and occurrences, were printed in his works, 
Washington, D.C., 1S53-4. 

ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about 1521, and 
was known in England before 1549. John of Leydeu, 
Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about 
the time of the Reformation, taught that infant bap- 
tism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no 
original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual 
things, aud other doctrines still more wild and absurd. 
They committed many violences, and in 1534 seized 
Miinster, calling it Mount Ziou, and declared one Ma- 
thias, a baker, to be the King of Zion. Their enthusi- 
asm led them to the maddest practices, and they at 
length rose in arms under pretense of Gospel liberty. 
Miinster was taken Juue 24; 1535, and the chiefs of the 
Anabaptists were put to death. — On Jan. 0, 1001, about 
80 Anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed 
by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine -cooper. 
They fougtit desperately, and killed many of the sol- 
diers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen 
others were executed, Jan. 10 a.n([ 2\.—An7iaU of En- 
gland. For the modern Anabaptists, see Baptists. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE, commonly of the jovial 
or bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, 
the Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He 
is said to have been choked by a grape-stone in his 
eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes have been 
frequently translated; Thomas Moore's celebrated 
version was published in 1800. 

ANAESTHETICS. See Chloroform, Ether, Amylene, 
Kerosoleiie. Intense cold is also employed in deaden- 
ing pain. 

ANATOLIA (Asia Minor) comprises the ancient 
Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithyuia, Paphlagonia, 
aud Phrygia, which see. 

ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of the 
letters of a name or sentence : as army from Mary, are 
said to have been made by ancient JewSj Greeks, etc. 
On the question put by Pilate to our Savior, "Quid est 
Veritas?" (what is truth?) we have the remarkable ana- 
gram, "fi*^ vir qui adest" (the man who is here). An- 
other good one is '■^Horatio Nelson," and "Honor est a 
Kilo" ("there is Honor from the Nile"). The French 
are said to have introduced the art, as now practiced, 
about the year 1500, in the reign of Charles IX. —He- 
nault. 

AN AM. See Annum. 

ANASTATIC PRINTING. See Printing, 1841. 

ANATHEMA, among the Jews, was the devoting 
some person or thing to destruction, as in the case of 
Jericho (Joshua vi., 17). The word occurs 1 Cor. xvi., 
22. Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, 
387. See Excoinmunication. 

ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The study of the 
human body was part of the philosophical investiga- 
tions of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle ; aud it be- 
came a branch of medical art uuder Hippocrates, 
about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus may be 
regarded as the fathers of anatomy ; they were the 
first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research 
had been previously confined to animals : it is men- 
tioned that they practiced upon the bodies of living 
criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died 
A.D. 193, was a great anatomist. In England, the 
schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully ex- 
humed from graves ; and until lately, the bodies of 
executed crimmals were ordered for dissection.* Pope 
Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 
1297. The first anatomical plates, designed by Titian, 
were employed by Vesalins, about 15387 Leonardo da 
Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, studied anatomy. 
The great discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. 
William and John Hunter were great anatomists; 



* By 32 Henry VIII., c. 42 (154(1), surgeons were granted four bodies 
of executed malefactors for *' anathximyes," which privilege was extend- 
ed in following reigns ; but, in consequence of the crimes committed 
bv resurrection men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing 
church-yards and even committing murder, see Burkhit^), a new stat- 
ute was passed in 1832, which abated the ignominy ol dissection by 
prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the 
wants of surgeons by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissec- 
tion of persons dying in workhouses, etc. The act also appointed in- 
spectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons prac- 
ticing anatomy to obtain a license. It repealed the clause of the act 
of 1858, which directed the dissection of the body of an executed mur- 
derer. 



ANC 



41 



ANG 



they died in 17S3 and 1793. Quain's and Wilson's large 
auatomical plates were published iu 184'2. Compara- 
tive anatomy has been treated systematically by Cu- 
vicr, Owen, Miiller, Iluxley, and others. The anato- 
my of plauts has been studied since ICSO. See Butanij. 
ANCHORITES. See Monachimi. 

ANCHORS are of ancient use, and the invention be- 
longs to the Tuscans. — Pliny. The second tooth, or 
fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian (5'.»2 
B.C.). — Stmbo. Anchors were lirst forged in England 
A.D. 578. Those of a first-rate ship of war (four) will 
weigh !)l) cwt. each, costing £4511.— /'/n7/(^w. The Ad- 
miralty anchor was introduced aliout ls41. Improved 
anchors were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1831 ; 
by Porter, 1840 ; by Costell,"l848 ; by'Trotmau, 1S53 ; 
and by several other persons. Trotmau's is attached 
to the queen's yacht, the^tTim-i/. The anchors of the 
Great Eastern are of enormous size. An act for the 
provinf^ and sale of chain cables and anchors Avas 
passed in 1804. 

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scrip- 
tures, and in the history of Herodotus about 1087 B.C. 
It is considered as ending with the destruction of the 
Roman Empire in Italy, A.D. 470. Modern history 
begins with Mohammed (A.D. 0'2'2), or Charlemagne 
(70S); 

ANCIENTS. See Coumils. 

ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. 
The mole was built by Trajan, A.D. 107. After many 
changes of rulers Ancoua was finally annexed to the 
Papal States iu 1532. In 1798 it was takeu by the 
French, but was retaken by the Austrians in 1799. It 
was occupied by the French in 18,32 ; evacuated in 
1838 ; after an insurrection it was bombarded and cap- 
tured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Marches 
(comprising this city) rebelled against the Papal gov- 
ernment ill Sept., ISGO. Lamoricic're, the Papal gen- 
eral, fled to Ancoua after his defeat at Castelfidardo, 
but was compelled to surrender himself, the city, and 
the garrison, on Sept. 29. The King of Sardinia en- 
tered soon after. 

ANCRAM (Scotland), where the Scotch defeated the 
English, 1544. 

ANCYRA, in ancient Galatia, now Angora or En- 
gour, Asia Minor. A council was held here in 314. 
Near this city, on July 28, 1402, Timour or Tamerlane 
defeated and took prisoner the Sultan Bajazet, and is 
said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage. 

ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province forming part of 
the ancient Lusitania and Bsetica. The name" is a cor- 
niption of Vandalitia, acquired in consequence of its 
having been held by the Vandals from 419 to 421, when 
it was^acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were ex- 
pelled by the Moors in 7li, who established in it the 
kiu^doni of Cordova, which they retained till their 
final overthrow in 1492. 

ANDA]«AN ISLANDS (Bay of Bengal). An En- 
glish settlement was attempted here in 1791, which 
was removed to Port Cornwallis, 1793, and abandimed 
from the bad climate. At two visits of the British 
Burmese expedition, 1824 and 1825, the inhabitants, 
who are very black, small, and barbarous, with full 
African peculiarities, showed great brutality. They 
are said to be cannibals. 

ANDERNACH (Rhenish Prussia), once an imperial 
city. Near here the Emperor Charles the First, while 
attempting to deprive his nephews of their inherit- 
ance, was totallv defeated by one of them, Louis of 
Saxony, Oct. 8, S7G. 

ANDERSONVILLE, Prison of, a prison near An- 
dersonville, Georgia, which was opened for the recep- 
tion of prisoners April 27, 1804. This was an oi)en iu- 
closure, where in one year 44,882 Union soldiers were 
imprisoned, of whom "l2,044 died of starvation, filth, 
scurvy, exposure, bad treatment, and gangrene. They 
were robbed and maltreated in every way by their 
jailors, particularly by Henry Wirz, who has since 
paid the penalty of his crimes on the scaflbld, Nov. 
10, 1805. 

ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bear- 
ing the title of " the valleys and sovereignties of An- 
dorra," was made independent by Charlemagne about 
778, certain rights being reserved" to the Bishop of Ur- 
gel. The feudal sovcruiLTiity, which long .'ippertained 
to the Counts of Foix, reverted to tlio French king, 
Henry IV., in 1580, but was given up in 1790. On 
March 27, Isofi, an imperial decree restored the old re- 
lations between Andorra and France. The republic 
is now governed by a council elected for life ; but the 



magistrates are appointed alternately by the French 
government and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel. The 
population was about 18,000 in 1850.— Gitti/er^. 

ANDRE'S Execution. See United States, 1780. 

ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred by cru- 
cifixion, Nov. 30, 09, at Patrre, in Achaia. The festi- 
val was instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular 
saint of Scotland, owing to Hungus, the Pictish prince, 
having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in 
a pending battle with the Northumbrians. St. An- 
drew's cross (X) appeared in the air during the fight, 
and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of 
knighthood, founded on this legend, is formed of this- 
tles (not to be touched) and of rue (an antidote against 
poison) ; the motto is Xcmo me impune lacessit (^Vo one 
assails me with imijunity). The institution of the or- 
der is attributed to Achaius about 809 ; its revival is 
due to King James V. in 1540, and to James II of En- 
gland iu 1GS7. See riiistle. The Russian order of St. 
Andrew was instituted iu 1G9S by Peter I, 

ANDREW'S, St. (E. Scotland). Here Robert Bruce 
held his first Parliament in 1309 ; and here Wishart 
was burnt by Archbishop Beaton, who himself was 
murdered here in 1540. The university was founded 
in 1411 by Bishop Wardlaw. The bishopric origin- 
ated with the establishment of Christianity in Scot- 
land. Sir R. Sibbald's list of the bishops of St. An- 
drew's commences with Killach, 872. The see became 
archiepiscopal in 1470, and ceased soon after the Rev- 
olution, 1089. St. Andrew's is now a poet-revolutiou 
bishopric, reinstituted iu 1844. See Bisho2)s. 

ANDRUSSOV, Peace of (Jan. 20, 1007), between 
Russia and Poland, by which the latter lost the great- 
er part of her conquests among the Cossacks. 

ANEMOMETER (Greek, ancmos, the wind), a meas- 
urer of the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- 
vented by Wolfius in 1709. The extreme velocity was 
found byDr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. Osier's and 
Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 
1S44. 

ANEROID. See Barometer. 

ANGEL, an Ancient gold coin, weighing four penny- 
\teights, was valued at O.s. 8d. iu the reign of Henry 
VL, and at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1502. The 
angelot, a gold coin, value half an angel, was struck at 
Paris when held by the English in 1431 Wood. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. Geokge. This order is 
said to have been instituted in Greece, 450. The An- 
gelici were instituted by the Emperor Angelus Com- 
nenus, 1191. — The Anrwlicce, an order of nuns, was / 
founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, 1534. 

ANGELUS. A Romish prayer at the ringing of the 
Angelus bell at sunrise, noon, and sunset. It dates 
froin Pope Calixtus III., in 1450, or perhaps from Louis 
XI. of France, 1472, while others think it came into 
practice after A.D. 1500. 

ANGERS (W. Central France), formerly the Roman 
city Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre; after- 
ward Andegarum, the capital of the county of Aujou, 
which see. It was frequently besieged, and many coun- 
cils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to 
ecclesiastical discipline. 

ANGERSTEIN GALLERY. See National GalUry. 

ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona (N.Wales), 
the seat of the Druids, who were massacred in great 
numbers when Suetonius Paulinus took the isle, 01. 
It was conquered by Agricola iu 78 ; occupied by the 
Normans, 1090; and M'ith the rest of Wales was an- 
nexed by Edward I. in 1284. He built the fortress of 
Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai suspension bridge 
was erected 1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 
1849-50. 

ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Church o.f England. 

ANGLING. Its origin is uncertain ; allusion is 
made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the 
Bible, Amos iv., 2 (787 B.C.). 
Oppiau wrote his "Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on 

Fishes and Fishing, probably about A.D. 198. 
In the book on "Hawkyngr and Ilnntynge" by Juliana 

Berners or Barnes, prioress of Sojiwith, near St. Al- 

ban's, "emprinted at Wcstmestre by Wj'nkyn de 

Worde," in 1490, is " The Treatise offysshyng with an 

Angle." 
Izaac Walton's "Com2)leat Angler" was first published 

in 1053. 

ANGLO-SAXONS, or Angles, derive their name 
from a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose 
population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined the first 



ANG 



42 



ANX 



Saxon freebooters. East Aiiglia was a kingdom of 
the Heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose 
chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 5T1 ; the king- 
dom ceased in 792. See Britain. Cfedmon parai)hrased 
part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about GsO ; a transla- 
tion of the Gospels was made by Abbot Egbert, of 
lona, 721; of Boethius, Orosius, etc., by Alfred, 8S8. 
The Anglo-Saxon laws were printed by order of gov- 
ernment in 1840. 

ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portuguese 
soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam, about 1486. 
Loanda, their capital, was built 1578. Their author- 
ity over the interior is very limited. 

ANGORA. See Ancyra. 

ANGOULEME, capital of the oM province of An- 

foumois. Central France, W., was a bishopric in 260. 
fter sharing the fortunes of the country, Angoulime 
became an independent county about 850. It was 
united to the French crown in 1308. It was held by 
the English, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. 
The Count of Angouleme became King of France as 
Francis I. in 1515. 

ANGUILLA, or Snake Island, the most northern of 
the British West Indies, obtained by the British, 1632 ; 
colonized by them, 1666 ; ravaged by the French, 1T96. 

ANHALT, HoTjSE of, in Germany, deduces its origin 
from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the Thu- 
riugians in the 6th century. In 1606 the principality 
was divided among the four sons of Joachim Ernest, 
by the eldest, John George. Thus began the four 
branches — Anhalt- Dessau (descended" from Johu- 
George) ; Bernbonrg,* extinct, 1863 ; Plotsgau or Coe- 
then, extinct, 1847 ; and Zerbst, extinct, 1793. The 
princes of Anhalt became dukes in 1809. 

Ddke op Anhat.t {Siibjcctii, 181,824). 
Leopold (born Oct. 1, lt94), became Duke of Auhalt- 

Dessau, 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernbourg, 1803. 
Heir, his son. Prince Frederick, born April 29, 1831. 

ANIIOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken posses- 
sion of by England, May 18, 1809, in the French war, 
on account of Danish cruisers injuring British com- 
merce. The Danes made an attempt to regain it with 
a force which exceeded 1000 men, but were gallantly 
repulsed by the British force not amounting to more 
than 150, March 27, 1811. 

ANILINE, a basic oily body discovered in 1826 by 
Uuverdorben among the products of distillation of in- 
digo. Bechamp, in"l856, obtained it from benzole by 
the successive treatment of this substance with con- 
centrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scieu- 
tiflc relations of aniline have been carefully examined 
by several chemists, more especially by Dr. A. W. Hof- 
mann. It was loug known to yield a series of colored 
compounds, but it was only in 1856 that Mr. W. A. 
Perkiu showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) 
could be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufac- 
tured upon a large scale for the commercial produc- 
tion of "Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniliue), and sev- 
eral other coloring matters. 

ANIMALCULE. Leeuwenhoek's researches in 1677 
produced the most astonishing revelations. His Ar- 
cana Naturm was published at Leyden in 1690. The 
great works of Ehrenberg, of Berlin, on the Infusorial 
AuimalculsE, etc., were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's In- 
fusoria, ed. 1860, is a valuable summary of our present 
knowledge of animalcuke. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM was introduced by Father 
Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1T74, and had its dupes 
in France and England in about 17S8-89.t See Mes- 
merism. 

ANIMALS, Cruelty to. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., 
zealously labored to repress this odious offense ; and 
a society in London, which was established in 1824, 
effects much good this way. See Crueltu to Anivials 
Societij. Mr. Martin's act passed 3 Geo. IV. (1822). 
Similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 
1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for draught by 

•Alexander, the last duke of Anlialt-Bernbourp (bnrn March 2, 1805 ; 
duke, March 24, 1834), died without issue, Aug. 22, 1863, when his 
duchy reverted to the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau, 

fit was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means 
oi spmpathetic aj^ection between the sick person and the operator. The 
effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the 
fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately 
before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing 
in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled ndnd of the sick,' and 
performing a number of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to 
be completed. Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but 
they soon quarreled.— Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented " Me- 
tallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnet- 
ism;" but Drs. Falconer and Havgarth put an end to his pretensions 
by performing many wonders witli a pair of wooden tractors. — Brande. 



2 & 3 Vict., c. 47 (1839). In 1865 a society for the pre- 
vention of cruelty to animals was organized in New 
York City — Henry Bergh, president. 

ANJOU, a province in France, was inherited by 
Henry II. of England from his father, Geoffrey Plan- 
tageuet, count of Anjou, who married the Empress 
Matilda in 1127. It was taken from his son John by 
Philip of France in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward 
III., but relinquished by him in 1360; and was given 
by Charles V. to his brother Louis with the title of 
dulce. It afterward became an appanage of the French 
crown. The university was formed iii 1349. 

DtaCES OF ANJOU. 

13G0. Louis I. invested by the Pope with the domin- 
ions of Joanna of Naples, 1381; his invading ar- 
my destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; he dies, 1384. 
1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, but is 
also unsuccessful. 
Louis III., adopted by Joanna as heir; dies, 1434. 
1434. Eegnier or Kenee (a prisoner) declared king of 
Naples, 1435; his daughter, Margaret, married 
Henry VI. of England, 1445; he was expelled 
from Anjou by Louis XL, 1474, and his estates 
confiscated. 
Francis, duke of Alenf on, brother to Henry III. 
of France, became Duke of Anjou; atone time 
he favored the Protestants, and vainly offered 
marriage to Elizabeth of England, 1581-82; died 
1584. 
ANJOU, OR Beaug6, Battle of, between the En- 
glisli and French — the latter commanded by the Dau- 
phin of France, March 22, 1421. The English were de- 
feated: the Duke of Clarence was slain by Sir Allan 
Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 meu perished on 
the field ; the Earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Hunting- 
don were taken prisoners. Beaugo was the first bat- 
tle that turned the tide of success against the English. 
ANNALS. The Roman pontifcx maximns kept, 
down to 131 B.C., official annaks or chronicles of the 
year's events. At the sacking of Rome by the Gauls, 
390 B.C., all the existing annals were destroyed, ex- 
cept perhaps a few fragments, which is one of the 
causes of the obscurity of early Roman history. Vari- 
ous private citizens afterward wrote history in the 
form of annals. The Chinese claim to have similar 
annals of their history back to 3000 B.C. 

ANNAM, OK Anam, an empire of Asia, to the east 
of India, comprising Tonquiu, Cochin China, part of 
Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea; 
said to have been conquered by the Chinese 234 B.C., 
and held by them till A.D. 263. In 1406 they recon- 
quered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much an- 
archy. Bishop Adran, a French missionary, obtained 
the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil Gia-long, 
the son of the nominally reigning monarch, and with 
the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia- 
long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, 
when his son became king. In 1859 war broke out 
with the French, who defeated the army of Annam, 
10,000 strong, about April 22, when 500 were killed. 
On June 3,"l862, peace was made; three provinces 
were ceded to the French, and toleration of the Chris- 
tians granted. An insurrection in these jirovinces 
against the French, begun about Dec. 17, 1862, was 
suppressed in Feb., 1803. Ambassadors sent from An- 
nam, with the view of regaining the ceded provinces, 
arrived at Paris in Sept., 1863, had no success. A new 
treaty with France was concluded July 26, 1804, which 
established a French protectorate, toleration for Chris- 
tian missionaries, etc. 

ANNAN, Scotland. Here the Earl of Moray con- 
fined Edward Baliol at night, Dec. 25, 1332, and com- 
pletely defeated his army. Baliol with diiHculfy es- 
caped" to England. 

ANNEALT, France, where the Diike of Guise defeat- 
ed the German allies of Henry of Navarre, Nov. 24, 
1587. 
ANNATES. See First-fruits. 
ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of our Lord, of 
Grace, of tlie Incarnation, of the Circumcision, and of 
the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The Christian era com- 
menced Jan. 1, in the middle of the 4th year of the 
194th Olympiad, the 753d year of the building of Rome, 
and in 4714 of the Julian'period. It is now held that 
Christ was born Friday, April 5, 4 B.C. This era was 
invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It 
was introduced into Italy in the 6th century, and or- 
dered to be u.=ed by bishops by the Council of Chelsea 
in 816, but not generally employed for several centu- 
ries. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added 
"in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. 



ANN 



43 



ANT 



ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history 
ofciu'h year (bejjiuuiDg witli 175S, and continued to the 
))roseut time), was couimeuct'd by R. & J. Dodsley. 
(I'^dniund Burke at tii'st wrote tlio whole work, but aft- 
erward became only an occasional contributor. — Pri- 
or.) The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, 
the "Auuuaire des Deux Moudes," began in Paris in 
1S50. 

ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound vol- 
umes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent 
authors, illustrated by engravings, published annual- 
ly. They were imitations of similar b(5oks in Ger- 
many, aiid first appeared in Loudon in IS'23. 

ANNUITIES, OK Pensions, were lirst granted in 
151'2, when £-2(i were given to a lady of the court for 
services done ; and £6 IDs. M. for the maintenance of 
ft gentleman, 15;!6. £VA O.s'. Sif. deemed competent to 
support a gentleman in the study of the law, 105-1. An 
act was jiassed empowering the government to borrow 
one million sterling upon an annuity of fourteen jjtT 
cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary, 1C91-3. This mode of bor- 
rowing soon afterward became general among civil- 
ized governments. An annuity of £\ '2.s. l\d. per an- 
7!(/))i, accumulating at tenp^c cent, compound interest, 
amounts in 100 years to i;20,000. The Government 
Annuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1S04, 
for the benefit of the working classes, since it enables 
the government to grant deferred annuities on condi- 
tivnrthat the sum required may be payable in small in- 
stalments. 

ANNUNCIATION of the Vikoin Mart, the 25th 
of March, Lad3'-day (which gee). A festival commem- 
orating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Ga- 
briel (Luke i., 20) ; its origin is referred variously by ec- 
clesiastical writers to the 4th and Vth century. The 
religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 
1232, and the inilitarn order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, 
count of Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I., who had 
bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 1355. 

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the 
inauguration of kings, bishops, and other eminent per- 
sonages. Aaron was anointed as high-priest, B.C. 
1491 ; and Saul, as king, B.C. 1095. Alfred the Great is 
said to have been the tirst English king anointed, A.D. 
871 ; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098.— The religiom rite is 
derived from the Epistle of James, ch. v., 14, about 
A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 650, dying per- 
sons, and persons in extreme danger of death,''were 
anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the 
origin of Extreme Unction (one of the sacraments of 
the Roman Catholic Church). 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS. The sending of anony- 
mous letters denouncing persons, or demanding mon- 
ev, or using threats to obtain money, was made'felouy 
by the Black Act, 9 Geo. I. (1TT2). See Threatening 

Letters. 

' ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 3ST B.C. Antalcidas 
the Lacedremonian made peace with Artaxerxes of 
Persia, strongly in favor of Sparta, and generally in 
favor of Greece, but giving up the cities of Ionia to the 
king. 

ANTAR, a celebrated Arabian romance, probably 
compiled and partly written by Asmar at the cotirt of 
llaroun al Rashid (TSl-809). It is founded on the 
exploits of Antar, a hero and poet of Arabia in the 
6th century. An English translation, of a somewhat 
abridged text, by Terrick Hamilton, was published at 
London, 1819-20. 

ANTEDILU\^ANS. According to the tables ofMr. 
Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, 
as it existed previmis to the Flood, reached to the enor- 
mous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the 
world 1482.* ■ 

ANTHEMS, OR Hymns (see TTimins). Hilary, bishop 
of Poictiers, and St. Ambrose were the first who com- 
posed them, about the middle of the 4th century.— 
Leujjlet. They were introduced into the Church serv- 

* Biirtift h:is supposed that the first human pair niipht have left, at 
the end of the first rentun', ten married couples; and from these, al- 
lowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first 
pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a ffreater number of persons than 
the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suppests a quadruple 
multiplication only ; and then exhibits the following table of increase 
during the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood (at least ten 
tin\es the present number of mankind) : 



V 2,560 

VI 1(1,240 

VII 4»,!im 



ess.sfio 

2,fi'21,-140 
10,4Sn,-60 
41,!l4:l,n40 
161,n-.>,lMI 



XII 

XIII 

XTV 671,088,640 

XV 2,fiS4,HS4,560 

.16?.,S40 I XVI 10,737,418,240 



ice in 386.— i?«Xw. Ignatius is said to have introduced 
them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the West- 
em Church. They were introduced into the Reformed 
Churches in Queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1505. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) have 
existed in all ages of the world. Homer says that the 
Cyclops and Lestrygones were such ; and the Essedo- 
nian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Di- 
ogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of 
men as that of other animals ; and the practice still 
exists in Africa and the Scmth Sea Islands. The an- 
nals of Milan assert that a INIilanese woman, named 
Elizabeth, had an invincible inclination to human 
flesh; she enticed children to her house, and killed 
and salted them ; and on a discovery being made, she 
was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 1.519. Canni- 
bals were detected in Perthshire about 1339. 

ANTIBES, anciently Antipolis, founded by the 
Greeks 340 B.C. In 1S15 its garrison refused to joill 
Napoleon on his return from Elba. 

ANTICHRIST (opponent of Christ), the name given 
by St. John (1 Ep., ii., IS) to him whom St. Paul calls 
the Man of Sin (2 Thess., ii., 3), who, as some assert, at 
the latter end of the world, is to appear very remark- 
ably in opposition to Christianity.* 

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association form- 
ed for the purpose of procuring the repeal of the laws 
charging duty on the importation of foreign corn. 
See Corn-Lau's. It sprang from various metropolitan 
and provincial associations (1834-8), headed by Messrs. 
C. Villiers, R. Cobden, J. Bright, etc. See Protection- 
ists. 

The Anti-Com-Law League formed at Manches- 
ter Sept. 18, 1838 

Meetings held in various jihices ]March and April, 1841 

Excited meeting at IManchester May 18, " 

A bazar held at IManchester, at which the League 

realized £10,000 Feb. 2, 1842 

About 600 deputies connected with provincial as- 
sociations assemble in London Feb.— Aug. " 

The League at Manchester proposed to raise 
£50,000, to depute lecturers throughout the 

country, and to print pamphlets Oct. 20, " 

First meeting at Drury Lane Theatre . .March 15, 1843 
Series of monthly meetings at Covent Garden, 
commenced Sept. 28; and great free-trade meet- 
ing at Manchester Nov. 14, 1843, and Jan. 22, 1845 

Bazar at Covent Garden opened May 5, " 

Great Manchester meeting, at which the League 
proposed to raise a quarter of a million ster- 
ling Dec. 23, " 

The Corn Importation Bill having passed, Jun,e 
26, the League is formally dissolved, and Mr. 
Cobden was rewarded by a national subscrip- 
tion, amounting to nearly £80,000 July 2, 1846 

Appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival of 
the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at a 
meeting held at JManche'ster, and a subscription 
for the purpose was opened, which produced 

within half an hour £27,520 March 2, 18S2 

[Subsequently the reconstruction of the League 
was deemed to be unnecessary.] 
ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, 
U. S. Here was fought a terrible battle on Sept. 17, 
1802, between the Federals under General Al'Clellan 
and the Confederates under Lee. The latter, after his 
victory at Bull Run or Manassas, Aug. 30, having in- 
vaded Maryland, was immediately followed by M'Clel- 
lan. On the 10th Lee was Joined by Jackson, and at 
five o'clock next morninj^ the conflict began. About 
100,000 men were engaged, and the conflict raged with 
great fury from daylight to dark. The Federals were 
repeatedlj' repulsed ;"but at night both armies held 
the same positi(m as in the mornino;. M'Clellan had 
on the field 83,000 men, of whom only 58,000 were en- 
gaged, but they were sent in at intervals by detach- 
ments. Lee had about 40,000 men engaged. The na- 
tional loss was 11,426; the Confederate about 10,000. 
It was a drawn battle. But the manifest preponder- 
ance of force against him led Lee to abandon his 
scheme of invading the Northern States. On the night 
of the 18th he recrossed the Potomac. 
ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies, which 



* His reiffn, it is supposed, will continue three years and a hal^ 
during which time there will be a persecution. This is the opinion of 
the Roman Catholics ; but the Protestants, as they differ from them, 
so they differ among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suppose 
the time to be past, and the characters to be furnished in the persons of 
Caligula, Simon Magus, and the Gnostics. Some have believed the 
Pope to be the true Antichrist, as at the council held at Gap in 1603. 
Many consider that the kingdom of Antichrist comprehends all who 
are opposed to Christ, openly or secretly. 



ANT 



U 



APO 



ANTI - MASONRY arose in New York after the 
death of William Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., in IS-iO. 
In 18-27 an anti-masouic party was formed, beginning 
in Western New York. In 1S31 a national anti-ma- 
sonic Convention nominated Wirt and Ellmaker for 
President and Vice-President. Rituer, anti-masonic 
candidate, was elected Governor of Pennsylvania, 1S35, 
but the party soon merged into those formed on other 
and larger questions. 

ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of 
this mineral were early known and applied. It was 
used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, 
as appears from 2 Kings ix., 30, and Jeremiah iv., 30, 
and in Eastern countries it is used to this day. When 
mixed with lead it forms printing type-metal. Basil 
Valentine wrote on antimony about l-ild.—Priestleij. 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, against, and 
nomas, law), a name given by Luther (in 1538) to John 
Agricola, who is said to have held " that it mattered 
not how wicked a man was if he had but faith." (Op- 
posed to limn, iii., 28, and v., 1, 2.) He retracted in 
1540. These doctrines were condemned by the British 
Parliament, 1648. 

ANTIOCH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C., after 
the battle of Ipsus, in such grandeur as to acquire the 
name "Queen of the East." Here the disciples were 
first called Christians, A.D. 42 {Ads xi., 20). Antioch 
was taken by the Persians, 540 ; by the Saracens about 
688 ; recovered for the Eastern emperor, 906 ; lost again 
in 1080; retaken by the Crusaders in 1098, and held 
by them till 1208, when it was captured by the Sultan 
of Egypt. It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian 
war, Aug. 1, 1832, by Ibrahim Paclia, but restored at 
the peace. —The Era of Antioch is much used by the 
early Christian writers of Autiocli and Alexandria; it 
placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 

ANTIPHONY (singing by responses), said to have 
been introduced among the Greeks by Ignatius (mar- 
tyred 115), and among the Latins by St. Ambrose, 
Bishop of Milan, 375-3D7. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who 
thought it possible that antipodes existed (about 368 
B.C)! Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of Pope 
Zachary, is said to have denounced a bisiiop as a her- 
etic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. 

ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various times, 
especially by the French and Italian factions, from 
1305 to 1439. In the article Pupcs, the Anti-popes are 
printed in italics. 

ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to 
have existed in Ireland 700 years B. C. The State His- 
torical Societies, and the New England Historical and 
Genealogical Societies, are the principal bodies in the 
United States who l)usy themselves with antiquities. 
The Smithsonian Institution has published some 
works on Indian mounds and other North American 
remains of races before the whites settled the country. 
A society was founded by Archbishop Parker, Cam- 
den, Stow, and others in 1572. — S2Jelman. 
Application was made in 1.5S9 to Elizabeth for a char- 
ter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James 
I., was far from favoring the design. 
The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received its 
charter of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; and 
apartments in Somerset House granted to it in 1777. 
Its Memoirs, entitled Archieologia, first published in 
1770 ; present president, Earl Stanhope, elected, 1846. 
British Archaeological Association founded Dec, 1S43 ; 
the Archseological Institute of Great Britain was 
formed by a seceding part of the Association, 1845. 
Journals are published by both societies. ■ 
Society of Antiquaries of Ediuburg founded in 1780. 
Since 1845 many county archfeoloo;ical societies have 

been formed in the United Kingdom. 
The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 
1805 as the Celtic Academy. 

ANTI-RENTISM, a series of disturbances, begin- 
ning about 1839, among the tenants of lauds of pa- 
troons or manorial owners in the counties of Albany, 
Rensselaer, and several others, in New York. The 
trouble arose from the determination of these tenants 
to cease paying the dues exacted by the landlords un- 
der their old feudal tenure. Since 1847 the anti-rent 
controversy has been mostly in the form of lawsuits, 
and the course of the decisions has been in favor of 
the tenants. 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium 
is supposed to have been the first who advocated the 
simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 2d cen- 
tury. This doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, 



spread widely after the Reformation, when it was 
adopted by Ltelius and Faustus Socinus. — Bayle. See 
Ariuns, Socinians, Unitarians. 

ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'An- 
zio, near Rome, after a long struggle for independence, 
became a Roman colony at the end of the great Latin 
war, 340-338 B.C. It was mentioned by Horace, and 
was a favorite retreat of the emperors and wealthy 
Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. The 
treasures deposited in the Temple of Fortune here 
were taken by Octavius Caesar during his war with 
Antony, 41 B.C. 

ANTWERP, the principal sea-port of Belgium, is 
mentioned in history in A.D. 517. It was a small re- 
public in the 11th century. It was the first commer- 
cial city in Europe till the wars of the 16th and 17th 
centuries. 

Its fine Exchange built in 1531 

Taken after a long siege by the Prince of Parma. .1585 
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United 

Provinces) 1609 

Much injured by the imposition of a toll on the 

Scheldt by the treaty of Miinster 1648 

After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, Antwerp 

surrenders without firing a shot June 6, 1706 

The Barrier treaty concludedhere Nov. 16, 1715 

Taken by Marshal Saxe 1740 

Occupied by the French 1792-3, 1794-1814 

Civil war between the Belgians and the house of 

Orange. See Belgium 1830-31 

The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were 
opposed by the Dutch Mrrison, who, after a 
dreadful conflict, being cfriveu into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and 

shells, doing immense mischief Oct. 27, 1830 

The citadel bombarded by the French, Dec. 4 ; sur- 
rendered by Gen. Chasse Dec. 23, 1832 

The Exchange burnt, and valuable archives, etc., 

destroyed.' Aug. 2, 1858 

Proposal to strengthen the fortifications adopted, 

Aug., 18.^9 

A Fine Art fGte held Aug. 17-20, 1861 

Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire, loss 25 

lives and about £400,000 Dec. 2, " 

Great fete at the opening of the port by the aboli- 
tion of the Scheldt dues Aug. 3, 1863 

APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 1856 
it began to be largely employed as manure. It is 
abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West 
India island. 

APOCALYPSE, OR Revelation, written by St. John 
in the isle of Patmos about 95. — Irencpiis. Some as- 
cribe the authonship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and 
others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first 
centuries many chuiThes disowned it, and in the 4th 
century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the 
Council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1.545, 
et seq. Although the book has been rejected by Lu- 
ther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority question- 
ed in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who 
wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A.D. 139), 
yet its canonical authority is still almost universally 
acknowledged. 

APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it 
is said, " These books are neyther foundin the flebrue 
nor in the Chalde."— Bible, 1530. The history of the 
Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the 
Jewish canon, were rejected at the Council of Laodi- 
cea about A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by 
the Roman Catholic Church, at the Council of Trent, 
on April 8, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as 
lessons by the Anglican Church. 

1 Esdras, from about B.C. 62.3-445 

2 Esdras, " * * 

Tobit, " 734-678 

Judith, " 056 

Esther, " 510 

Wisdom of Solomon * * 

Ecclesiasticus (John) 300 or ISO 

Baruch * * 

Song of the Three Children * * 

History of Susannah * * 

Bel and the Dragon * * 

Prayer of Manasses 676 

1 Maccabees, about 323-135 

2 Maccabees, from about 187-161 

There are also apocryphal writings in connection 

with the New Testament. 

APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, a read- 
er in the church of Laodicea, who taught (366) that the 



APO 



45 



APU 



divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that 
his llcsh was pre-existent to his appearance upon 
cartli, and that it was sent down from heaven, and 
convoyed throu<;;h the Virgin, as throuijh a channel ; 
that there were two sons, "one bom of God, the other 
of the Virgin, etc. These opinions were condemned 
by the Council of Constantinople, 381. 

APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, 
poetry, and eloquence, had many tcniijlcs and statues 
erected to him, i)articularly in Egypt, Oreecc, and Ita- 
ly. His most splendid temple was" at Dcljjhi, built 12G3 
B.C. Sec. Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., 
during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt 
A.D. 3(12, and the Christians were accused of the crime. 
— Lcnijlet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered 
in the remains of Autium, in Italy, in 1.5U3, was pur- 
chased by Pope Julius II., who placed it in the Vati- 
can. 

APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical instrument, 
constructed on the principle of the organ, was invent- 
ed by Messrs. Flight & Robson, of St. Martin's Lane, 
Westminster, and exhibited by them first in 1817. — 
Timbs. 

APOPHTHEGM. Plutarch (A.D. 4G-10.5) gives many 
apophthegms. Lord Bacon's Apophthegms, new and 
old, were printed 1625. C. C. Colton pririted Lacon, or 
Many Things in a Few Words, 1822. Franklin's Prov- 
erbs out of Poor Richard's Almanac were begun 1T32. 
He printed all together iu a preface to the Almanac 
for 1T5T. 

APOSTLES (Greek aposMos, one sent forth). Twelve 
were appointed by Christ, 31 ; viz., Simon Peter ancl 
Andrew (brothers), James and John (sous ofZebedee), 
Philip, Nathanael (or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), 
Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphteus), Simon the 
Canaanite and Jude or Thaddjeus (brothers), and Ju- 
das Iscariot. Matthias was elected in the room of Ju- 
das Iscariot, 33 (Acts i.) : and Paul and Barnabas were 
appointed by the Holy Spirit, A.D. 45 (Acts xiii., 2). 

APOSTLES' CREED, a summary of the Christian 
faith, attributed to the apostles, is mentioned by Ruf- 
linns, 390, and is generally believed to have been grad- 
ually composed a great while after their time. Ire- 
nieus, bishop of Lyons (A.D. ITT), gives a similar creed. 
Its repetition iu pttblic worship was ordained in the 
Greek Church at Antioch, and in the Roman Church iu 
the 11th century, whence it passed to the Church of 
England. 

APOSTOLICI, a sect which arose at the end of the 
2d century ; they renounced marriage, wine, flesh, 
meats, etc. A second sect was founded by Segarelli 
about 12G1. They wandered about, clothed in Vvhite, 
with long beards, disheveled hair, and bare heads, ac- 
companied by women whom they called their spiritual 
sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of 
the Church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. 
They renounced baptism, the mass, purgatory, etc., 
and by their enemies are accused of gross licentious- 
ness. Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma iu 1300, dur- 
ing a crusade against his followers, who were all dis- 
persed iu 1307. 

APOTHECARY (literally a keeper of a store-house). 
On Oct. 10, 134.5, Edward III. settled sixpence pt'r dkm 
for life on Coursus de Gangelaud, "Apothecarius Lon- 
don" for taking care of hini during his severe illness 
in Scotland. —J\i;mer''s Fwdera. Apothecaries v.'ere ex- 
empted from serving on .juries or other civil oiHces in 
1712. The London Apothecaries' Company was sepa- 
rated from the Grocers' and incorporated 1617. Their 
hall was built iu 16T0 ; and their practice regulated 
and their anthoritv extended over all England by 55 
Geo. HI., c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV., c. 133 
(1825). The Botanical Garden at Chelsea was left by 
Sir Hans Sloane to the company of Apothecaries, Jan., 
1753, on condition of their introducing every year fifty 
new plants, until their number should amoimt to 2000. 
The Dublin guild was incorporated in 1745. See Phar- 
macy. 

APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations 
of the world, by which they raised their kings and he- 
roes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased 
emperor was bearun at Rome bv Augustus, in favor of 
Juhus Cxsar, B.C. Vi.—Tillemont. 

_ APPARITIONS. Ghosts or spectres have been be- 
lieved to appe^ir bv most nations. Saul caused the 
Witch of Endor to call up Samuel, 10.56 B.C. The 
ghost of C.'psar is said to have appeared to Brutus on 
the night before the battle of Phdippi, 42 B.C. Jung 
Stilling, in Germany, published " Geistrrkunde," to 
prove that apparitions exist, ISOS. Itlrs. Crowe's 



"Kight Side of Nature" appeared iu England inlS40, 
contaiumg many cases of apparitions. "Robert Dale 
Owen's " Footfalls on the Boundary of another World" 
appeared in 1860. Spiritualists believe iu apparitions. 
APPEAL, OK Assize of Battle. By the old law of 
England, a man charged with murder misht fi"-ht with 
the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or in- 
nocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was 
believed to have been violated and murdered by Abra- 
ham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by 
his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the 
appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the chal- 
lenge, and the accused escaped, April 16. ISIS. This 
law was immediately afterward struck from off the 
statute-book by 59 Geo. IIL (1819). 

APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (A.D. 869-901), 
appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in coun- 
cil ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from 
all parts of England, he framed the body oflaws which 
long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The 
House of Lords is the highest court (if ajipeal in civil 
causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, 
m error from the King's Bench, Common Pleas, and 
Exchequer, were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 
1831. A system of appeals prevails throughout the 
United States derived from English law. Appeals 
from English tribunals to the Pope were first intro- 
duced about 1151 ; were long vainly opposed, and were 
finally abolished by Henry VIII. in 1534. See Privy 
Council. 

APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the feudal 
supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early iu the 15th 
century, and became the thirteenth member- of the 
Swiss Coufederation in 1513. 

APPIAN WAY, an ancient Roman road, made by 
Appius Claudius Crecus, while censor, 312 B.C. 

APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; 
but those iu general use have beeu'brought at various 
times from the Contineut. Richard Harris, fruiterer 
to Henry VIII., is said to have planted a great num- 
ber of the orchards iu Kent, and Lord Scudamore, am- 
bassador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted 
many of those in Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 va- 
rieties of apples iu his day (1688). 

APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for another 
was an early business in England ; and so early as 
1283, by the statute of merchants, "it was enacted that 
if they valued the goods of parties too high, the ap- 
praisers should take them at such price as they have 
limited." 

APPRENTICES. Those of London were obliged 
to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue gowns iu 
winter, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1.558. Ten 
pounds was theu a'great apprentice fee. From twenty 
to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of 
James I. — Stotv's Survei/. The apprentice tax, enacted 
43 Geo. IIL, 1802. An act for the protection of appren- 
tices, etc., was passed iu 1851. The term of seven 
years, uot to expire till the apprentice was 24 years 
old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was 
abolished in 1814. The apprentices of London nave 
been at times very riotous ; they rose into insurrection 
against foreigners on Jivil May-day, which see. The 
.system of apprenticeship has always existed to a cer- 
tain extent in the United States. 

APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the 
Church), began in the time of William I., the paro- 
chial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the 
bishops and higher clergy Normans. These impover- 
ished the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which 
were generally possessed by the conqueror's frieuds. 
Where the churches and tithes were so appropriated, 
the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or 
superior thought fit to allow. Pope Alexander IV. 
complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruc- 
tion of the Church, and a poison that had infected the 
whole nation. — Pardon. 

APRICOT, Prvtms Armeniaca, first planted in En- 
gland about 1540, by the gardener of Henry VIII. It 
originally came from Asia Minor. 

APRIL, the fourth mouth of our ydir, the second of 
the ancient Romans. 

APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New Zea- 
land, first brought to England in 1813, and deposited 
iu the collectiou of the Earl of Derby. Fossil speci- 
mens of a gigantic species of this bird (named Dinor- 
nin) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter 
Mantell iu 1843, and since. 

APULIA, a province in S. E. Italy, conquered by the 



AQU 46 

Normans, whose leader, Guiscard, received the title of 
Duke of Apulia from Pope Nicholas II. iu 1059. After 
many changes of masters, it was absorbed into the 
kingdom of Naples iu 1265. 

AQUA TOPANA, a liquid poison used in Italy, and 
sold for many years at Naples by La Tofana or Tor- 
phania, an old woman executed or imprisoned at Na- 
ples about 1719. A predecessor in the business, at 
Rome, was named La Spara. This poison is supposed 
to have been an arsenical preparation. It was clear, 
limpid, and tasteless, and sold in small vials under the 
name of Manna of St. Nicholas of Bari. Its operation 
was slow, and in the then state of chemistry its pres- 
ence could not be detected after death. 

AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Ta- 
tian in the 2d century, who forbore the use of wine 
even iu the sacrameut, and used nothing but water, 
during persecution, when they met secretly iu the 
night for fear of discovery. For this they were cen- 
sured by Cyprian (martyred 258). 

AQUARIUM OR Aqu AVIV AKiUM, a vessel containing 
water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants 
may coexist, mutually supporting each other ; snails 
bein^ introduced as scavengers. Iu 1849, Mr. N. B. 
Ward succeeded iu growing sea-weeds in artificial sea- 
water ; in 1850, Mr. R. Warington demonstrated the 
conditions necessary for the growth of animals and 
plants iu jars of water; and in 1853 the glass tanks iu 
the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up 
under the skillful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 
1854, Mr. Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. 
Alford Lloyd, late of Portland Road, London, by his 
enterprise in collecting specimens, did much to in- 
crease the value and interest of aquaria. The great 
aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin 
d'Acclimatation at Paris, was constructed under his 
direction in 1860. 

AQUATINT. See Engraving. 

AQUEDUCT, an artificial water-course on an in- 
clined plane. No remains of Greek aqueducts exist. 
Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first Ro- 
man aqueduct, as well as the A2)pian Way, about 312 
B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among the won- 
ders of Rome. — Livii. There are now some remarka- 
ble aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of great 
extent aud beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; 
and that at Versailles is three miles long, aud of im- 
mense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The 
stupendous aqueduct ou the Ellesmere Canal, in En- 
gland, is 1007 feet in Icugth, and 126 feet high ; it was 
completed by T. Telford, aud opeued Dec. 26, 180.5. 
The Lisbon aqueduct was completed iu 1T3S, and the 
Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed be- 
tween 1837 and 1S42. The aqueduct to supply Mar- 
seilles with water was commenced in 1830. 

AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony about 
ISO B.C., and furtified A.D. 168. Coustantiue II. was 
slain in a battle with Coustaus, fought at Aquileia to- 
ward the close of March, 340. Maxlmus defeated and 
slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, July 28, BBS. The- 
odosius defeated Eugeuius aud Arbogastes, the Gaul, 
near Aquileia, and remained sole emperor, Sept. 6, 394. 
Eugeuius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by 
his own hand, mortified by his overthrow. St. Am- 
brose held a synod here iu 381. In 452 Aquileia was 
almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near 
it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated 
Odoacer, the king of Italy. 

AQUITAINE, a province (S. W. France). Subdued 
by the Visigoths, 418, and taken from them by Clovis 
iu 507. Henry II. of England inherited it from his 
mother, 1152. It was erected iuto a principality for 
Edward the Black Priuce in 1362, but was annexed to 
France iu 1370. The title of Duke of Aquitaine was 
taken by the crown of England ou the conquest of this 
duchy by Henry V. iu 1418. The province was lost iu 
the reign of Henry VI. 

ARABIA (W. Asia). The terms Petrcea (stony), 
Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have beeu ap- 
plied to its divisions by Ptolemy about A.D. 140. The 
Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest son of 
Abraham, born #910 B.C., Gen. xvi. The country was 
unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman govern- 
or of Egypt, "24 B.C. In A.D. 622, the Arabians, un- 
der the name of Saracens, followers of Mohammed 
(boru at Mecca, 570), their general aud prophet, com- 
menced their course of conquest. See Mohammedan- 
ism. The Arabs greatly favored literature and the sci- 
ences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chem- 
istry. To them we owe our ordinary numerals and 
arithmetical notation. The Koran was written in Ar- 



AEC 



abic (622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 
1671. 

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 
Tales) were translated into French by Galland, aud 
published in 1704, bitt their authenticity was not ac- 
knowledged till mauy years after. The best Euglish 
translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, 
published in 1S39, with valuable, notes and beautiful 
illustrations, aud reprinted in the United States by 
Harper & Brothers, New York. 

ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose 
distinguishing tenet was, that the soul died with the 
body, aud rose again with it, 207. 

ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a king- 
dom, N. E. Spain. It was conquered by the Cartha- 
ginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 
B.C. It partook of the fortunes of the country, but 
became an independent monarchy in 1035. See under 
Sjjain. 

ARAM, the ancient name of Syria, which see. 

ARANJUEZ (Central Spain) contains a fine royal 
palace, at which several important treaties were con- 
cluded. On March 17, 1808, an insurrection broke out 
here against Charles IV. and his favorite, Godoy, the 
Prince of Peace. The former was compelled to abdi- 
cate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. 

ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between 
Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus decided 
the fate of Persia, Oct. 1, 831 B.C., on a plain iu Assy- 
ria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of 
Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse ; the 
Macedonian army amounted to ouly 40,000 foot and 
7000 horse. — Arriaii. The gold and silver found in 
the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell 
to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty 
millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious 
spoil, belonging to Darius, sufliced to load 20,000 mules 
and 5000 camels. — Plutarch. 

ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was 
authorized aud made equivalent in force to the deci- 
sion of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. IIL (1698). Submis- 
sions to arbitration may be made rules of any court of 
law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attend- 
ance of witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 42 (1833). See 
Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act (1854) 
authorizes the judges of superior courts to order com- 
pulsory arbitration ; and by an act passed in 18.59, 
railway companies may settle disputes with each other 
by arbitration. 

ARBUTUS. The Arhutus Andrachne, Oriental straw- 
berry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant 
about 1724. 

ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, 
Greece. The Arcadijins regarded their nation as the 
most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon 
{ProseWni, which word Doderlein conjectures to mean 
pre-Hellenic). They were more simple iu their man- 
ners and moderate iu their desires than the other 
Greeks, from whom they were separated by high 
mountains. Pelasgus is said to have taught them to 
feed on acorus, as being more nutritious "than herbs, 
their former food ; for which they honored him as a 
god, 1521 B.C. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose 
history is altogether fabulous. 
Magna Grsecia, in S. Italy, said to have been colo- 
nized by Arcadians under (Enotrus, about 1710 

B.C.; and under Evauder B.C. 1240 

Pelasgus begins his reigu 1521 

Supposed institution of the Lupercalia, iu honor 

of Jupiter by Lycaon ; reimed 1514 

Areas, from whom the kingdom received its name, 
and who taught his subjects agriculture and the 

art of spinning wool 1514 

Lycasan games instituted in honor of Pan 1320 

Agapeuor appears at the head of the Arcadians 

at tlie siege of Troy {Homer) 1194 

The Lacedajmonians invade Arcadia, and are beat- 
en by the women of the country, in the absence 

of their husbands (?) B.C. 1102 

Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) is put to death for 

offering violence to the priestess of Diana 715 

Aristocrates 11. stoned to death, and a republic es- 
tablished CSl 

The supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) is 
abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded 

by Epaminondas 371 

The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are 

defeated by Archidamus 307 

Arcadia, having joined the Achrean League, on its 
suppression becomes part of the Roman empire 146 



ARC 



47 



ARC 



ARCES-SUR-AUBE, France. From this place, after 
a (<evere battle with the allies, March 21, IbU, Napo- 
leon retreated to Vitry. 

AKCII. It appears in early Es^yptian and Assyrian 
architecture. The oldest arch iu Europe is probably 
in the Cloaca Maxima at Rome, constructed under 
the early kiuf^s, about 5SS B.C. The Chinese bridges, 
which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and 
are built with stone arches similar to those that have 
been considered a Roman invention.* The TRiuMruAi. 
arches of the Romans formed a leading feature iu 
their architecture. The arch of Titus (A.D. 8U), that 
of Trajan (114). and that of Constantine (312) were 
magniiicent. The arches in our parks in London 
were erected about 1S2S. The Marble Arch, which 
formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it 
was removed to Cumberland Gate, Hyde Park, in IS.'il) 
was modeled from the arch of Constantine. See 
Uijdc i'ark. 

ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus named 
from a monastery founded here, and dedicated to St. 
Michael in \^i>i. The passage to Archangel was dis- 
covered by the English navigator Richard Chancellor 
in l.^S, and it was the only sea-port of Russia till the 
formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation 
of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful tire here, by 
which the Cathedral and upward of 3000 houses were 
destroyed, occurred iu June, 1793. 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek nrehicirMcopos), a title given 
iu the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops of chief 
cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Con- 
stantinople, who presided over the other metropoli- 
tans aud bishops iu the districts attached to those 
places. The word is first found in the Apology against 
the Arians by Athauasius, who died 373. The Eastern 
archbishops have since been styled ^jafriarc/is.t — Rid- 
dle, 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The Elector of Branden- 
burg was appointed the hereditary arch-chamberlain 
of the German Empire by the golden bull of Charles 
IV. in 1356, and iu that quality he bore the sceptre be- 
fore the emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed under the 
two lirst races of the kings of France (418-986), aud 
when their territories were divided, the Archbishops 
of Mentz, Cologne, aud Treves became Arch-chancel- 
lors of Germany, Italy, and Aries. 

ARCHDEACON. The name was early given to the 
^ first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop 
without any power ; hut since the Council of Nice, 
his function is become a dignity, and set above that 
of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. 
The appointment in these countries is referred to 1075. 
There are seventy-one archdeacons in England (186.5), 
and thirty-three iu Ireland. The Archdeacon's Court 
is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies 
from it to the Consistorial Court by 24 Henry VIII. 
(1532). 

ARCHDUKE AND ARCHDUCHESS, a title given 
to members of the house of Austria since the eud of 
the German empire iu 1S06. 

ARCHERY. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, 
bv whom it was communicated to the Cretans. Ish- 
niael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi., 20), 1892 B.C. 



* The new bridge of Chester, whose span 13 200 feet, was commenced 
in 18'.'9. The central arch of London Bridge is 152 feet ; and the three 
cast iron arches of Souihwark Bridf;e, which rest on massive stone piers 
and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 
feet : tluis the centre arch exceeds the admired bridc:e of Sunderland by 
four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice by 167 feet. 
See Ilrliftjes, 

t There are no Protestant archbishops in the United States. The 
Roman Catholic Church is divided into seven archbishoprics, which 
are called provinces, namely : Baltimore, Md. ; Cincinnati, Ohio ; New 
Orleans, La. ; New York, N .Y. ; Oregon ; St. Louis, Mo. ; San Francis- 
co, Cal. In Great Britain the dignity is nearly coeval with the estab- 
lishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there 
were three sees : London, York, and Caerlon-upon-UsU ; but soon after 
the arrival of St. Austin he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 
602. See CanteThnry. York continued arclliepiscopal ; but London 
and Caerlon lost the dignity. Caerlon was found, previously, to be too 
near the dominions of the Saxons ; and in the tnne of King Arthur 
the archbishopric was transferred to St. David's, of which St. bauipson 
was the 2)jth and last Welsh archbishop. The bishoprics in Scotland 
were under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of York until the erec- 
tion of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and (ilasgow, in 1470 
and 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution. The Bishop 
of Moray, etc., is now (IS65) styled Primus. The r.ank of archbishop 
was of early institution in Ireland. Four archbishoprics were consti- 
tuted in Ireland, 1151, namely, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam ; 
until then the Archbishop of Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish 
as well as English bishops, In like manner as the Archbishop of York 
had jurisdiction over those of Scotland. Of these four archl)ishopricB 
two were reduced to bishoprics, namely, Caahel and Tuam, conforma- 
bly with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833, by which also the number 
of" sees in Ireland was to be reduced (as the incumbents of ten of them 
respectively died) from twenty-two to twelve, the present number. 



The Philistine archers overcame Saul (1 Sam. sxxi., 
3), 1055 B.C. David commanded the use of the bow 
to be taught (2 Satii. i., 18). Aster of Amphipolis, hav- 
ing been slighted by Philip, king of Macedon, at the 
siege of Methone, 353 B.C., shot an arrow, on which 
was written, "Aimed at Philip's right eye," which 
struck it aud put it out ; Philip threw back the arrow 
with these words: "If Philip take the town, Aster 
shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 
Archery introduced into England previously to. . . 440 
Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows 
shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers 

at the battle of Hastings in IOCS 

Richard I. revived archery in England iu liyo, and 

was himself killed by au arrow in 1199 

The victories of Crecy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and 

Agiucourt (1415) were won chiefly by archers.* 
Four thousand archers surrounded the houses of 
Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the 

members, 21 Richard II.— (.s?o(r) 1397 

The citizens of London formed into companies of 
archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a 
corporate body by the style of "The Fraternity 

of St. George," 29 Henry VIII 1538 

Roger Ascham's " 7'uxiphilus, the School of Shoot- 
ing," published iu 1571 

ARCHES, Court of, the most ancient Consistory 
Court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdic- 
tions within the province of Canterbury. It derives 
its name fi-om the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta 
Sfaria de Arcuhus), London, where it was held ; aud 
whose top is raised on stone pillars built archwise. — 
Coivell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial com- 
mittee of the Privy Council, by statute, 1832. 

ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi-tekton, 
chief artificer), ornamental building. The five great 
orders of architecture are the Doric, Ionic, aud Corin- 
thian (Greek) ; the Tuscan and Composite (Roman). 
The Gothic Isegau to prevail in the 9th century. See 
the Orders respectively, aud Gothic, 

The Pyramids of Ecrypt begun about B.C. 1500 

Solomon's Temple begun 1004 

liirs Nimroud, in Assyria, about 900 

The Doric order begins about 650 

Doric Temple .at JSgina 550 

Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, 

founded 616 

Babylon built 600 

The Ionic order begins about 500-420 

The Corinthian order begins 335 

Choragic Monument of Ly sicrates 335 

Architecture flourishes at Athens 480-320 

Erechtheum at Athens 450-i20 

The Parthenon finished 433 

The Pantheon, etc., built at Rome A.D. 13 

The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70 

Hadrian builds temples at Rome, etc 117 

Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284 

Basilicas at Rome 330-900 

St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun 532 

Rock-cut temples in India— Caves of Ellora.. .500-800 

Canterbury Cathedral founded 602 

Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem 637 

York Minster beguu about 741 

St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 

St.Paul's, London 1675-1710 

EMINENT AKCUITECTS. 

Bom. Died. 

Vitruvius, about B.C. 27 

William of Wickham A.D. 1324-1405 

Michael Angelo BuonarottL 1474-1564 

A. Palladio 1.518-1580 

luigo Jones 1572-1652 

Bernini 1598-1680 

Christopher Wren 1632-1723 

J. Vaubrugh 1670-1726 

James Gihbs 1674-1754 

R. and J. Adams 1728-1794 

A. W. Pugin 1811 -1 852 

C. Barry. 1795-1860 

An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Ar- 
chitectural Society existed in London in 1808. The 
Royal Institute of British Akoiiiteots was found- 
ed iu 1834— Earl de Grev, president, 1835-61. The Ar- 
chitectural Society, esta"blished in 1831, was united to 
the Institute in 1842. The Architectural Association 
began about 1846. 

* The hnq-liow was six feet long, and the arrow three feet ; the usual 
range from 300 to 500 yards. Robin Hood is said to have shot from 
600 to 800 yards. A I'ersian hero, Arish.is stated to have shot over 
between 400 and 500 miles, as related by Ferdousi ! The cross-bow 
waa fixed to a stock, and discharged with a trigger. 



AKC 



48 



AKCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, 
in memory of King Codrus, killed in battle, 1044 B.C. 
(orlOTO), the executive government was vested in elect- 
ive magistrates called archons, whose office continued 
for life. Medon, eldest sou of Codrus, was the flrst 
archou. The office was limited to ten years 752 B.C., 
and to one year 083 B.C. 

ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles between 
the French under Bonaparte, and the Austrians under 
Fi^Id-marshal Alviuizi, fought Nov. 15-17, 1796. The 
result was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 
/ y mooo men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four 
/"' flags, and eighteen guns. The loss of the French vs'as 
-"^ estimated at 15,000. They became masters of Italy. 

In one of the contests Bonaparte was in most immi- 
nent danger, and was only rescued by the impetuosity 
of his troops. 

ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was 
taken by Colonel Clive, Aug. 31, 1751 ; was retaken, 
but again surrendered to Colonel Coote, Feb. 10, 1700. 
Besieged by Ilvder AM, when the British under Col- 
onel Baillie suffered severe defeats, Sept. 10 and Oct. 
31, 17S0. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 
1801. See India. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See Northwest Passage 
and FranJdin's Expeditimi. 

ARD AGII, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by 
St. Patrick, who made his nephew, Mell, the lirst bish- 
op, previously to 454. This prelacy was formerly held 
with Kilmore ; but since 1742 it has been held in com- 
inendarn with Tuam. It was united with Kilmore in 
1839, and with Elphin in 1841. 

ARDEE (Ireland), sacked by Edward Bruce, 1315 ; 
taken and sacked by the rebels in Oct., 1641. 

ARDFBRT ant> AGHADOE, bishoprics in Ireland 
long united ; the former was called the bishopric of 
Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century. William Ful- 
ler, appointed in 1603, became bishop of Limerick in 
1667, since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been 
united to that prelacy. Near the cathedral, an anchor- 
ite tower, 120 feet high, the Iqftiest and finest in the 
kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. 
ARDOCII. See Gramjnans. 

AREIOPAGITS or AREOPAGUS, a venerable Greek 
tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, because 
the judges should be blind to all but facts, instituted 
at Athens about 1507 B.C. —Arund. Marbles. The 
name is derived from the Greek Arieos ^xigos, the Hill 
of Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the first 
who was tried there for the murder of Halirrhotius, 
who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers 
of this court were enlarged by Solon about 594 B.C., 
but diminished by the jealousy of Pericles, 461 B.C. 
Paul preached on Mars' Hill A.D. 52 {Acts xvii.). 

AREOI, a society existing ft-om time immemorial 
in Tahiti, with seven grades. Its members must kill 
all their children as soon as they are born. 

AREZZO, near the ancient Arretiuni, or Aretinum, 
an Etrurian city, which made peace with Rome for 30 
years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones 
about 283 B.C., who defeated the Roman army Metel- 
lus sent to its relief— a disgrace avenged signally by 
Dolabella. Arezzo was an ancient bishopric : the ca- 
thedral was founded in 1277. It is renowned as the 
birth-place of Mtecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, and other 
eminent men. Michael Angelo was born in the vi- 
cinity. 

ARGAND LAMP. Invented by Aim6 Argand, a 
Frenchman, 1782. 

ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where Sir A. Wel- 
lesley, on Nov. 29, 1S03, thoroughly defeated the Rajah 
of Berar and the Mnhratta chierScindiah, who became, 
in consequeuce, quite subservient to the British. 

ARGENTARI A, Alsace (now Colmae, N. E. France), 
where the Roman emperor Gratiau totally defeated 
the Alemauui, and secured the peace of Gaul, 37S. 

ARGENTINE (or LA PLATA) CONFEDERA- 
TION, S. America, 13 provinces. This country was 
discovered by the Spaniards in 1515 ; settled by them 
in 1553, and formed part of the great viceroyalty of 
Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio do la Plata. 
It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became inde- 
pendent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 
to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became 
independent as Monte Video, and at war with France 
from 18.38-40. Buenos Ayres seceded in 18,53, and was 
reunited in 1859. An insurrection began in San Juan 
in Nov., 1S60, and was suppressed in Jan., 1S61. J. 
Urquiza, elected president Nov. 20, 1863, was succeed- 



AEI 

ed by Dr. S. Derqui, Feb. 8, 1860. Gen. B. Mitre, elect- 
ed for six years, assumed the president's office Oct. 12, 
1862. In April, 1805, Lopez, president of Paraguay, 
made an alliance with Buenos Ayres, declared war 
against Mitre, and invaded the Argentine territories. 
May. Mitre made an alliance with Brazil. Popula- 
tion in 1859, about 1,171,800. See Buenos Ayres for the 
disputes with that state. ' 

ARGINUS^ ISLES, between Lesbos and Asia Mi- 
nor; near these Conou and the Athenian fieet defeat- 
ed the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 400 B.C. 

ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1203 B.C. (1225, Clin- 
ton), undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of his 
kinsman Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by 
his murderer, JjL-tes, king of Colchis. The ship in 
which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets 
to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re- 
covery of the golden fleece. This is the flrst naval ex- 
pedition on record. Many kings and heroes accom- 
panied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its 
builder. — Dvfresnoy. 

ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have 
been founded either by luachus, 1856 B.C., or his son 
Phoroiieus, 1807, received its name from Argus, the 
fourth of the Inachida3, 1711 B.C. 

Reign of Triopas: Polycaou seizes part of the 
kingdom, and calls it after his wife, Messcnia 

B.C. 1552 
Gelauor, last of the luachidse, deposed by Dauaus, 

an Egyptian 1475 

Feast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honor of Hy- 
permnestra, who saved her husband, Lynceus, 
son of ^gyptus, on his nuptial night, while her 
forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- 
mand of their father, Danaus 1425 

Lynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 

The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and 

Prcetus 1344 (1313, CI.) 

Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos, and 

founds Mycenae {tchich sec) 1313 

The Heraclidffi retake the Peloponnesus, and Tem- 

enus seizes Argos 1102 

Pheidon's prosperous rule 770-730 

The Argives fine Sicyou and ^gina for helping 
Cleomenes of Sparta, with wiom they are at war 514 

Sparta becomes superior to Argos 495-490 

Themistocles an exile at Argos 471 

The Argives destroy Mycente and regain their su- 
periority 46S 

Peloponnesiau War— Argos long neutral ; but 

joins Athens 420 

The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, 
and overthrows the democratical government. . 417 

A reaction— alliance with Athens resumed 395 

Pyrrhus of Macedon slain while besieging Argos. . 272 
Argos long governed by tyrants supported by 
Macedon; it is freed and joins the Achaean 

League 229 

Subjugated by the Romans 140 

Argos' taken from the Venetians A.D. 1686 

Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until 1826 

United to Greece under King Otho (see Greece) 

Jan. 25, 1833 

ARGYLE (W. Scotland), Bishopric of, founded about 
1200, Evaldus being the first bishop ; the diocese was 
previously part of the see of Duukeld ; it ended with 
the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. Argyle 
and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847. See 
Lish()2}rics. 

ARIANS, the followers of Arius of Alexandria, who 
preached against the divinity of Christ about 315, and 
died in 336. The controversy was taken up by Con- 
siantine, who presided at the Council of Nice, 325, 
when the Arians were condemned ; but their doctrine 
prevailed for a time in the East. It was fiivored by 
Constantius II., 341 ; and carried into Africa under 
the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia under 
the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against 
the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. See A thmuman 
Creed. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 
1614. 

ARIKERA, ARKARY. In India. Here Lord Corn- 
wallis entirely routed the army of Tippoo Saib, May 
14, 1791, about nine miles from Seringapatam. 

ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the most com- 
prehensive system ever devised by man. Aristotle 
was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 
B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347; became 
preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 
342 ; and died in 322. He divided the circle of kaowl- 



ARI 



49 



ARM 



edge into Metaphysics and Loc;ic, Physics, lncludin<T 
part of tlie science of mind, and Kthics. IJis philoso- 
j)liy was too much exalted by the schoolmen during 
the Middle Ages, and too much depreciated after the 
Keformation. His works on natural science contain a 
vast collection of facts, and an extraordinary mixture 
ot sound and fhimcrical opinions. To him is attrib- 
uted the assertion that nature abhors a vacuum, an 
opinion now maintained by some eminent modern 
philo.sdpluTs. 

AUrriDIETIC is said to have been introduced 
iroin Egjpt into Greece by Thalcs about COO B.C. The 
Chinese used the abacus at an early period. It is as- 
serted that tlie ancient lliudus adopted a system hav- 
ing tea as a basis. 
The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 

(7th, Sth, and 9th books of his Elemeiits), about 
m . , . , . B.C. 300 

The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 

Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thir- 
teen books of arithmetical questions (of which 
SIX are now extant) about 156 

Notation by nine digits and zero known at least 
as early as the 6th century in Hindostau— intro- 
duced from thence into Arabia about 900— into 
Europe about 980— into France, by Gerbert, 991 
-into Spain, 1050— into England 1253 

The date in Caxtou's Mirrour of the World, Arabic 
characters, is ;^4gQ 

Arithmetic of decimals invented '.'..'.'.'.'. 1482 

John Shirwood's (Bishop of Durham) LudusAritli- 
mo Machines printed at Rome 1482 

First work printed in England on arithmetic (de 
at-te Sv2>2>iitandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of 
Durham ;j522 

The theory of decimal fractions was'perfecVed by 
Napier, in his Rhahdoloma. lu 



1 Rhahdoloqia, lu 1G17 

Cocker's arithmetic appeared in '. " 1677 

Nystrom's Tonal System, with IG as a basis, pub- 
lished .....1863 

ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, orin-in- 
ally part of New Mexico, was organized Feb. 24, 1863 • 
capital, Tucson. 

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Arme- 
nians from a belief of its being the place on which 
Noah s ark rested after the universal deluge, 2347 B C 
But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot; auci 
medals have been struck there with a chest on the 
waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves- this 
place IS 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 
cubits m length, 50 in breadth, and 30 high • but most 
interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a 
naif, and not the geometrical one of six. 

ARK OF THE COVENANT, or of the Testimony 
was constructed when Moses made the Tabernacle, 
1492 B.C. 

ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, purchased 
from France by the United States in 1803, was admit- 
ted into the Union 1836, and seceded from it March 20 
1861. Several battles were fought in this state in 1862 
and 1863. Capital, Little Rock. The Union govern- 
ment reorganized in 1804. 

ARKLOW (in Wicklow), w^here a battle was fought 
between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000 and 
a small regular force of British, which signally defeat- 
ed them, June 10, 179S. The town was nearly de- 
stroyed by the lusurirents in May previous.— Native 
gold was discovered in Arklow in Sept., Xl^b.—Phil 
Tram., vol. 86. 

ARLES, an ancient town in France, in 879 the capi- 
tal ot the kingdom of Aries or Lower Burgundy 
Here are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, capa- 
ble of holding between 20,000 and 30,000 persons. En- 
glish bishops are said to have been present at the 
council held here against the Donatists, 314. 

ARMADA, THE iNTiNoiiiLE. The famous Spanish 



lemamder of the armament returned by the North Sea 
o Spam. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in 
the engagement, and 5000 men ; seventeen ships were 
lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upward of 
^h 5'^V'y*'!''' drowned, killed, or taken priVone^s 
The English lost but one ship. About one thM of 
the armament returned to Spain. 

ARMAGEDDON. " The mountain of the citv that 
spoils." Probably the high land of Esdraelon where 
^]}^y)f^^}?^ havetaken iflace. Robinson, in 1^38 and 
1852 identined Lejjur, the Roman Legu, with the an- 
cient Megiddo, the city that spoils, which thus Hves a 
name to the mountains and elevated plains niarbv 
The name is used in the Apocalypse for the c^reat final 
battle-field of the wicked against God ^leat final 

ARMAGH, in N. Ireland, of which it was the me- 
tropolis rom the 5th to the 9th century, was he first 
vfA'lf/ fi'^' J^Snity in Ireland, foundry St Pat- 
hnnl iL^r\ '''';S°1?' '1''°^^^ ^' ^'1^0 is saicl to have 
built the first cathedral 450. Six saints of the Roman 
Calendar have been bishops of this see. In the kin<.'s 

fiTiK nnn ^^ "" ^'''^'■' '''"J'- ™«1 lately, was estimated 
?fjf l^'^OO per annum. The see was reconstituted in 
U51 — AcrtteoM. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on 
Easter day, 852, and hy O'Neil in 1564. 

ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, follow- 
ers of the Duke of Orleans, derived their name from 
his tather-m-law, the Count of Armagnac. About 3500 
ot this party were massacred at Paris in May, 1418 bv 
their opponents, the followers of the Duke of Buii 
gundy. 




Medina Sidonia, and 180 priests and monks. It sailed 
rrom the Tagus May 28-30, 15ss, nnd arrived in the 



Channel July i;i, U.ss, and was defeated the next d'ay 
by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been 
eent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put 
to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous 
between Calais and Gravelines ; the English fell upon 
tneni took many sliijjs, and Admiral Howard main- 
tained a running fight from the 21st of July to the 28th, 
Obliging the shattered fleet to bear awav for Scotland 
ana Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the 



ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the 
northern powers against England, formed by the Em- 
press of Russia in 1780 ; ended in 1781. The confed- 
eracy w-as renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to 
cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent 
powers, Dec. 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flat's 
protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the mari- 
time system of England, the British cabinet remon- 
strated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed 
the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801, 
I his event, and the murder of the Emperor Paul of 
Russia, led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. 
ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have 
resided when he left the ark, 2347 B.C. Armenia aft- 
er forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian 
empires, became subject to the Greek kings of Syria 
after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C -the 
Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major 
and Minor, but their influence over them was frequent- 
ly interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. 
Ihe modern Christian kingdom of Armenia arose 
about 1080 m the rebellion of Philaretus Brachaucius 
agamst the Greek emperor. It lasted, amid many 
struggles, till the 14th century. In all their political 
troubles the Armenians have maintained the profes- 
sion of Christianity. Their Church is governed by 
patriarchs not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an Arme- 
nian convent has existed at Venice, where books on 
all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 

City of Artaxata built B.C. 186 

Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia '..'...' 165 

Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major 95-60 

Becomes King of Syria, and assumes the title of 

"King of Kings" g3 

Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crowTi' at 'the 

feet of Pompey gg 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists' 'Po'm- 
pey against Julius Csesar, 48 ; and the Parthians 

against Marc Antony 35 

Antony subdues, and seuds him loaded with "silver 

chains to Egypt 34 

Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthiaiis! ! '. '. 33 
Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigranes IL 20 

Armenia subjected to Parthia A.D. 15 

Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Angus- 18 

tns 18 

After many changes Tiridates is made king by the 

Romans 53 

The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled 

by Trajan H5 

Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Arme- 
nia 199 

Christianity introduced between . ." .' 100-200 

Armenia added to the Persian empire 312 

Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 
286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; restored by Ga- 

lerius 298 

On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 
342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384, 
who divide it by treaty 443 



ARM 



50 



ARM 



Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek 
and Persian sovereigns 577-687 

And by the Greelc emperors and the Mohamme- 
dans 693-1065 

Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by 
the Saracens, 1375 ; released ; he dies at Paris. . .1393 

Overrun by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 1383 ; 
by the Turks, 1510 ; by the Persians, 1534 ; by the 
Turks 1583 

Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the 
Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families 
into his own states 1589 

Overrun by the Russians ISJS 

Surrender of Erzeroum July, 1829 

(See Si/ria and llusso-Turkish War.) 

ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on the 9th of July, 
552 ; the ecclesiastical year ou the 11th of August. To 
reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 
days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 
1 to August 10. The Armenians used the old Julian 
style and mouths in their correspondence with Euro- 
peans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument devised to 

five an idea of the motions of the heavenly bodies. 
t is commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 
manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere 
are seen in then- natural position and motion ; the 
whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have 
been invented by Eratosthenes about 255 B.C., and 
was employed by Tycho Brahe and other astronomers. 

ARMINIANS (oK Remonstrants) derive their for- 
mer name. from James Armiuius (or Ilarmeusen), a 
Protestant divine, of Leyden, Holland (died 16U9) ; the 
latter name from his followers having presented aivc- 
monsfmiice to the States-General in 1610. They sepa- 
rated from the Calvinists, considering Calvin's views 
of grace and predestination in opposition to free will 
too severe. A fierce controversy raged to 1625, when 
the Arminians, who had been exiled, returned to their 
homes. Their doctrines were condemned in 1619, at 
the Synod of Dort {tvhich see). The Calvinists were 
then sometimes styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the 
chief opponent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. 
favored the doctrines ofthe Arminians, which still pre- 
vail largely in Holland and elsewhere. 

ARMOR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 
B.C.) 1 iS'«»i. svii.,5. The warlike Europeans at first 
despised any other defense than the shield. Skins and 
padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron ar- 
mor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body ar- 
mor ofthe Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, 
after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern 
cuirass. — Tacitus. Thislattercoutinued till the Anglo- 
Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, 
A.D. 449. The Norman armor formed breeches and 
jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of the same 
piece, 1100. John wore a surtout over a hauberk of 
rings set edgeways, 1199. The heavy cavalry were 
covered with a coat of mail, Henry III., 1216. Some 
horsemen had visors and skull-caps, same reign. Ar- 
mor became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The 
armor of plate commenced 1407. Black armor, used 
not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V., 1413. 
The armor of Henry VII. consisted ofa cuirass of steel 
in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased 
to reach below the knees, Charles I., 1625. In the reign 
of Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large 
gorget, which is commemorated in the diminutive or- 
nament known at the present day. — Meyrick. 

ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in fam- 
ilies at the close ofthe 12th century. They took their 
rise from the knights painting their banners with dif- 
ferent figures, aud were employed by the Crusaders, in 
order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle, 1100. 
The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction 
or intersection, were invented by ColumbiOi-e in 1639. 
Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 
1808. The United States and each of the states has a 
device equivalent to armorial bearings, with a motto. 
The armorial bearings ofthe English sovereigns are 
given under the article England. 

ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquer- 
ed by Julius Cajsar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls retired there 
and preserved the Celtic tongue, A.D. 584. See Brit- 
tany. 

ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; 
then followed the mace, the battle-axe, pike, spear, 
javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny 
ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. 
See articles on the various weapons throughout the vol- 
ume. 



ARMS. See Armorial hearings and neraldry. 

ARMS' BILL, for the repression of crime and insur- 
rection in Ireland, was passed Oct. 15, 1S31. It was a 
revival of the expired statutes of George III. The 
guns registered under this act throughout the king- 
dom at the close ofthe first year scarcely amounted to 
3000, and the number was equally smifil of all other 
kinds of arms. The new Arms' Bill passed Aug. 22, 
1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rig- 
idly enforced. 

ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amount- 
ing to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017 B.C. 
The first guards and regular troops as a standing army 
were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C. — Eii^cbiim. The army 
of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 1,700,000 
foot and 80,000 horse : 480 B.C. One ofthe first stand- 
ing armies of which we have any account is that of 
Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed 
to Alexander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as be- 
tween 750,000 and a million. The first standing army 
which existed as such, in modern times, was maintain- 
ed in France by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief Euro- 
pean nations have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; 
Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; 
Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. Estimated num- 
ber in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 
horses, 11,000 guns, 

ARMY, United States. The standing army of the 
United States may be said to have begun with the or- 
ganization of the War Department, Aug. 7, 1789. The 
army in 1790 was 1200 strong ; in 1791, 900 men were 
added. In 1798, in view of war with France, a provis- 
ional 10,000 men was authorized, which allowed num- 
ber was the next year enlarged to about 40,000 regu- 
lars and as many volunteers. Some oflicers were ap- 
pointed and men raised, but the danger passed away, 
and the standing army was in 1802 fixed at about the 
old force. During the war of 1812 the army was in- 
creased; 25,000 regulars were voted; and in January 
of that year, 50,000 volunteers were authorized. At the 
peace of 1815 the army was disbanded. In 1831 a peace 
establishment was organized. The Florida War last- 
ed from 1835 to 1842, and required a force increased by 
regulars and militia. At the beginning of the Mexi- 
icau War, May, 1846, the regular army was 7244 strong, 
General Taylor having with him in Texas 8554. Dur- 
ing that war 29,000 regulars were enlisted and 50,000 
volunteers employed. After the war the army was re- 
duced to its previous strength. April 15, 1861, the first 
levy against the rebeilion'was made by the call for 
75,000 volunteers. May 3, 42,000 more volunteers were 
called out for three years or the war. July 22, Congress 
authorized the President to call for 500,000 vohtnteers 
for any proper term, and on the 25th another force of 
500,000 was permitted. The actual ntimbers of the 
United States arrivals in the field, Aug., 18C2, was 
1,135,416, of which the regular army was 43,014. Up 
to the beginning of 1863 the whole number of volun- 
teers sent into the field was 1,276,240. The maximmn 
strength ofthe army is now fixed by the act of July 28, 
1860, at 75,382 rank and file ; its present strength is 
fixed at 54,302 ; and, as soon as the ranks are filled, it is 
designed to raise the standard of qualifications re- 
quired for enlistments. 

ARMY, British, mainly arose in the reign of Charles 
II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction of feudal 
tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry 
were established between 1633 and 1680. James II. 
established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685 
-8). In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 
cavalry. Standing armies were introduced by Charles 
I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 
Charles II., 1679 ; but one was then gradually forming, 
which was maintained by William III., 1689, when the 
Mutiny Act was passed. See Regiments. Grose's "His- 
tory of the British Army" was published in 1801. The 
eflective rank and file ofthe army actually serving in 
the pay of Great Britain on the 24th of Dec, 1800, 
amounted to 168,082; and the estimates ofthe whole 
army in that year were i;i7,973,000. The militia, vol- 
unteers, and other auxiliary forces were of immense 
amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. 
The strength of the volunteer corps was greatest be- 
tween the 3'ear8 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this 
species of force amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 
70,000 were Irish ; and the militia had increased to 
130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being 
recruited from its ranks in 1809. The Tollowing are 
statements of the eff"ective military strength of the 
United Kingdom at the periods mentioned, and ofthe 
sums voted for military expenditure : 



ARM 

Men. Sum voted. 

17S0, Time of war: troops of the liuello.uOO i;7,S47,ooo 

ISUU, War 168,000 17,973,000 

IslO, War : army including foreign 

troops 300,000 26,74S,000 

1815, Last year of the war 300,000 39,150,000 

1820, Time of peace ; war encum- 
brances 88,100 18,253,000 

1830, Peace 89,300 6,991,000 

1840, Peace 93,471 6,890,267 

1850, Peace 99,118 6,763,488 

1862, Peace (except Kaffir War) loi,93T 7,018,164 

1854, War with Russia 112,977 7,167,486 

1856, War with Russia 178,645* 13,721,158 

1856, War with Russia (eflective men 

154,806) 206,836 14,545,059 

(Sept. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men, ex- 
clusive of the Indian armj-.) 

1859, Prospect of European war iu) 109,640 13,300,000 

April— June (in Great Brit- >• (Only those at 
aiu) ) home.) 

1860, War with China 235,852 14,842,000 

1801 212,773 14,168,621 

1862 " " 

1863 (With Indian army) 220,918 15,000,237 

ARMY, AND NAVT, ANB OTHER 0UAEGE8 OF THE WAE 
WITH EU88IA. 



51 



ARS 



Army 

Navy 

Ordnance 

Transports (increase } 
in Navy) f 


Original Esti- 
mate 1854-5. 


Actual Charge 
1854-5. 


Entimate for 
1855-6. 


X6,287,4S6 
7,487,948 
3,845,878 


i:7, 11)7,486 
10,417,309 
6,986,662 
3,582,474 


il3,721,158 
10,716,338 
7,808,042 
6,181,465 




Total 


£17,i;al,:il2 


£27, 153,931 


£37,427,003 



Volunteers in Great Britain in 1862 stated to be 167,291. 

BEITISn AK.MY ; NON-COM.MISSIONEB OPFICEEB AND PRI- 
VATES IN 1840. 



English 

Scotch 

Irish 


Life 
Guards. 


Horse 
Guards. 


Foot 
Guards. 


Cavalry. 


Infantry. 


724 
67 
19 


367 
22 
10 


4314 
472 
64 


6174 
781 
2569 


35,785 
12,046 
36,531 


Total 


810 


399 


4S50 


9524 


84,362 



The Army Service Acts : 12 & 13 Vict., c. 37 (June 
21, 1847), and 18 Vict., c. 4 Feb. 27, 1855 

The Mutiny Act is passed annually ; alterations 
were made in this Act and in the Articles of War 
in 1855. See Militia and Volunteers. 

Officers in the service of the East India Company 
to have the same rank and precedence as those 
in the regular army April 25, " 

The office of Master General of the Ordnance abol- 
ished, and the civil administration of the Army 
and Ordnance vested in the hands of Lord Pan- 
mure, the Minister of War May 25, " 

Examination of staff officers previous to their ap- 
pointment ordered April 9, 1857 

The army largely recruited in 1857 and 1858, in con- 
sequence of the war in India. 

The East India Company's army was transferred 
to the queen 1859 

Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in conse- 
quence of no bounty being granted ; and threat- 
eniugs of mutiny appeared, 'which subsided after 
an arrangement was made granting discharge 
to those who desired it. See India 1859 

Examination of candidates for the Military Acad- 
emy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- 
hurst, was thrown open, 1855; the principle of 
' this measure was affirmed by the House of Com- 
mons by vote April 20, 1858 

By 22 & 23 Vict., c. 42, provision made for a reserve 
force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in 
her majesty's service 1859 

Flogging virtually abolished in the army : First- 
class soldiers to be degraded to second class be- 
fore being liable to it Nov. 9, " 

A report of a commission in 1858 causes great san- 
itary improvements in the army, barracks, etc., 
under the direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert. . .1859-60 

ARMY OF OcoFPATioN. The allied powers, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, by the treaty signed Nov. 20, 1815, 
established the boundaries of France, and stipulated 
for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign 
troops for three years, to the intense disgust of the na- 
tives. 

* Besides this national army, 14,950 foreijjn troops were voted for 
the survice of the year 1855-6 ; and the English militia was called out, 
and Increased to the number of 120,000 men, thus forming a total of 
313,595, exclusive of 20,000 Turkish auxiliaries taken into British pay. 



AROMATICS. Acron of Agrigentum is said to 
have been the first who caused great fires to be made 
and aromatics to to be thrown into them, to purify 
the air, by which means he put a stop to the plague at 
Athens, 473 B.C.-Nouv. Diet. ^ ^ 

ARPAD, Dynasty of, founded in Hungary, A D 
899, by Arpad the Magyar, who died 907 ; ended with 
Andrew HI., 1801. 

ARPINUM (S. Italy), celebrated as the birthplace of 
Cicero, Jan. 3, 106 B.C. ; many remains still bear his 
name. 

ARQUES (N. France). Near here the League armv 
commanded by the Due de Mayenne, was defeated by 
Henry IV., Sept. 21, 1589. 

ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arraean the 
capital, was taken by the Burmese, 1783 ; and taken 
irom them by General Morrison, April 1, 1825. The 
subjugation of the whole province soon followed. 

ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indict- 
ment by the officer of the court, and calling upon the 
prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. 
Formerly, persons who refused to plead in cases of 
felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon 
the breast. A person standing mute was declared con- 
victed by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827 the court 
was directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" in such 
cases. See Mute. 

ARRAS (N.E. of France), the ancient Atrebates, the 
seat of a bishop since 390. Here a treaty was con- 
cluded between the King of France and Duke of Bur- 
gundy, when the latter abandoned his alliance with 
England, Sept. 22, 14.^5. Another treaty was concluded 
by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XL of France, 
whereby the counties of Burgundy and Artois were 
given to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; this lat- 
ter was entered into in 1482 Velln. Arras was held 

by the Austrians from 1493 till 1040i when it was taken 
by Louis XIII. 

ARRAY. On Dec. 23, 1324, Edward IL directed the 
Bishop of Durham to make " arraier" his meu-of-arms, 
horse and foot, and cause them to proceed to Ports- 
mouth ; thence to proceed to the war in Gascony 

Burner's Fcedera. Hallam says that this was the ear- 
liest commission of array that he could find, and that 
the latest was dated 1557. The attempt of Charles L 
to revive commissions of array in 1642, founded on a 
statute of Henry IV., was strenuously opposed as ille- 
gal. 

ARREST FOR DEBT. The State of New York 
was the first to abolish the law of arrest for debt (1831). 
The other states have followed in the same direction 
at various times. 

ARRETINUM. See Arezzo. 

ARSENAL, a great military or naval repositorj'. 
The largest in England is at Woolwich, ivhich see. 
The arsenals of the United States government within 
the rebel states, with the exception of Fortress Mon- 
roe, passed into the hands of the rebels at their se- 
cession. Those maintained by the government in 1SC4 
were as follows : 

Arsenal. State. Post-otBce. 

Kennebec Maine Augusta. 

Springfield (arm'y) .Massachusetts. Springfield. 

Watertown Massachusetts. Watertown. 

Champlain Vermont Vergenues. 

Watervliet New York West Troy. 

New York New York New York. 

Alleghanj' Pennsylvania. .Pittsburg. 

Frankford Pennsylvania. .Bridesburg. ' 

Pikesville Maryland Pikesville. 

Washington Dist. Columbia. Washington. 

Portress Monroe. . .Virginia Old Point Comfort. 

St. Louis Missouri St. Louis. 

Leavenworth Kansas Leavenworth. 

Detroit Michigan Dearboruville. 

Benicia California Benicia. 

The 37th Congress, at its second session, passed an 
act to establish three additional national arsenals at 
Columbus, O. ; Indianapolis, Ind. ; and Rock Island, 
III. 

ARSENIC, a steel-gray colored brittle metal, ex- 
tremely poisonous, known in early times. Brandt, in 
1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chem- 
ical nature. The heinous crimes committed by means 
of this mineral obliged the English Legislature to en- 
act regulations for its sale, 1851. The sale of all col- 
orless preparations of arsenic is regulated by this act. 
In 18.58 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green paper- 
hangings prepared from arsenic were injurious to 



ARS 



52 



AEU 



health ; which appears to be true, although doubted 
by some chemists. 

ARSENITE SoHiSM. See Eastern Church, 1255. 

ARSON was punished with death by the Saxons, 
and remained a capital crime on the consolidation of 
the laws iu 1827, 1S3T, and 1801. If any house be fired, 
persons being therein, or if any vessel be tired, with a 
view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute 
1 Vict, July, 1837. In some of the United States the 
law remains the same as iu England ; others make the 
setting lire to an inhabited house punishable by im- 
prisonment for life. There are various degrees of ar- 
son, and minor punishments for minor degrees of the 
offense. 

ARSOUP (Syria), Battle of, in which Richard I. of 
England, commanding the Christian forces, reduced 
to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens 
and other infidels, on Sept. 3 or 7, 1191. Ascalon sur- 
rendered. Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192. 

ARTEMISIUM, a promoutory in Euboea, near which 
indecisive conflicts took place between the Greek and 
Persian fleets for three days; 480 B.C. The former 
retired on hearing of the battle of Thermopylas. 

ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in 
France, where they frequently occur) are formed by 
boring through the upper soil to strata coutainiug 
water, which has percolated from a higher level, and 
which rises to that level through the boring tube. 
The fountains in Trafalgar Square, Loudon, and gov- 
ernment offices near, have been supplied since 1344 by 
two of these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris, the Gre- 
nelle well (1798 feet deep) was completed in 1841, after 
eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of 
aljout £12,000, and the well at Passy, which, it is said, 
will supply suflicient water for nearly 500,000 persons, 
was begun in 1S55, and completed in 1800 by M. Kind. 
Messrs. Amos and Easton completed an artesian well 
for the Horticultural Society's Garden in 1802. It 
yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 
81° Fahr., in 24 hours. The well at Kissingeu was 
completed in 1850. There are many ■wells "in New 
York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other parts of the 
United States, bored to reach salt water. The petro- 
leum wells recently bored iu Western Pennsylvania 
and elsewhere are artesian. Artesian wells are now 
becoming common. 

ARTICHOKES are said to have been introduced 
from the East into Western Europe iu the 15th centu- 
ry, and to have reached England about 1502. 

ARTICLES or Religion. In June 8, 153G, after 
much disputing, the English clergy in Convocation 
published "Articles decreed by the king's highness" 
Henry VIIL, who published in 1539 the "Statute of Six 
Articles," viz., traiisubstantiation, communion in oue 
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the 
clergy, and auricular confession. In 1.5.51 forty-two 
were published without the consent of Parliament. 
These forty-two were modified and reduced toTuiKxy- 
NiNE in Jan., 1.503 ; and they received the royal author- 
ity and the authority of "Parliament in 1571. The 
Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, at- 
tempted to be imposed by Archbishop Whitgift, were 
withdrawn iu consequence of the displeasure of Queen 
Elizabeth, 1595. Oue hundred and four articles were 
drawn np for Ireland by Archbishop Usher in 1014. 
On the uuiou of the churches, the Irish adopted the 
English articles. See Perth Articles. 

ARTICLES OF War were decreed in the time of 
Richard I. and Johu. Those made by Richard II. in 
1485 appear in Grose's "Military Antiquities." The 
Articles of War now in force are based upon an act, 
passed by William III. in 1089, to regulate the army 
about to engage in his Contiuental warfare. Iu the 
United States, Congress only can make Articles of 
War. These have been based on the English articles 
and Mutiny Act. They were first adopted by the Con- 
tinental Congress, July 80, 1775, and extended March 
20, 177G ; enacted again, with little alteration, April 10, 
1806. 

ARTIFICERS and Manufactureks. Their affairs 
were severely regulated by the statutes of 1.S49, 1351, 
1300, 1502. They were prohibited from leaving En- 
gland, and those abroad were outlawed if they did not 
return within six months after the notice given them. 
A fine of £100, and imprisonment for three months, 
were the penalties for seducing them from these realms 
by 9 Geo. II. (1730) and other statutes, which were re- 
pealed in 1824. 

ARTILLERY, a term including properly all mis- 



siles : now applies to cannon. The first piece was a 
small oue, contrived by Schwartz, a German Cordelier, 
soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artil- 
lery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in 
Spain, in the siege of 1343 ; it was used, according to 
historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1340, when Ed- 
ward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him 
the battle. Artillery was used at the siege of Calais, 
1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against 
the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Said to have been 
used by the English at Calais in 1383. Cast in En- 
gland, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flem- 
ish artists, in Sussex, 1543. — R;/mer's Fcedera. Made 
of brass, 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. (See 
Cannon, Bombs, Carronades (under Carron), Mortal's, 
Howitzers, Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms.) The Royal Ar- 
tillery regiment was established in the reign of Anne. 

ARTILLERY COMPANY of Boston, Mass., was or- 
ganized 163S, and is the oldest military body in the 
United States. It has an annual sermon on occasion 
of its election of officers, and the printed series of 
these discourses begins with that of Rev. Urian Oakes, 
1672. 

ARTILLERY COMPANY of London, Honorable, 
instituted in 1585, having ceased, was revived in 1610. 
It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, 
Finsbury, where the London Archers had met since 
1498. See Archery. In the Civil War, 1641-S, the com- 
pany took the side of the Parliament, and greatly con- 
tributed toward its success. The company numbered 
1200 in 180.3, and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers 
have been appointed by the queen. Ou the decease 
of the Duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort be- 
came colonel and captain general. He died Dec. 14, 
1801, and the Prince of Wales was appointed his suc- 
cessor, Aug. 24, 1803. 

ARTISTS' FUND was established in 1810 to provide 
allowances for sick, and annuities for incapacitated 
members. 

ARTS. In the 8th century, the whole circle of sci- 
ences was composed of seven liberal arts — grammar, 
rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and as- 
tronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society of England 
(which see) obtained its charter A])ril 2, 1063. The So- 
ciety of Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, 
manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754: 
it originated iu the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of 
its first president. Lord Folkestone. — Fine Arts. The 
first public exhibition by the artists of the British me- 
tropolis took place in 1700, at the rooms of the Society 
of Arts, and was repeated there for several years, till, 
in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. 
See Royal Academy. The Society of British Artists 
was instituted May 21, 1823, and their first exhibition 
was opened April 19, 1824. The Society for the En- 
couragement of the Fine Arts was founded in Dec, 
1858. See National (Jallery. 

ART-ITNIONS began in France and Germany early 
in the preseut century. The first in Britain was estab- 
lished at Edinburg ; that iu London was founded in 
1S36, and chartered iu 1840, when these unions were 
legalized. Every subscriber is entitled to prints, and 
has the chance of drawing prizes. The first art-union 
in the United States was the American Art-Union at 
New York, 1839 to 1851. These art-unions are lotteries. 
The New York was discontiniied under the lottery law 
of that state. 

ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons 
about 800. The Duke of Norfolk eujoys the earldom 
of Arundel, as a feudal honor, by Inheritance and pos- 
session of the castle, without any other creation. Phil- 
ip Howard, son of the attainted" Duke of Norfolk, was 
made Earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of 
this castle, 15S0. It was thoroughly repaired by a late 
duke at a vast expense. 

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also Oxford Mar- 
bles ; one containing the chronology of ancient histo- 
ry from 1582 to .355 B.C., and said to have been sculpt- 
ured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, 
and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of 
Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were 
collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by Lord Arundel, 
and giveu by his grandson, Henry Howard, afterward 
Duke of Norfolk,"to the ITniversity of Oxford in 1667, 
and are therefore also called Oxford Marbles. The 
characters of the inscriptions are Greek. There are 
two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Pridcnvx, 1676. 
A variorum edition of the inscriptions, by Mnittaire, 
appeared in 1732, and a fine one, by Chandler, in 17G3. 
See Kidd's Tracts; and Parson's Treatise, 1789. 

ARUSPICES. See Harusxtices. 



AS 63 

AS, .1 Komaii wcis:;lit and coin : when considered as 
a weii^lit, it was a pound ; wlicu a coin, it had diflcr- 
ent wuit;hts, but always the same value. In the reign 
of Servuis, the as weij^hed a pound of brass ; in the 
first Pnnic War, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C. ; in 
the second Punic War, one ounce, 21S B.C. ; and after- 
ward half an ounce; its value was about three far- 
things sterling. . 

ASAPn, ST. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by 
Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. On returning into 
Scotland about r>a\ he left a holy man, St. Asaph, his 
successor, from whom the see takes its name. It is 
valued in the king's books at XIST lis. Gd. By an or- 
der in council, 1S3S, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor 
were to have been united on the next vacancy in either, 
and the bishopric of Manchester was to have been then 
created. This order was annulled in 184G, and the two 
sees still exist. Present income, i;4200. See Maiwhes- 
Ur. 

RECENT lilSnOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 

1802. Samuel Horsley, died Oct. 4, 1806. 

1806. William Cleaver, died May 15, 1815. 

1815. John Lnxmoore, died Jan. 21, 1830. 

1830. William Carey, died Sept. 13, 1S4G. 

1S4G. Thomas Vowler Short (it.ksemt bishop, 1SG5). 

ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split 
into threads and filaments, and which is endued with 
the property of i*emainiug uucousumed in fire. Cloth 
was made o"f it by the Egyptians {Ilcrmlotits), and nap- 
kins in the time of Pliny, 74; and also paper. The 
spinning of asbestos known at Venice about 1500.— 
I'orta. 

ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, shared 
the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The Egyptian army 
was defeated here bv the Crusaders, under Godfrey 
of Bouillon, Aug. 12, 1090. Ascalon was besieged by 
the latter in 1148, taken in 1153, and again in ll'Jl. Its 
fortifications were destroyed for fear of the Crusaders 
by the sultan in 1270. 

ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, 800 
miles N.W. of St. Helena, discovered by the Portu- 
guese in 1501, and taken possession of by the English 
m 1815. 

ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when 
the Church celebrates the ascension of our Savior, the 
fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead. May 
14, 83 ; first commemorated, it is said, 68. Asceusiou 
day, 1S66, Jlay 10 ; 1867, May 30 ; 1868, May 21. 

ASCULUM, now Ascoli, a city of the Picentes, Cen- 
tral Italy, E. Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the 
Romans, 279 B.C. In 2GS B.C., the whole country of 
the Picentes was subdued by the Consul Sempronius. 
InllOOA.D., Andrea, the general of the Emperor Hen- 
ry VI., who was endeavoring to wrest the crown of Na- 
ples from Tancred, was defeated and slain. 

ASIIANTEES, a warlike tribe of negroes of West 
Africa. In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the 
British settlement of Cape Coast Castle is situated. 
On the death of the king, who had been friendly to the 
English, hostilities bega'n ; and on Jan. 21, 1824, the Ash- 
antees defeated about 1000 British under Sir Charles 
M'Carthy at Acfra, and brought away his skull with 
others as trophies. They were totally defeated, Aug. 
27, 1826, by Col. Purdon. The governor of Cape Coast 
Castle began a war with the Ashantees in the spring 
of 1S63. The British troops suffered much through 
disease ; and the war was suspended by the govern- 
ment in May, 1864. 

ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at Washincrtou, 
D. C, Aug. 9, 1S42, by Alexander Baring, Lord .\shhur- 
ton, and Daniel Webster, then secretary of state, plen- 
ipotentiaries. 

ASIIDOWN, or Assendnne, now thought to be As- 
ton, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother Alfred de- 
feated the Danes in 871. 

ASIIMOLEAN LIBRARY (hooks, raannscripts, 
coins, etc.) was presented to the University of Oxford 
by Elias Ashmole, the herald and antiquary, about 
16S2. It included the collection of the Tradescants, to 
whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1G92. 
The Ashmoleau Society, Oxford (scientific), was estab- 
lished in 1S2S. 

ASIITAROTII, a Phrenician goddess, occasionally 
worshiped bv th(! Israelites (see Jidhir.t ij., ^y,) aliout 
1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 9S4 B.C. (1 
Kii)<is xi., 5). 

ASn-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, which in 
early times began on the Sunday now called the first 
in Leut. Pope Felix III., in 4S7", first added the four 



ASS 

days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the num- 
ber of fasting "days to forty ; Gregory the Great (pope, 
5'JO) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of 
the four additional days, and lience the name of Dies 
Cinerum, or Ash-Wednesday. At the Reformation 
this practice was abolished, " as being a mere shadow, 
or vain show." 

ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called by 
the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of 
Oceanus and Tethys, the wife of Japhet. Asia was 
the first quarter of the world peopled: here the law 
of God was first promulgated ; here many of the great- 
est monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and hence 
most of the arts and sciences have been derived. Its 
early history is derived from Herodotus, who relates 
the wars of Crcesus, Cyrus, and others. See China, In- 
dia, Persia, and the other countries. 

ASIA MINOR (now Anatolia) comprised the Ionian 
colonies on the coast, the early seats of Greek civili- 
zation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bi- 
thynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, etc., with the cities 
Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna {all which see). From the time 
of the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., 
to that of the Turks under Osmau, Asia Minor was 
the battle-field of the conquerors of the world. 
First settlement of the Ionian Greeks about B.C. 1043 

Asia Minor subdued by the Medes about 711 

Conquered by Cyrus about 54G 

Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 

Asia Minor conquered by Alexander 332 

Contended for by his successors ; separate king- 
doms established 321-278 

Gradually acquired by the Romans B.C. 188 to A.D. 15 

Possessed by the Persians C09 

Partially recovered by the Emperor Basil 874 

Invaded by Timour 1402 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established 

as an empire by the Turks under Mohammed 1. 1413 

ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The "Asiatic Society of 
Bengal," at Calcutta, was established by Sir William 
Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its investigation to be 
the geographical limits of Asia." Tlie "Royal Asiatic 
Society,"" which has several branches in India, was 
founded in 1823. It established the " Oriental Trans- 
lation Fund" in 1828, which has published 83 volumes 
of Eastern literature (1805). 

ASMON^AN DYNASTY. See Maccabees. 

ASPERNE AND EssLiNG, near the Danube and Vi- 
enna, where a series of desperate conflicts took place 
between the Austrian army under the Archduke 
Charles, and the French under Napoleon, Massena, 
etc., on May 21-22, 1809, ending in the defeat of Na- 
poleon ; the severest check that he had yet received. 
The loss of the former exceeded 20,000 men, and of the 
latter 30,000. The daring Marshal Lannes was killed ; 
the bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and Napo- 
leon's retreat endangered ; but the success of the Atts- 
trians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent pros- 
ecution of the war. 

ASPHALT, a solid bituminous suhstance, which in 
nature probably derived its origin from decayed veg- 
etable matter. The artificial asphalt obtained from 
gas-works began to be used as pavement about 1838. 
Claridge's patent asphalt was laid down in Trafalgar 
Square', Jan., 1804. 

ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was de- 
feated, wounded, and taken prisoner, Aug. 29, 1862, 
having injudiciously risen against the French occupa- 
tion of Rome. 

ASSAM (N. E. India) came under British dominion 
in 1825, and was surrendered by the King of Ava in 
182G. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. Bruce 
in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests was ap- 
pointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having 
been recommended by Lord William Bentinck in 1834. 
The Assam Tea Company was established in 1839. 
The tea was much in use in England in 1S41. Chinese 
labor has been introduced, and the growth of tea is 
enormously increasing. 

ASSASSINATION PLOT, said to have been formed 
bv the Earl of Aylesbury and others to assassinate 
William III., near Richmond, Surrey, and restore 
James IL Its object would have been attained, Feb. 
14, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. 

ASSASSINATION op LINCOLN. On the night of 
the 14th of April, 1865, President Lincoln, while wit- 
nessing the play of " Our American Cousin," at Ford's 
Theatre, Washington, was shot by John Wilkes Booth, 
brother of Edwin Booth, the tragedian. The Presi- 
dent died the next morning. Booth was afterward 



ASS 



Si 



ASS 



killed in the attempt to capture him (April 2G). Oth- 
ers were arrested as accomplices, and amoug them 
Mrs. Siirratt, Louis Payne (Powell), J. W. Atzerott, and 
David C. Harold, who were executed July 7, 1805, 

ASSASSINATIONS. Some of the most celebrated 
took place as follows: Julius Csesar was assassinated 
March 15, -14 B.C. ; William, prince of Orange, July 10, 
1584; Henry IV. of France, May 14, 1010 ; Archbishop 
Sharp, May 1, 1679 ; Gustavus III. of Sweden, March 
6, 1792 ; Paul, czar of Russia, March 23, 1801 ; Abra- 
ham Lincoln, president of the United States, April 14, 
1S05. 

ASSASSINS, OK AssASSiNiANs, a band of fanatical 
Mohammedans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and 
settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed 
a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. 
They murdered the Marquis of Montferrat in 1192 ; 
Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; and the Khan of Tartary in 
1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257, and 
were extirpated in 1272. The chief or king of the 
corps assumed the title of ^^Aiicient of the Mountain " 
and " Old Man of the Mountain."* They trained up 
youug people to assassinate such persons as their chief 
had devoted to destruction. — UenauU. From this fra- 
ternity the word a-ssassin has been derived. 

ASSAY OF GoT-n and Sii.veu originated with the 
Bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in the reign of 
Henry I. — Du Canr/e. But certainly some species of 
assay was practiced as early as the Roman Conquest. 
Assay was established in England, 1354 ; regulated 13 
Will. III., 1700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters ap- 
pointed at Shefti'.'ld and Birmingham, 1773. The al- 
loy of gold is silver and copper,"that of silver is cop- 
per. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of flue 
gold. Standard silver is IS dwts. of copper to 11 ozs. 
2 dwts. of tine silver. See Guldsmiths' Company. 

ASSAYE (E. Indies), Battle or. The British armv, 
under General Arthur Wellesley (afterward Duke of 
Vi''ellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south, 
took the fort of Ahmednuggur, Aug. 12, and defeated 
Scindiah and the Rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23, 
1803. This was Wellington's first great battle, in 
which he opposed a force full more than ten times 
greater than his own (only 4500 men). The enemy re- 
tired in great disorder, leaving behind the whole of 
their artillery, ammunition, and stores. 

ASSEMANI. The name given to a Christian Syr- 
ian family, well versed in Oriental literature, and mem- 
bers of which contributed especially to the cultivation 
of this literature in Europe. The first and most learn- 
ed of the family was Joseph Simon, born at Tripoli, 
1087 ; died at Rome, 1708. Two of his nephews re- 
ceived a clerical education at Rome, and during the 
18th century were distinguished as Orientalists. Abbot 
Simon, one of this family, was professor of Oriental lan- 
guages at the LTniversity of Padua, where he died, 1821. 

ASSEMBLY of Divines, held at Westminster, July 
1, 1043, convoked by order of Parliament, to consider 
the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the Church. 
Two members were elected for each county. They 
adopted the Scottish Covenant, and drew up the di- 
rectory for public worship, a confession, and the cate- 
chisms now used by the Church of Scotland. The last 
(1163d) meeting was on Feb. 22, 1G49. See Church of 
Scotland. 

ASSENS, Batti-f, of. Christian IIL of Denmark 
and Norway defeated the Danish rebels, 1535. 

ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduc- 
tion has been as variously stated as the taxes comin,"- 
under this head have been defined— all things have 
been assessed, from lands and houses to dogs and hair- 
powder. By some the date is referred to the rei<rn of 
Ethelbert, in 991 ; by others to that of Ilcury VIII. 
1522 ; and by more, to the reign of William IIL, 10S'.>' 
when a land-tax was imposed. See Land-tax. The 
assessed taxes yielded in 1815 (the last year of the 
war), exclusively of the laud-tax, .£6,524,706, their high- 
est amount. These imposts have varied in their na- 
ture and amount, according to the exigencies of the 
state, and the contingencies of war and peace. They 
were considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801, et ftcq., 
but considerably reduced in 1810 and in subsequent 
years. The last act for the repeal of certain assessed 
taxes was passed 10 & 17 Vict., cap. 90, Aug. 20, 1853, 
Avhich was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict, 
cap. 1, Feb. 17, 1854.— Acts for the better securing and 

* He sent his emissaries to assassinate Louis IX. of France, called St. 
Louis ; hut, heini; afterward affected by the fame of this kintj's virtues, 
and he heing at the time in his minority, he grave the prince notice to 
take care of himself.— Z/enouft. This statement is doubted. 



accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 
10, 1854. See Taxes and Income Tax. 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the King of Spain 
and other powers for furnishing the Spanish domin- 
ions in America with negro slaves, began with the 
Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the Brit- 
ish government engaged to furnish 4300 negroes an- 
nually to Spanish America for thirty years. "The con- 
tract was vested in the South Sea Company ; but this 
infamous contract was given up in 1750. See Guinea. 

ASSIGNATION, a Russian paper-money introduced 
about 1770, principally to carry on the war against 
Turkey. Issued extensively, also, during the wars 
against Napoleon. 

ASSIGNATS, a paper currency, ordered by the Na- 
tional Assembly of France to .support public credit 
during the Revolution, April, 1790. At one period, 
eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds ster- 
ling, of this paper were in circulation in France and 
its dependencies. — Aliaon. Assiguats were superseded 
by mandats in 1796. 

ASSIZE COURTS {from assideo, I sit) are of very an- 
cient institution in England, and in old law books are 
defined to be an assembly of knights and other sub- 
stantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain 
time and place: regulated by Mas;naCharta, 1215. The 
present justices oif assize and Sisi Prius are derived 
from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I., 1284.— 
Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, 
or other of the country, shall sit upon the bench with 
the justices to take assize in their sessions in the coun- 
ties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king," 20 
Rich. II., 1396. — Statutes, Brourjh Act. Assizes are gen- 
eral or special ; general when the judges go their cir- 
cuits, and special when a commission is issued to take 
cognizance of one or more causes. See Bloody Assize, 
ASSOCIATIONS. See National Associations. 
ASSUMPTION, Feast of tue, Aug. 15. It is ob- 
served by the Church of Rome in honor of the Virgin 
Mary, who is said to have been taken up to heaven in 
her corporeal form, body and spirit, on this day, 45, in 
her 75th year. The festival was instituted in the 7th 
century, and enjoined by the Council of Mentz, 813. 

ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia 
and Media, was the seat of the earliest recorded mon- 
archy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an 
early Greek historian of doubtful authenticity, Herod- 
otus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery of the 
very interesting Niuevite antiquities, uow in the Brit- 
ish Museum, by Mr. Layard, and the deciphering of 
many ancient cuneiform inscriptions by Grotefend, 
Sir H. Ravvlinson, and other scholars, have drawn 
much attention to the Assyrians. The chrouologers, 
Blair, Usher, Hales, and Clinton, difler much in the 
dates they assign to events in Assyrian history, of 
which a large portion is now considered fabulous by 
modern writers. 
Nimrod or Belus reigns. . . .B.C. [2554 H., 2235 C] 2245 

" Asshur builded Nineveh" (G'ew. x., 11) about 221S 

Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names 

his capital Nineveh [2182 0.] 2009 

Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the 
Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all A.sia Mi- 
nor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- 
pire— Blair [2233 C] 20.59 

Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus 201T 

Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- 
ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon, and 

makes it the seat other dominion [2130 C.^2007 

She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India — Lenglet. .1975 

She is put to death by her son Ninyas 1965 

Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns 1927 

Reign of Aralins 189T 

Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus. 1446 

He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semira- 
mis II., his associate on the throne 1433 

Atossa procures the death of her father, and mar- 
ries Belatores (orBelapares), who reigns 1421 

The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and fore- 
tells its destruction — Blair 840 

Nineveh taken by Arbaces. [Sardanapalns, the I 

king, is mythically said to have inclosed him- 
self. His court, and women in his palace, and to 
have perished in the fire kindled by himself]. . . 820 

Phul raised to the ihrone— Blair about 77T 

He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a 
sword— />?«?>; 2 Kinqs xv., 19, 20 770 

Tiglath-Pilcser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and 
makes great conquests 740 



AST 



55 



ATE 



Sha]maiicf=er takes Samaria, transports the people, 
vlioni he replaces by a colouy of Ciitheaiis aud 
uthers, aud thus finishes the kingdom of Israel 
—lilair T21 

lie retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five 
years— />Va?r 713 

Sennacherib invades Judea, aud his general, Rab- 
shakc'h, licsiegcs Jerusalem, when the angel of 
the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his 
army — fsaiak xxsvii 710 

[Ciiiniiieiitators suppose that this messenger of 
di'ath was the fatal blast known in Eastern 
countries by tlie name of Saviiel.'] 

Esar-haddon invades Judea 6S0 

lioloferues is slain by Judith (?) 0T7 

Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife 
and cliildreu, and burns himself in his palace. . . C21 

Kincveh razed to the ground, and Assyria becomes 
a ISledian province. 605 

A.-syria subdued by Alexander the Great 332 

It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of 
Syria, I'arthia, and Persia. 

It was conquered by the Turks A.D. 1637 

ASTEROIDS. See Planets. 

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. See under Thea- 
tres. 

ASTOR LIBRARY, New Y'ork. John Jacob Astor 
(born at Waldorf, near Heidelberg, July 17, 1703, died 
at New York, March 29, 1S4S) left by will $400,000 to 
establish " a public library in the city of Now York." 
Dr. Cogswell was made librarian. May, IS-tS, went to 
Europe, aud In four months bought 20,000 books for 
$•20,000, and in a short time afterward bought 50,000 
more, and the library was opened, with about 80,000 
volumes in all, Jan. 9, 1S54, in the present building. In 
Jan., IS.'iO, William B. Astor, son of the founder, gave 
the land to double the size of the building, which has 
since been done, and it has now room for over 200,000 
volumes. The present number of books is over 100,000. 

ASTOR PLACE RIOTS, made by friends of Edwin 
Forrest to break up Mr. Macready's acting at the Astor 
Place Opera House in New York, May 10, 1S49. 

ASTORGA (N.W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Au- 
gusta, was taken by the French in ISIO, and treated 
with great severity. 

ASTORIA, Oregon, at the mouth of Columbia River, 
founded ISIO, by John Jacob Astor, as a station for his 
fur trade. 

ASTRA CAN (S.E. Russia), a province acquired from 
the Mogul's empire in 1554 ; visited and settled by Pe- 
ter the Great iu 1722. 

ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by 
the Chakheans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyp- 
tians, Greeks, and Romans. It was nuich in vogue' in 
Italy and France in the time of Catharine de Medicis 
(married to Francis I. of France, 'i5S^).—Uenault. The 
early history of astrology iu England is very little 
known. It is said that Bede, 673-735, was addicted to 
it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Burleigh cal- 
culated the iiativity of Elizabeth, and she, and all the 
European princes, "were the humble servants of Dee, 
the astrologer and conjuror ; but the period of the Stu- 
arts was the acme of astrology among us. It is stated 
that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his 
projected escape from Carisbrooke Castle in 1647. — 
Fcntvson. Astrological almanacs are still published 
iu New York and London. 

ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical observa- 
tions were made at Babylon about 2234 B.C. The 
study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldaea 
nuder Nabonassar ; It was known to the Chinese about 
1100 B.C.; some say many centuries before. See 
EclijMi'H, Planets, Comets. 
Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded 

by Ptolemy about B.C. 720 

Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of 

hmar ccOiiiscs, taught by Thales, died 546 

Farther discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the 
doctrine of celestial motions, and believed iu the 

l)lurality of habitable worlds, died about 470 

Melon introduces the lunar solar cycle about 432 

Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," 
and of Autolycus "on the motion of the sphere" 
(the earliest extant works on astronomy), about 350 

Aratus writes a poem on astronomy 281 

Arcbiuiedes observes solstices, etc 212 

llipi)archus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- 
iniucs mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers 

prerrssion of cnuinoxes, etc 160-125 

The precession of the equinoxes couflrmed, aud 



the places and distances of the planets discover- 

ed by Ptolemy A.D. 130-150 

Astronomy and geography cidtivated by the Arabs 

about 700; brought into Europe about fOO 

Alphousine Tables {whieli see) composed about 1253 

Clocks first used in astrouomy about 1500 

True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bod- 
ies revived by Copernicus, fouuder of modern 
astrouomy, anthcn- of the Almagest, published. 1543 
Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet ad- 
heres to the Ptolemaic system about 1583 

True laws of the planetary motions announced by 

^ Kepler igqo 

Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers 

Jupiter's satellites, etc Jan. 8, 1010 

Various forms of telescopes and other instruments 

used iu astrouomy invented 1608-40 

Cartesian System published by Des Cartes. ..... .1637 

The transit of Veuus over the sun's disk first ob- 
served by Horrocks Nov. 24, 1639 

Cassini draws his meridian line, after Daute. See 

Bologna \Qt>5 

The aberration of the light of the fixed starsdis- 

covered by Horrebow 1059 

Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1054 

Gregory invents a reflecting telescope .".1663 

Discoveries of Picard 1669 

Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiuer, Lan- 

grenus, Ilevelius, Riccioli, and others about 1670 

Discoveries of Riimer on the velocity of light, and 

his observation of Jupiter's satellites 1675 

Greenwich Observatory founded " 

Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by 

Halley '.ic7G 

Newton's Pi-incijyia published ; and the system, as 

now taught, demonstrated 1687 

Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed IGSS 

Cassiui's chart of the full moon executed 1092 

Satellites of Saturn, etc., discovered by Cassini. . .1701 
Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758).. 1705 

Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis published 1725 

Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. 

Bradley • 1737 

John Harrison produces chronometers for deter- 
mining the longitude, 1735cise<;., and obtains the 

reward 1704 

Nautical almanac first published 1767 

Celestial inequalities found by La Grange 17S0 

Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel. See 

Georgiuin Sidus March 13, 1781 

Mecanique Celeste, by La Place, published 179(5 

Royal Astronomical Society of London founded, 

1S20 ; chartered 1831 

Beer and Mildler's map of the moon published 1S34 

Lord Rosse's telescope constructed 1828-45 

The planet Neptune discovered Sept. 23, 1846 

Bond photographs the moon (see Photofjraphy, ce- 
lestial) ; \ 1S51 

Hansen's table of the moon published at the ex- 
pense of the British government 1857 

Trustees of the late Rev. Richard Sheepshanks 
present X10,000 stock to Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, for the promotion of the study of astrou- 
omy, meteorology, and magnetism Dec. 2, 1S5S 

Large photograph of the mo"ou by Warren de la 

Rue 18G3 

(For the minor planets recently discovered, see 
Planets.) 

ASTURIAS (N.W. Spain), an ancient principalitv, 
the cradle of the present monarchy. Here Pelayo col- 
lected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, and fouiided a 
new kingdom, and by his victories permanently check- 
ed the progress of the Moorish conquest. For a list of 
his successors, see the article Spain. The heir-appar- 
ent of the monarchy has borne the title "Prince ofAs- 
turias" since 13SS, when it was assumed by Henry, son 
of John I., king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- 
scendant of Peter of Castile. In ISOS, the Junta of As- 
turias began the organized resistance to the French 
usurpation. 

ASYLUMS, OK Privileged Places, at first were 
places of refuge for those who by accident or necessi- 
ty had done things that rendered them obnoxious to 
the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain 
cities for this purpose, 1451 B.C., Xumbers xxv.— The 
posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at 
Athens, to protect themselves against such as their 
father had irritated. Cadmus bnilt one at Thebes, 
1400 B.C., and Romulus one at Mount Palatiue, 751 
B.C. See Sanctuarirs. 

ATELIERS NATIONAFX (National Workshops) 
were established by the French provisional govern- 
ment in Feb., 1S4S. They interfered greatly with pri- 



ATH 



ATII 



vate trade, aud about 100,000 workmen threw tliem- 
eelves upon the government for labor and payment. 
The breakiug-up of the system led to the fearful con- 
flicts in June following. The system was abolished 
in July. 

ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of Alexan- 
dria, was elected bishop, 32C. He firmly opposed the 
doctrines of Arins (who denied Christ's divinity) ; was 
several times exiled ; and died in 373. The creed which 
goes by his name is supposed by many authorities to 
have been written about 340 ; by others to be the com- 
pilation of Vigilius Tapsensis, au African bishop in 
the 5th century. It was first commented on by Vena- 
tius Fortunatus, bishop of Poictiers, in 5T0. Dr. Wa- 
terlaud's History of this creed (1723) is exhaustive. 
See Arians. 

ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Theos, God, 
see Pmliii xiv., 1). This doctrine has had its votaries 
aud martyrs. Spinoza was the defender of a similar 
doctrine (1*'32-1077). Lucilio Vaniui publicly taught 
atheism iu France, and was condemned to be burnt at 
Toulouse iu 1019. jNIathias Knutzeu, of Holstein, 
openly professed atheism, and had upward of a thou- 
sand disciples in Germany about 1074; he traveled to 
make proselytes, and his followers were called Con- 
scienciaricn, because they held that there is do other 
deity than conscience. 

ATHEN.^A were great festivals celebrated at Ath- 
ens in honor of Minerva. One was called Panatheuiea, 
the other Chalcea ; they are said to have been insti- 
tuted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 1397 or 14S5 B.C. ; 
and Theseus afterward renewed them, aud caused 
them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first ev- 
ery fifth year, 1234 B.C.— Plutarch. 

ATHEN^TJM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, 
where the poets and philosophers recited their compo- 
sitions. The most celebrated Athennea were at Athens, 
Home, and Lyons : that of Rome, of great beauty, was 
erected by the Emperor Adrian, 125. — The Athen^um 
Club, of Loudon, was formed in 1S23, for the associa- 
tion of persons of scientific and literary attainments, 
artists, noblenieu aud gentlemen, patrons of learning, 
etc., by the Earl of Aberdeen, Marquess of Lansdowne, 
Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Croker, 
Chantrey, Faraday, Lawrence, and others ; the club- 
house was erected in 1S29-30 on the site of the late 
Carlton Palace; it is of Grecian architecture, and the 
frieze is au exact copy of the Pauathenaic procession 
which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. — The Liv- 
erpool Athenaeum was opened Jan. 1, 1799. — At Man- 
chester, Bristol (England), and many other places, 
buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, 
have been founded. — The Athcnrvuin, a London week- 
ly literary journal, first appeared in 1S2S. 

ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of the 
modern kingdom of Greece. The tirst sovereign men- 
tioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Bffiotia, and was 
master of Attica, then called Ionia. Iu his reign 
(about 17C4 B.C.) a delude took place (by some sup- 
posed to be the universal deluge), that laid waste the 
country, in which state it remained two hundred 
years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops aud a 
colony, by whom the laud was repeopled, and twelve 
cities founded, 1550 B.C. The city is said to have been 
first called Cecropia ; the name having been changed 
to Athens in honor of Minerva (Athene), her worship 
having been introduced by Erechtheus 13S3 B.C. 
Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings (4S7 
years), by thirteen perpetual archons (310 years), sev- 
en decennial archons (70 years), aud lastly by anmtal 
archons (700 years). It attained great power, aud per- 
haps no other city in the world can boast, in such a 
short space of time, of so great a number of citizens 
illustrious for wisdom, genius, and valor. The an- 
cients, to distinguish Athens in a more peculiar man- 
ner, called it Antxi, the city, by eminence, and one of 
the eyes of Greece. See Greece. 

Arrival of Cecrops B.C. [155S H., 1433 Cl.1 1556 

The Areopagus established 1507 

Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 

Reign of Amphictyon [1499 H.] 1497 

The Pauathenteau Games [14S1 H.] 1495 

Erichthonius reigus 14S7 

Erectheus teaches husbandry 1383 

Eleusinian my.steries introduced by Eumolpus 1350 

Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusiuiaus. .1347 
.iEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne.. .1283 
He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned; 

hence the name of the .lEgean Sea. — Eusehiiui . .12^5 
Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years. . . " 
He collects his subjects into one city, and names 
it Athens 1234 



Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; DemophoOn 11S2 

Court of Ephetes established 1179 

The PriauepsiB instituted 1173 

Melauthus conquers Xuthus iu single combat and 

is chosen king ll2S 

Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king 1092 

In a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : 
he had resolved to perish ; the oracle having de- 
clared that the victory should be with the side 
whose leader was killed, 1070. Royalty abolish- 
ed — Athens governed by archons ; Medon the 

first [1U70 //.] 1044 

Alcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies 753 

Cherops, first decennial archon 752 

Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty ; among other 
acts, he exposed his own daughter to be devour- 
ed by horses on account of an illicit amour 713 

Erixias, seventh and last decennial archon, dies . . . 6S4 

Creou first anmud archon 683 

Draco, the twelfth annual archon, publishes his 

laws, said " to have been written in blood" 621 

Solon supersedes them by his excellent code 594 

Pisistratus, the "tyrant," seizes the supreme pow- 
er, 500 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus estab- 
lishes his government, 537 ; collects a public li- 
brary, 531 ; dies 527 

First tragedy acted at Athens, on a wagon, by 

Thespis 535 

Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aris- 

toijeiton 514 

The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the 

Pisistratidfe banished 510 

Lemuos taken by Miltiades 504 

Invasion of the Persians, who are defeated at Mar- 
athon 490 

Death of Miltiades 489 

Aristides, surnamed the Jiist, banished 483 

Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes 4S0 

Burnt to the ground by Mardonius 479 

Rebuilt and fortified ; Piraeus built 47S 

Themistocles bauished 471 

Cimou, son of Miltiades, overruus all Thrace 409 

Pericles takes part in public aftairs, 409 ; he and 
Cimon adorn Athens, 404; the latter banished 

through his influence 401 

Athens begins to tyrannize over Greece 459 

Literature, philosophy, and art flourish 448 

The first Sacred (or Social) War ; lohich see " 

Tolmidas conducts au expedition into Boeotia, and 

is defeated and killed near Coronea 447 

The thirty years' truce between the Athenians and 

Lacedffimonians 445 

Herodotus said to have read his history iu the 

council at Athens " 

Pericles obtains the government 444 

Pericles subdues Samos 440 

Comedies prohibited at Athens " 

Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war 
with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponuesiau 

War (lasted 27 years) ; it began 431 

A dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged Ethiopia, 
Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and 

continues for five years 430 

Death of Pericles of the plague 429 

Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the 
commanders Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athe- 
nian fleet destroyed by Gylippus 415^13 

Government of the " four hundred" 411 

Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus ; 

tcltich see 410 

Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign pow- 
er, banished 407 

Athenian fleet destroj'ed by Lysauder at .(Egospo- 

tamos 405 

He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are 
destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Peloponue- 
siau War termiuates 404 

Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by 

Thrasybulus 403 

Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 

The Corinthian War begins. 395 

Cimon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 

Pirieus 393 

The Lacedieraonian fleet defeated at Naxos by 

Chabrias 376 

Philip, king of Macedou, opposes the Athenians. 

See Maccdon 359 

Second Sacred (or Social) War 357-355 

First Philippic of Demosthenes 352 

Battle of Chseronea, which see ; the Athenians and 

Thebans defeated by Philip 333 

Philip assassinated by Pausanias 336 

Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the ora- 
tors 335 



ATII 



67 



ATT 



Death of Alexander 303 

The Atheuiaut^, risinj^ against Macedou, defeated 

at Crauon ; IJcmostheues poisons himself 322 

Athens surrenders to C'assauder, who governs well 318 
Ucuietrius I'oliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalere- 
us, and restores the Athenian democracy, 3(lT; 

the hitter takes the chair of |)hiIosni)liy 20G 

A league between Athens, 8])arta, and Egypt 27T 

Athens taken by AntigonusCJonatas, king of Mace- 
dou, 2(js ; restored by Aratus 250 

The Athenians join the Achaaan League 229 

They join the ^tolians against Macedou, and 

send for assistance to Ronic 215 

A Roman fleet arrives at Athens 211 

The Romans jjroclaini liberty at Athens 100 

Subjugation of Greece I44 

The Athenians implore assistance against the Ro- 
mans from INIithridates, kin^ of Poutus, whose 
general, Archelaus, makes nimself master of 

Athens SS 

Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general, it is 

reduced to surreuder by timinc SO 

Cicero studies at Athens, 7" and Horace 42 

The Athenians desert Pompey to follow the inter- 
ests of Ctesar 47 

Athens visited by the Apostle Paul A.D. 52 

Many temples, etc., erected by Hadrian 122-135 

Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaugh- 
ter 39C 

By Mohammed II 145G 

By the Venetians 1400 

Restored to the Turks I479 

Athens suftcred much during the insurrection, 

1S21-7. Taken May 17 1S27 

Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern 

_ Greece I833 

Population, 50,000 1857 

(See article Greece.) 
ATHERTON GAG. Resolutions to have all peti- 
tions and papers whatever relating to slavery "laid 
on the table, without being debated, printed, or re- 
ferred," introduced by Hoii. C. G. Athertou, of New 
Hampshire, passed by the United States House of 
Representatives by 120 to 78, Dec. 11, 1S3S, given up as 
useless, 1S45. 

. ATHERTOX MOOR, battle of, June 30, 1043. The 
Koyalists, under the Marquis of Newcastle, completely 
defeatiur- '■'— "-■■" ' - ' • - • - 



Essex. 



the Parliamentary army under the Earl of 



ATHLONB, Roscommon, Ireland, formerly a place 
of great strength and beauty, was burnt during the 
Civil War in 1041. After the battle of the Boyne, Col- 
onel R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a 
besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault 
by Ginckel, June 30, 1091. See Awjhrim. 

ATLANTA CAMPAIGN (May G-Sept. 2, 1804). This 
campaign, in which Generals Sherman and Johnston 
were antagonists, until the latter was relieved by 
Hood, is strategically the most interesting of the 
American Civil War. Sherman advanced (May 0) with 
98,(1(10 men against Johnston, who was then posted 
and strongly fortified at Dalton with an army about 
half as large as that opposing him. The following 
are the important events of the campaign in their 
chronological order: 

Sherman demonstrated against Rocky Face Ridge 
(Buzzard's Roost), and sent M'Pherson's aniiy 
(over 20,000 strong) to gain Resaca and cut off 
Johnston's retreat (May 0). M'Pherson tailing, 
Sherman followed him with his whole army, and 
attacked Johnston, who had fallen back to Re- 
saca. Johnston worsted May 14, 15, 1804 

Johnston retreated to Cassville (May 15-10) and 

finally across the Etowah May 20, " 

Jeff. C. Davis captured Rome May 17, " 

Sherman crossed the Etowah (May 23) and moved 
on Dallas, and, finding Johnston concentrated at 
New Hope Church, an indecisive battle followed. 

May 25, " 
Howards corps assailed Cleburne and was re- 

Pidsed May 27, " 

Confederate attack on M'Pherson repulsed. 

May 28, " 

Sherman all the while (May 24-June 4) deploying 

up to the Confederate lines, left Johnston in his 

intrenchments, established himself at Ackworth, 

on the railroad, and made Allatoona Pass a for- 

tified dep<H June 0, " 

Johnston occupied Kenesaw, Lost, and Pine Mount- 
ains, covering ;Marictta on the north ; and Sher- 
man, having moved to Big Shanty, broueht his 
armies close up to Kenesaw June 11, " 



General Polk killed on Pine Mountain. . .June 14 1S64 

Sherman's unsuccessful assault on Kenesaw Hai'- 
ker killed ." j„„g ^\ „ 

Johnston, flanked, abandoned Kenesaw. . July 0' » 

Schofield obtained a foothold south of the Chatta- 
hoochee (July 7) ; M'Pherson followed ; John- 
ston crossed the Chattahoochee, and took un a 
position on Peach-tree Creek Julv 9 « 

Rousseau started out from Decatur, Alabama, upon 
his raid against the West Point Railroad (July 
10) ; crossed the Coosa, and defeated Clantou 
(July 13) ; struck the railroad, destroyed a por- 
tion of It, and returned to Marietta .... July 22 " 

Sherman crossed the Chattahoochee with Thom- 
as 8 army. Johnston relieved by Hood . Jnlv 17 " 

Battle of Peach-tree Creek. The Confederates 
gamed a partial success at first, but the national 
lorces maintained their position. July 20 " 

^^l'<l''.u°^ Decatur. Hood attacked Sherm'an's left' 
^r T?*^m 'Ji! ^^'"'^'' = also the Confederate general ■ 
W. H. T. Walker. The Confederates, successful 
at first, finally repulsed July'22, « 

Anuy of Tennessee (under Howard) moved from 
Decatur to the northwest of Atlanta. Hooker 
resigned j„iy 27 

Hood attacked Howard in his new position and 
was repulsed ju]v 28 " 

Sherman extended his lines southward, ' 

T3 *.i f T , ^ , July 28-Aiig. 10 " 
Battle of Jonesborough (south of Atlanta). Har- 
dee attacked Sherman, and was repulsed. Cap- 
ture of Jonesborough Aug. 31 Sept 1 " 

Atlanta evacuated by Hood '. Sept.' 2' " 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Telegra2)h.' "' 
ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the constitu- 
ent gases of a compound gas (such as atmospheric air) 
by causing it to pass through a vessel of porous mate- 
rial (such as graphite) ; first made known in Auf^ust. 
l.%3, by the discoverer, Professor T. Graham, P ll S 
Master of the Mint. ' '' 

ATMOMETER, an instrument to measure evapora- 
tion invented by Sir John Leslie (born at Largo, Scot- 
land, April 10, 1700, died Nov. 3, 1832). 

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea of pro- 
ducing motion by atmospheric pressure was conceived 
by Papin, the French engineer, about 1080. Experi- 
ments were made on a line of rail, laid down across 
Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's 
Bush and the Great Western Railroad, to test the effi- 
cacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air- 
pump, and speed of carriages upon this new principle 
on railroads in June, 1S40, and then tried on a line lie- 
tween Croydon and London, 1845. An atmospheric 
railway was commenced between Dalkey and Killi- 
ney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept., 1S43 ; opened 
March 29, 1844; discontinued in 1855. A similar rail- 
way was proposed to be laid down in the streets of 
London by Mr. T. W. Rammell in 1857. Mr. Rammell's 
Pneumatic Railway was put in action successfully at 
the Crystal Palace on Aug. 27, 1804, and following days 
An act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo 
Railway station and Whitehall was passed in Julv 
1805. •' ' 

_ ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the 
indivisible particles of all substances. The somewhat 
incoherent labors of his predecessors (such as Weuzel 
in 1777) were reduced by John Dalton to four laws of 
combining proportion, which have received the name 
of "Atomic Theory." His "Chemical Philosophy" 
containing the exposition of his views, appeared iu 
1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory 
was published in 1850. In his standard of Atomic 
weights Dalton takes hydrogen as 1. Berzelins, who 
commenced his elaborate researches on the subject iu 
1848, adopts oxygen as KiO. The former standard is 
used in this country, the latter on the Continent. 

ATTAINDER, Acts of, whereby a person not only 
forfeited his land, but his blood was attainted, have 
been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high trea- 
son are necessary where corruption of blood is incur- 
red, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand 
mute, 7 «fc 8 Will. III., imi-5.—Blackstonc. In 1814 and 
1833 the severity of attainders was mitigated. The at- 
tainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lin- 
coln's Inn Fields, July 21, 1083, was reversed under 
William in 1080. The rolls and records of the acts of 
attainder passed in the reign of James II. were can- 
celed and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1005. Among the last 
acts reversed was the attaint of the children of Lord 
Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebel- 
lion in Ireland of 1708), July 1,1810. 

ATTICA. Sec Athens. 



ATT 



■58 



AUG 



ATTILA, suraamed the "Sconrrje of God," and thus 
distiuiiiiished for his couquests and crimes, having 
ravai,'ed the Eastern Empire from 445 to 450, when he 
made peace with Theodosius. lie invaded the West- 
ern Empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius at Cha- 
lons, 451 ; he then retired into Paunonia, where he 
died through the bursting of a blood-vessel on the 
night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named 
Ildico, 453. 

ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person qualified to 
act for others at law. The number in Edward lll.'s 
reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 
.S2tf of Henry VI., 1454, a law reduced the practitioners 
In Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk from eighty to four- 
teen, and restricted their increase. The number of at- 
torneys now practicing in England, or registered, or 
retired, is said to be about 13,000. The number in Ire- 
land is stated at '3000. The qualifications of practice 
of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts 
passed in 1843 and 1S61. 

ATTORNEY GENERAL. In the United States the 
attorney general is a member of the cabinet, and is ap- 
pointed by the President. It is his duty to give advice 
upon mooted points of law when required by the Pres- 
ident or heads of the departments, and to conduct suits 
in the Supreme Court in which the United States is 
concerned. The individual states have a similar of- 
ficer with like duties. In Great Britain the attorney 
general is a law oflicer of the crown, appointed by let- 
ters-patent. He has to exhibit informations and pros- 
ecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills 
in exchequer for any claims concerning the crown iu 
inheritance or profit. Others may bring bills against 
the king's attorney. 

ATTOENET GENERALS SINCE THE BE8T0EATI0>f. 

Sir Jeftery Palmer 1G60 

Sir Heneage Finch, afterward Lord Pinch 1G70 

Sir Francis North, Knt., afterward Lord Guildford 1C7.? 

Sir William Jones 16-74 

Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, Knt 1G79 

Sir Robert Sawyer, Knt IGSl 

Sir Thomas Powis, Knt 1G87 

Henry Pollexfen, Esq 16S9 

Sir George Treby, Knt " 

Sir John Somers, Knt., afterward Lord Somers. . .1G92 

Edward Ward, Esq 1693 

Sir Thomas Trevor, Knt, afterward Lord Trevor. .1695 

Edward Northey, Esq 1701 

Sir Simon Harcourt, Knt 1707 

Sir James Montagu, Knt 1708 

Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; aft. Lord Harcourt. . .1710 

Sir Edward Northey, Knt., again " 

Nicholas Lechmcre, Esq., aft. Lord Lechmere 1718 

Sir Robert Raymond, afterward Lord Raymond. . .1720 

Sir Philip Yorke, afterward Earl of Hardwicke 1724 

Sir John Willes, Knt , 17,'?3 

Sir Dudley Ryder, Knt 1737 

Hon. William Murray, afterward Earl of Mansfield 1754 
Sir Robert Henley, Knt., aft. Earl of Northington 175G 
Sir Charles Pratt, Knt., afterivard Lord Camden.. 1757 

Hon. Charles Yorke 1762 

Sir Fletcher Norton, Knt, aft. Lord Grantley 1763 

Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterivard Lord Mor- 

den, and lord chancellor. See Chancellors 17G5 

William de Grey, afterward Lord Walsingham 1766 

Edward Thurlow, Esq., n/to-ionrd Lord Thurlow. .1771 

Alex. Wedderburue, aft. Lord Loughborough 1778 

James Wallace, Esq 1780 

Lloyd Kenyon, Esq 1782 

James Wallace, Esq 1783 

John Lee, Esq " 

Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterward Lord Kenyon. . . " 
Sir Richard P. Arden, afterward Lord Alvaiiley . . .1784 

Sir Archibald Macdonald 1788 

Sir John Scott, afterward Lord Eldou 1703 

Sir J. Mitford, afterward Lord Redesdale 1800 

Sir Edward Law, aft. Lord Ellenborough, Feb. 14, 1801 
Hon. Spencer Percival {murdered by Bellingham, 

May 11, 1812) April 15, 1802 

Sir Arthur Pigott , Feb. 12, 1806 

Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterward chief justice of the 

Common Pleas April 7, 1807 

Sir Thomas Plumer, afterward first vice-chancellor 

of England June 26, 1812 

Sir William Garrow May 4, 1813 

Sir Samuel Shepherd May 7, 1817 

Sir Robert Gifl'ord, aft. Lord GiiTord July 24, 1819 

Sir John Singleton Copley, afterivard Lord Lynd- 

hurst Jan. 9, 1824 

Sir Charles Wetherell Sept 20, 1826 

Sir James Scarlett April 27, 1827 

Sir Charles Wetherell, again Feb. 19, 1828 

Sir Jas. Scarlett, again ; aft. Lord Abiuger, June 29, 1829 



Sir Thos. Denman, aft. Lord Denmau Nov. 26, 1830 

Sir William Home Nov. 26, 1832 

Sir John Campbell March 1, 1834 

Sir Frederick Pollock Dec. 27, " 

Sir John Campbell, again ; afterward Lord Camp- 
bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor) April 30, 1835 

Sir Thomas Wilde July 3, 1841 

Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron Sept 6, " 

Sir William W. Pollett April 17, 1S44 

Sir Frederick Thesiger July 4, 1S45 

Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterward Lord Truro, 

and lord chancellor July 6, 1846 

Sir John Jervis, afterward chief justice of the Com- 
mon Pleas July 13, 1846 

Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls. .July 11, 1850 

Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburu March 28, 1851 

Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterward Lord 

Chelmsford, and lord chancellor March 2, 1852 

Sir Alexander Cockburu, again; aft. chief justice 
of Common Pleas and Queen's Bench. .Dec. 28, 1852 

Sir Richard Bethell Nov. 15, 1856 

Sir Fitzroy Kelly ^ Feb. 27, 1853 

Sir R. Bethell (since Lord Westbury, and lord chan- 
cellor) June 18, 1S59 

Sir William Athertou July, 1861 

Sir Roundell Palmer Oct 2, 1863 

Sir John Karslake 1866 

ATTRACTION is described by Copernicus, about 
1520, as an appetence or appetite which the Creator 
impressed upon all parts of matter. It was described 
by Kepler to be a corporeal aff"ection tending to union, 
1605. In 1087, Sir I. Newton published his "Principia," 
containing his important researches on this subject. 
There are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, 
and Electricity, which see. 

AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which ex- 
isted from the beginning of the monarchy, whereby 
they claimed the property of every stranger who died 
in their country, without having been natiiralized, was 
abolished by the National Assembly in 1790 ; re-estab- 
lished by Napoleon ; and finally annulled July 14, 1S19. 

AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north isl- 
and), was founded in 1840. The population of the dis- 
trict in 1857 was estimated at 15,000 Europeans and 
35,000 natives. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romansl" 
mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about 60). The first 
in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor 
of Fort George in the East Indies, who thus sold the 
goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax 
began 1779. Various acts of Parliament have regu- 
lated auctions and imposed duties, in some cases as 
high as five per cent. By 8 Vict, c. 15 (1845), the duties 
were repealed, and a charfje imposed "on the license 
to be taken out by all auctioneers in the United King- 
dom of £10." In 1858 there were 4358 licenses grant- 
ed, producing i;43,580. Certain sales are now exempt 
from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such 
as goods and chattels under a distress for rent and 
sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' Acts for 
Scotland and Ireland. In many of the United States 
auctioneers act under a license from the state, and are 
subjected to certain penalties and taxes. In New York 
auctioneers must give bonds in $100,000 for faithful 
conduct of business, must make semi-annual accounts 
of sales, and pay to the state a certain percentage of 
the sales of goods, except certain goods which ai-e ex- 
empt. 

AUDIANI, followers of Audeus of Mesopotamia, 
who had been expelled from the Syrian Church on ac- 
count of his severely reproving the vices of the clergy, 
about 338, formed a sect, and became its bishop. He 
was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have 
made many converts. His followers celebrated Easter 
at the time of the Jewish Passover, attributed the hu- 
man figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets. 

AUDIT OFFICE. Provisions for auditing public 
accounts are made in all the federal and state govern- 
ments of the United States. Commissioners for audit- 
ing the public accounts of England were appointed in 
1785. Many statutes regulating their duties have since 
been enacted. 

AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here, and at Jena, on Oct 
14, 1806, the French signally defeated the Prussians. 
See Jena. 

AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 
12, 1691, a battle was fought between the Irish, headed 
by the French General ff*t. Ruth, and the English un- 
der General Ginckel. The former were defeated and 
lost 7000 men; the latter lost only 600 killed and 960 
wounded. St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved 



AUG 5 

decisively fatal to the interests of James II. in Ireland. 
Ginclvel was imnicdiutely after created Earl of Athlone. 
The ball by which St. Kuth was killed is still suspend- 
ed in the choir of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. 

AUCJMENTATION of Poou Livings' Offioe was 
established in Enijjland in 1704. 55'.»7 poor clerical liv- 
ini;s, not exceeding XSUj^cr annum, were found by the 
commissioners under the act of Anne capable of aug- 
mentation, by means of the bounty then established 
by Parliament, commonly called (iiiceu Anne's bounty. 

Al'GMENTATIONS COURT was established in 1535 
by 27 Henry VIII., c. 27, in relation to the working of 
ci'p. '.is of the same session, which gave to the king the 
property of all monasteries having i;200 a year. The 
court was abolished by Mary in 1553, and restored by 
Elizabeth in 155S. 

AUGSBURG (Bavarial, originally a colony settled 
by Augustus, about 12 B.C. : became a free city, and 
flourislied during the Middle Ages. Here many im- 
portant Diets of the empire have been held. In A.D. 
952, a council confirmed the order for the celibacy of 
the priesthood ; and on Sept. 25, 15.55, the celebrated 
treaty of Nassau was signed, by which religious lib- 
erty was secured to Germany. — Leagne of Augsburti. 
A treaty between Holland and other European pow- 
ers, to cause the treaties of Mnnster andNimeguen to 
be respected, signed 16S6. See Minister and Xhuegiien. 
Augsburg has suffered much by war, having been fre- 
quently taken by siege, 783, 1703, 1704, and last, by the 
French, Oct. 10, 1805, who restored it to Bavaria iu 
March, 1806. 

AUGSBURG CONFESSION (Articles of Faith drawn 
up by Lulher, Melancthon, and other reformers, and 
presented to the Emperor Charles V., June 2.5, 15.S0), 
was directly opposed to the abuses of the Church of 
Rome. It "was signed by the Elector of Saxony, and 
other princes of Germany, and was delivered to the 
emperor iu the palace of the Bishop of Augsburg. 

AUGURY. Husbandry was iu part regulated by 
the coming or going of birds long before the time of 
Ilcsiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with vestals and sev- 
eral orders of the priesthood, were formally constituted 
by Numa, 710 B.C. The number had increased, and 
was fifteen at the time of Sylla, SI B.C., and the col- 
lege of augurs was abolished by Theodosius about 
A.D. 391. 

AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the year (pre- 
viously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March), by a 
decree of the Senate received its present name in hon- 
or of Augustus CiBsar, in the year 8, or 27, or 30 B.C., 
because In this month he was created cunsiil, had 
thrice triumphed iu Rome, added Egypt to the Roman 
empire, and made an end of the civil wars. He added 
one day to the month, making it 31 days. 

AUGUSTA, siege of Augusta, in Georgia, United 
States, was held by a force "under a Loyalist named 
Brown, in the spring of 17S1. While General Green 
was carrying on the siege of Fort Ninety-six, Lee, 
Pickens, Clarke, and other Southern partisan haders 
laid siege to Augusta. It commenced on the 23d of 
May, and on the .5th of June BroA\ni surrendered. The 
Americans lost 51 men killed and wounded ; the Brit- 
ish lost 52 killed, and 334, including the wounded, 
were taken prisoners. 

AUGUSTAN AGE, in literature, coincides with the 
reign of Augustus Ctesar, 22 B.C. to A.D. 14. The 
term is sometimes applied to the English literary pe- 
riod of the reign of Queen Anne, 1702 to 1714, and to 
the Frencli literary period of the reign of Louis XIV., 
1660 to 171.5. 

AUGUSTINS, a religious mendicant order, which 
ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, bishop of Hippo, 
■who died 430. These monks (termed Austin friars) 
first appeared al)out the 11th century, and the order 
was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., iu 1256. The 
rule requires strict poverty, humility, and chastity. 
Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Angus- 
tins held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of 
the Dominicans. The order appeared in England 
soon after the conquest. One of their churches, at 
Austin Friars, London, erected in 1354, and since the 
Reformation used by Dutch Protestants, was partially 
destroyed by fire, Nov. 22, 1S62. A religious house of 
the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of Augus- 
tin, was founded in Hoxton Square, London, 1864. 

AULDE.\N, battle of, near Inverness, gained by 
Montrose over the Covenanters, May 9th, 1645. 

AI'LIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, 
established l)y the Emperor Maximilian I., in 1506, be- 
ing one of the two courts, the first called the Imperial 



I AUS 

Chamber, formerly held at Spires, and afterward at 
Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic Council at Vienna. 
These courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, were in- 
stituted for appeals in particular cases from the courts 
of the Germanic States. 

AURAY (N.W. France). Here, on Sept. 29, 1364, the 
English, under John Chandos, totally defeated the 
French, and captured their heroic leader, Du Guesclin. 
Charles of Blois, made Duke of Brittany by the King 
of France, was slain, and a peace was made in April^ 
1365. 

AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of 
sin at the ear (Latin aurix) of the priest must have 
been an early practice, since it is said to have been 
forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, archbishop 
of Constantino7jle. It was enjoined by the Council of 
Laterau in 1215, and by the Council of Trent in 1551. 
It was one of the six articles of faith enacted by Hen- 
ry VIIL in 1539, but was abolished in England at the 
Reformation. Its revival here has been attempted by 
the Church party called Puseyites or Tractariaus, but 
without much success.* 

AURIFLAMMA, ok Orifl.vmme, the national gold- 
en banner mentioned in French history, belonging to 
the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over the tomb 
of that saint, 1140. Louis le Gros was the first king 
who took this standard from the abbey to battle, 1124. 
—llcnault. It appeared for the last time at Agineourt, 
Ul5.—Tilkt. 

AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 1771 to 
the East Indies, and was never again heard of. 

AURORiE BOREALES and AUSTRALES (North- 
ern and Southern Polar Lights), though rarely seen iu 
Central Europe, are frequent in the arctic and antarc- 
tic regions. In March, 1716, an aurora borealis ex- 
tended from the west of Ireland to the confines of 
Russia. The whole horizon in the lat. of 57° N. over- 
spread with continuous haze of a dismal red during 
the whole night, by which many people were much 
terrified, Nov., 1765. — Mr. Foster, the companion of 
Captain Cook, saw the aurora in lat. 5S° S. Its ap- 
pearance in the southern hemisphere had been pre; 
viously doubted, t 

AUSCULTATION. See Stethoscope. 

AUSTERLITZ (Moravia), where a battle was fought 
between the French and the allied Austrian and Rus- 
sian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors command- 
ed—Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Na- 
poleon of Prance. The killed and wounded exceeded 
30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty stand- 
ards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands of prisoner.'^. 
The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of 
Presburg, signed Dec. 26, 1805. See Prcsbiirg. 

AUSTRALASIA, the fifth ^reat division of the 
world. This name, originally given it by De Brosses, 
includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, 
New Britain, New Caledonia, etc., mostly discovered 
within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were 
made by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first 
accurate knowledge of these southern lands is due to 
the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of 
New Guinea. Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the 
straits which now bear his name, between that Island 
and Australia, and gave the first correct report of the 
latter, 1606. The Dutch continued their discoveries. 
Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery 
of a great part of the Australian coast, together with 
the island of Van Diemen's Land (also called Tasma- 
nia). William Dampier, an Englishman, between 1684 
and 1690, explored a part of tlVe W. and N.W. coasts. 
Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed 
in the track of Dampier, and added to his discoveries ; 
and in 1770, Cook first made known the east coast of 
Australia. Furneaux in 1773, Bligh in 17S9, Edwards 
in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in 1792, Portlock same 
year, Brampton and Alt in 1703, and Bass and Flin- 
ders, explored the coasts and islands in 1798-9, and 
discovered Bass's Straits. Grant in ISOO, and Flinders 
again (1801-5), completed the survey.— M'Cidloch. 

AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the largest 

* Tlie Rov. Alfred Poole, one of the curates of St. n.irnabas, Knights- 
bridffe, was suspended from his office for practicinff auricular confession 
in June, Is5s, by the Bishop of London. On appeal, the suspension 
was confirmed in January, 18.W. Much excitement was created by a 
similar attempt by the Rev. Temple West, at Boyno Hill, in Septem- 
ber, 1S5S. 

t The aurora is now attributed by manj- philosophers to the pas- 
sase of electric light throuffh the rarefied air of the polar regions. In 
Aujnist and September. 1S69, when brilliant nuror.t were very frequent, 
the electric telefrraph wires were seriously affected, and communications 
interrupted. Auroras were seen at Rome and Basel, and also in Aus- 
tralia. 



AUS 



60 



AUS 



island and smallest continent ; with an estimated area 
of about three million square miles, iucluiliug live 
provinces — New South Wales, Victoria (formerly Port 
Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or Swan Riv- 
er), and Queensland {which sec). Population, with 
Tasmania and New Zealand, in 1SC3, about 1,306,050. 
Australia said to have been known to the Portu- 
guese before 1550 

Alleged discovery by Manoel Godinho de Heredia, 

a Portuguese ICOl 

Torres passes through the straits named after 

him 1000 

The Dutch also discover Australia March, " 

The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators : north, 
by Zeacheu, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, 

by Nuyts, 1027 ; north, by Carpenter 1C2T 

Wm. Dampier explores the W. and N.W. coasts, 

16S4-90 

Tasmau coasts S. Australia 16-12 

Terra Australis (Western Australia) named New 

Holland by order of the States-General 1065 

William Dampier lands in Australia 16S0 

Captain Cook, Sir Joseph Banks, and others, land 
at Botany Bay, and name the country "New 

South Wales" April 2S, 17T0 

Governor Phillip founds the city of Sydney near 

Port Jackson, with 1030 persons Jan. 26, 1TS8 

[The seventy-first anniversary of this event was 

kept with much festivity, Jan. 26, 1859.] 
Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 

ship "Guardian," Captain Riou 1790 

First church erected Aug., 179.? 

Government gazette first printed 1795 

Bass's Straits discovered by Bass and Flinders. ..1798 

First brick church built 1802 

Colony of Van Diemeu's Land (now Tasmania) es- 
tablished 1803 

Fliuders surveys the coasts of Australia 1801-5 

Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled 1804 

Governor Bligh, for his tyranny, deposed by an in- 
surrection 1808 

Superseded by Governor Macquarie 1809 

Expeditions into the interior by Weutworth, Law- 

■ son, Bloxland, Oxley, etc 1813, 1817, 1823 

Population, 29,7S3 (three fourths convicts) 1821 

Wftit Australia formed into a province 1829 

Legislative council established " 

Sturt's expeditions into South Australia 1S28-1831 

South Atcatralia erected into a province Aug., 1834 

Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into B. Australia. .1831-6 
First Rom. Cath. Bishop (Polding) arrives, Sept., 1885 

Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonized Nov., " 

First Church of England Bishop of Australia 

(Broughton) arrives June, 1836 

Colony of South Australia founded Dec, 1836 

Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King 

George's Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne founded Nov., 1S3T 

Suspension of transportation 1839 

Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps 1840 

Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment 

of "Home for Female Emigrants" 1841-6 

Census— 87,200 males ; 43,700 females 1841 

Very numerous insolvencies 1841-2 

Incorporation of city of Sydney 1842 

Leichhardt's expedition (never returned) 1844-5 

Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the middle 

of the continent 1845 

Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males; 

74,800 females 1S46 

Great agitation against transportation, which had 

been revived by Earl Grey 1849 

Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 

Victoria 1850 

Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, etc.* 1851 

* Gold Discovery.— Mr. Edward Hargraves went to California in 
search of gold, and was struck with the aimilaritv between the rocks 
and strata of California and those of his own district of Conobolas, 
some thirty miles west of Bathurst. On his return home he examined 
the soil, and after one or two months' digging found a quantity of gold, 
Feb. 12, 1851. He applied to the colonial government for a reward, 
which he readily obtained, with an appointment as commissioner of 
crown lands. The excitement became intense throughout the colony 
of New South Wales, rapidly Bpread to that of Victoria and other 

Jilaces ; and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, 
brmerly attached to the Wellington mission, and then in the service 
of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of 
gold among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to 
three hundred weighf), found in the Murroo Creek, fifty miles to the 
north of Bathurst, contained 112 lbs. of pure gold, valued at X4000. 
The " Victoria nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 
340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo diggings ; and a 
piece of pure gold of 106 lbs. weight was also found. From the gold 
fields of Mount Alexander and Ballaarat, in the district of Victoria, up 
to Oct., 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of 
gold ; and the gold exported up to the same date represented ^£8,863,477 
sterling. In Nov., 1856, the "James Baines" and "Lightning" brought 



Census— males, 100,000; females, 81,000 (exclusive 

ofVictoria, 80,0oo) 1S51 

Mints established March, 1853 

Transportation ceased " 

Gregory's explorations of interior 185G 

Death of Archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about 

fifty years' residence July, 1853 

Queendand made a province Dec. 4, 1859 

Stuart's expeditions 1858-60 

Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells 

organized Aug., 1860 

Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and oth- 
ers, start from Melbourne Aug. 20, " 

J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions 1860-1 

Burke, Wills, and two others, cross Australian 
continent fo the Gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish 
on their return except John King, who arrives 

at Melbourne Nov., 18G1 

Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Austra- 
lia from sea to sea 1861-2 

Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public fu- 
neral Jan. 21, 1S63 

Strong and "general resistance throughout Austra- 
lia to the reception of British convicts in West 

Australia about June, 1864 

Cessation of^transportation to Australia in three 

years announced amid much rejoicing.. Jan. 26, 18G5 
Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, 

surrounded and shot April, " 

Boundary disputes between New South Wales 
and Victoria in summer of 1864 ; settled amica- 
bly April 19, " 

GOVERNORS. 

Captain Arthur Phillip 1788 

Captain Hunter 1795 

Captain Philip G. King 1800 

Captain William Bligh 1806 

Colonel Lachlau Macquarie (able and successful 

administration) 1809 

General Sir Thomas Brisbane 1821 

Sir Richard Boiirke 1831 

Sir George Gipps 1838 

Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor general of all the 
Australian colonies, with a certain jurisdiction 
over the lieutenant governors of Van Diemen's 
Laud, Victoria, and South and Western Australia, 1846 

Sir William T. Denison 1854 

Sir John Young, governor of New South Wales 

only 1860 

Acts for the government of Australia, 10 George 
IV., cap. 22, May 'l4 (1829), 6 & 7 William IV., 
cap. 68, Aug. 13 (1836), 13 & 14 Victoria, cap. 59, 
Aug. 5 (1850). Act for regulating the sale of 
waste lauds in the Australi.an colonies, 5 & Vic- 
toria, cap. 36, June 22 (1842). 

AUSTRASIA, (Estcrreich (Eastern Kingdom), also 
called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted from the 
6th to the 8th century. It began with the division of 
the territories of Clovis by his sons, 511, and ended by 
Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his 
power to his brothef Pepui, who thus became soleking 
of France, 747. 

AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steam-ship, sailed 
from Southampton for New York Sept. 4, 1858, with 
538 persons on board. On Sept. 13, in hit. 45° N., long. 
41° 30' W., it caught fire through the carelessness of 
some one in burning some tarto fumigate the steer- 
age. Only 67 persons were saved — upward of 60 by 
the Maurice, a French barque ; the rest by a Norwe- ' 
gian barque. A heart-rending account was given in 
the Times, Oct. 11, 1858, by Mr. Charles Brews, an En- 
glish survivor. 

AUSTRIA, CEsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), anciently 
Noricum and part of Pannonia, was'annexed to the 
Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun by the Huns, 
Avars, etc., during the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken 
from them by Charlemagne, 791-796. He divided the 
government of the country, establishing margraves of 
Eastern Bavaria and Austria. Louis the German, sou 
of Louis le DiJbonnaire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, 
margrave of Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the 
latter raised a civil war in Bavaria against the Emper- 
or Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of 
Austria were declared immediate princes of the em- 
pire. In 1150 the margraviate was made a hereditary 
duchy by the Emperor Frederick I. ; and in 14.53 it was 
raised to an archduchy by the Emperor Frederick III. 

gold from Melbourne valued at il, 200,000. The " Welcome nugget" 
weighed 2019^ ounces ; value, X8376 10«. lOrf. ; found at Baker's Hill, 
Ballaarat, June 11, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, 1861, gold to 
the value of ^£96,000,000 had been brougut to England from New South 
Wales and Victoria. 



AUS 



61 



AUS 



Rodolph, connt of Ilapsbnrg, elected Emperor of Ger- 
Tuatiy in l'27:i, acquired Austria in 1278 ; and from 14',)3 
to 1804 his descendants were Emperors of Germany. 
Ou Auj;. 11, 18(14, the Emperor Francis II. renounced 
the title of Emperor of Germany, and became heredi- 
tary Emi»'ror of Austria. The condition of Austria is 
now 1,'really improving under the euliLrhtened rule of 
the liresent emperor. The political eonstitutiou of 
the cmi)ire is based upon— 1. The praLjmatic sanction 
of Charles VI., 17.'!4, which declares the indivisibility 
of the empire and rules the order of succession. 2. 
The prairmatic sanction of Francis II., Aug. 1, 1804, 
when he became Emperor of Austria only. 3. The 
dii)loma of Francis Joseph, Oct. 20, ISGO, whereby he 
imparted legislative power to the provincial states 
and the Council of the Empire (Reichsrath). 4. The 
law of Feb. 26, ISOl, on the national representation. 
Population of the empire in Oct., 1857, 35,01S,;iSS. 
Frederick [I., the last male of the house of Haps- 
burg, killed in battle with the Hungarians, 

June 15, 124G 
Disputed succession : the Emperor Frederick II. 
seijuestered the provinces, appointing Otto, 
count of Eberstein, governor iu the name of the 
emperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, mar- 
grave of Moravia in right of his wife, Frederick's 

niuce, Gertrude : he died childless 1247 

Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, 

and holds the provinces till his death 1250 

Ottocar (or Premislas), of Bohemia, acquires the 

provinces 1254 

Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he makes 
war and recovers it, iu consequence of a great 

victory 12G0 

He inherits Carinthia, 12G3 ; refuses to become Em- 
peror of Germany, 1272, and to render homage 

to Rodolph of Ilapsburg, elected emperor. 1273 

War against Ottocar as a rebel ; he is compelled to 

cede" Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph, 1274 
The war renewed : Ottocar perishes iu the battle 

of Marchfeld Aug. 26, 1278 

Albert I. assassinated by his nephew and others 
while attempting to enslave the Swiss.. .May 1, 1308 

Successful revolt of the Swiss 1307-9 

They totally defeat the Austrians under Duke 

Le"opold at Morgarten Nov. 16, 1315 

The Duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss, 
which they resist with violence : he makes war 
ou them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach, 

July, 1380 
Dnke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, 

and is elected Emperor of Germany 1437 

The Emperor Frederick III., as head of the house 
of Ilapsburg, creates the Archduchy of Austria 

with sovereign power Jan. 6, 1453 

Austria divided between him and his relatives, 

1457 ; war ensues between them till 14G3 

Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of 

Maximilian with the heiress of that province.. .1477 
Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I., of Austria, 

with the heiress of Aragon aud Castile 149G 

Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 

Ferdinand I 152G 

Austria harassed by Turkish invasions 1529-45 

Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- 
hemia, Iluncr'ary, Spain, the Netherlands, aud 

their dependencies, abdicates (see SjMin) 1556 

Mantua ceded to the emperor Jan. 3, 1708 

By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy 

of Milan April 11, 1713 

By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands, 1714 
The Netherlands, Naples, Milan, etc., added to 

Austrian dominions Nov. 15, 1715 

Farther additions ou the east (Temeswar, etc.) by 

the |)eace of Passarowitz 1718 

Najjles and Sicily given up to Spain 1735 

Death of diaries VI., the last sovereign of themale 
line of the house of Ilapsburg ; his daughter, 

Maria Theresa, becomes Queen of Hungary 1740 

She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria, and 

Saxony, but sui)i)orted by Great Dritain 1741 

Francis, "duke of L<irraine, who had married Maria 

Theresa in n;;*;, cU'ctcd emperor 1745 

By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives 
up Lomhardy (which sec) aud obtains Venice, 

Oct. 15, 1797 
Francis IT., emperor of Germany, becomes Francis 

I. «f A n.^tria Aug. 11, 1804 

His declaration against France Aug. 5, 1805 

War: Napoleon successful, enters Vienna, Nov. 14, " 
Austrians aud Russians defeated at Austerlitz, 

Dec. 2, " 
By treatv of Presbur<:, Austria loses Venice and 
the Tyrol ^ Jan. 1, 1800 



Vienna evacuated by the French Jan. 12, 1806 

The French agaiu take Vienna May 13, 1809 

But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, " 

Napoleon marries the Archduchess Maria Louisa, 

the daughter of the emperor April 1, 1810 

Congress at Vienna Oct. 2, 1814 

Treaty of Vienna Feb. 25, 1815 

[Italian provinces restored with additions — Lom- 
bard o- Venetian kingdom established, April 7.] 
Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand, 

March 2, 1835 

New treaty of commerce with England July 3, 1838 

Ferdinand I. is crowned at Milan Sept. 0, " 

Insurrection at Vienna: flight of Metternich, 

March 13, 1843 
Insurrections in Italy. See Milan, Venice, and Sar- 
dinia March 18, " 

Another insurrection at Vienna : the emperor flies 

to Innspruck May 15-17, " 

Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the em- 
pire May 29, " 

A Constitutional Assembly meet at Vienna, 

July 22, " 
Insurrection at Vienna: murder of Count Latour, 

Oct. 6, " 
Revolution in Hungary and war. See Hunrjary. 
The emperor abdicates iu favor of his nephew, 

Francis-Joseph Dec. 2, " 

Convention of Olmiitz Nov. 29, 1850 

The emperor revo'kes the Constitution of March 4, 

1849 Dec. 31, 1851 

Trial by jttry abolished in the empire Jan. 15, 1852 

Death of Prince Schwartzenberg, prime minister, 

April 4, " 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Liben- 

yi, Feb. 18 ; who was executed Feb. 28, 1S53 

Commercial treaty with Prussia Feb. 19, " 

Austrians enter Dantibian Principalities Aug., 1854 

Alliance with England and France relative to East- 
ern Question Dec. 2, " 

Great redttction of the army June 24, 1855 

Degrading concordat with Rome Aug. 18, " 

Aninesty for political offenders of 1848-9, July 12,1856 
Austrians qttit the Danubiau Principalities,March, 1S5T 
Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the 

free Sardinian press Feb. 10, " 

Firm reply of Count Cavotir Feb. 20, " 

Diplomatic relations betweeu Austria and Sardin- 
ia broken off in consequeuce March 23-30, " 

Emperor and empress visit Hungary May, " 

Death of Marshal Radetzky (aged 92) Jan. 5, 1853 

Excitement throughout Europe caused by the ad- 
dress of the Emperor Napoleon III. to the Aus- 
trian ambassador: "I regret that our relations 
with your government are not as good as former- 
ly, but I'beg of you to tell the emperor that my 
personal sentiments for him have not changed," 

J:tn. 1, 1859 
The Emperor of Austria replied in almost the same 

words ou Jan. 4, " 

Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries Princess Clo- 

tilde of Sardinia Jan. 30, " 

Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in 
Italy, and strongly fortifies the banks of the Ti- 
cino, the boundary of her Italian provinces and 

Sardinia Feb. aud March, " 

Lord Cowley at Vienna on a "mission of peace," 

Feb. 27, " 
Intervention of Russia— proposal for a Congress; 
disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia — 
Sardinia and France prepare for war, 

March and April, " 
Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia and 
the dismissal of the volunteers from other states 

within three davs April 23, " 

This demand rejected April 26, " 

The Austrians cross the Ticino April 26, 

The French troops enter Piedmont April 27, " 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 

Austrians from Italy) May 3, 

Resignation of Count Buol, foreign minister; ap- 
pointment of Connt Rechberg May 13-18, " 

The Anstriana defeated at jSIontebello, May 20 ; at 
Palestro, May 30-31 ; at Magenta, June 4 ; at Ma- 

IcLriuiiio CMai-ignano) Juue 8, " 

Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been ac- 
tively engaged iu the wars and negotiations of 

Napoleon L) J"ue 11, " 

Austrians defeated at Solferiuo (near the Miucio) ; 
the Emperors of Attstria aud France and King 

of Sardinia present June 24, " 

Armistice airreedupon, JulyG; the emperors meet, 
July 11 ; the preliminaries of peace signed at 
Villa Franca [Lombardy given up to Sardinia, 



AUS 

' and an Italian confederation proposed to be 
formed] July 12,1859 

Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 
July 12; to the people... July 15, " 

Patent issued, granting greatly increased privileges 
to the Protestants— announced Sept., " 

Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
France at Zurich Aug. S to Sept., " 

Many national reforms proposed Sept., " 

Treaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries of 
Villa Franca, signed Nov. 11, " 

Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 

Jan. 6, 10, Feb. 18, 1860 

Patent issued for the summoning the great impe- 
rial council (Reichsrath), composed of represent- 
atives elected by the provincial diets.. March 5, " 

Discovery of great corruption in the army financial 
arrangements, a deficiency of about £1,700,000 
discovered ; General Eyuatten commits suicide ; 
82 persons arrested March, " 

Austria protests against the annexation of Tus- 
cany, etc., by the King of Sardinia April, " 

Baron Briick, suspected of complicity in the army 
frauds, dismissed April 20 ; commits suicide, 

April 23, " 

The Reichsrath assembles. May 31 ; addressed by 
the emperor June 1, " 

Liberty of the press farther restrained July, " 

Unsettled state of Hungary {which see), July-Oct, " 

Friendly meeting of the emperor and the Regent 
of Prussia at Toplitz July 26, " 

Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the 
Concordat, the finances, etc. ; proposals for sep- 
arate Constitutions for the provinces, 

Aug. and Sept., " 

The Reichsrath adjourned Sept. 29, " 

Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legislative 
powers, the control of the finances, etc., a mani- 
festo issued to the populations of the empire 
(not well received) Oct. 20, " 

Meeting of the emperor with the Emperor of Rus- 
sia and Prince Regent of Prussia at Warsaw ; 
no important result Oct. 20-26, " 

The government professes non-intervention in It- 
aly, but increases the army iu Venetia, 

Oct. and Nov., " 

The empress goes to Madeira for health — Nov., " 

Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated 
In Dec, " 

Ministerial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minis- 
ter — more political concessions Dee. 13, " 

The proscribed Hungarian, Count Teleki, at Dres- 
den, is given up to Austria, which causes general 
indignation, about Dec. 20 ; he is relea^sed on 
parole Dec. 31, " 

Amnesty for political offenses in Hungary, Croa- 
tia, etc., published Jan. 7, 1S61 

Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased 
disaSection throughout the empire, 

Jan. and Feb., " 

The statutes of the new Constitution for the Aus- 
trian monarchy published Feb. 6, " 

Civil and political rights granted to Protestants 
throughout the empire, except in Hungary and 
Venice April 8, " 

Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies present from 
Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or Is- 
tria April 29, " 

Ministry of Marine created Jan., 1862 

Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress, 

Feb. 4, " 

Increased taxation proposed ]\Iarch, " 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, the 
principle of ministerial responsibility is resolved 
on April 26, " 

Deficiency of XI, 400,000 in financial statement — 
indignation of the Reichsrath June, " 

Amnesty to condemned political ofienders in Hun- 
gary proclaimed Nov. 18, " 

Reduction in the army assented to ; and a person- 
al liberty law (resembling our Habeas Corpus 
Act) passed Dec, " 

Polish insurrection Jan., 1863 

Meeting of the German sovereigns (except Kings 
of Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the Em- 
peror of Austria, at Frankfort, by his invitation : 
the draft of a reform of the federate Constitu- 
tion agreed to Aug. 16-31, " 

The Transylvauian deputies accept the Constitu- 
tion, and take their seats in the Reichsrath, 

Oct. 20, " 

Gallicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of 

siege Feb. 29,1864 

(For events of the war with Denmark, see Denmark.) 



62 AUT 

The emperor and the King of Prussia meet at 
Carlsbad June 22,1864 

Proposed reduction of the army, about Oct. 9, " 

Resignation of Count Recbberg, foreign minister, 
sitcceeded by Count Mensdorfl'-Pouilly, about 

Oct. 27, " 

Peace with Denmark signed Oct. 30, " 

Emperor opens Reichsrath, Nov. 14 ; great free- 
dom of debate ; the state of siege in Gallicia 
censured Dec, " 

Austria supports the Confederation in the dispute 
respecting the duchies Dec, " 

Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia 

Jan.,lS65 

Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction iu 
the army by the Chambers Jan., " 

Contest between the government and the Cham- 
bers respecting reduction in army, etc April, " 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to Vienna 
to promote free trade June, " 

New ministry formed, including Count Mensdorff 
as nominal premier, and Counts Belcredi and 
Esterhazy as ministers: conciliatory measures 
toward Hungary, and other provinces, proposed ; 
centralization of the government to be given up, 
and free trade in prospect Sxxly, " 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed, 

Aug. 14, " 

Emperor's rescript suppressing the Constitution 
(Reichsrath, etc.), with the view of giving au- 
tonomy to Hungary (which see) Sept. 21, " 

Rejoicing in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in Cro- 
atia, Austria, and other provinces. . .Nov., Dec, " 

Important treaty of commerce with Great Britain 
signed Dec. 16, " 

Under the subsequent ministry (Baron Von 
Beust's) all religious sects were put upon an 
equality ; marriage was made a civil institution, 
and public education was freed from ecclesiasti- 
cal jurisdiction 1868 

(See Germamj, Hungari/, Vienna, etc. ITor the 
events of the German-Italian war, see Germamj.) 

MARGRAVES. 

Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; Leopold 
IL,1075; Leopold III., 1096 ; Albert IL, 1136; Leo- 
pold IV., 1136; Henry IL, 1142 (made a duke 1150). 

DTJKES. 

1156. Henry II. 

1177. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of En- 
gland when returning incognito from the Cru- 
sade, and sold him to the Emperor Henry VI. 

1194. Frederick I., the Catholic. 

1198. Leopold VI., the Glorious. Killed in battle. 

1230. Frederick IL, the Warlike. Killed in a battle 
with the Hungarians, June 15, 1240. 

INTERREGNUM. 

1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph. Albert be- 
comes Emperor of Germany, 1298. 

1308. Frederick I. 

1330. Albert IL and Otto, his brother. 

135S. Rodolph. 

1365. Albert IlL and Leopold IL or III. (killed at Sem- 
pach). 

1395. William, and other brothers, and their cousin 
Albert IV. 

1411. The same. The provinces divided into the duch- 
ies of Austria and Cariuthia, and the county of 
Tyrol. 

1411. Albert V., duke of Austria : obtains Bohemia 
and Moravia ; elected king of Hungary and 
emperor, 1437 ; dies, 1439 ; succeeded by his 
posthumous son. 

1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 

145T. The Emperor Frederick III. and Albert VI. 

1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. (archduke), 
emperor. (See Germamj.) 

EMPERORS OP AUSTRIA. 

1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), emperor 

of Austria only, Aug. 11, 1804 ; died March 2, 

1835. 
1835. Ferdinand, his son, March 2 ; abdicated in favor 

of his nephew, his brother Francis - Charles 

having renounced his rights. 
1848. Francis-Joseph, Dec. 2,1848, emperor of Austria, 

son of Francis-Charles [born August 18, 1830 ; 

married April 24, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria.] 
{.Heir : their son, the Archduke Rodolph, born August 
21, 1858.] 

AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given to the 
punishment of a heretic, generally burning alive, in- 



AUT 63 



AZZ 



flicted by the Inquisition (which sec). Since 1203, more 
than 1UO,0(IO victims have been sacriticed by the seu- 
tence ol'tlic Inquisitions of Koinan Catholic countries. 
One o( iIk' last executions of this kind was at Goa, 
where twenty sufterers perished in the flames, 1717. 
An auto dii fi' took place at Lisbon itt 17C1, when Mal- 
agrida, a Jesuit, was strangled and burnt for heresy. 

AUTOMATON FIGURES (ob Androides), made to 
imitate living actions, are of early invention. Archy- 
tns's Hying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar 
Bacon "is "said to have made a brazen head which 
spoke, A.D. 12()4. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years 
in making another. A coach and two horses, with a 
footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by Camus 
for Lcniis XlV. when a child ; the horses and figures 
moved naturally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vau- 
canson, in 17:)S, made an artiticial duck, which per- 
formed every function of a real one, even an imperfect 
digestion— eating, drinking, and quacking. He also 
made a flute-player. The writing automaton, exhibit- 
ed in 1760, was a pentagraph worked by a confederate 
out of sight. The automaton chess-player, exhibited 
the same year, was also worked by a hidden person, 
and so was " the invisible girl," ISOO. Maelzel made 
a trumpeter about ison. Early in this century, an au- 
tomaton was exhibited in London which pronounced 
several sentences with tolerable distinctness. In July, 
1S64, the "anthropoglosson," exhibited in St. James's 
Hall, London, seemed to utter songs. 

AUTOPLASTY, a replacing a part of the body with 
a piece from another part. Known anciently in India. 
Mentioned by Celsus about A.D. 17. Practiced by the 
Bianca family in the 15th century, and in tlie 16th by 
Tagliacozzo or Taliacotius, from whom it is often called 
the Taliacotian operation. It has been much improved 
and practiced since about ISOO. 

AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of producing a 
metal plate from drawings, made known by Mr. Wal- 
lis iu April, 1S63 ; it resembled Nature- Printing {which 
see). 

AVA, in 1S22, became the capital of the Burmese em- 
pire, it is said, for the third time. A British embassy 
was received here iu Sept., 1855. 

AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and an- 
noyed the Eastern Empire iu the 6th and 7th centu- 
ries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight 
years' war. 

AVEBLTRY, OR Abuky (Wiltshire). Here are the re- 
mains of the largest Celtic or Druidical work in En- 
gland. They have been surveved by Aubrey, 1648 ; 
Dr. Stukely, 1720 ; and Sir R. C. Hoare in 1812, and oth- 
ers. Much information may be obtained from Stuke- 
ly's "Abury" (1743) and Hoare's "Ancient Wiltshire" 
(1812-21). Many theories have been put forth, but the 
object of these remains is still unliuown. They are 
considered to have been set up during the "stone age," 
i.e., v.hen the weapons and implenieuts were mamly 
formed of that material. 

AVETN, OR AvAiNE (Luxemburg, Belgium). Here 
the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, May 
20, 1635. 

"AVE MARIA!" the salutation of the Angel Ga- 
briel to the Virgin (TAtke I, 28), was made a formula of 
devotion by Pope John XXII. about 1420. In the be- 
ginning of the 15th century Vincentius Ferrarius used 
It before his discourses. — Bingham. 

AVERXUS, Lake, in the Campania, a fabled en- 
trance to hell. Agrippa (12 B.C) dug a canal and 
drained the marshes rinind it, and it then lost its un- 
healthy qualities, which has probably occasioned the 
tradition. 

AVIGNON, a city, S.E. France, ceded by Philip IIL 
to the Poi)e iu 1273. The papal seat was removed by 
Clement V. to Avignon in 1309. In 1348 Clement VI. 
purchased the city from Jane, countess of Provence 
and queen of Naples. In 1408, the French, wearied 
of the schism, expelled Benedict XIIL, and Avignon 
ceased to be the seat of the papacv. Here were "held 
nine councils (lOSO-1457). It was seized and restored 
several times by the French kings; the last time re- 
stored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. It was 
claimed by the National Assembh', 1791, and was con- 
firmed to Prance bv the congress of sovereigns in 1815. 
Iu Oct., 1791, horrible massacres took place here. 

AVIS, Orpkr of. Instituted 1147 by Alphonso I. of 
Portugal, and made by him iu 1162 au ecclesiastical 



order of chivalry. It was made civil again in 1189. 
The knights were called of Evora until 1187, when 
they assumed their present title. 

AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, LEVER, and various 
tools in common use, are said to have been invented 
by Dredalus, an artiflcer of Athens, to whom also is 
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 
1240 B.C. Many tools are represented ou the Egyp- 
tian monuments. 

AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians finally 
achieved their independence by defeating the Span- 
iards, Dec. 9, 1824. 

AYDE, OR AiPE, the tax paid by the vassal to the 
chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France and En- 
gland an aide was due for knighting the king's eldest 
son. One was demanded by Philip the Fair, 1313. The 
aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the 
statute of Westminster (Edward I.), 12S5, for the ease 
of the subject, was not to be levied until he was fifteen 
years of age. The aide for the marriage of the king's 
eldest daughter could not be demanded iu England 
until her seventh year. Iu feudal tenures there was 
an aide for ransoming the chief lord : so, when Rich- 
ard I. was kept a prisoner by the Emperor of Ger- 
many, an aide of 2U.s., to redeem him, was enforced 
upon every knight's fee. 

AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced by 
the West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, beheaded by the 
pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. William the 
Conqueror invested his favorites with some of its 
lands, under the tenure of providing "straw for his 
bed-chambers; three eels for his use in winter; and 
iu summer, straw, rushes, and two green geese thrice 
every year." Incorporated by charter in 1554. 

AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the Britons 
were victorious over the Saxou invaders, 455. 

AYR (Scotland). Entered by William the Lion, 
1212 : it is older than the Conquest. A commemora- 
tive festival iu honor of Robert Burns was held here 
A'ngust 6, 1844. 

AZOF, Sea of, the Pains Mjeotis of the ancients, 
communicates by the Strait of Yenikale (the Bospho- 
rus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely sur- 
rounded by Russian territory, Taganrog and Kertch 
beinfj the principal places. Au expedition composed 
of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by 
Sir G. Brown, arrived at Kertch May 24, 1855, when the 
Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. 
On the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikalci, which 
also ofl'ered uo resistance. Ou the same evening the 
allied fleet entered the Sea of Azof, and iu a few days 
completed their occupation of it, after capturing" a 
large number of merchant vessels, etc. An immense 
amount of stores was destroyed by the Russians to 
prevent their falling into the hands of the allies. 

AZORES, OR Western Isleb (N. Atlantic, belonging 
to Portugal, the supposed site of the ancient Atlantis, 
are saidlo have been discovered in the 15th century 
by a Dutchman who was driven on their coasts by the 
weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, fell in 
with St. Mary's in 1432, and in 1457"they were all dis- 
covered. Martin Behem found one of them covered 
with beech -trees, and he called it therefore Fai/al; 
auother, abounding in sweet flowers, he called Flares; 
and all, being full of hawks, were therefore named 
Azores. They were colonized about 14.50. A violent 
concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days 
in 1591. A devastating earthquake in 1757. Here are 
fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's 
destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; and in 
ISll a volcano appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, 
where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
called Sabriua gradually disappeared, Dec, 1812. 

AZOTE, the name given by French chemists to ni- 
trogen {ivhich see). 

AZTECS, the ruling tribe iu Mexico at the time of 
the Spanisli invasion (1.519). In 1853 some pretended 
Aztec children were exhibited iu Loudon. They were 
considered to be mere dwarfs. 

AZYMITES, advocates for using the unleavened 
bread in the communion. The name arose during the 
controversy in the 11th century with respect to this 
rite between the Latin and Greek churches. 

AZZANA, in Northern Italy, where the French de- 
feated the Austrians, May, 1799. 



BAA 



61 



BAD 



B. 



BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician na- 
tions, frequently made the object of worship by the Is- 
raelites; and established as such by Ahab, 91S B.C. 
His worshipers were massacred by Jehu and his tem- 
ple deflled, SS4 B.C. 

BAALBEC, Heliopolis (both meaning " City of the 
Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of which maL'uificent 
ruins remain, described by Wood (in 175T) and others. 
Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. 
Here Septimus Severus built a temple to the Sun, 200. 
The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Ti- 
mour Bey, 1400. 

BABEL, TowEK of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 
B.C. {Genesis, ch. xi.). The magnificent temple of Be- 
lus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said 
to have had lofty spires, and many statues of gold, one 
of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this tem- 
ple was the tomb of'the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of 
the sacred Scriptures), who was deified after death.— 
Blair. The Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, 
and others, is considered by some persons to be tlie re- 
mains of the Tower of Babel. 

BABES IN THE WOOD, ballad of. Thought by 
some to be a concealed form of the story of the mur- 
der of the princes in the Tower by Richard III., June, 
1483. 

BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to assassinate Queen 
Elizabeth and make Mary of Scotland queen, was de- 
vised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and 
approved by Wm. Gifford and John Ballard, Catholic 
priests. Anthony Babingtou and other gentlemen 
were induced to join in the scheme. They were be- 
trayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were executed, 
Sept. 20, 21, 15SG. Babington was deluded by a roman- 
tic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accept him as 
a husband. 

BABGEUF'S CONSPIRACY. See Agrarian Law. 
BABYLON,* an Asiatic empire (see Assyria), found- 
ed by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, 
the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C.— 
Lenf/let. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and es- 
tablished what was properly the Assyrian empire, by 
uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 B.C., 2233 CI. The 
second empire of Babylon commenced about 725 B.C. 
Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 

B.C. 2234 [2230 H., 2233 CT.] 

Nabonassar governs 747 

Nabopolassar, the Assyrian governor, revolts, and 

makes himself King of Baljylon 725 

Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606; Judea, 605; 
defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the 

Egyptian power in Asia 604 

He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jerusa- 
lem — Blair ; Lenglet " 

Daniel interprets the king's dream of the goldeu- 

headed image — Daniel 11 602 

Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jerusa- 
lem, takes it, and destroys the tem^ile— Blair ; 

Usher 589 to 587 

The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Meshach, 
and Abednego thrown into the furnace for refus- 
ing to worship it— Daniel iii 570 

Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and 

Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men 

Daniel iv 569 

» The city of Bnbylon was at nne time tbe most maRnificent ia the 
world. The Hanging Gardens built by Nebuchadnezzar are described 
aa having been of a square form, and in terraces one above another un- 
til they rose as high as the walls of the city, the ascent being from ter- 
race to terrace by steps. The whole pile was sustained by vast arches 
raised on other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely cement- 
ed together with plaster of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of 
lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden, where there were large 
trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sbrts of vegetables. There were 
five of these gardens, each containing about four English acres, end dis- 
posed in the form of an amphitheatre.— S(ra6o; Viodorus. Pliny said 
that in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the 
ruins in 1811, and Sir R. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious researches 
of Mr. Layard, Sir H. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and others, and the interest- 
ing relics excavated and brought to this country between the years 1849 
and 1855, have caused very much attention to be given to the "history of 
Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like 
character have been translated by Col. (now Sir Henrj-) Rawlinson, and 
published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring 
of 1855 he returned to England, bringing with him many valuable rel- 
ics, drawings, etc., which are now in tlie British Museum. He gave 
discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1S65, 
and 1S66. 



The king recovers his reason and his throne, 562 ; 

dies B.C. 561 

Evil-Merodach (Neriglissar) king 559 

Labynetus (Nabonadius or Belshazzar?) king 555 

Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians under 

Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain 53S 

Daniel thrown into the lions' den — Daniel vi. ..... 637 

Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius 518 

Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here 823 

Seleucus Nicator, who died B.C. 280, transfers the 

seat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is 

deserted. 

BACCHANALIA (games celebrated in honor of 
Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into 
Greece by Melampos, and were there called bionysia, 
ab(nit 1415 B.C. — Diodorus. In Rome the Bacchanalia 
were suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus 
were called Bacchanals. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently im- 
posed fines on unmarried men ; and men of full age 
were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at cer- 
tain games laid hold "of old bachelors, dragged them 
round their altars, and inflicted on them various 
marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossiiis. A tax was 
laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five years of 
age, £Vi 10s. for a duke, and for a common person 
one shilling, 7 Will. III., 1695. Bachelors were sub- 
jected to an extra tax on their male and female serv- 
ants in 1785. 

BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the re- 
puted inventor of this game, about 1224 B.C. It is 
stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the 
period preceding the conquest. — Henry. 

BACON'S REBELLION. A movement made by a 
Virarinian, Nathaniel Bacon, and a strong party, against 
BeiTceley, the tyrannical Royalist governor, in 1676. 
Bacon was successful for a time, drove Berkeley out 
of Jamestown, burned it (Sept. 9), but died of a fever 
in October. The rebellion came to nothing, being 
put down during the beginning of 1677, and seversu 
persons were hanged, fined, etc., for being concerned 
in it. 

BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subjugated 
by Cyrus, and formed part of the Persian empire, 
when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 
B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, threw oft" the 
yoke of the Seleucidoe, and became king. Eucratides 
reigned prosperously about 181 B.C., and Meuander 
about 126 B.C. The Greek kingdom appears to have 
been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians 
shortly after. 

BADAJOZ (S.W. Spain). An important barrier for- 
tress, surrendered to the French under Soult, March 
11, 1811 ; was invested by the British under Lord Wel- 
lington, on March 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on 
April 6 following. The French retreated in haste. 

BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, near Bath, 
where Bede says the Britons defeated the Saxons in 
493 ; others say in 511 or 520. 

BADEN (S.W. Gemiany). The house of Baden is 
descended from Herman, regarded as the first mar- 
grave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen. 
From Christopher, who united the branches of Hoch- 
berg and Baden, and died in l.'i27, proceed the branch- 
es of Baden - Baden and Baden - Dourlach. By the 
treaty of Baden, between France and the emperor, 
when Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714, 
Baden was elected into a grand duchy, as a member 
of the Rhenish Confederation, Aug. 13, 1806. Its terri- 
torial acquisitions by its alliances with France were 
guaranteed by the congress at Vienna in 1815. In May, 
1849, the grand-duke was expelled by his subjects, but 
was restored in June. In July, 1857, an amnesty was 
decreed for political offenses. A Concordat made 
with the Pope, June 28, 1859, having greatly displeased 
the representative assembly, was set aside by the 
grand-duke, April 8, 1860. On June 16, 1860, the Em- 
peror of the French met the Regent of Prussia, the 
kings of Hanover, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony, 
and the German princes, at Baden-Baden. The pop- 
ulation of Baden, Dec, 1861, was 1,369,291. 
Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great gen- 
eral, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and defeat- 
ed the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 



BAD I 

Charles William, margrave of Baden-Doiirlach, born 
1GT9, died 1T4() ; succeeded by his sou, 

Cliarles Kredericlc, margrave, afterward grand-duke 
of Badcu-Uourlach, boru 1T2S, wlio joined to his do- 
minions IJaden-Baden in 17T1, which were also in- 
creased by the favor of Napoleon. 

QIlANn-DCKES. 

1S06. Charles Frederick ; dies ISll ; succeeded by his 
grandson, 

ISll. Cliarles Louis Frederick, who died without issue 
in ISis ; succeeded by his uncle, 

1818. Louis William, died without issue in 1830; suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 

1S30. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
sou (the first being imbecile), 

1852. Frederick (born Sept. 9, 1826), regent April 24, 
1S52 ; declared grand-duke, Sept. 5, 1856. 

IHcir: his son Frederick William, boru July 9, 1857.] 

BADGE OF MILITARY MERIT. This was estab- 
lished by Washington in August, 1781, as an honorary 
badge of distinctum to be conferred upon non-com- 
missioned officers and soldiers who had served three 
years with bravery, fidelity, and good conduct, and 
upon any one who should perform any singularly mer- 
itorious action. The badge entitled the recipient "to 
pass and repass all guards and military posts as fully 
and amply as any commissioned officer whatever." 

BAEZA, Spain. Near this ancient town Scipio de- 
feated Hasdrubal, 208 B.C. Taken from the Moors by 
the Spaniards, A. D. 1239. 

BAFFIN'S BAY (N. America), discovered by Wil- 
liam Baffin, an Englishman, in IGIG. The extent of 
this discovery was much doubted until the expeditions 
of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantial- 
ly accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster 
Sound, and discovered the islands known by his 
name, in 1818. See Northwest Pannage. 

BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, 
and made the seat of the Saracen empire, about 7G2.— 
Taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen 
rule, 1268. Often taken by the Persians, and retaken 
by the Turks, with great slaughter: the latter took it 
in 1638, and have held it since. 

BAGNALO, Treaty of. Made Aug. 7, 1484, by the 
Venetians with the King of Naples, th'e Duke of Milan, 
and the Florentines. The news is said to have brought 
a fit of the gout on Pope Sextus IV., and killed him, 
Aug. 13, 1484. 

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman instru- 
ment. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculpture, now 
in Rome, a bagpiper is represented dressed like a 
modern Highlander. Nero is said to have played 
upon a bagpipe, 51. The British Uighland regiments 
retain their pipers. 

BAH^VMA ISLES (N. America) were the first points 
of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by 
him on the night of the 11th October, 1492. New Prov- 
idence was settled by the English in 1629. They were 
expelled by the Spaniards, 1G41 ; returned, 1G66; again 
expelled in 1703. It was stripped by Commodore Hop- 
kins, of the United States Navy, in 1776, of its artillery 
and stores, and its governor and some others taken. 
The isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. 
Population in ISGl, 35,287. 

_ BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by Baber 
m 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely dominion, 
became subject to the English East India Compauy in 
1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a quit-rent of about 
X300,000. 

BAIL. The Constitution of the United States pro- 
vides that excessive bail shall not be required, and 
most of the state Constitutions or laws have provisions 
to the same efTcct. By ancient common law in En- 
gland, before and since the Conquest, all felonies were 
bailable, till murder was excejjted by statute; (1274), 
the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances 
of felony, was taken away. Bail was farther regulated 
in later rciirns. Bail is now accepted in all cases, fel- 
ony excepted ; and where a magistrate refuses bail, it 
may be granted by a judge. 

BAILIFFS, OK SuEEiFFs. Said to be of Saxon ori- 
gin. Lond<ni had its shire-reve prior to the Conquest, 
and this officer was generally appointed for counties 
in England in 1079. Hen. Coriiehill and Rich. Reynere 
were apjiointed bailifts or sherifts in London in 1189. 
—Stoir. Sherifls were appointed in Dublin, under the 
name of bailiffs, in l.ms; and the name was changed 
to sheriff" in 1.'548. There are still some places where 
the chief magistrate is called baOifl", as the high bailiff 



> BAL 

of Westminster, num-bailiff is a corruption of bound- 
baihfl, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds 
of security tor his good hehayior.—maclc.ftone. 

BAIRAM, Mohammedan festivals. In 1SG5 the Lit- 
tle Ban-am, following the fast of Ramadan (wfiich see), 
fell on Feb. 28, March 1 and 2. The Great Bairam be- 
gan on May 10. 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woolen manufacture, 
was brought into England by some Flemish or Dutch 
emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and 
had privileges granted them by Parliament in 1660. 
Ihe trade is under the control of a corporation called 
the governors of the Dutch Baize-hall, who examine 
the cloth previous to sale.— Anderson. 

BAKER. See Bread. 

. BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal Societv, originated 
m a bequest of £100 by Henry Baker, F.R.S., the in- 
terest of which was to be given to one of the fellows 
D "l ^ ^ff^'^i'lic discourse to be delivered annually. 
Peter \Voulfe gave the first lecture in 1765. Latterly 
It has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a 
paper written by one of the fellows. Davy, Faraday, 
1 yudall, and other eminent men have given the lec- 

BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, with a 
fine harbor, 10 miles S.E. from Sebastopol. After the 
battle of the Alma the allies advanced upon this place, 
Sept. 26, 1854. On Oct. 25 following, about 12,000 Rus- 
sians, commanded by Gen. Liprandi, attacked and took 
some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been intrust- 
ed to about 250 Turks. They next assaulted the En- 
glish, by whom they were compelled to retire, mainly 
tlirough the charge of the heavy cavalry, led by Brig- 
adier Scarlett, under the orders of Lord Lucan. After 
this, from an unfortunate conception of Lord Raglan's 
order. Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan, with the 
light cavalry, to charge the Russian armv, which had 
re-formed on its own ground with its artillery in front. 
1 his order was most gallantly obeyed. Great havoc 
was made on the enemy ; but of G07"British horsemen 
only 198 returned. The British had altogether 9 offi- 
cers killed, 21 wounded, and 620 men put ho?-s de com- 
bat. The Russians had 550 men killed, and 6 officers 
(among whom was one general), and 190 men wound- 
■ TA l?i'*^*^ *'''°™ ^^^ garrison of Sebastopol on the 
night of March 22, 1855, fed to a desperate eugagement 
here, m which the Russians were vigorously repulsed 
-with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded, the al- 
lies losing about 600.— The electric telegraph between 
London and Balaklava was completed in April 1855 
and communications were then received by the British 
government.— A railway between Balaklava and the 
trenches was completed in June, 1855. See Musso- 
Turkish War. 

BALANCE or Power, to assure the independency 
and integrity of states, and control the ambition of 
sovereigns ; the principle is said to have been first laid 
down by the Italian politicians of the 15th century an 
the invasion of Charles VIIL of Yrance.—Rohertson. 
It was first recognized by the treaty of Munster, Oct 
24, 1648. The arrangements for the balance of power 
m Europe made in 1815, without the consent of the 
people of the countries concerned, have been srreatlv 
set aside since 1830. ^ 



E 



BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean, call- 
ed by the Greeks Balearides, and by the Romans Bal- 
eares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at sling- 
ing: they include Majorca and Minorca, with the 
small isle of Cabrera. These islands were conquered 
by the Romans, 123 B.C. ; by the Vandals, about 426 
B.C. ; and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in 
A.D. 799. They have belonged to Spain since 1232. 
See Minorca. 

BALIZE. See Honduras. 

BALKAN, the ancient Hsemus, a range of mount- 
ains extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. The 
passage, deemed impracticable, was completed by the 
Russians, under Diebitsch, during the Russian and 
Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armistice was the con- 
sequence ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrian- 
ople, Sept. 14 following. 

BALLADS may be traced in the British history to 
the Anglo-Saxons.—yffj-jie?-. Adhelme, who died 709, 
is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into 
England. " The harp was sent round, and those might 
sing who could."— TJct/c. Alfred sung ballads.— Jl/aZmes- 
bury. Canute composed one. — Turntr. Minstrels 
were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; but by a 
statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among 
rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars.— Finer. "Give 



BAL 



66 



me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the 
\a.vrs."— Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea-ballads of Dib- 
din were very popular iu the French War: he died 
Jan. 20, 1833. 

BALLETS began through the meretricious taste of 
the Italian courts. One performed at the interview 
between Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France, in the 
field of the Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, 15-20.— Gtdcciar- 
dini. They became very popular in France ; their 
zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1604. 
They were gradually introduced with operas into En- 
gland in the ISth century. 

BALLINAMUCK, Longford. Here, on Sept. 8, 1T98, 
the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries were de- 
feated and captured. 

BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of the 
construction of balloons was formed by Albert of Sax- 
ony, an August.in monk in the 14th century, and 
adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco Mendoza, 
who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is also attributed 
to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died in 1724. The 
theory of aeronautics includes — 1, the power of a bal- 
loon to rise in the air ; 2, the velocity of its ascent ; 
and, 3, the stability of its suspension at any given 
height. The application of sails and rudders has been 
duly considered, and judged to be futile. Fatal acci- 
dents to the voyagers have been estimated at 2 or 3 
per cent. 

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the 
air by means of a boat raised by four thin balls 
made of thin copper, from which the air had been 

exhausted 1670 

Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the 
fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the at- 
mosphere 1755 

Heury Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 

ID'S times lighter than common air 1766 

And soon after Black of Edinburg filled a bag with 
hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the room, 1767 

Cavallo filled soap-bubbles with hydrogen 1782 

Joseph Montgolfier caused a silken bag to ascend 

with heated air (the first /rc-fiaHooji) Nov., " 

Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and de- 
scend safely by means of a fire-balloon at Auno- 
uay, for which they received many honors, 

June 5, 17S3 
First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 

Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles Aug. 27, " 

Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 
with the smoke of burnt straw and wool, 

Sept. 19, " 
First aerial voyage in a fire-balloon — Pilatre de 

Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlaudes Nov. 21, " 

Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon 

to the height of 9770 feet Dec. 1, " 

Ascents become numerous : Andreani, Feb. 25 ; 
Blauchard, March 2 ; Guyton-Morveau, the chem- 
ist, April 25 and June 12 ; Fleurant and Madame 
Thiblc (the first female aeronaut), June 28 ; the 

Duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) Sept. 19, 1784 

The first ascent in England made by Luuardi at 

Moorfields, London Sept. 15, " 

Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover and cross 

the Channel, alighting near Calais Jan. 7, 1785 

The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh Gar- 
dens, Dublin Jan. 19, " 

Rozier and Romain killed in their descent near 

Boulogne ; the balloon took fire June 15, " 

Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, 

Aug., " 
Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in one, 

iu London Sept. 2, 1802 

Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in 
England, lell into the sea near Holyhead, but 

was taken up Oct. 9, 1812 

Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night : 
the balloon, being surrounded by fire -works, 
took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground 

and killed July 6, 1819 

Mr. Charles Green's first ascent July 19, 1821 

Lieut. Harris killed descending in a balloon, 

May 25, 1824 

Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon, iu 1825 

The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time 
previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of 
London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall Gar- 
dens, started from that place on an experimental 
voyage, having three iudividuals in the car, and 
after having beeu eighteen hours in the air de- 
scended at Weilburg, iu the Duchy of Nassau, 

Nov. 7, 1830 



* " Astr.a C'aatra ; Experiments and Adventures in tlie Atmosphere ; 
by Hatton Turner," appeared in 1S65. 



BAL 

Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall in order to 
try his parachute, in which he had great faith ; 
in its descent from the balloon it collapsed, and 
he was thrown out and killed July 24, 1S37 

An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found 
on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed 
to pieces Sept. 14, 1851 

Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis 
(after traveling 1150 miles they descended in Jef- 
ferson County, New York, nearly dead), June 23, 1859 

Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made), when 
fully inflated, contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas ; 
the car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 sol- 
diers at Paris ; Nadar hoped by means of screw 
to steer a balloon in the heavens. 

Nadar's first ascent, with 14 others, successful, 

Oct. 4, 1S63 

Second ascent, nearly all voyagers injured ; saved 
by presence of mind of M. Jules Godard ; de- 
scend at Nieuburg, Hanover Oct. 12, " 

Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, Sy- 
denham Nov., " 

Society for promoting aerial navigation formed at 
M. Nadar's at Paris ; president, M. Barral, 

Jan. 15, 1864 

Godard's great Montgolfier or fire-balloon ascends, 

July 28 and Aug. 3, " 

Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon 
at Brussels Sept. 26, " 

Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new bal- 
loon ; several persons are injured by the balloon 
becoming uncontrollable ; it escapes — July 3, 1865 

MILITARY APPLICATIONS. 

Guyton-Morveau ascended twice during the bat- 
tle, and gave important information to Jourdain, 

June 17, 1794 

Balloons were used during the battle of Solferino, 
June 24, 1859 ; and by the Federal army near 
Washington in July, ISGl 

EQUESTEIAN ASCENTS. 

Mr. Green affirms that he ascended from London 
on a horse attached to a balloon, though few 
persons seem to be aware that the experiment 
was made May, 1828 

He did so from Vauxhall Gardens with a very di- 
minutive pony July, 1850 

Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent with 
a horse from the Hippodrome of Vincennes, near 
Bordeaux. On descending, and detaching the 
animal from the balloon, tfie people who held its 
ropes, from some misconception, prematurely let 
them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rap- 
idly borue in the air before he was quite ready 
to resume his voyage. (He was discovered next 
morning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from 
where the balloon was found.) Sept. 8, " 

The ascent of Madame Poiteviu from Cremorne 
Gardens, near Loudon, as "Europa on a bull" 
(a feat she had often performed in France), and 
several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
concerned before the police courts on a charge 
of cruelty to animals, and put an end to experi- 
ments that outraged public feeling .Aug., 1852 

M. Poiteviu ascended on a horse, iu the vicinity 
of Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was 
nearly drowned iu the sea, near Malaga, while 
descending from his balloon in 1858, and died 
soon after. 

SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 

Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, Aug. 23 ; Gay-Lussac 
(to the height of 22,977 feet) Sept. 15, 1804 

Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 19,000 
feet. They passed through a cloud 9000 feet 
thick) 1850 

Mr. Welsh ascends, Aug. 17, 26 ; Oct. 21 and 

Nov. 10, 1852 

Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced his 
series of ascents, provided with suitable appara- 
tus, in Mr. Coxwell's great balloon, at Wolver- 
hampton: he reached the height of 5 miles, 

July 17, 1862 

He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
Wolverhampton ; at 5?4 miles high he became 
insensible; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his 
hands, but was able to open the valve with his 
teeth ; they thus descended in safety Sept. 5, " 

He ascended at Newcastle duriug the meeting of 
the British Association Aug. 31, 1863 

His 16th ascent ; surveys London Oct. 9, " ' 



BAL 



G7 BAN 



His 17th ascent at Woolwich ; descends at Mr. 
JJraudou's, Suffolk (1st winter asceut this cen- 
tury) Jau. 12, 1S64 

He ascends from AVoolwich (2-lth time).... Dec. :iO, " 

His 25th ascent Feb. 2T, 1S65 

(Mr. Glaisher has laid tlie result of his observa- 
tions before the scieutilic world.) 

BALLOT (French b«Wo?^', a little hall). Secret voting 
was practiced by the ancient Greeks and the modern 
Venetians, and is now employed in France and in the 
United States of North America. 
The ballot-box used in a political club at Miles's 

Coftee-housc, Westminster 1G59 

A tract entitled "The Beuetit of the Ballot," said 
to have been written bv Andrew Marvell, was 

published in the " State Tracts" 1093 

Proposed to be used in the election of members of 

Parliament iu a pamphlet 1705 

A bill authorizing vote by ballot passed the Com- 
mons, but rejected by the Lords 1710 

Tlie ballot has been an open question in Whig 

governments since 1S35 

The Ballot Society is very energetic. The ballot 

was adopted iu Victoria, Australia, in 1S56 

Secret voting existed in the Chamber of Deputies 
iu France from 1S40 to 1815. It has been em- 
ployed since the coup d'etat iu Dec, 1851 

The House of Commons rejected the ballot — 257 

being against, and 18!) for it June 30, 1851 

For several years it has been annually proposed 
and rejected. 

BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on 
the Virginia side. On Oct. 21, ISGl, by direction of the 
Federal (ieneral C. P. Stone, the heroic Colonel Baker 
crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the 
Confederate camp at Leesburg with 1720 men, and 
was thoroughly defeated, with a loss of 350 killed and 
wounded, and 500 missing. The disaster was attrib- 
uted to great mismanagement, and in Feb., 1802, Gen- 
eral Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 

BALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a sanguinary 
engagement took place between a large body of the 
insurirent Irish and the British troops, under "General 
Nugent, June 13, 1798. A large part of the town was 
destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely. 

BALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeenshire ; vis- 
ited by her majestv in 1S4'^, 1849, 1850. The estate was 
purchased for ^132,000 by Prince Albert in 1852. In 
1853, the new building, iu the Scotch baronial style, 
was commenced, froiii designs by Mr. W. Smith, of 
Aberdeen. 

BALTIC EXPEDITIONS against Denmark. In 
the tirst expedition, under Lord Nelson and Admiral 
Parker, Copenhagen was bombarded, and twenty- 
eight sail of the Danish fleet were takeu or destroyed, 
April 2, ISOl. See Armed Xcutmlit;/. In the second 
expedition, under Admiral Gambler and Lord Cath- 
cart, eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and 
thirtv-one l)ri£;s and gun-boats surrendered to the Brit- 
ish, July 26, 1807. 

BALTIC EXPEDITION against Russia. The 
British fleet sailed from Spithead in presence of the 
queen, who led it out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, 
March 11, 1S.54. It consisted of a crowd of steam-ships 
of tlie line, of which five were each of 120 guns and 
upward; the whole under the command of Vice-ad- 
miral Sir Charles Napier, whose flag floated on board 
the Duke of WelliuLCton, of 131 giins. The fleet ar- 
rived in WinLTo Sound March 1.5, and in the Baltic 
Man-h 2it folhiwing. The Gulf of Finland was block- 
aded April 12. 10/(00 French troops embarked at Ca- 
lais fn- tlie Baltic in English ships of war, in presence 
of tlie emperor, July 15. The capture of Bomarsund, 
one of the Aland Islands, and surrender of the garri- 
son, took place Aug. 16. See Doinarfiund. The En- 
glisli and French fleets, the latter having joined June 

14, commenced their return homeward to winter, Oct. 

15, ls.''>4. — The skcund expedition (of which the ad- 
vanced or flyiuL,' squadron sailed March 20) left the 
Downs April 4, I^.'jO. In July it consisted of 85 En- 

S"iish ships (2oiis irnus), commanded by Admiral R. S. 
undas, and 10 French ships (408 guns), under Admi- 
ral Pernand. On July 21, three vessels silenced the 
Russian batteries at IIo<;land Island. The fleet pro- 
ceeded toward Cronstadt. Many infernal machines* 
were di'^covered. Sveal)org was attacked Aui;;. 9. See 
Sveabonj. Shortly after, the fleet returned to England. 

* These were cones of galvanized iron, 16 inches in diaiiu-ter find .n 
inches lonp. Kach contained 9 or 10 lbs. of powder, with aiiparatu-^ IV-r 
flrintr by eulphuric acid. Little damase was done by them. They 
were said to be the iuvention of the philosopher Jacobi. 



BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, United 
States, founded iu 1729. On Sept. 12, 1814, the British 
army, under Col. Ross, advanced against this place. 
He was killed in a skirmish ; and the command was 
assumed by Col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the 
American army, which lost COO killed and wounded, 
and 300 prisoners. The proiected attack on the town 
was, however, abandoned. On April 19, 1861, the Fed- 
eral regiments passing throusjh Baltimore were fired 
upon, and Addison Whitney and Luther C. Ladd were 
killed : thus was shed the first blood iu the rebellion. 

BALUNGLAS, Ireland, on the Slaney, where the 
government troops defeated a rebel force in 1798. 

BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been founded by 
Saxons in 804, and endowed with a church by Charle- 
magne. It was made a bishopric in 1107, and the 
bishop was a prince of the empire till the treaty of 
Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg was secularized. It 
was incorporated with Bavaria in 1803. The noble 
cathedral, rebuilt in 1110, has been recently repaired. 
Bamberg was taken and pillaged by the Russians in 
1759. 

BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological), delivered at 
Oxford annually, began in 1780 with a lecture by James 
Bandiuel, D.D. The lecturer is paid out of the pro- 
ceeds of an estate bequeathed for the purpose by the 
Rev. John Barapton, and the lectures are published. 
Among the more remarkable lectures were those by 
White (1784), Heber (181,5), Whately (1822), Milmau 
(1827), Hampden (1832), and Mansel (1S5S). 

BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The castle, 
erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of Lincoln, 1126, 
has been frequently besieged. In 1646 it was taken by 
the Parliamentarians and demolished. At Danesmore, 
near Banbury, Edward VI. defeated the Lancastrians 
under the Earl of Pembroke, July 20, 1409, and their 
leader and his brother were soon after taken prisoners 
and executed. Banbm-y cakes were renowned in the 
time of Ben Jonsou, and Banbury Cross was destroyed 
by the Puritans. 

BANCA, Island of. Known for its tin mines. Be- 
longs to the Dutch. The net profits of the tin mines 
to Holland iu 1856 was $920,000. 

BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS. See Gen- 
tlemen-at-Arms. 

BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, visited 
by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled on them 1521, 
but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600. Rohiin 
Island was ceded to the English in 1610. The Bandas 
were taken by the latter in 1790 ; restored in 1801 ; re- 
taken in 1811 ; and restored in Atig., 1814. 

BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by the Brit- 
ish under Lord Cornwallis, March 6, and taken by 
storm March 21, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tip- 
poo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, deemed 
the bulwark of Mysore. 

BANGOR, Maine. An important lumber market. 
Chiefly urown up since 1S36-7. Occupied and held for 
a little while by the British, 1814. 

BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), Flint- 
shire, the site of an ancient monastery, very populous 
if it be true that 1200 monks were slain by Etlielfrid, 
king of the Angles, for praying for the Welsh in their 
conflict with him iu 707. — tanner. 

BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). Its bishopric is of 
great antiquity, but its founder is unknown. The 
church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 
516. Owen Gleudower greatly defaced the cathedral ; 
but a more cruel ravager than he, the Bishop Biilke- 
ley, alienated many of the lands, and even sold the 
bells of the church, 15.53. The see is valued in the 
king's books at i;i31 16s. 4d An order in council di- 
recting that the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph be united 
ou the next vacancy in either was issued iu 1838, but 
rescinded by the 10 & 11 Vict., c. 108 (1846). Present 
income, i;4200. 

KEOENT BISHOPS OF BANGOR. 

1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. 
1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1S09, 
1809. Henry William Majendie, died Julv 9, 1830. 
1S30. Cliristopher Betheil, died April 19, 18.59. 
1859. James Colquhoun Campbell (the present bishop, 
1S65). 

BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was occasioned by 
Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, preaching a 
sermon before George I., March 31, 1717, upon the text, 
".If// kinmlom in not of thi.t world" (John xviii., 36), iu 
which he demonstrated the spiritual nature of the 



BAN 



68 



BAN 



kingdom of Christ. He thereby drew upon himself 
the indignation of almost all the clergy, who published 
hundreds of pamphlets. 

BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. In En- 
gland (1597) dangerous rogues were to be banished 
out of the realm, and to be liable to death if they re- 
turned. See Tranxjjortation, Ostracmn, etc. 

BANK. The name is derived from banco, a bench, 
erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. 
The first was established in Italy, SOS, by the Lombard 
Jews, of whom some settled in Lombard Street, Lou- 
don, where many bankers still reside. The Mint in 
the Tower of Loudon was anciently the depository for 
merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid his hands upon 
the money and destroyed the credit of the Mint in 
1640. The traders were thus driven to some other 
place of security for their gold, which, when kept at 
home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to 
the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge 
it with the goldsmiths in Lombard Street, who were 
provided with strong chests for their own valuable 
wares ; this became the origin of banking in England. 
See Savings' Banks. 

Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended the 
Protector Cromwell to establish a public bank, 

1056 and 1658 
Fi-ancis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 

al)out 166.3 ; he died Oct. 4, 1T13 

Run on the London bankers (said to be the first). 1607 
Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments to 
bankers out of the Exchequer of moneys deposi- 
ed there by them ; they lost ultimately X3,321,313, 

Jan. 2, 1672 

Hoare's bank began about 1680 

Bank of England established 1004 

Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, 

established 1716 

A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar," 1765 
Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; executed 

Nov. 30, 1824 
Act passed permitting establishment of joint-stock 

banks, lohich sec 1826 

Rogers's bank robbed of nearly £50,000 (bank-notes 

afterward returned) Nov. 24, 1844 

Rowland Stephenson, M.P., banker and treasurer 
of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, absconds ; de- 
faulter to the amount of £200,000 ; £70,000 In Ex- 
chequer bills (caused a great depression among 

bankers) Dec. 27, 1828 

Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. 69) 1834 

Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities un- 
lawfully used) ; private banking much injured, 

June 11, 1855 

Banks in 1855. ^"^"^ ""o^'^'' 

Bank ofEngland 1 

English private banks 196 

English joint-stock banks {which see). 67 

"264 22,417,721 

Banks in Scotland 18 3,087,209 

Banks in Ireland 8 6,3.54,494 



to be issued. 
£14,000,000 
4,999,444 
3,418,277 



Bank o! 

Venice formed 1157 

Geneva " 1345 

Barcelona " 1401 

Genoa " 1407 

Amsterdam > 
formed j " ' ' 

Hamburg formed 1619 

Rotterdam " .... 1635 
Stockholm " .... 1688 
England " .... 1694 



1607 



290 £31,859,424 
Bank of 

Scotland formed 1695 

1736 
1765 



Copenhagen 

Berlin " 

Caisse d'Escompte, ) 



1776 
1783 



France, formed 
Ireland " 

St. Petersburg formed 1786 
In the E. Indies " 17S7 
In N. America " 1791 

France* formed 1803 

BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES. The first 
bank in the United States was the Bank of North 
America, chartered by Congress at the instance of 
Robert Morris in 1781, and by the State of Pennsylvania 
17S2, with a capital of $400,000. It is still in existence, 
and has a capital of $1,000,000. The first Bank of tue 
United States was incorporated in 1791, but did not 
go into operation until 1794. It was the suggestion of 
Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury ; its capital 
was $10,000,000. At that time the whole banking cap- 
ital of the United States was only $2,000,000, invested 
in the Bank of North America. The Bank of New 
York, founded 1784, and the Bank of Massachusetts in 
Boston, founded the same year. The charter of the 
United States Bank was limited to 20 years, its head- 
quarters were fixed in the city of Philadelphia, and it 

* Instituted by laws passed April 14, 1803, and April 22, ISflfi. The 
statutes were approved Jan. IB. In 1810 Napoleon said that its duty 
was to provide money at all times at 4 per cent, interest. 



was to be governed by 20 directors. A new one was 
chartered in 1816, for the same term, with a capital of- 
$35,000,000. In it the government funds were kept on 
deposit. An act of Congress in 1832, re-chartering it, 
was vetoed by President Jackson. He also caused the 
United States funds to be withdrawn from it in Sep- 
tember, 1833. This act produced a violent partisan 
feeling throughout the Union, and strong movements 
were made to impeach the President. A resolution of 
censure was passed by the United States Senate in 
March, 1834. It was expunged by prder of the Senate 
in January, 1837. Eflbrts were made in 1S14 to estab- 
lish a similar bank under another name. A bill for 
establishing the Fiscal Bank of the United States 
passed the House of Representatives in August, 1841. 
It was vetoed by President Tyler. Another bill for a 
"Fiscal Corporation" was vetoed by him on the 9th 
of September. This caused the resignation of all the 
cabinet, except Daniel Webster, on the 17th of the 
month. In 1828 the "Safety Fund System" was tried 
in New York, but in 1838 was given up, and the pres- 
ent free banking system introduced, which has done 
well, and been imitated in many states. The New 
York Clearing House was established in October, 1853 ; 
that in Boston was opened for business March 29, 1856. 
The Sufiblk Bank system of redemption in Boston be- 
gan 1825. The "Bank of Mutual Redemption," ret up 
in opposition to the Suffolk Bank, was chartered 1855, 
but did not go into operation for several years, and 
never accomplished much. In 1857 there was a gen- 
eral suspension of specie payments tliroughout the 
Union, precipitated by the bankruptcy of the Ohio Life 
and Mutual Insurance Company, but it passed off with 
comparatively little injury. Specie payments were 
suspended again soon after the breaking out of the 
Civil War, and have not been since resumed [1868]. 

BANKS, NATIONAL. The national bank system 
of the United States was organized on February 25, 
1863, to give uniformity to the paper currency and the 
banking laws of the country. The old banks, author- 
ized by the several states, were induced by certain 
privileges, or forced by special taxes, to surrender 
their state charters and adopt the national plan, and 
accept charters as national banks from the United 
States government. A subsequent act was adopted 
and approved on June 3, 1804; and under it the na- 
tional banks are now conducted. By the terms of this 
law the circulation of the national banks is limited to 
$300,000,000, which is secured by the deijosit with the 
United States treasurer of the bonds of the govern- 
ment to an equal amount. The last report of the 
comptroller of the currency shows that in October, 
1866, 1647 banks were in operation, with a paid in cap- 
ital of $417,245,154 07 ; and a circulation of $292,671,753, 
secured by a deposit of bonds to the value of 
$332,467,700. 

BANK OP Englant) was projected by William Pat- 
erson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet the dif- 
ficulty experienced by William III. in raising the sup- 
plies for the war against France. By the influence of 
Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 merchants sub- 
scribed £500,000 toward the sum of £1,200,000 to be 
lent to the government at 8 per cent,, in consideration 
of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. The 
scheme was violently opposed in Parliament, but the 
bill obtained the royal assent April 25, 1694, and the 
charter was granted July 27 following, appointing Sir 
John Iloublon the first governor, and'Michael Godfrey 
the first deputy governor. The bank commenced active 
operations on Jan. 1, 1695, at Grocers' Hall, Poultry, 
issuing notes for £20 and upward, and discounting 
bills for 4% to 6 per cent. The charter was renewed 
in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1742, 1746, 1749, 1764, 
1781, 1800, ISOS, 1816, 1883, ISU.—Lawson. 
Run on the bank; its notes at 20 per cent, dis- 
count ; capital increased to £2,201,171 10s., Nov., 1096 
The bank monopoly established by the prohibi- 
tion of any company exceeding six persons act- 
ing as bankers (Scotland not included in the 

act) ITOS 

Capital raised to £5,.5.'59,995 lOs 1710 

Bank post bills issued (1st record) Dec. 14, 1738 

Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; bank 
bills paid in silver ; the city support the bank, 

Sept., 1745 
Richard Vaughau hanged for forging bank-notes. 

May 1, 175S 

£10 notes issued 1T59 

Gordon riots ; since, the bank has been protected 

by the military 1"80 

£5 notes Issued 1T93 

Cash pavmeuts suspended, in conformity with an 
order in council Feb. 26, 1779 



BAN 



GO 



BAN 



£1 and £2 notes issued Mai'cli,lT79 

Bank Restriction Act passed (continued by other 
acts) May 3, " 

Voluntary contribution of £200,000 to tlic goveru- 
mont 1T98 

Loss by Aslett's frauds (see Exchequer), £342,697. .1803 

Resignation of Abraliain Newlaud, 50 years cash- 
ier Sept. 18, 180T 

The banli issues silver toliens for 86\ and l.s. 6d., 

July 9, 1811 

Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- 
ments July, 1819 

Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the 
miut price, May 1, 1821 ; in. the current coin of 
the realm May 1, 1823 

Great commercial panic — many £\ notes (accident- 
ally found in a box) issued with most beneficial 
etrects Bee, 1825 

The act for the establishment of joint-stock banks 
breaks up the monopoly 1S26 

By the advice of the government, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester,' July 19 ; Manchester, Sept. 
21 ; Swansea, Oct. 23 " 

And at Birmingham, Jan. 1 ; Liverpool, July 2 ; 
Bristol, July 12 ; Leeds, Aug. 23 ; Exeter, Dec. 17, 1S27 

The bank loses £360,000 by Fauntleroy's forgeries. 1830 

Statements of the bank affairs published quar- 
terly 1833 

Peel's Bank Charter Act ; renews charter till Aug. 
4, 1855, and longer, if the debt due from the pub- 
lic to the bank (£11,015,100), with interest, etc., 
be not paid after due notice ; established the 
issue department ; requires weekly returns to 
be published; limited the issue of notes to 
£14,(100,000, etc July 19, 1844 

Commercial panic ; Lord John Ru.ssell authorizes 
relaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not 
acted on) ; bank discount 8 per cent Oct. 25, 1847 

Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity guar- 
antee fund March, 1850 

Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on discov- 
ery of gold in Australia), £21,845,390 . . .July 10, 1852 

Branch Bank, Burlington Gardens, London, W., 
opened Oct, 1, 1856 

Committee on the Bank Acts appointed July, 1857 

Bank discount 9 per cent. ; Lord Palmerstou au- 
thorizes addition to issue of notes [to the amount 
of £2,000,000 were issued] Nov. 12, " 

Committee on the Bank Acts appointed in Dec. 1, 
1857 ; report recommending continuance of pres- 
ent state of things July 1, 1858 

Bank discount 3 per cent., Feb., 1858 ; 6 per cent, 
(demand for gold in France), Nov. 15, 1860 ; 7 per 
cent., Jan. 7 ; 8 per cent, (demand for money in 
France, India, and United States, etc.), Feb. 14 ; 
3 per cent., Nov. 7, 1S61 ; 2^^ per cent., Jan. ; 
3 per cent., April; 2>< percent., July ; 2 percent, 
July 24 ; 3 per cent., Oct.-Dec 1862 

Much alarm through the announcement of the 
bank solicitor that a quantity of bank paper had 
been stolen from the makers (forged notes soon 
appeared) Aug. 16, " 

The culprits, soon detected, were tried and convict- 
ed (see Triahi) Jan. 7-12, 1863 

Bank discount, 1863, rmsed to 4 per cent., Jan. 16 ; to 5, 
Jan. 28 ; reduced to 4, Feb. ; to 3X and 3, April ; raised 
to 4, May ; rained to 5, 6, in Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and re- 
dv/xd to 7, in Dec. 

Bank discount, 1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20; rediiced to 7, 
Feb. 12 ; to 6, Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 
2 ; to 8, May 5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; to 7, May 26 ; 
to 6, June 16 ; raUed to 7, July 25 ; to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, 
Sejjt. 5 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 24. 

Bank discount, 1865, reduced to 5j<;', Jan. 12; to 5, Jan. 
20; raised to tyy,, March 2; reduced to 4, March 30; 
raised to 4)4, May 4 ; rediwed to 3>^, June 1 ; to 3, June 
15 ; raised to 3^, July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3. 

AVF.R.VGE AMOITNT OF BANK OF ENGLAND NOTES IN CIE- 
CULATION. 

171S £1,829,930 J 1835 £18,215,220 



1778 7,030,680 

1790 10,217,000 

1800 15,450,000 

1810 23,904,000 

1815 26,803,520 

1820 27,174,000 

1S30 20,620,000 

Deo. 27, 1856. 
jlssfts— Sectirities £29,484,000 \ ^gj, ggg 



1840 17,231,000 

1845 19,262,327 

1850 19,776,814 

18,55 19,616,627 

1857 21,0.-!6,4.30 

1859 22,705,780 



Bullion 10,105,000 

Liabilities 



000 
.';f>.3';o,ooo 



Balance £3,260,000 



Nov. 11, 1857. (Time of Panic.) 
^sse<s— Securities £35,480,281 > „,„ ^^„ ^„„ 

Bullion 7,170,508 / -£42,650,789 

Liabilities 39,286 433 

Balance £3,364,356 





Aastts— 
Securities. 


Bullion. 


Liabilities. 


balance. 


Sept. 14, 1859 
Feb. 14, 1861. 
Aug. SO, 1862 
Au-. 9, 1865. 


^30,099, 119 
29,095,172 
30,106,295 
31,823,066 


i:n, 120,822 

11,671,332 
17,678,698 
14,223,390 


£43,503,214 
37,167,336 
44,453,778 
42,628,577 


i:3,716,787 
3,499,168 
3,331,215 
3,617,879 



PUBLIO DEBT TO TUE HANK OF ENGLAND. 



1694 £1,200,000 

1708 2,175,027 

1716 4,17.5,027 

1721 9,100,000 



1742 £10,700,000 

1746 11,686,000 

1816 14,686,000 

1S44 11,015,100 



BANK OF Ireland. On Dec. 9, 1721, the Irish House 
of Commons rejected a bill for establishing a national 
bank. Important failures in Irish banks occurred in 
1727, 1733, and 1758: this led gradually to the estab- 
lishment of the Bank of Ireland at St. Mary's Abbey, 
Dublin, June 1, 1783. The busiues.s was removed to 
the late houses of Parliament, in College Green, in 
May, 1808. Branch banks of this establishment have 
been formed in most of the provincial towns in Ire- 
land, all since 1828. Irish Banking Act passed, July 

BANK OF Savings. See Savings' Banks. 

BANKS OF Scotland. The old Bank of Scotland 
was set up in 1695, at Ediuburg, and began Nov. 1, 
the second institution of the kind in these kingdoms: 
lending money to the crown was prohibited. The 
Royal Bank was chartered July 8, 1727; the British 
Linen Company's Bank, 1746 ; the Commercial Bank, 
1810 ; National Bank, 1825 ; Union Bank, 1830. The 
first stone of the present Bank of Scotland was laid 
June 3, 1801. The Western Bank of Scotland and the 
Glasgow Bank stopped in Nov., 1857, causing much 
distress. Scotch Banking Act passed, July 21, 1845. 

BANKS, Joint-Stook. Since the act of 1826, a num- 
ber of these banks have been established. In 1840, 
the amount of paper currency issued by joint-stock 
banks amounted to £4,138,618 ; the amount in circula- 
tion by private banks, same year, was £6,973,613— the 
total amount exceeding eleven millions.* In Ireland 
similar banks have been instituted, the first being the 
Hibernian Bank in 1825. The note-circulation of joint- 
stock banks on Oct. 1, 1855, was, in England, £3,990,800; 
in Scotland, £4,280,000; and in Ireland, £6,785,000; 
total, with English private banks, about £19,000,000 ; 
and, with the Bank of England, above £39,000,000. 

Chief London Banks. Founded. 

London and Westminster 1834 

London Joint-Stock 1836 

Union Bank of Loudon 1839 

Commercial Bank of London " 

London and County " 

City Bank 1855 

Bank of London " 

Joint-Stock Banks, Jan. 1860 : 

England and Wales (including Loudon) 94 

Scotland 15 

Ireland 8 

British and foreign colonial banks with oflices in 
London 18 

BANKRUPT (signifying either bank or bench bro-» 
ken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his just 
debts. The laws in England on the subject (1543, 1571 
el scq.) were consolidated and amended in 1825, 1849, 
1852, 1854, and 1861. 



» The Royal British Bank was established in 1849 by Mr. John 
M'Grejror, M.P., and others, under Sir R. Peel's Joint-stock Banking 
Act, 7 & 8 Vict., c. 113 (1844), as an attempt to introduce the Scotch 
banking system of cash credits into England. On Sept. 3, 1856, it stop- 
ped payment, occasioning much distress and ruin to many small trades- 
men and others. In consequence of strong evidence of the existence of 
fraud in the management of the bank, elicited during the examination 
before the Court of Bankruptcy, the government instructed the attor- 
ney general to file ex-officio intormations against the manager, Mr. H. 
Innes Cameron, and several of the directors. They were convicted, Feb. 
27, 1858, after thirteen days' trial, and sentenced to various degrees of 
imprisonment. Attempts to jjiitigate the punishment failed (May, 
1858) ; hut all were released except Cameron and Esdaile, in July, 
1S5S. In April, 1860, dividends had been paid to the amount of 155. in 
the pound. The attorney general brought in a bill called the Fraudu- 
lent Trustees' Act, 20 &'21 Vict., c. 64, to prevent the recurrence of 
such transactions.— On April 19, 1860, a deficiency of X263,000 was dis- 
covered in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George Pullinger, a cash- 
ier, confessed himself guilty of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 
20 years' imprisonment.— In Feb. 18, 1861, it was discovered that John 
Du'rden, a clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed his 
employers of i'67,000, of which £46,000 might be recovered.— In Dec, 
1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burcli, manager and secretary of the 
Unity Bank, were committed nn a charge of conspiracy for fabricating 
accounts, but acquitted on their trial. 



BAN 



70 



BAR 



Lord-chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his 
certificate because he had lost live pounds at one 
time in gaming July 17, 17S8 

Enacted that members of the House of Commons 
becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
in full, should vacate their seats 1812 

Present Bankruptcy Court was erected by 2 Will. 
IV., cap. 50, 1831 ; bills for reforming bankruptcy 
law were in vain brought before Parliament, 
1850, ISOO ; at length, in 1801, was passed the bill 
brought in by the lord chancellor (formerly Sir 
R. Bethell), 24 & 25 Vict., c. 134 (1861), by which 
great changes were made ; the court for relief 
of insolvent debtors was abolished, and in- 
creased powers given to the commissioners in 
bankruptcy, etc. : the new orders were i.ssued 

Oct. 12,1861 
[This act has not produced public satisfaction 
(1SG5).] 

The Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, 
and farther amended in 1857 

The Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, 
and farther amended in " 

NUMBEK OF BANKKXJPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DTFFEK- 
BNT PEKIOD8. 



1700. 

1725. 
1750. 
1775, 
1800. 
1810. 
1820. 
1825* 



38 
416 
432 
520 
1339 
2000 
1358 
2683 



1830 1467 

1840 1308 

184.5, England 1028 

1850, "" 1298 

1857, " 1488 

1859, " 959 

1860, " 1268 

1863, " 8470 



In 1857 there were in Scotland, 453 ; in Ireland, 73 ; in 

the United Kingdom, 2014. 
In 1860 there were in Scotland, 445 ; in Ireland, 113 ; in 

the United Kingdom, 1826. 

BANKRUPT LAWS. Either the federal or state 
governments may make bankrupt laws, the former, of 
course, to prevail in case of conflict. A United States 
bankrupt law was passed April 4th, ISOO, and repealed 
Dec. 19th, 1S03. Another was passed Aug. 19th, 1841, 
to take eflect Feb. 2d, 1842, and repealed March 3d, 
1843. Under the latter nearly all the insolvents in the 
country cleared themselves. The whole number of 
persons thus relieved has been computed at 39,000, the 
debt thus nullified at ,$441,000,000. A general Bank- 
ruptcy Act was passed by Congress early in 1807. 

BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Ban- 
natyne (the publisher), was established in 1823 by Sir 
Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustra- 
tive of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scot- 
land, of which about 113 volumes were issued. 

BANNERET, a personal dignity between baron and 
knight, anciently conferred by the king lender the royal 
standard. Its origin is of uncertain date : Edmondson 
says 736 ; but it was probably created by Edward I. 
John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the King of Castile at Najara, 
April 3, 1307. The dignity was conferred on John 
Smith, who rescued the royal staudard at Edgehill 
fight, Oct. 23, 1642. It fell into disuse, but was revived 
by George III. in the person of Sir William Erskine 
in 1764. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jew- 
ish tribes had standards or banners — Nvvi.n. (1491 
■B.C.). The standard of Constantine bore the inscrip- 
tion In hoc sifino vinces — "By this sign thou shalt con- 
quer," under the figure of the cross. See Cross. The 
magical banner of the Danes (said to have been a 
black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 
when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Martin's cap, and 
afterward the celebrated auriflamma, or oriflamme, 
were the standards of France about 1100. See Auri- 
Jianima, Standards, etc. 

BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of the bat- 
tle between Robert Bruce of Scotland and Edward II. 
of England, June 24, 1314. The armv of Bruce con- 
sisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward 100,000 men, of whom 
52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to 
the attack, and Bruce havino^.dug and covered pits, 
they fell iuto them, and were thrown into confusion. 
The rout was complete: the English king narrowly 
escaped, and 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. 

* According to a return to Parliament made ftt the close of Februn- 
ry, 1825, there had become bankrupt in the/our mtmlhi preeedinti, 50 
bankin{;-houses, comprisinfi: 144 partners ; and 20 other bankinp estab- 
lishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding: week con- 
tinued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and man- 
ufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bub- 
ble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and 
ruin. 



At Sauchieburn, near here, James II. was defeated and 
slain on June 11, 1488, by his rebellious nobles. — A na-' 
tional monument was founded here, June 24, 1801. 

BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn procla- 
mation of any kind: hence arose the present custom 
of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage ; 
said to have been introduced into the Church about 
1200. 

B.A.NTAM (Java), where a rich British factory was 
established by Captain Lancaster in 1003. The En- 
glish and Danes were driven from their factories by 
the Dutch in 1083. Bantam surrendered to the British 
in 1811, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace iu 
1S14. It was not worth retaining, the harbor being 
choked up and inaccessible. 

BANTINGISM. See Corpulence. 

BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French fleet, 
bringing succor to the adherents of James II., attack- 
ed the English under Admiral Herbert, May 1, 1089: 
the latter retired to form in line and were not pursued. 
A French squadron of seven sail of the line and two 
frigates, armed en flute, and seventeen transports, 
anchored here for a few days, -without eflect, Dec, 1796. 
— Mutiny of the Bantry Bay squadron, under Admiral 
Mitchell, was in Dec, 1801. In Jan., 1,S02, twenty-two 
of the mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, 
at Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to 
death, of whom eleven were executed ; the others 
were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The exe- 
cutions took place on board the Majestic, Centaur, For- 
vddable, Temeraire, and L'Achilte, Jan. 8 to 18, 1802. 

BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into the 
Christian Church, practiced by all sects professing 
Christianity except Quakers. John the Bajjlist bap- 
tized Christ, 30. {Matt, iii.) lufant baptism is men- 
tioned by Irenseus about 97. In the reign of Constan- 
tine, 319, baptisteries were built and baptism was per- 
formed by dipping the person all over. In the West 
sprinkling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen 
since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 18,50), in the Church 
of England, respecting the doctrine of Itaptismal re- 
generation, which the Arches' Court of Canterl)ury de- 
cided to be a doctrine of the Church of England. See 
Trials, 1849, and note. 

BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect distinguished 
by their opinions respecting (1) the proper subjects 
and (2) the proper mode of baptism : the former they 
affirm to be those who are able to make a profession 
of faith ; the latter to be total immersion. There are 
seven sections of Baptists — Arminian, Calvinistic (or 
Particular, etc. The first Baptist Church formed in 
London was in 1008. They published a Confession of 
Faith in 1689. In 1851 they had 1.30 chapels in Loudon 
and 27S9 (with sittings for 752,353 persons) in England 
and Wales. Rhode Island, U. S., was settled by Bap- 
tists in 1635. 

BAR ATARI A BAY, about 15 miles by 6 west of the 
Mississippi River. Here a band of privateersmen or 
pirates, said to be 1000 strong, mostly French, under 
Lafitte, in 1814 for some years had their head-quarters, 
since the English, by taking Guadaloupe in 1810, had 
deprived them of the use of that port. Sept. 2d, 1S14, 
the captain of an English sloop-of-war then at Pensa- 
cola oftered to receive them into the English service 
if they would join in an attack on New Orleau.?. La- 
fitte, "however, informed Governor Claiborne, of Lou- 
isiana. Commodore Patterson, with a U. S. squadron, 
in Oct., 1814, went to Barataria and captured 10 ves- 
sels with 20 guns, the pirates not resisting. Lafitte 
and a part of them afterward served under General 
Jacksou in the defense of New Orleau8,*and were, in 
return, not prosecuted. 

BARBADOES, discovered by the Portuguese, was 
the first English settlement in the West Indies. About 
1005 it gave rise to the sugar trade in England, and 
was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter 
granted to James, earl of Marlboi'ough, 2 Charles I., 
1027. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental 
visitations ; in a dreadful hurricane, Oct. 10, 17S0, more 
than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large 
plantation, with all its buildings, was destroyed by 
the land removing from its original site to another, 
and covering every thing in its peregrination, Oct., 
1784. An inundation, Nov., 1795 ; and two great fires, 
May and Dec, 1790. Bishopric established, 1824. Aw- 
ful devastation, with the loss of thousands of lives, 
and of immense property, by a hurricane, Aug. 10, 
1831. Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera here in 
18.^. On Feb. 14, ISOO, property to the amount of 
about ^300,000 was destroyed by a fire at Bridgetown, 
the capital. 



BAR 



71 



BAR 



BARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to comprise 
Alfjeriii, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, with their 
depeiuleiicies. Piratical states (uominally subject to 
Turkey) were founded on the coast by Barbarossa 
about 1518. 

BAKI5EUS existed at Rome iu the 3d century B.C. 
In Kimliuid, fornu'rlv, the business of a surgeon was 
united to till! barber's, and he was denominated a 
BAUiir.u-SriujKoN'. A London company was formed iu 
l;!(i8, and inc(u-i)orated 1-101. This union was partially 
dissolved in 1540, and wholly so iu 1T45. " No person 
usint: any shaving or barbery iu London shall occupy 
any surgerv, letting of blood, or other matter, except 
only drawing of teeth." 32 Henry VIIL, 15-lU. 

B.\RCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony of 
Cvrcne. It was successively subjugated by the Per- 
sians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the Sultan 
Solyman combined Barca with the newly-couquered 
pashalik of Tripoli. 

BARCELONA, an ancient maritime city (N. E. 
Spain), said to have been rebuilt by Hamilcar Barca, 
father of the great Haunibal, about '233 B.C. With 
the surrounding country, it was held by the Romans, 
Goths, Moors, and Franks, and, witli the province of 
which it is the capital, was made an independent 
country about A.D. SG4, and incorporated into Aragon 
in 1104, the last count becoming king. The city has 
suffered much by war. The siege by the French, iu 
1094, was relieved by the approach of the English 
fleet, commanded by Admiral Russell; but the" city 
was taken by the Earl of Peterborough iu ITOG. It 
was bombarded and taken by the Diike of Berwick 
and the French in 1714, and was taken by Napoleou 
in isuS, and retained till 1814. It revolted against the 
queen in 1841, and was bombarded and taken iu Dec, 
1842, by Espartero. 

BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, of Meso- 
potamia, who embraced the errors of Valentinus, after 
refuting them, and added the denial of the incarna- 
tion, the resurrection, etc., about 175. 

BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by 
Homer ; and we tind bards, according to Sirabo, among 
the Romans before the age of Augustus. The WeWi 
bards formed an hereditary order, regulated, it is said, 
by laws enacted about 040 and 1078. They lost their 
privileges at the conquest by Edward I., in 12S4. The 
institution was revived by the Tudor sovereigns; and 
their P^isteddfodds (or meetings) liave been" and are 
frequently held; at Swansea, Aug., 1803; at Llandud- 
no, Aug.," 1804; and in the vale of Conway, Aug. 7, 
1805. The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards was found- 
ed in 1770. TurloghO'Carolan, the last of the Irish 
bards, died iu 1737. — Chambers. 

BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. Cromwell, being 
supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 122 per- 
sons, such as he thought he could manage, who, with 
six from Scotland and live from Ireland, met, and as- 
sumed the name of Parliament, July 4, 1053. It ob- 
tained its appellation from a nickname given to one 
of its members, a leather-seller named "Praise-God 
Barbon," a great haranguer and frequent in prayer. 
Althou^li violent and absurd propositions were made 
by some of the members, the majority evinced much 
sense and spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve 
the administrati(jn of the law, etc. The Parliament 
was suddenly dissolved, Dec. 13, 10.53, at the instance 
of Sydenham", an Independent, and Cromwell was in- 
vested with the dignity of Lord Protector. 

BAREFOOTED FRIARS. The Franciscans were 
the tirst to go barefooted, A.D. 1207. The custom was 
adopted bythe Carmelites and other strict orders, but 
is now given up. 

BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N.W. India), ceded 
to the East India Company by the ruler of Oude iu 
ISO] . A mutiny at Bareilly, "the capital, was suppressed 
in Ai)ril, lsl6. On May 7, 1858, it was taken from the 
Sepoy rebels, who had here committed many enormi- 
ties. 

BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, duke of 
Normandy, equijiped the fleet by which he conquered 
England, 1006. Near it. Prince William, son of Henry 
I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, 
Nov. 25, 1120.* "Barflenr was destroyed by the English 

* In this shipwreck perished his letritimflte son, William, duke of 
Normandv, aiui his newlv-niarried hridc-, Matilda, dauihter of Fulke, 
carl of Anjou ; the king's" natural son, Rirhsrd ; his niece, I.uoia ; the 
Earl of Chester, and the flower of the nobility, with 140 ofRrers and 
Boldiers, and 50 sailors, most of the latter heinp intoxicate<l, which was 
the cause of their running upon the rocks near Barfleur. Tliis lament- 
able catastrophe had such an effect upon Henrj- that he was never aft- 
erward seen to smile. — HenaulC ; Hume. 



in the campaign in which they won the battle of Crecy, 
1346. The Frlnich navy was destroyed near the Cape 
by Admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, iii 
1092. 

BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, in the 
ninth century, a strong-hold of the Saracens, and was 
captured by the Emperor Louis II., a descendant of 
Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th century it became 
subject to the Eastern Empire, and remained so till it 
was taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1000. 
A great ecclesiastical council was held here on Oct. 1, 
1098, when thejiUoque article of the Creed and the pro- 
cession of the Holy Spirit were the subjects of discus- 
sion. 

BARINAS OK VARINAS, one of the colonies which 
joined the Confederation of Venezuela, April 19, 1810. 

BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered by Capt 
Penny in 1850-1, and so named by him after Sir Fran- 
cis Baring, first lord of the Admiralty in 1849. 

BARIUM (Greek, harys, heavy) a metal found abun- 
dantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide baryta 
was first recognized as an earth distinct from lime by 
Scheele iu 1744, and the metal was first obtained by 
Humphry Davy in ISOS.— Watts. 

BARK. See Jesidts' Bark. 

BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, celebra- 
ted for virtue and courage, were massacred through 
the jealousy of the Caliph Haroun-al-Rashid about 
802. His vizier Giafar was a Barmecide. The phrase 
Barmecide (or imaginary) feast originated in the story 
of the barber's sixth brother, in the Arabian Nights' 
Entertainment. 

BARNABITES, an order of monks, established in 
Milan about 1.530, were much engaged iu iustructing 
yotith, relieving the sick and aged, aud converting her- 
etics. 

BARNBURNERS, a name given to the anti-slavery 
section of the Democratic party, which separated from 
the rest of the Democratic National Convention in 
1840. The term was used chiefly of those iu the State 
of New York. They received their name from the old 
story of the man whose house was infested with rats, 
desiring to burn it down as the only way to rid him- 
self of them, because they desired to do away with all 
corporations, as they were dissatisfied with the corpo- 
ration and system of the United States Banlj. 

BARNET, Hertfordshire, England. Here Edward 
IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians, on 
Easter day, April 14, 1471, when the Earl of Warwick 
and his brother the Marquis of Montacute, or Mon- 
tague, aud 10,000 men, were slain. A column com- 
memorative of the battle has been erected at the meet- 
ing of the St. Alban's and Hatfield roads. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having 
discovered that no principle of suction existed, and 
that water did not rise iu a pump through nature's 
abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump 
with mercury, aud made the first barometer about 1043. 
Pascal's experiments (1640) enhanced the value of the 
discovery by applying it to the measurement of heights. 
Wheel barometers were contrived in 1008 ; peu"dent 
bar )meters in 1095 ; marine in 1700, and many im- 
provements liave been since made. In the A72^:ro^d 
barometer (from a, no, and Jicros, ivatery) no liquid is 
employed, the atmospheric pressure being exerted on 
a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Cont6 
in 1798, and to Vldi about 1844) excited much atteution 
in 1S4S-9. Barometers were placed at N.E. coast sta- 
tions iu 1800 by the Duke of Northumberland and 
others. 

BARON, now the lowest title in the British peerage, 
is extremely ancieut. Its original name in England, 
Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, aud 
by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are 
named in the historv of England, aud undoubtedly 
had assisted in, or had been summoned to Parliament 
(in 1205) ; but the first precept found is of no higher 
date than the 49 Henrv HI., 1265. The first raised to 
this diiruit v bv patent was John de Beauchamp, created 
Baron of Kidderminster by Richard IL, 1387. The 
barons took arms aeainst King John, and compelled 
him to sisn the great charter of our liberties, and the 
charter of our forests, at Ruuuymede, near Windsor, 
June, 121.5. Charles IL granted a coronet to barons 
on his restoration. 

BARONETS, the first in rank among the gentry, 
and the oulv knighthood that is hereditary, were in- 
stituted hv "James I., 1011. The rebellion in I'lster 
seems to have given rise to this order, it having been 



BAR 



72 



required of a baronet, on his creation, to jDay into the 
Exchequer as much as would maiutain " thirty soldiers 
three years at eightpence a day iu the proviuce of Ul- 
ster in Ireland." It was farther required that a baron- 
et should be a gentleman born, and have a clear estate 
of £1000 per annum. The first baronet was Sir Nich- 
olas Bacon (whose successor is therefore styled Primus 
Baronettoruvi Anfilicv), May 22, 1611. The baronets of 
Ireland were created iu 1619, the first being Sir Fran- 
cis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia were created 
1625 ; Sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. — All baron- 
ets created since the Irish Union in ISOl are of the 
United Kingdom. 

BARONS' WAR arose in consequence of the faith- 
lessness of King Henry III. and the oppression of his 
favorites. Thebarons, headed by Simon de Montfort, 
earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Glouces- 
ter, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to 
which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were 
in vain referred to the decision of Louis IX. of France. 
War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king's party 
were totally defeated at Lewes, and De Montfort be- 
came the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through 
treachery the war was renewed ; and at the battle of 
Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265, De Montfort was slain, and the 
barons were defeated. They, however, did not render 
their final submission till 126S. A history of this war 
was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw iu 1S44. 

BARRACKPOOR, a military village in India, and 
the principal country residence of the governor gener- 
al. It is 16 miles by land from Calcutta. Here occur- 
red the first outbreak of the Sepoy rebellion, Jan. 24, 
1857. At the same place there had been a mutiny in 
1824, in which 70 Sepoys were killed, and a large num- 
ber (nearly two regiments) captured and hung. 

BARRICADES, mounds formed of trees and earth, 
and for military defense. During the wars of the 
League in France, in 15SS, the people made barricades 
by means of chains, casks, etc., and compelled the 
royal troops to retire. Barricades composed of over- 
turned vehicles, etc., were erected in Paris in the in- 
surrections of July 27-30, 1S30, and June 23, 1S4S. 

BARRIER TREATY, by which the Low Countries 
were ceded to the Emperor Charles VL, was signed 
by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, Nov. 5, 
1715. 

BARRISTERS (in England, counsellors at law ad- 
mitted to plead) are said to have been first appointed 
by Edward I. about 1291, but there is earlier mention 
of professional advocates iu England. They are of 
various rank, as King's or Queen's Counsel, Sergeants, 
etc., which see. Students for the bar in England must 
keep a certain number of terms at the Inns of Court 
previously to being called, and by the regulations of 
1853 must pass a public examination. Irish students 
must keep eight terms in England. 

BARROSA, OK Babossa (S. Spain), where a battle 
was fought on March 5, ISll, between the British army, 
commanded by Major General Sir Thomas Graham, 
afterward Lord Lynedoch, and the French under Mar- 
shal Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved 
one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular 
War. Although they fought at great disadvantage, 
the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving 
nearly 3000 dead, six pieces of cannon, and an eagle, 
the first that the British had taken ; the loss of the 
British was 1169 men killed and wounded. 

BARROW ISLAND (N. Arctic Sea), discovered by 
Captain Penny in 1850-^51, and named by him in honor 
of John Barrow, Esq., son of Sir John. 

BARROW'S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), explored by 
Edward Parry as far as Melville Island, lat. 74° 26' N., 
and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, named after Sir John 
Barrow, was entered on Aug. 2, 1819. The thermome- 
ter was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. 

BARROWISTS, a name given to the BrownisU, 
which see. 

BARROWS, circular mounds found in Britain and 
other countries, were ancient sepulchres. Sir Richard 
Hoare caused several barrows near Stonehenge to be 
opened ; in them were found a number of cui-ious re- 
mains of Celtic oniaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov., ISOS. 

BARS in music appear in the madrigals of Bonini, 
1607. Their common use in this country is attributed 
to Henry Lawes, about 1653. — Enr]. Cyc. 

BARTHOLOMEW, St., martvred, 71. The festival 
(on Aug. 24 O. S., Sept. 3 N. S.) is said to have been in- 



BAS 

stituted in 1130.* The monastery and hospital of St. 
Bartholomew (Austin Friars), founded in the reign of 
Henry I., by Rahere, about 1100. On the dissolution 
the Hospital was re-founded, 1539, and was incorpo- 
rated in 1546-7. It was rebuilt by subscription in 1729. 
In 1861 it contained 580 beds, and relieved about 70,000 
patients : it has since been considerably enlarged. The 
Massacre commenced at Paris on the night of the 
festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, l.')72. Accord- 
ing to Sully, 70,000 Htiguenots, or French Protest- 
aius, including women iind children, were murdered 
throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles 
IX., at the instigatron of his mother, the queen dowa- 
ger, Catharine de Medicis.t 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian island, held 
by Sweden. It was colonized by the French in 1648, 
and has been several times taken and restored by the 
British. It was ceded to Sweden by France in 1785. 

BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order of Armenia, 
settled 1307, at Genoa, where is preserved in the Bar- 
tholomite church the image which Christ is said to 
have sent to King Abgarus. The order was suppress- 
ed by Pope Innocent X., 1650. 

BASLE, a rich city in Switzerland. The ISth gen- 
eral council sat here from 1431 to 1443. Many impor- 
tant reforms in the Church were proposed,"but not 
carried into efi"ect ; among others, the union of the 
Greek and Roman churches. The University was 
foLinded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France, 
Si)ain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. 

BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army of the 
Emperor Otho II. fell into an ambuscade, and was 
nearly cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens on 
July 13, 982 ; the emperor himsell" barely escaped. 

BASILIANS. an order of monks, which obtained its 
name from St. Basil, who died 380. The order was re- 
formed by Pope Gregory in 1569.— A sect, founded by 
Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, held most extravagant 
notions ; they rejected the books of Moses, the eu- 
charist, and baptism, and are said to have had every 
thing, even their wives, in common, 1110. Basil was 
burnt alive in 1118. 

BASILIKON DORON (Royal Gift), precepts on the 
art of government, composed by James I. of England 
for his son, and first jmblished at Edinburg in 11599. 
The collected works of this monarch were published 
at Loudon, 1616-20, in one vol. fol. 

BASQUE PROVINCES (N. W. Spain, Biscay, Gui- 
puscoa, and Alava). The Basques, considered to be 
descendents of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones 
by the Romans, whom they successfully resisted. They 
were subdued with great cliflicnlty by the Goths about 
580, and were united to Castile iu the 13th and 14th 
centuries. Their language, distinct from all others, is 
conjectured to be of Tartar origin. 

BASQUE ROADS. Four French ships of the line, 
riding at anchor here, were attacked by Lords Gambler 
and Cochrane (the latter commanding the fire-ships), 
and all, with a great number of merchant and other 
vessels, were destroyed, April 12, 1809. Cochrane ac- 
ciTsed Gambler of neglecting to support him, and there- 
by allowing the French to escape. At a court-martial 
(July 26— Aug. 4), Lord Gambler was acquitted. 

BASSORAH, Baskau, or Bussoeah (Asia Minor), a 
Turkish city, founded by the Caliph Omar about 635. 
It has been several times taken and retaken by the 
Persians and Turks. 

BASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, surgeon of 
the Reliance, British ship, in an open boat from Port 
Jackson, iu 1797, penetrated as far as Western Port, 
and aflirmed that a strait existed between New South 
Wales and Van Diemen's Laud. Lieutenant Flinders 
circumnavitrated Van Diemen's Land, and named the 
strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. 

BASSET, OR Bassette, or Pour et Centre, a game at 
cards, said to have been invented by a noble Venetian 
iu the 15th century ; Introduced into France, 1674. 

BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedlock. 

* The charter of the Fair was granted by Henry II., and was held 
on the pround whieh has been the former scene of tournaments and 
martyrdoms. The shows at the fair were discontinued in 18.W, and the 
fair was proclaimed for the last time in 1856. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley 
piihlislied his " History of Bartholomew Fair," with many illustrations. 
See ftmithfieM. 

t The number of the victims is diCFerentlv stated bv various authors. 
La Popelioncre calculates the whole at 20,000 ; Adriani, De Serres, and 
De Thou say 30,000 ; Davila states them at 40,000 ; and V(n-fiKe makes 
the number 100,000. Above 600 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior 
condition, perished in Paris alone, besides those slaughtered in the 
provinces. The pope, Grejrory XIII., ordered a Te Deum to be pcr- 
Ibrmed on the occasion, with other rejoicings. 



BAS 



The law as to the ricthts of bastard children varies in 
the diflercnt states i"u the Union, but in most of them 
a bastard inherits from his motliei', and the mother 
from her illeptiniatc child. In most of the states a 
father is compelled to support his ille'^itimale child so 
far as to relieve the town or county of the chartre. An 
attempt was made in Knt^daud, in V2S6, to make bas- 
tard children leyitimate by the subseqqeut marriaa;e 
of the parents, but it failed, and led to the memoraljle 
answer to the barons assend)led in the Parliament of 
Merton : Xoluvivs Icfies Annliae vmtari — " We will not 
have the laws of England changed." Women conceal- 
ins^ their children's birth deemed Ruilty of murder, 21 
James I., 1024.— r?»('c'.s l<tatutcfs. In Scotland bastard 
children had not the power of disposing of their mova- 
ble estates by will until Will. IV., 1S3G. A new act, 
facilitatini: tlic claims of mothers, and making several 
provisions for proceeding m bastardy cases, was passed 
8 Vict., cap. 10 (1S45). 

BASTILE, P.VRI8, a castle built by Charles V., kino- 
of France, in l?,m, for the defense of Paris against the 
English ; comnleted in iaS3. It was afterward used as 
a state prison, and became the scene of much .suffer- 
ing. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
vain in the siesxe of Paris, during the war that deso- 
lated France between 15ST and ISiU. On July 14-15, 
1T89, it was pnlled down by the infuriated populace; 
the governor and other officers were seized, conducted 
to the Place de GrC-ve, and had their hands and heads 
cut off. The heads, fixed on spikes, were carried in 
triumph through the streets.— "The man with the iron 
mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died 
here Nov. 19, 1T03. See Iron Mask. 

BATAVIA AND Batavian Repubi.io. See Holland. 

BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the Dutch 
settlements in the East Indies, built by that people 
about 1(519. Taken by the English, Jan., 1T8'2. Again, 
by the British, under General Sir Samuel Auchmuty, 
Aug. 26, 1811 ; restored in 1814. 

BATH (England), a favorite station of Che Romans. 
About 44 B.C. was remarkable then for its hot springs. 
Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city a 
chnrtei-, and the Saxon King Edgar was crowned here, 
A.D.973. ' 

Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of William 

Rufus, and again in 1137 

The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished.' .1606 

Assembly-rooms built 1771 

Pump-room erected I797 

Theatre, Beaufort Square, opened !.1805 

Bath Philosophical Society formed 1817 

Victoria Park opened by Princess Victoria 1830 

British Association met here Sept. 14,1864 

BATH ANi>WELLS,Bi8nopKio or. The see of Wells, 
whose cathedral church was built by Ina, king of the 
W"est Saxons, in 704, was established in 909. The see 
of Bath was established in 107S. John de Villnla, the 
sixteenth bishop, having purchased the city of Bath 
for 500 marks of Henry I., transferred his seat from 
Wells to Bath in 1088. Disputes arose between the 
monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the elec- 
tion of a bishop, which were compromised in 11.3.5. 
Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The see 
IS valued in the king's books at £581 Is. Sd.per annum. 
Present income, £5000. 

BATH AD.MINISTRATION. IMr. Pelham and his 
friends having tendered their resi^jnation to the king 
(George II.), Feb. 10, 174(), the formation of a new min- 
istry was undertaken by William Pultenev, earl of 
Bath ; but it expired (m Feb. 12, while vet incomplete, 
and received the name of the " Short-lived" adminis- 
tration. The members of it actually appointed were: 
the Earl of Bath, First Lord of thr Treasuni ; Lord Car- 
lisle, hard I'rivij Seal; Lord Winchilsea, Frrst Lord of 
the Admiraltij; and Lord Granville, one of the secreta- 
ries of state, with the .«eals of the other in his pocket, 
" to be given to whom he might choose." Mr. Pelham 
and his colleagues returned to T^o-wer.— Cox's Life of 
I'flham. 

BATH, OnnKE of thk, said to be of early origin, but 
formally constituted Oct. 11, 1399, by Henry IV., two 
days previous to his coronation in tlieTowe"r: he con- 
ferred the order upon fortv-six esquires, who had 
watched the niarht before, and had bathed. After the 
coronation of Charles II. the order was neglected un- 
til May IS, 1725, when it was revived bv George I., who 
fixed the nnniber of knights at 37. Oii Jan. 2. 181.5, the 
prince regent enlarged the order, forming classes of 
knights grand crosses (72), and knights commanders 
(180), with au unlimited number of companions. By 



73 EAT 

an order jxtblished May 25, 1847, all the existing stat- 
utes of this order were annulled ; and by the new stat- 
utes, the order, hitherto exclusively military, was open- 
ed to civilians. In 1851, Dr. Lvon Plavfaif-, and other 
promoters of the Great Exhibition of that year, re- 
ceived this honor. 

CONSTITUTION. 

1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 military, 25 civil 
2d Class. Knights commanders, 100 " 50 " 
3a Class. Companions, 525 " 200 " 

BATHS Avere long used in Greece, and introduced 
by Agrippa into Rome. The thermre of the Romans 
and gymnasia of the Greeks (of which baths formed 
merely an appendage) were sumptuous. The marble 
group of Laocoon was found in 150G in the baths of Ti- 
tus, erect^ed about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in 
those of Caracalla, erected 211. See Bath. 

BATUS IN LONDON. 

In London, St. Agnes Le Celre, in Old Street Road 
was a spring of great antiquity ; baths said to 
have been formed in 1502. 
St. Chad's well. Grey's Inn Road, derives its name 

^,*i"°T?\?'vP^''"^^' *^^ flft'i Bishop of Lichfield 66T 

Old bath House, Coldbath Square, in use. 1C9T 

A bath opened in Bagnio Court, now Bath Street' 

Newgate Street, London, is said to have been the 

first bath in England for hot bathino- i679 

Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin Street, 'city 

Road, mentioned by Stow (died 1605), inclosed 

as a bathing place 1743 

Turkish sweating-baths very popular' in.' ...... 'i860 

The Oriental baths in Victoria Street, Westminster, 
were completed in i8C2 

PUIiLIO BATHS AND WASH-nOUSES. 

The first establi.shed by Mr. Bowie in the neigh- 
borhood of the London docks 1844 

Acts were passed to encourage the estabiishment 
of public baths and wash-houses " for the health, 
comfort, and welfare of the inhabitants of popu- 
lous towns and districts," in England and Ire- 

, land 1S46 

In the quarter ending Sept., 1854, 537,345 bathers 
availed themselves of the baths in London, and 
m this period there wei'e 85,260 washers. 
Public baths and wash-houses have since been es- 
tablished throughout England. 
In Boston, Mass., there are six public free salt water 
baths, that from June to Oct. are visited by a vast num- 
ber of ])ersons of all ages and sexes, the average beino- 
25,511 persons per week. Thev were opened June f, 
1866. Total expense to the city for one year, $17,404 05. 
BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the 
French army, and afterward by the marshals of other 
nations. Henry III. of France, before he ascended the 
throne, was made generalissimo of the army of his 
brother Charles IX., and received the baton as the 
mark of the high command, \t,m.—He aaiilt. 

BATON ROUGE, Louisiana, Battle op. Fou"-ht 
August 5, 1862. General Thomas Williams had jtist^re- 
turned from Vicksburg to Baton Rouge, when Breck- 
inridge (July 26) received orders to move on that place. 
He had been delayed for some days until the ram Ar- 
kansas could be repaired. In the" approach to Baton 
Rouge the night before the battle, Alexander A. Todd, 
brother-in-law of President Lincoln, and serving on 
the staff of the Confederate General Helm, was killed 
through the mistake of some partisan rangers. The 
battle of the 5th was very severe, and at first seemed 
to promise victory to the Con federates, who had a slight 
preponderance of force ; but the uatioanl eun-boats'on 
the river proved a formidable ally to Williams, and 
the ram Arkansas failing through" her defective ma- 
chinery to engage these gun-hoats, Breckinridge aban- 
doned the attack. General Williams was killed, lead- 
ing a charge. The Confederate General Clark was 
captured, mortally wounded. On the morning of the 
6th, Commander W. D. Porter, with the Essex, proceed- 
ed up the river, and after a brief conflict the ram was 
fired and abandoned. 



BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed by 
Henry VIII. (who reigned 1,509-47). The fiimons float- 
ing batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, in the 
memorable siege of that fortress, were the scheme of 
D'Arcon, a French engineer. There were ten of them, 
and they resisted the heaviest shells and 3'2-pound shot, 
but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot, Sept. 13, 1782. 
See Gibraltar. 

BATTER IXG-R AM, Tcstudn Arictaria, with other 
military implements, some of which are still in use, 
are said to have been invented by Artemon, a Lacedas- 
mouian, and employed by Pericles, about 441 B.C. 



BAT 



74 



BAT 



These ponderous engines (from 80 to 120 feet long) by 
their own weight exceeded the utmost efteets of the 
battering cauuon of the early part of the last century. — 
DesagitUers. Sir Christopher Wreu employed a bat- 
teriug ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's 
Church previously to rebuilding the edifice in 1675. 

BATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, founded by William I., 
1007, on the plain where the battle of Hastings was 
fought, Oct. 14, 10G6. It was dedicated to St. Martin, 
and was given to the Benedictine monks, who were 
to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name 
of the plain was Hetheland. See Hastings. After the 
battle of Hastiugs, a list was taken of William's chiefs, 
amounting to 029, and called the Battel-koll ; and 
among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the 
followers of the defeated Harold were distributed. 

BATTLE, Wager of, a trial by combat formerly al- 
lowed by the English laws, where the defendant iii an 
appeal of murdei- might tight with the appellant, and 
make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. See 
Appeccl. 

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The Irish 
were constantly armed with an axe. — Bums. At the 
battle of B:mnockburu King Robert Bruce clove an 
English champion dowu to the chine at one blow with 
a battle-axe, 1314. — Hmiu. The Battle-axe Guards, or 
Buffetiers, who are vulgarly called Beef-eaters, and 
whose arms are a sword and lance, were first raised 
by Henry VII. in 14S5. They were originally attend- 
ants upon the king's buffet. See Yeomen of the Guard. 

BATTLE-FIELD, Battle of. See Shrcicsbury. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to have 
been the first who ranged an ariny in a regular line 
of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, autl excited 
the soldier's vigilance by giving him a watchword. — 
Lcnrjlet. See Naval Battles, British. The following are 
the most memorable battles, arranged in chronologi- 
cal order. The fifteen battles marked by a t are 
termed "decisive" by Professor Creasy; n. signifies 
naval. The battles which are thus marked* are more 
fully described in their alphabetical order. 
Abraham defeats kings of Canaan {Gen. xiv.), 

B.C.1913 
Joshua subdues five kings of Canaan {Josh. x.). .1451 

Gideon defeats the Midianites {Judges vii.) 124.'5 

Trojan war commenced 1193 

Troy taken and destroyed 1184 

Jephthah defeats Ammonites 1143 

Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) 941 

*IIoratii vanquish Curialli 669 

*Halys {Medes and Lydiaiis, stopped by eclipse) 585 

t*Marathon {Greeks defeat Persians) Sept. 28, 490 

*ThermopyliE {heroism of Leonidas) Aug. 7-9, 480 

*Salamis, n. {Greeks defeat Persians) Oct. 20, " 

*Mycale {ditto) Sept. 2-2, 479 

*PlatiEa {ditto : Pausanias) Sept. 22, " 

*Eurymedon, n. {ditto : Cimon) 4C6 

*Coronea {Boeotians defeat Athenians) 447 

Romans totally defeat Veientes 437 

Tonme {Clcon'killed: Athenians defeat Spartans), 422 

*Mantinea {Spartatis defeat Athenia)is) 418 

t Athenians clefeated before Syracuse 413 

*Cyzicus, n. (A Icihiades defeats Spartans) 410 

*Arginusje {Conon defeats Spartmis) 40G 

■•.(Egospotamos, n. {A thenian ihrt destroyed) 405 

*Cuuaxa {Cyrus defeated and 'killed by Artaxerxes), 401 

Cnidus, n. {Conon defeats Sj^artans) 394 

*Coronea {Agesilaus defeats Athenians and allies), " 

*Allia {Brcnnus and the GauU defeat Romans) 390 

Volsci defeated by Camillus 381 

Volsci defeat the Romans 379 

Naxus {Chabrias defeats Lacedmmonians). . .376 or 377 

*Leuctra {Thebans defeat Spartans) 371 

Camillus defeats the Gauls ] S67 

*CynocephaliB {Thebans defeat Thessalians) .' 364 

*Mantinea Thebans victors: E2)aminondas slain). . 362 

*Crimesus {Timoleon defeats Carthaginians) 339 

*Chseronea {Philip defeats Athenians, etc.) 338 

Thebes destroyed by Alexander 335 

"Granicus {Alexander defeats Darius) May 22, 334 

*Issus {ditto) Oct., 333 

*Pandosia {Alexander of Epirus defeated and slain), 332 

t*Arbela {Alexander defeats Darius) Oct. 1, 331 

*Cranon {Antiixiter defeats Greeks) 322 

tCaudine Forks {Roman army captured) 321 

tGaza {Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) 312 

Fabius defeats the Tuscans 310 

"Himera {Gelon defeats Agathocles) " 

*Ipsus {Seleucits defeats Antigonus, who is slain) . . . 301 

*Seutinum {Rom.aiia defeat Samnites) 295 

Asculum {Pyrrhua defeats Romans) 279 



Beneventum {Romans defeat Pyrrhus) B.C. 275 

*Punic Wars begin 264 

*Myte, n. {Romans defeat Carthaginians) 260 

Xantippus defeats Regulus 255 

*Panormus {Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) 250 

tDrepanum, n. {Carthaginians defeat Rovians) 249 

*^gates, n. {Romans defeat Carthaginians) 241 

Clusium {Gauls defeated) 225 

Sellasia {Macedonians defeat Spartans) 222 

Caphyae {Achceans defeat jEtolians) 220 

'Saguntum taken by Hannibal 219 

IdPunicWar. — Ticinus {Hannibal defeats Romans), 218 

*Trebia {ilitto) " 

Thrasymenes {ditto) 217 

Raphia {Antioehus defeated by Ptol.Philopater) ... " 

*Cannffi ( Victory if Ilaii nihal) Aug. 2, 216 

Scipio defeats'llasdrubal in Spain 215 

Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) 209 

t^Metaurus {Nero defeats Asdrubal, who is killed) . . 207 

*Zama {Scijno defeats Hannibal) 202 

Abydos {siege of) 200 

*Cynocephalfe {Romans defeat Mcicedonians) 197 

*Magnesia {Scijno defeats Aiitiochus) 190 

*Py(Tna {Romans defeat Perseus) June 22, 163 

•Punic War {the Third) 149 

*Carthage taken by Publius Scipio 14G 

Mummius takes Corinth " 

*Metellus defeats Jugurtha 109 

Aqute Sextia (Aix ; 'Mariiis defeats the Teutones) . . 102 

"Cimbri and Romans {defeated by Marius) 101 

•Chroronea {Sidla de.feats Mithridates's arnni) 86 

Marius defeated by Sylla .". 83 

Tigranocerta {Lucullus defeats Tigranes) 09 

Pistoria (Catiline, defeated) 62 

Ciesar defeats Cassivelaunus 54 

Carrhfe (Crassus defeated by the Parthians), June 9, 53 

*Pharsalia {Coesar defeats Pompey) Aug. 9, 4S 

*Zela (Coesar defeats Pharnaces ; zvrites " Veni, vidi, 

vici") 47 

Thapsus (Ccesar defeats Pmnpey's friends) 46 

Munda, in Spain {Pompeij's sons subdued). Mar. 17, 45 

*Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) 42 

Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger 30 

*Actium, n. {Octavia defeats Antony) Sept. 2, 31 

tVarus defeated by Herman (or Arminius) . .. A.D. 9 

*Drusus defeats Germans 19 

•Shropshire {Caractacus taken) 50 

Sunbury {Romans defeat Boadicea) 61 

•Jerusalem taken 70 

Agricola conquers Mona 78 

He defeats Galgacus and Caledonians 84 

Dacians defeated and Decebalus slain 106 

Issus (Niger slain) 194 

Lyons {Severus defeats A Ibinus) 197 

Verona (Emperor Philip defeated) 249 

Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, 300,000 slain) 269 

Decius defeated and slain by Goths 251 

Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor 260 

Chalons (^4 urelian victor over rivals) 274 

Alectus defeated in Britain 290 

Constantine dcf. IMaxrutius (see Cross).. .Oct. 27, 312 

•Adrianople (Con.stantine defeats Licinius) 323 

•Aquileia {Constantiiw If. slain) 340 

•Argentaria {Gratian defeats Gauls) 378 

•Aquileia (Maxinms slain) 388 

•Aquileia (Eugenius slain) 394 

Polleutia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) Mar. 29, 403 

Rome taken by Alaric Aug. 2-1, 410 

Ravenna taken by Aspar 425 

•Franks defeated by Aetius 423 

Genseric takes Carthage 439 

t*Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetius)... 451 

Aylesford (Britoiis defeat Saxons) 455 

Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) 457 

•Soissons {Clovis defeats Syagrius) 4SG 

•Tolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) 490 

Saxons defeat Britons 508 

Victories of Belisarius 533-4 

Narses defeats Totila 552 

Heraclius defeats the Persians {Chosroes) 622 

Beder (first victory of Mohammed) 623 

Muta (Mohammedans defeat Rovians) 629 

Hatfield (Ileathfield ; Pe7ida de.feats Edwin) 633 

Saracens subdue Syria 636-S 

Kadseah (A rabs defeat Persians) 638 

Saracens take Alexandria 640 

•Near Oswestry {Penda defeats Oswald of Northum- 
berland) ■ 642 

•Leeds {Osiey defeats Pevla, who is slain) 6.'i5 

•Saracens defeated by Wambo in Spain 675 

•Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderick) 711 

t^Tours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 732 

Victories of Charlemagne 775-Sno 

•Roncesvalles {death of Roland) 773 



BAT 



75 



BAT 



Clavijo (.Voors defeated) A.D. 844 

AJbaida (Jlusa and Mvurs defeated) 86-J 

DANI8U INTASION, ETC. 

Hengestdowu {Danca defeated by Erjbert) 

Channouth (Ethelwulf defeatrd 'bn the Daius) 

Danes defeat Killer Edmund of East Aiifjlia 

Assendou or Ashdowu {Danes defeated) 

Morton (Danes rieton'nu.s) 

Wilton {Danes rii-tiiriiius over A If red) 

tAndcrnacb (CbarlfS the Bold defeated) Oct. S, 

Ethandiiii (. I If red defitts Danes) 

Fa rn ha Ml {Danes defeated) 

Bury {Edward defeats Kthelwald and Danes) 



•Soissons {King Robert victor, killed) 923 

*Semincas {Spaniards defeat Moors) 934 or 93S 

Nicephonis Phocas defeats Saracens 962 

Basientello {Otlio II. defeated bi/ Grecks,ete.),l\\\y 13, 9S:i 
[The Saxons and Danes foutrht with different suc- 
cess from 613 to 1016.] 

*Clontarf {Danes defeated) 1014 

Assiuf^dou, Ashdon {Caniite defeats Edmund) 1016 

Civitella {Xonnans def'ut Leo /A'.) 1053 

*Duusinane {MaeJietii defeated) 1056 

Stanford Brid'j:c {ilandd defeats rosiij/) . .Sept. 25,1066 

fllastinos ( Willkihi I. defeats Harold) Oct. 14, " 

Fladeiiheim {Eiirperor JJeiiri/ defeated) 1080 

*Aluwicli (.Seots defeated, Maleolnl slain) 1093 

'Crusades commence 1096 

■•Ascalon {Crusaders victorions) Aug. 12,1099 

*Tinchebray {Robert of Normandy defeated) 1106 

Breuueville, Normandy {Henry I. victorious) 1119 

'Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard {David I. 

and Seots defeated) Au.s:. 22,113S 

'Ourique {Alfonso of Portuyal defeats Moors)Ju]y 25,1139 

■"Lincoln {Sf,phen defeated) Feb. 2,1141 

*Aln\vick ( IVdliam the Lion defeated) July 13,1174 

'Legnauo {Italians defeated Fred. Barbarossa), 

May 29,1176 

Ascoli {Tancred defeats Emx>eror Henry VL) 1 190 

'Ascalon surrenders {Richard I.) Sept. 7,1191 

Arcadioi)i)lis (nnhjarians defeat Emp. Isaac) I194 

Aiarcos (Mnurs defeat Spaniards) July 19,1195 

'Gisors {Diehard I. defeats French) Oct. 10,119S 

'Arsoul {Richard I. defeats Saracens) Sept. 7,1199 

Tolosa {Moors defeated) 1212 

'Bouvines {French defeat Germans) 1214 

'Lincoln {French defeated) May 19,1217 

'Mansourah {Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated). . .1250 

'Lewes {English barons victorious) May 14,1264 

'Evesham {Barons defeated) Aug. 4,1265 

'Beneveuto (Chas. of Anjou defeats Manfred), 

Feb. 26,1266 
•Tagliacozzo {Charles defeats Conradin). ..Aug. 23,1268 
•Marchfeld {Austrians defeat Bohetnians) . .Aug. 26,1278 

Llaudewyer {Llewellyn of Wales defeated) 1282 

Duubar {King of Scots taken) April 27,1296 

Cambuskenueth {Wallace defeats English) 1297 

'Falkirk ( Wallace defeated) July 22, 129S 

•Courtray {Flemings deft. Count ofArtois), July 11,1302 

Koslin, Scotland Feb. 24,1303 

tCephisus {Duke of A thens defeated) 1311 

'Baunockburu {ISrvee defnttA F.nglish) June 24,1314 

'Morgarten {Siriss defuf .1 ii.<trians) " 

•Foui^diard or Dundalk {h'll. Drtiee defeated), Oct. 5,1318 

*Boroui,'hhridL'e {Hdivard Il.ilefats ikvrons) 1322 

•Miihldorf {lUiearians d,feat A ustrians) " 

'Dupplin {Edward Baliid defeats Mar) Aug. 11,1332 

'Ilalidon Hill {Edward III. defeats Scots) . .S\x\y 19,1333 

Auberoche {Earl of Derby defeats French) 1345 

'Cressy {English defeat French) Aug. 26,1346 

'Durham, Nevil's Cross {Scots defeated) Oct. 17, " 

La Roche Daricu (Charles of Blois defeated) 1.347 

•Poitiers (Enalish de.fcat French) Sept. 19,13.56 

Cofherel (Dn Gurselin defeats Xavarre) . . May 16,1.364 

'A\iray (/'» (Tio:'<clin defeated) Sept. 29, " 

'Najara (Black Prince defts. Henry ofTrastamare), 

April 3,1367 

•Montiel {Peter of Castile defeated) March 14,1369 

'Rosbecqnc (French defeat Flemings) Nov. 17,1382 

•ScmiKicIl (Sieiss defeat ^l usfrians) July 9,1386 

•Otterburn (Chevji Chase; Scots victors) Aug."lO,13S8 

'Nicopolis {Turks defeat Christians) Sept. 28,1396 

'Ancyra (Tiniour d- feats Bajazet) July 28,1402 

•Hon'ieldon Ilill (English defeat Scots) Sept 14, " 

•Shrewsbury (Pei-eies, etc.. defeated) July 23,1403 

Monmouth {Ohiidoieer d, fated) May 11,140.", 

•Ilarlaw {Lonl of the Ixhs defated) July 24,141] 

'Agincourt (English defeat Frencli) Oct. 25,1415 

'Anjou, Beaugi'i (English defd.by Scots), March 22,1421 
Crevant (Enalish deft. French and Scots), June 11,1423 

'Vcrueuil (ditto) Aug. 27,1424 

•Ilerriugs {English defeat French) Feb. 12,1429 



t'Patay (English defeated, Joan of Arc) 

June IS, A.D.1429 
Kunobitza (Iluniades defeats the 7'?(/i-.s)... Dec. 24,1443 

'Brechiu, Scotland (IDintly de.fcits Cairford) 1452 

'Castillou, Chatillon (French defeat TuWot),3\\\y 23,1453 

WAE OP THE KOSES— YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 

•St. Alban's ( Yorkists victorious) May 22 or 23,1455 

•Belgrade (Mohammed II. rejmlsed) Sept. 10,1456 

•Bloreheath ( Vnekists eietors) Sept. 23,1459 

•Northampton (ditto; IRiery VL taken).. ..Jn\y 10,1460 
•Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) Dec. 31, " 

Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) Feb. 2,1461 

•St. Albau's (Lemcastrians victors) Feb. 17, " 

•Towtou ( Yorkists victorious) March 29, " 

'Hexham ( Yo7-kists victors) May 15,1464 

•Banbury (ditto) July 26,1469 

Stamford (Lancastrians defeated) March 13,1470 

'Barnet (ditto) April 14,1471 

'Tewkesbury (ditto) May 4, " 

'Granson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold). ..AprU 5,1476 

•Moral (ditto) June 22, " 

•Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) Jan. 4,1477 

•Bosworth (Iliehard HI. defeated) Aug. 22,1485 

Stoke {Lambert S/innel titken) 1487 

St. Aubin (Bretons ihfeated) 14SS 

•Blackheath {Corn ish rebels difeafed) June 22,1497 

•Cerignola (Cordoea ilefols French) April 28,1503 

•Agnadello (French de.feat Venetians) May 14,1509 

•Ravenna (Gaston de Foix, victor, killed) . .April 11,1512 

•Novara (Pa2}al Swiss defeat French) June 1,1513 

•Guiuegate (Spurs) (Frem-h defeated) Aug. 16, " 

•Flodden (English defrit Scots) Sept. 9,1515 

'Marignano (Freneh ilefeat Svnss) Sept. 13-15,1515 

Bicocca, near Milan (La utrec de.feated) 1522 

•Pavia (Francis I. defeated) Feb. 24,1525 

•Mohatz (Turks defeat Hungarians) Aug. 29,1526 

•Cappel (Zwingluis .■ilain) Oct. 11,1531 

Asseus (Christ i(m HI. defeats Danish rebels) 1535 

Solway Moss (English d<.feat Seats) Nov. 25,1542 

tCeresuola (French defeat Imjierialists) . .kx>v\\ 14,1544 
•Miihlberg (Charles V. defeats Protestants), April 24,1547 

Pinkey (English defeat Seots) Sept. 10, " 

•Ket's reiaellion suppressed by Warwick Aug., 1549 

•St. Quiutiu (Spanish and English defeat Fre^ich), 

Aug. 10,155T 

•Calais (taken) Jan. 7,1558 

Gravelines (Spanish and English defeat French), 

July 1.8, " 

•Dreitx, in France {Huguenots defeated) Dec. 19,1562 

St. Denis (ditto) Nov. 10,1507 

•Langside (Mary of Scotland defeated) May 13, 1508 

•Jaruac (Huguenots defeated) March 13,1569 

Moncoutour (Coligny di.featcd) Oct. 3, " 

•Lepanto, n. (Don John de.feats Turks) Oct. 7,1571 

'Alcazar (Moors defeat Portuguese) Aug. 4,1578 

•Zutpheu (Dutch and English defeat Sjianiards), 

Sept. 22,1586 

•Coutras (Henry IV. defeats Leagtie) Oct. 20,1,')S7 

t^Spanish Armada defeated, n Aug. ,1588 

•Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) Sept. 21,1589 

•Ivry (Henry I V. defeats League) March 14,1590 

Blackwater (Tyrone defeats Bagnal) 1598 

Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) 1600 

Kiusale (Ti/rone reduced bii Mountjoy) 1601 

Kirchholm" (Poles defeat Siredes) 1605 

Gibraltar (Duteli dif.nt Sji.innuds) 1007 

•Prague (Kim/ <f Bohemia defeated) Nov. 8,1620 

•Rochelle (taken) ..1628 

•Leipsic (Gustavus defeats Tilly) Sept. 7,1631 

•Lech (Inqxrialists defeated; Tilly killed).. April 5,1632 
•Lippstadt, Lutziiigen, or Lutzeu (Sivecles victori- 
ous; Gtistavus slain) Nov. 16, " 

•Nordliugen (Swedes de.feated) Aug. 27,16.34 

Arras (taken by the French) 1640 

niVlL WAR IN ENGLAND COMMENCES 1642 

Worcester (Prince Uiijvjrt victor) Sept. 23, " 

•Edgehill tight (issue doubtful) Oct. 23, " 

•Leipsic or Breiteufeld (Sicedes victors) Oct. 13, " 

•Chal^rove (Hanqiden killed) June 18,1643 

Bramham >[(H.r (Fairfax defeated) IMarch 29, " 

•Stratton (RoiKdists eietorioas) May 16, " 

•Rocroy (Freneh defeat Sjtaniards) May 19, " 

•Lansdown (Doualists rietorioKs) July 5, " 

Round-awav-di.wn (ditto) July 13, " 

•Newbury (RonaHsts defeated) Sept. 20, " 

Cheritoii or Alresford (ditto) March 29,1644 

Friedburg (Tarenne vietm) " 

Cri)predv"Bridt;e {Charles I. victor) June 29, " 

•Marston Moor (Dapert defeated) July 2, " 

•Newbury (imleei.siee) Oct. 27, " 

•Naseby (king totally defeated) June 14,1645 

•Aiford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) July 2, " 



BAT 



76 



BAT 



Kilsyth {ditto) Aug. 15, A.D.1645 

Nordliugeu {Turenne defeats Austrians) " 

*Beubui-b (ffNcill defeats English) June 5,1646 

*Duugun Hill (Msh defeated) July l(i,lG4T 

*Prestou (Cromwell victor) Aug. IT, l(i4S 

*Rathmiues {Irish Pioijalistti defeated) Aug. 2,1049 

*Drogheda {taken by storm) Sept. 12, " 

*Corbiesciale (Montrose defeated) April 27,1050 

*Dnnbar (Cromu-ell defeats Scots) Sept. 3, " 

*Worcester (CromweU defeats Charles II.), Sept. 3,1051 
[End of the Civil War in Euglaud.] 

Galway (surrendered) 1052 

Arras, France (Turenne defeats Conde) 1654 

*Dunkirk (ditto) June 14,165S 

Estremoz (Don John defd. by Schomberg) . .June 8,1663 

Candia (taken by Turks) Sept. 6,1009 

Choczim (Sobieski defeats Turks and Conde) 1073 

Seneffe (indeeisive) Aug. 1,1074 

Mulhauseu (Turenne defeats Allies) Dec. 31, " 

Saltzbach (Turenne killed) July 27,1675 

*Drumclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse),Jnne 1,16T9 
*Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters), 

June 22, " 

*Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) Sept. 12,1083 

*Sedgemoor (Monmouth defeated) July 6,1085 

*Mohatz (Turks defeated) Aug. 12,1687 

■•Killiecrankie (Highlanders defeat Mackay),Jn]y 27,1689 
*Newton-butler (James II.'s adherents defeated), 

July 30, " 

*Boyne (William III. defeats James II.) July 1,1090 

*Pleurus (Charkroi, Luxembourg victor) July 1, " 

*Aughrim (James II.'s cause ruined) July 12,1691 

*Salenckemen (Louis of Baden defeats Turks), 

Aug. IS, " 
*Eughein (Steenkirk, William III. defeated),Jn\Y 24,1692 

*LaDden { William III. defeated) July 19,1693 

Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) Oct. 1, " 

*Zenta (Prince Eug ne defeats Turks) Sept. 11,1697 

*Narva (Charles XII. deftaU Russians) Nov. 30,1700 

Carpi, Modeua (Allies defeat French) July 9,1701 

Chiari (A ustrians defeat French) Sept. 1 , " 

Santa Vittoria (French victors) July 26,1702 

*Pultusk (Siredrs drfrat PoUs) May 1,1703 

*Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) Sept. 20, " 

Schellenberg (Marlborough victor) July 2,1704 

*Gibraltar taken by Rooke July 24, " 

+*Bleuheim {Marlborough defeats French), 

Aug. 13, N.S., " 

Mittau (taken by Russians) Sept. 14,1705 

Cassino (Prince Eugene ; indecisive) Aug. 10, " 

Tirlemimt (Marlborough successful) July IS, " 

*Ramilics (Marlborough defeats French). . ..May 23,1706 

Turin (French defeated) Sept. 7, " 

*Almauza (French, defeat Allies).. . .April 14 or 25,1707 
*Oudeuarde (Mailhurough defeats French), July 11,1708 
Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes), autumn, " 

Lisle (taken bij the Allies) Dec, " 

+*Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XIL) July 8,1709 

Dobro (Russians defeat Sioedes) Sept. 20, " 

*Malplaquet (Marlborough defeats French), Sept.ll, " 

*Almenara (Austrians defeat French) July 28,1710 

Saragossa (ditto) Aug. 20, " 

Villa Viciosa (A ustrians defeated) Dec. 2(», " 

Arleux (MnrVuiniV'jli forces French Kries), Aug. 5,1711 

Bouchain (takeu by Marlborough) Sept. 13, " 

*Denain (Villars defeats Allies) July 24,1712 

Friburg (taken by French) Nov. 20,1713 

*Preston (rebels defeated) Nov. 12, 13,1715 

*Dumblane ; Sheriff-Muir (indecisive) Nov. 13, " 

*Petervcardein (Eugene defeats Turks) Aug. 5,1716 

*Belgrade (taken by Eugene) Aug. 22,1717 

*Bitouto (SjMniards defeat Germans) Ma'y 26,1734 

*Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive), Jnue 29, " 

Guastalla (Austrians defeated) Sept. 19, " 

Erivan (Xudir Shah defeats Turks) June,1735 

Krotzka (Turks defeat Austrians) July 22,1739 

*Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) April 10,1741 

*Dettingen (George II. defeats French) June 16,1743 

*Fontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) April 30,1745 

Friedberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) . . .June 4, " 

scots' EEIiELLION. — GEORGE II. 

*Prestou Pans (rebels de.feat Cope) Sept. 21,1745 

Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) Dec. 18, " 

■'Falkirk (rebels de.feat Hawley) •. . ..Jan. 17,1740 

*Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) April 10, " 

St. Lazzaro (Sardinians defeat Austrians), June 4, " 
Rocoux (Saxe defeats Allies) Oct. 1, " 



*Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) Sept. 10,1747 

Laffeldt (Saxe defeats Cvmherland) June 20, " 

Exilles (Sardinians dep'ut FrenrI,) Julv 8, " 

Fort du Quesue (Uraddoek killed) July 9,17.')5 

■•Calcutta (taken) June IS, 1750 



SEVEN teaks' war, 1756-63. 

*Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) May 6, A.D.1757 

*K()iriu (Frederick defeated) June 18, " 

•Plassey (dive's victory) June 23, " 

Norkitteu (Russians defeated) Aug. 13, " 

■•Rosbach (Frederick defeats French) Nov. 5, " 

■"Breslau (A ustrians victors) Nov. 22, " 

*Lissa (Frederick de.feats Austrians) Dec. 5, " 

■•Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) June 23,1758 

Zorndorff (Frederick defeats Russians) Aug. 25. " 

*Hochkircheu (Austrians defeat Prussians), Oi:X,.\4, " 

■■Bergen (French defeat Allies) April 13,1759 

*Niagara (English take Fort) July 24, " 

*Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) Avig. 1, " 

*Cunnersdorf (Russians defeat Prussians), Aug. 12, " 
'Quebec ( Wolfe, victor, killed) Sept. 13, " 

Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) Jan. 22,1700 

Landshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) June 23, " 

Warburg (Fei-dinand defeats French) July 31, " 

*Pfaffendorf (Frederick defeats A ustrians), Aug. 15, " 

Campen (French defeat Russians) Oct. 15, " 

'Torgau (Frederick de.feats Danes) Nov. 3, " 

Johaunisberg (French defeat Prussians) . .Aug. 30,1703 

*Buxar (Munro defeats army of Oude) Oct. 23,1704 

Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) 1709 

Silistria (taken) 1774 

AMERICAN KEVOLUTIONAET WAR. 

*Lexington (first skirmish) April 19,1775 

'Bunker's Hill Juue 17, " 

*Mon treal (Ethan A lien taken) Sept. 25, ' ' 

*St. John's besieged and captured Oct., " 

•Great Bridge Dec. 9, " 

■"Quebec (Montgomery killed) Dec. 31, " 

'Moore's Creek Bridge Feb. 27,1776 

'Boston (Dritish fled) March 17, " 

'Port Sullivan, Charleston June 28, " 

'Loni; Island Aug. 27, " 

'Harlem Plains Sept. 16, " 

'White Plains Oct. 28, " 

'Fort Washington Nov. 10, " 

'Trenton Dec. 20, " 

'Princeton Jan. 3,1777 

'Hubbardton July 7, " 

'Bennington Aug. 16, " 

'Brandy wine Sept. 11, " 

'First battle at Bemis's Heights Sept. 19, " 

'Paoli Sept. 20, " 

'Germantown Oct. 4, " 

'Forts Clinton and Montgomery taken Oct. 6, " 

'Second battle at Bemis's Heights Oct. 7, " 

'FortMercer Oct. 22, " 

•Fort Mifflin Nov. 16, " 

'Monmouth Juue 28,1778 

'Wyoming July 4, " 

'Quaker Hill, R. I Aug. 29, " 

'Savannah Dec. 29, " 

'Kettle Creek, Georgia Feb. 14,1779 

'Brier Creek March 3, " 

•Stono Ferry June 20, " 

'Stony Point July 16, " 

•Paulus's Hook Aug. 19, " 

'Chemung (Indians) Aui:. 29, " 

'Savannah Oct. 9, " 

'Charleston (surrendered to British) May 12,1780 

'Springfield Juue 23, " 

'Rocky Mount July 30, " 

'Hanging Rock Aug. 6, " 

'Sanders's Creek, near Camdeu Aug. 10, " 

•King's Mountain Oct. 7, " 

'Fish Dam Ford, Broad River Nov. 18, " 

'Blackstocks Nov. 20, " 

'Cowpens Jan. 17,1781 

'Guilford March 15, " 

'Hobkirk's Hill April 25, " 

'Ninety Six (besieged) May and June, " 

•Augusta (besieged) May and June, " 

'Jamestown July 9, " 

'EutawSprings Sept. 8, " 

'Yorktown (Cornivallis surrendered) Oct. 19, " 

[Other but inferior actions took place with varying 
success to both parties.] 

Hyder Ali defeated by Coote July 1,1781 

Bednore (taken by Ti2}poo Saib) April 30,1783 

'Martinesti (Austrians defeat Turks) Sept. 22,1789 

•Ismael (taken bit storm bii Suwarroir) Dec. 22,1790 

•Seriugapatam (Tippoo defd.). May 15, 1790, Feb. 0,1793 

UNITE!) STATES AND INDIANS. 

•Miami River, Ohio Oct. 19 and 22,1790 

•St. Clair's Defeat Nov. 4,1791 

Fort St. Clair, Ohio Nov. 6,1792 

In advance of Fort St. Clair Oct. 17,1798 



BAT 77 

*Fort Recovery June 30, A.D.1794 

*M;uiiiK'e IJapids, Falleu Timber Aug. 20, " 

•Tippecauoe Nov. 7,1811 

FRENOU KEVOI-UTIONARV WAR UEGIN8. 



BAT 



..April 28,1792 
..June 20, " 
..Sept. 20, " 

Nov. 6, " 

March 18,1703 

May 8, " 

May 23, July 2U, " 

Aug. 18, " 

.Sept. 7,8, " 
..Sept. 11, " 
...Oct. 16, " 
...Dec. 17, " 
April 24,1704 



Quievrain {Firnch n-jmlni'd) 

Menin (/''iriich difriit Aiistrktns). .. 
t'Valniy {French tlc/ntt I'l-u.-inians).. 
*Jcinappc.< (I''i-c»rh rirtdriniix) 

NeerwiniU'ii (Frnicli bcnti'ii) 

St. Ainaud {Firiir/i ih/ealeil) 

♦Valenciennes (ilitti)) 

•Lincelles (Lake defeats Freneh). 

•Dunkirk Dnke of York defeated) 

*Quesnoy (redueed hij A nutrinnx) 

Wattigiiie.s {French dif eat Cohurg). 

*T()uIon {evacuated In Uritish) 

*Canibray {Frcneli defeated) 

Troisville, Landrccy {taken bi/ Allies) April 30, 

*T<)urcoing {Moreau def;itx Allies) May 18-22, " 

•Espicrre.s (taken bij A liics) May 22, " 

Howe's naval victory June 1, " 

*Oharleroi, t'lcurns {French defeat Allies), June 26, " 

*Bois-le-Duc (Duke of York defeated) Sept. 14, " 

•Boxtel (ditto) Sept. 17, " 

•Warsaw or Maciejowice {Poles defeated) Oct. 4, " 

•Nimeguen Oct. 28 and May 4, " 

•Warsaw {taken b;/ Smrarroio) Nov. 4, " 

Bridport's victory of L'Orient, 7i June 22,1705 

•Quiberon {nni'iirants defeated) July 21, " 

•Mannheim (taken) Sept. 20, " 

Laono (French defeat Atistrians) N<jv. 23, " 

•Montenotte (Donajxirte victorious) April 12,1706 

•Mondovi (ditto) April 22, " 

•Lodi (ditto) May 10, " 

Alteukircheu {Austrians defeated). . . .June 4, and 

Sept. 10, " 

Bassano {French defeat A ustriana) Sept. 8, " 

•Biberach (fUtto) Oct. 10, " 

•Castiglioue and Lonato Aug. 3-5, " 

•Neresheim (Moreaudef. Archd. Charles) . .Aug. 10, " 

•Areola (Fionaparte victorious) Nov. 15-17, " 

Rivoli (ditto) Jan. 14-15,1797 

•Cape St. Vincent, ?i. (French defeated) Feb. 14, " 

•Tagliameuto {Bonaparte defeats Austrians), 

March 16, " 

•CamperdowD, Ji. {Duncan defeats Dutch) . .Oct. 11, " 

IRISH KEUELLiON BEGINS May,179S 

•Kilcullen (rebels successful) May 23, " 

•Naas {rebeh defeated) May 24, " 

•Tara (ditto) May 20, " 

•Oulart (rebels successful) May 27, " 

•Gorey, *Ross (ditto) June 4, " 

tArklow (rebels beaten) June 10, " 

•Ballynahinch (Xurient defeats rebels) June 13, " 

•Vinegar Hill {Lake defeats rebels) June 21, " 



tNile {Xelson defeats Frenchfleet) Ang. 1, 

•Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated). . .Aug. 28, 
Balliuamuck {French and rebels defeated), Sept. 8, 



•Pyramids {Bima2}arte defeats Mamelukes), Julv 21, " 

•Jafl'a (stormed by Frencli) March 7,1709 

Stokach (A u.«triam defeat French) March 27, " 

Verona (.1 ustrians defeat French) March 28-30, " 

Nagnano {Kraij defeats French) April 5, " 

Moiint Thabor April 16, " 

•Cassano (Svu-arroiv defeats Moreau) April 27, " 

•Seriugapatam {T?p2Joo killed) May 4, " 

♦Acre (relieveil: Sir Sitlneii Sniitli) May 20, " 

Adda (Sinrarroi'j defeats Fremii) Mav 27, " 

•Zuricli (French defeated) June 5, " 

•Trcbia (Sawarmw d( feats French) June 18, 19, " 

•Alessandria (taken hi/ French) July 2, " 

•Aboukir (Turks defeated b;i Bonaparte). . .July 25, " 

•Novi (.Suxcarron' defeats French) Aug. 15, " 

•Bergeu aud Alkmaer {Allies defeated), Sept. 10, 

Oct. 26, " 

•Zurich (Massma defeats Russians) Sept. 25, " 

Engen (Moreau defeats Atistrians) May 3,1800 

Moeskirch (ditto) May 5, " 

•Biberach (dilto) May 9, " 

•Montel)cllo (.i ustrians defeated) June 0, " 

•Marengo (Boiiajiarte defeats Austrians) . ..J wnc 14, " 
•Hochstadt {Moreau defeats Austrians). . ..June 19, " 

•Ilohenlindeu (ditto) Dec. 3, " 

Miucio {French defeat .A ustrians) Dec. 26, " 

•Alexandria (.iber'cnjnihie's ricforii) March 21,1801 

tCopenhairen (bomharded b>/ Xelson) April 2, " 

AhinednuL'irur (iyeltesleu victoriou.'i) Aug. 12,1803 

•Assaye (ditto, liis first great victory) Sept. 23, " 

•Argaum ( Welle.'^lei/ rietor) Nov. 20, " 

Furruckabad (Lake defeats Ilolkar) Nov. Vil804 

•Bhurtpore {taken by Lake) April 2, 1S05 



•Ulm surrendered {Xey defeats Austrians), 

.m <• , ,,-, , Oct. 17-20, A.D.1S05 

Irafalgar {kelson destroys the French jleet; killed). 

.A . ,. Oct. 21, " 
Austerlitz (y ajioleon defeats A ustrians) Dec. 2 " 

•Buenos Ayres (taken by Fopham) June 28,1806 

Maida (Stuart defeats French) Julv 4 " 

*Auerstadt) ,.-, , , ^ , „ . , 

Mena t {t rench defeat Prussians) Oct. 14, " 

•Pultusk {French and A Hies ; indecisive) . . .Dec. 26, " 
Mohrungeu (French defeat Jiussians and Prus- 

mam) .. Jan. 2.'),180T 

*J!-yIau (mdeeisive) Peb 7 8" 

•Friedland (French defeat Pussiaiis) . '. '. '. ." June u! " 

•Buenos Ayres ( Whitelock defeated) Julv 7, " 

Copenhagen (bombarded bu Cathcart) . . .Sept. 6-8, " 
Bayleu {Spaniards defeat French) July 20,1808 

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

•Vimiera (Wellesley defeats Junot) Au"-. 21 1808 

Tudcla (French defecU Spaniards) Nov. 23 " 

•Corunua (Moore defeats French) Jan. 16,1809 

Landslmt (.1 ustrians defeated) April 21, " 

•Eckmdhl (Vavoust defeats Austrians) April 22, " 

Oporto (taken) March 29, May 12, " 

•Esfling} i^'ci^oleon defeated) May 21, 22, " 

* Wagram {A xistrians defeated) July 5, 6 " 

•Talavera ( Wellesley defeats Victor) July 27, 28 " 

Silistria (Turks defeat Hussions) Sept. 20, " 

Ocaua {Mortier defeats S2)aniards) Nov. 19, " 

•Busaco (M'ellinijton re2nilscs Massena) Sept. 27 1810 

Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor) March 5,1811 

Badajos (taken by the French) March 11, " 

•P'uentes d'Onore ( WeUimiton def. Massena), May 5, " 

Albuera (Beresford defeats Soult) May'lO " 

•Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed bi; English) Jan. 19,1812 

Badajos (taken by WeUimiton) April C, " 

Salamanca (WeUinijton defeats Marmont), July 22, " 

^Mohilow (French defeat Jiussians) July 23, " 

^Polotzk (French and Russians) July 30, 31, " 

Smolensko (French defeat Russians).. Aug. 17-19, " 

Moskwa ),,.,., 

•Borodino/ ('^'"'') Sept. 7, " 

•Moscow (burnt by Russians) Sept. 14, " 

Polotzk {retaken by Russians) Oct. 20, " 

^Malo-Jaroshuvatz, or VVinkowa Oct. 24, " 

Witepsk (French defeated) Nov. 14, " 

•Krasnoi (ditto) Nov. 16-18, " 

Beresina (ditto) Nov. 25-20 " 

•French Town (taken by .Americans)..'. Jan. 2!2',1S13 

•Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) Feb. 13 " 

Castella (.S'?V ./. Murray defeats Sachet)... 'A.\)r\\ \Z, " 

•Lutzeu (Napoleon checks A Hies) May 2 " 

•Bautzen {Xa2)olcon and Allies; indeciMve), May 2o' " 

•Wurtzchen (ditto) May 21 " 

•Vittoria ( Wellinqton defeats Kinrj Jose2]h), June 2l! " 
•Pyrenees ( Wellinyton defats Soult) July 2S, " 

Katzbach (lihieher tl, feats Xeii) Aug. 26, " 

•Dresden {Xa2)oleoii checks A llies) Aug. 25-27^ " 

St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) Aug. 31, " 

•Dennewitz (Xey defeated) Sept. 6, " 

•Mockern (indecisive) Oct. 14 " 

•Leipzic (Xeqtobim defeated) '.Oct. 16-18^ " 

•Hanau (Xiqioleon d, feats Bavarians) Oct. 30, " 

•St. Jean de Luz ( Wl lUnyton defeats Soult), Nov. 10, " 
[Passage of the Neve ; several engagements be- 
tween the Allies and French, Dec. 10 to 13, 1813.] 

•St. Dizier, France (French defeated) Jan. 27,1814 

•Brieune (ditto) Jan. 29, " 

•La Rothicre (Xapoleon defeats Allies) Feb. 1, " 

Bar-sur-Aulie (A llies victors) Feb. 7, " 

lyiincio (Prince Enyine defeats Austrians) . .Feb. 8, " 
Champ Aubert (Freneh defeat Allies). .Feb. 10-12, " 

Moutmirail (ditto) Feb. 11, " 

Vauchamps (ditto) Feb. 14, " 

•Fontainebleau (ditto) Feb. 17, " 

•Montereau (ditto) Feb. IS, " 

•Orthez ()('<■///«<//";( ilefeats Soult) Feb. 27, " 

•J3ergen-op-Zoom (Grahavi defeated) March 8, " 

•Laou (Freneh defeated) March 0, 10, " 

Rheims (Xajvdeon defeats St. Priest) March 13, " 

•Tarbes ( WeUinijton defeats Soult) March 20, " 

*Fcre Champenoise (French defeated) March 25, " 

Paris, Montmartre, Romainville (dittn), March 30, " 
Battle of the Barriers — ]Marmont evacuates Paris, 

and the allied armies enter that capital, March 31, " 
•Toulouse (Wellington defeats Soult) April 10, " 

LAST WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND GKEAT 
BRITAIN.^ 

•Fort Mackinaw July 17,1812 



■ against Great Britain on the 19tli 



BAT ..^ 78 

*Brownsto\vn Aug. 4, A.D.1812 

Maguaga Aug. 9, " 

*Chicago Aug. 15, " 

*Detroit (surrendered) Aug. 16, " 

*Fort Harrison {defense of) Sept. 4 aud 5, " 

*FortMadisou {defenseof) Sept. 5, 6, 7, and 8, " 

Davis's Creek Sept. 11, " 

Ganauoqui Village Sept. 21, " 

*Queenston Heights Oct. 13, " 

Pimartaiu's Town Oct. 18, " 

*St. Regis Oct. 23, " 

*Fort Niagara Nov. 21, " 

Ponce Passu Nov. 21 aud 22, " 

*Black Rock Nov. 28, " 

*Freuchtown Jan. 18,1813 

*Eiver Raisiu Jan. 22, " 

Elizabethtown Feb. 7, " 

*Ogdensburg Feb. 22, " 

*York (Toronto) April 27, " 

*Fort Meigs May, " 

*Fort George May 27, " 

*Sackett's fiarbor May 29, " 

*Stouy Creek (Burlington Heights) June 6, " 

*Hampton {defense of) June 13, " 

*Craney Island June 22, " 

*Beaver Dams June 23, " 

*Fort George (near) July 8, " 

*Black Rock Julyll, " 

*Fort George {defense of outworks) July 17, " 

*Fort Stephenson Aug. 2, " 

*Stoningtou Aug. 9, 10, 11, " 

Fort George (defense of outioorks) Aug. 24, " 

*Fort Mims Aug. 30, " 

Chatham {skirmish) Oct. 4, " 

*Thames Oct. 5, " 

Fort George {skirmishes near) Oct. G, " 

Chatanqua Oct. 20, " 

French Creek Nov. 1 and 2, " 

*Tallasehatche Nov. 3, " 

'Talladega Nov. 9, " 

*Chrysler's Field Nov. 11, " 

*Hillabee Towns Nov. IS, " 

Auttose Towns Nov. 20, " 

*Fort Niagara Dec. 19, " 

Schlosser Dec. 19 and 20, " 

Econochaco Dec. 23, " 

Black Rock Dec. 30, " 

*Emucfau Jan. 22,1814 

Euotochopco Creek Jan. 24, " 

Camp Defiance Jan. 27, " 

Lougwood March 4, " 

*Horseshoe Bend March 27, " 

*La Colle Mills March 30, " 

*Fort Oswego May 4, 5, " 

*Saudy Creek May 30, " 

Odelltown June 28, " 

*Fort Erie July 3, " 

*Chippewa Plains July 5, " 

Point an Play July IG, " 

Champlain. • July IS aud 19, " 

Rock River July 10, " 

'Niagara Falls (Lundy's Lane) July 25, " 

Schojeoquady Creek Aug. 3, " 

*Fort Mackinac Aug. 4, " 

*Fort Erie {bombarded) Aug. 13-15, " 

*Fort Erie {assault on garrison) Aug. 15, " 

*Bladensburg Aug. 24, " 

Moor's Fields (Maryland) Aug. 30, " 

White House (Virginia) Sept. 1-G, " 

*Plattsburg Sept. 11, " 

*North Pomt (Baltimore) Sept. 12, " 

*Fort M'Henry {defense of) Sept. 13, " 

*Fort Bowyer Sept. 15, " 

*Fort Erie {sortie from) Sept. 17, " 

*Chippewa Oct. 15, " 

Lyon's Creek Oct. 10, " 

*Pensacola Nov. 7, " 

Villere's Plantation (New Orleans) Dec. 23, " 

Chalniette's Plantation (New Orleans). . .Dec. 28, " 

Rodriguez's Canal (New Orleans) Jan. 1,1815 

*New Orleans {British repulsed) Jan. S-13, " 

Fort St. Philip {defense of) Jan. 0-18, " 

Point Petre (Georgia) Jan. 13, " 

*Tolentino (Murat defeated) Blay 3,1815 

*Ligny {Bliicher repulsed) June 10, ' ' 

*Qnatre Bras {Ney repuUed) June 10, " 

t*Waterloo {Napoleon finally beaten) June IS, " 

'Algiers {bombarded by Exmouth) Aug. 27,1816 

Kirkee {Hastinqs defeats Pindarrees) Nov. 5,1817 

Maheidpore (Hislop defeats Holkar) Dec. 21, " 

Dragasclian {Ipsilanti defeated) June 10,1821 

Valie/.za {Turks defeated) May 27, " 

Tripolitza {stormed by Greeks) Oct. 5, " 



BAT 

Thermopyla; {Greeks defeat Turks) . .July 13, A.D.1S22 

Corinth {taken) Sept. IG, " 

*Ayacucho {Peruvians defeat Spaniards) Dec.'9,lS24 

*Bhurtpore {taken by Combermere) Jau. 18,1826 

Athens {taken) May 17,1827 

*Navarino {Allies destroy Turkish fleet) Oct. 20, " 

Brahilow {Uussians and Turks) June 18,1828 

Akhalzikh {ditto) Aug. 27, " 

*Varna {surrenders to Russians) Oct. 11, " 

*Silistria {ditto) June 30,1829 

Kaiuly {Russians defeat Ikirks) July 1, " 

'Balkan {jiassed by Russians) July 26, " 

'Adrianople {Russians enter) Aug. 20, " 

'Algiers {conquered by French) July 5,1830 

'Pai is {Days of July) July 27, 28, 29, " 

'Grochow {Poles defeat Russians) Feb. 20, 1831 

Praga {Poles and Russians) Feb. 25, " 

*Waws {Skrzynecki defeats Rxissians) March 31, " 

'Seidlice {Poles defeat Russians) April 10, " 

'Ostrolenka (ditto) May 2G, " 

Wilua (Poles and Russians) June IS, " 

'Warsaw (taken by Russians) Sept. 7, " 

Beylau (Ibrahim defeats Turks) July 29,1832 

'Antwerp (taken by A llies) Dec. 23, " 

'Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) Dec. 21, " 

BLACK HAWK WAR — MISSISSIPPI KIVER. 

Stillman's Volunteers (defeat. Rock River), May 14,1832 

Pickatolica River June 15, " 

Kellogg's Grove (two skirmishes) June 10, " 

Galena June 18, " 

Kellogg's Grove June 24, " 

Blue Mounds July 21, " 

Warrior, steamer (attack on) Aug. 1, " 

Bad Axe Aug. 2, " 

(See Black Hawk War.) 

SEMINOLE WAK. 

Allachua Savannah Dec. 19,1835 

Micanopy Dec. 20, " 

Dade's Battle-ground (now Fort Armstrong), 

Dec. 28, " 

Withlacoochee Ford Dec. 31, " 

Duulawton Jau. 18,1S3G 

Withlacoochee Ford (4 skirmislies), Feb. 27, 28, 29, 

March 5, " 

Oloklikaha March 31, " 

Cooper's Post (defense of) April 5-17, " 

Thlouotosassa April 27, " 

Micanopy June 9, " 

Welika Pond July 9, " 

Ridgeley's Mill July 27, " 

Fort Drane Aug. 21, " 

San Velasco Hammock Sepl. IS, " 

Wahoo Swamp Nov. 17, IS, and 21, " 

Hatcheeluskie Jan. 27,1837 

Camp Monroe Feb. 8, " 

Clear River Feb. 9, " 

Musquito Inlet Sept. 10, " 

Okeechobee Lake Dec. 25, " 

Waccassassa River Dec. 26, " 

Jupiter Creek Jan. 15,1838 

Jupiter Inlet Jan. 24, " 

Newmansville June 7, " 

Carloosahatchee July 23,1889 

Fort King April 28,1S40 

Levi's Pniirie May 19, " 

Waccahoota Se])t. 6, " 

Everglades (expedition into) Dec. 3-24, " 

Micanopy Dec. 2S, " 

Fort Brooke, near (tioo skirmishes) March 2,1841 

Hawe Creek y Jan. 25,1842 

Pilaklikaha Big Hammock. April 10, " 

(See Ser.tinole War.) 



Hemani (Carlists defeated) May 5,1836 

'St. Sebastian (ditto) Oct. 1, " 

•Bilboa (siege raised ; British Legion) Dec. 24, " 

Heruani. .\ March 1.5,1837 

•Irun (British Legion defeats Carlists) May 17, " 

Valentia (Carlisis attacked) July 15, " 

"Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) Aug. 24, " 

"Constantina (Algiers; taken by French) ..Oct. 13, " 

''St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) Dec. 14, " 

Pennecerrada (Carlists defeated) June 22,1838 

'Prescott (Caneulian rebels defeated) Nov. 17, " 

"Ghiznee (taken by Keane) July 2.3,1839 

"Sidon {taken by St.023.ford) Sept. 26,1840 

'Beyrout (A llies defeat Egyiitians) Oct. 10, " 

Afghan War. See India. 

*Acie (stormed by Allies) Nov. 3, " 

Kotriah (Scinde; English victors) Dec. 1, " 

Chueu-pe (English victors) Jan. 7,1841 

Cantpn (English take Bogue forts) Feb. 26, " 

Amoy (taken) Aug. 27, " 



BAT 79 

Chin-hae (takm) Oct. 10, A.D.1841 

Caudiihiir (.1 fuliam defeated) March 10,1S42 

Niu'.'pii {Chiniie defeated) March 10, " 

Vellahibad (Kliuber Pass forced) April 5, fi, " 

Chiu-kcaiii: (taken) July 21, " 

*Ghi/.iuH- {Afjiians defeated) Sept. G, " 

*MiH'aiiro (Sapier defeats Ameers) Fch. 17,18-13 

•Alaharaipoor {Oinu/h defeats Mahrattas) . .Dec. 21), " 

Isly (Frmch defeat Moors) Aug. I'l,18-i4 

♦Moodkcc {Hardinije defeats Sikhs) Dec. 18,1845 

•Ferozeshah (ditto) Dec. 21, 22, " 

*Aliwal (Swith defeats Sikhs) Jau. 28,1846 

•Sobraou ((^<iii<ili defeats Sikhs) Feb. 10, " 

St. Ubes (rortmjal) May 9, " 

Ozoutero (Aviericans defeat Mexicans). Aug. 19, 20, " 

MEXICAN WAR. 

•Fort Brown {attack on) May 3,1840 

*Palo Alto May 8, " 

*Resaca de la Palnia May t», " 

*Moutcrey Sept. 21, 22, aud 23, " 

Brazito Dec. 25, " 

Sau Gabriel Jan. 8,1S4T 

The Mesa Jan. 0, " 

Eucarnacion Jau. 23, " 

Canada Jan. 24, " 

•Buena Vista Feb. 22, 23, " 

Pass of Sacramento Feb. 28, " 

*Vera Cruz surrendered to the Americans,Mar. 29, " 

Alvarado April 2, " 

*Cerro Gordo April IS, " 

Tuspan surrendered April IS, " 

*Coutreras , Aug. 20, " 

*Cherubusco .' Aug. 20, " 

*E1 Moliuo del Key Sept. 8, " 

*Chapultepec Sept. 12-14, " 

*Puebla (Americans besieged 28 days) . Sept.aud Oct., " 

Huamantla Oct. !), " 

Atlixco Oct. IS, " 

(See Mexican War.) 

1S4S 



*Curtalone (A tistriatis defeat Italians) May 20 

Custoza (ditto) • July 23, 

Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) Sept. 29, 

*Moc)ltau (Siklis repuUed) Nov. 1, 

*Chilian\vallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) Jan. 13, 

*Go(),ierat (ditto) Feb. 21, 

*Novara (Rtidetzkii defeats Sardiniatis). . .March 23, 

Percd (liusainns' defeat Hungarians) June 21, 

Acs (lltniimrians rejndsed) July 10, 

Waitzcu (taken bii Jiussians) July 17, 

Sch;issl)erg (Unsf^ians defeat Bern) July 31, 

*Temos\var (Ilaiiiiax defeats Uimgaria7is). Ang.'iO, 
Idstedt {Vanes defeat Uolsteincrs) July 25, 



1S50 



BUESO-TCEKISH WAK. 

*01tenitza {Turks repulse Russians) Nov. 4,1853 

*Citate (Turks defeat Russians) Jan. G, 1854 

•Silistria (ditto) June 13-15, " 

Giurgevo (ditto) July 8, " 

Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) July 30, " 

•Kuruk-Derck (dittu) Aug. 5, " 

*Alma (Allies defeat Russians) Sept. 20, " 

*Balaklava (ditto) Oct. 25, " 

*Iukerniaiin (ditto) Nov. 5, " 

Eupatoria {Tu7-ks defeat Russian-i) Feb. 17,1855 

■"Malakofi" Tower (.4 Hies and Russia7is). .May 22-24, " 

Capture of the Mamelon, etc June 7, " 

Unsuccessful attempt on Malakoflf Tower aud Re- 
dan (A Hies and Russians) June IS, " 

'Tchernaya, or Bridge of Traktir {Allies defeat 

/,'((.s',s(V()i,s) Aug. IG, " 

*Malak()ft" taken bv the French Sept. 8, " 

•Ingdur (Turks defeat Russians) Nov. 6, " 

Baidur {French defeat Russians) Dec. 8, " 

PERSIAN WAR. 

*Bushire {English defeat Persians) Dec. 10, 

Kooshab (ditto).. Feb. S, 

Mohammerah (ditto) March 26, 

INDIAN MUTINY. (See TiuUa.) 
•Conflicts before Delhi, May 30, 31 ; June 8 ; July 4 

9, 18, 23, 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, 

July 11, Cawnpore, etc July 12 to Aug. 16, 

Pandoo Nuddee (victory of Neill) Aug. 1.5, 

Nujuflghur (death of Xicholsan, victor) Aug. 25, 

Assault and capture of Delhi Sept. lG-20, 

Conflicts before Lucknow, Sept. 2.'5, 26; Nov. 18, 25, 

Victories of Col. Greathed Sept. 27 ; Oct. 10, 

•Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) Dec. 6, 

Fntteduir (ditto) Jan. 2, 

Calpi (rictorii of Ingbs) Feb. 4, 

•Alumbagh (victory of Outram) Feb. 21, 



1S.^G 
1857 



1857 



BAT 

Conflicts at Lucknow {taketi). . .March 14-19, A.D.1858 

Jhansi (Rose eicturious) April 4, " 

Kooneh (ditto) May 11 " 

Gwalior (difta) June It', " 

Kajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee). . .Sept. 15, " 
Dhoodea Khera (Clyde def. Reni il/a/ido). .Nov. 24, " 
General Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude, 

Feb. 10,1859 
ITALIAN WAR. (Scc Italy.) 

Anstrians cross the Ticino Ap: il 27, 

French troops enter Piedmont. Ma •/, 

*Montebello (Allies victorious) May 2"(l, 

Palestro (ditto) Mav 30, 31, 

*Magenta (ditto) .June 4, 

"Malegnano (ditto) June 8, 

*Solferino (ditto) Jnne 24, 

(Armistice agreed to, July 6, 1859.) 

*Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin-bo 
{English attack on the Chinese forts defeated), 

June 25, " 

'Castillejo {S2)aniards defeat Moors) Jan. 1,1860 

*Tetuan (ditto) Feb. 4, " 

*Guad-el-Ras (ditto) March 23, " 

Calatiflmi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) .May 15, " 

*Melazzo (ditto) July 21, " 

Taku forts taken (see China) Aug. 21, " 

*Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troo2}s), 

Sept. IS, " 
Insurrection in New Zealand ; English repulsed, 

March 14, 28; June 27; Sept. 10, 19 ; Oct. 9, 12, " 

Maohetia (Maoris defeated) Nov. 6, " 

Chang-kia-wan, Sept. IS ; andPa-li-chlau (Chinese 

defeated) Sept. 21, " 

*VoUurno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) . . .Oct. 1, " 

Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) Oct. 17, " 

*Garigliano (ditto) Nov. 3, " 

Sardinians defeat Neapolitan reactionists, Jan. 22,1?61 

*Gaeta taken by the Sardinians Feb. 13, " 

Pavon, South America {Mitra defeats Urquiza), 

Sept. 17, " 

Turks defeat Montenegrins Oct. 19, Nov. 21, " 

Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) May 5,1862 

Orizaba (ditto) May IS, " 

Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans). . .June 13, " 
Aspromoute (Garibuhli and his volunteer's cap- 
tured by Royal Italian Troojjs) Aug. 29, " 

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. 

*Fort Sumter, S. C. {captured by Confederates), 

April 14,1861 

*Big Bethel, Va. {national repulse) June 10, " 

*Booneville, Mo. (Confederate de,feat) June 17, " 

'Carthage, Mo. (indecisive) July 6, " 

*Rich Mountain, W.Va. (national victory), July 10, '■' 

*Bull Run, Va. {national defeat) July 21, " 

'Wilson's Creek, Mo. (Confederate defeat). Ang. 10, " 
'Hatteras expedition {capture of Forts Haiiei-as 

and Clark,N. C.) Aug.26-30, " 

'Carnifex Ferry, Va. {Floyd defeated by Rosecrans), 

Sept. 10, " 

Lexington, Mo. {taken by Confederates) .. ..Sept. 20, " 

'Santa Rosa Island (Confederate defeat) Oct. 9, " 

'Ball's Blufi', Va. (Raker defeated and killea),Oct. 21, " 
'Port Royal Expedition (capture if Ililtun Head, 

S.C.) Oct. 29-Nov. 7, " 

'BelmoutjMo. (indecisive) Nov.7, " 

'Middle Creek, Ky. (Garfield defeats Marshall), 

Jan.lO,lS63 
•Mill Spring, Ky. {Zollicofer dc.feated and killed), 

Jan. 19, " 

'Fort Henry, Tcnn. (captured bu Foote) Feb. G, " 

•Roanoke Island, N. C. (national victory). Feb. 7, 8, " 

'FortDonelson (surrendered tu Grant) Feb.16, " 

Valverde, N. M. (Canbu defeats ,SibU'y) Feb. 21, " 

'Pea Ridge, Ark. (Confederate defeat) . . .March 7, 8, " 
'Hampton Roads, Va. (Monitor and Virginia), 

March 9, " 

'Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. (mdecisw). ..April 6, 7, " 
Island No. 10 (surrendered to Pope with 6000 2n-is- 

oners) April 7, " 

New Orleans, La. (captured by the N'ationabi), 

April, " 

•Williamsburg, Va. (Confederate defeat) Aug. 5, " 

'Winchester, Va. (Banks driven) May 25, " 

'Hanover Court-house, Va. (Confederate reptdse). 

May 27, " 
'Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, Va. {Confederate re- 
pulse) May 31-June 1, " 

Memphis, Tenn. (captured by the Nationals), 

June 6, " 
'Cross Keys and Port Republic, Va. {national re- 

2)vlse) June 8, 9, " 

'Mechanicsville, Cold Harbor, Savagc'.s Station, 



BAT 



80 



Frazier'fi Farm, and Malvern Hill, Va. {the. seven 

dans' battU-s) June '26-July 1, A.D.1S62 

*Baton Rouge, La. {Breckinridge defeated) . .Aug. 5, " 

Cedar Mountain, Va. {Banks defeated) Aug. 9, " 

*Bull Run, Va., second battle {Pope's defeat), 

Aug. 30, " 

*South Mountain, Md. {yuitiorml success) . . Sept. 14, " 
*IIarper's Ferry {surrendered with 10,000 national 

prisoners) Sept. 15, " 

*Antietam, Md. {Lee deftated bij M'Clellan), Sept. 17, " 

luka. Miss. {Confederate defeat) Sept. 10, 20, " 

Corinth, Mis.?, {ditto) Oct. 3, " 

*Perryville, Ky. {indecisive) Oct. 8, " 

Prairie Grove, Ark. {Confederate defeat) Dec. 7, " 

■"Fredericksburg, Va. {Burnsidc defeated by Lee), 

Dec. 13, " 
*nolly Spring.?, Miss, {captured hyVanDorn), 

Dec. 20, " 
■•Chickasaw Bayou, Miss. {Sherman re2mUed), 

Dec. 2T-29, " 
Stone River, Murfreesborough, Tenn. {Confeder- 
ate defeat) Dec. 31,1802-Jan. 3,1S63 

■"Arkansas Post, Ark, {captured by M'Clcrnand), 

Jan. 11, " 
Raid by Grierson {in Mississippi), Stoneman (Mi 
Virginia), and Streight {in Nortltern Georgia, 
terminating in StreighVs defeat and cajiture), 

April 11-May 5, " 

*Port Gibson, Miss. {Confederate- defeat) May 1, " 

*Chancellorsville, Va. {indecisive) May 1-4, " 

■"Raymond, Miss. {Confederate defeat) May 12, " 

*Jackson, Miss, {ditto) , May 14, " 

"Champion Hill,Mi8S. {ditto) May 16, " 

"Big Black, Miss, {ditto) May 17, " 

■"Vicksburg {two unsuccessful assaults) ..May 10, 22, " 

■"Port Hudson {assault repulsed). '. May 27, " 

■"Hanover Junction, Va. {national success), June 30, " 

"Gettysburg, Pa. {Lee defeated by Meade). .July 1-4, " 

*Vicksburg, Miss, {surrendered to Grant). . .July 4, " 

Helena, Ark. {Confederate defeat) July 4, " 

"Port Hudson, La. {surrendered to Banks)... Jiily 9, " 
Jackson, Miss. {Johnston driven by Sherman), 

July 16, " 
Fort Wagner, S. C. {assaults repulsed; cajiturea 

Sept. 6) July 10-18, " 

Morgan's raid, Ky., Ind., and Ohio {terminating 

in' Morgan's defeat and capture), June 24^Jnly 20, " 
'Chickamauga Creek, Ga. {Mosecrans defeated, but 

retains Chattanooga) Sept. 19, 20, " 

Campbell's Station, Tenn. {Longstrect held at bay 

by Burnside) Nov. 16, " 

■"Knoxville (besieged and unsuccessfully assaulted by 

Longstreet) Nov. 17-Dec. 4, " 

■"Lookout Mountain, Tenu. {stormed by Hooker), 

Nov. 24, " 

"Missionary Ridge, Tenu. {Bragg's defeat)..'^ov. 25, " 

*01ustee, Fla. {national defeat) Feb. 20,1SG4 

■"Sabine Cross-roads, La. {ditto) April 8, " 

"Pleasant Hill, La. {Confederate repulse) . . .April 9, " 
■"Fort Pillow, Tenn. {capture and massacre), 

April 12, " 

"Wilderness, Va. {indexisive) May 5, 6, " 

"Resaca, Ga. {indecisive) May 14, 15, " 

*Spottsylvania C. H., Va. {indecisive) May 7-12, " 

■"Petersburg, Va. {Butler's attack) May 10, " 

■"New Hope Church, Ga. {indecisive) May 25, " 

"Cold Harbor, Va. {Grant's repulse) June 1-3, " 

"Petersburg {Smith's attack) June 16, " 

"Weldon Railroad {national repulse) . ..June 21, 22, " 

*Kenesaw {Sherman's repulse) June 27, " 

*Peach-tree Creek (iwdcciswe) July 20, " 

■"Decatur, Ga. {indecisive) July 22, " 

■"Atlanta, Ga. {Hood's repulse) July 28, " 

"Petersburg, Va. (mwie explosion, national re2nilse), 

July 30, " 
*Jonesborough, Ga. {national victory), August 31- 

^Sept.1, " 

*Atlanta, G^a. {captured by Sherman) Sept. 2, " 

"Winchester, Va. {Sheridan defeats Early), Sept. 19, " 

"Fisher's Hill, Va. {ditto) Sept 22, " 

"Allatoona Pass, Ga. {Hood repuUed) Oct. 6, " 

Hatcher's Run, Va. {Grant repulsed) Oct. 27, " 

Fort M'Allister, Ga. {cax)tured) Dec. 14, " 

*Nashville, Tenn. {Hood's defeat) Dec. 1.5, 16, " 

Fort Fisher, N. C. {first attack; Butler repulsed), 

Dec. 25, " 
Fort Fisher, N. C. {captured by Terry loith 2400 

prisoners and .50 guns) Jan. 15, 1S65 

Hatcher's Run, Va. {second national rejiulse), 

Feb. 5, " 

Five Forks, V.a. {Lee defeated) . .March 31-April 1, " 
Averysborough, N. C. {Confederate repid-ie), 

March 10, " 

Benton ville, N. C. {ditto) March 18, " 



BAT 

Five Forks, Va, {Lee def'd) . .Mar. 31-April 1, A.D.1SC5 

Petersburg, Va. {carried by assault) April 2, " 

Mobile {national caiHure) April 8-12, " 

[For an account of many of the most important of 
these battles, see Peninsular Campaign, Grant's Vir- 
ginia Campaign, Atlanta Campaign, Red River Cam- 
paign, Vicksburg Campaign, and Sherman's March.'} 

Oeversee {Danes and Prussian,') Feb. 6,1SG4 

Diippel {taken by the Prussians) April 18, " 

Alseu {ditto) June 29, " 

Custoza {Italian defeat) June 24,1866 

Sadowa, Bohemia {Austrian defeat) July 3, " 

BAUGE, See Anjou. 

BAUTZEN and WURTZCHEN (in North Germany), 
the sites of battles fought May 20 and 21, 1813, be- 
tween the French commanded by Napoleon, and the 
Allies under the Emperor of Russia and the King of 
Prussia, The struggle commenced on the 19th with a 
contest on the outposts, which cost each army a loss 
of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at Batttzen) the 
French were more successful ; and on the 21st (at 
Wuetzouen) the Allies were compelled to retire ; but 
Napoleon obtained no permanent advantage from 
these sanguinary engagements, Duroc was among 
the killed at Bautzen", to the great sorrow of the em- 
peror and the French army. 

BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vindelicia), 
a kingdom in South Germany, conquered from the 
Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 030 and 660, 
The country was afterward governed by dukes subject 
to the French monarchs, Tassillou II. was deposed 
by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. 
The first duke was Leopold I. 895. Guelf of the house 
of Este was made duke by the Emperor He4iry IV, in 
1071. His descendant Henry the Lion, duke of Sax- 
ony, Bavaria, and Brunswick (ancestor of the present 
Brunswick family, see Brunswick), was dispossessed in 
1180 by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who had 
been previously his friend and benefactor). Otho of 
Wittelsbach became duke, whose descendants reigned 
till 1777, when the elector palatine acquired Bavaria, 
which was made an electorate 1623. In Dec, 1805, Ba- 
varia was erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte, and 
obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation 
of the whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bish- 
opric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. Bavaria 
sufl'ered much by its alliance with Prance against Aus- 
tria in 1726 and 1805. The king joined the Allies iu 
Oct., 1813, Population, Dec, ISOl, 4,089,937, 

DUKES, 

1071. Guelf I., an illustrious waTrior. 

1101. Guelf IL 

1120. Henry the Black. 

1126. Henry the Proud. He competed with Conrad of 
Hohenstaufen for the empire and failed, and 
was deprived of Bavaria. 

1138. Leopold of Austria. 

1142. Henry of Austria. 

1X54, Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), re- 
stored by the Emperor Frederick Barbaro.ssa, 
but afterward expelled by him ; and 

1180. Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke, 

118.5. Louis of Wittelsbach, 

1231, Otho II,, the Illustrious ; his son Louis was raised 
to the electoral dignitj', 

1253, Henry and Louis the Severe, 

1294. Louis III. (the palatinate separated). 

1347. Stephen L 

1375. John. 

1397, Ernest. 

1438, Albert L 

1460, John II. and Sigismund. 

1465. Albert IL 

1508. William L 

1550. Albert III. 

1.579. William IL 

1596. Maximilian the Great; the first Electoe of Ba- 
varia, 1623 ; the palatinate restored, 1648. 

16.51. Ferdinand and Mary. 

1C79, Maximilian-Bmauuel ; allies with France, 1702; 
defeated at Blenheim, 1704 ; restored to his do- 
minions, 1714, 

1726, Charles-Albert; elected Emperor of Germany in 
1742; defeated, 1744. 

1745. Maximilian-Joseph I., as elector. The house of 
Wittelsbach extinct at his death, 1778. 

1778. Charles-Theodore (the elector palatine of the 
Rhine since 1743). The French take Munich ; 
treats with them, 1796, 

1799. Maximilian-Joseph II,, as elector; territories 



BAY 

changed by treaty of Luneville, ISOl ; made 
kiug'by treaty of Presburg, Dec, 1S05. 

KINGS OP BAVARIA. 

1S05. Maximilian-Joseph I. deserts Napoleon, and has 
his enlarged territories confirmed to him, Oct., 
18l;i ; grants a constitutional charter, ISIS. 

1825. Louis-Charles, Oct. IH ; abdicated March 20.* 

1848. Maximilian-Joseph II. (sou), born Nov. 2S, ISll ; 
dies Marcli Id, 1S64. 

1804. Louis II. (sou), March 10; born Aug. 25, 184.5. 
illi'ir: his brt)ther Otho, born AprU 2T, 1848.] 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, said to have been wrought 
by Ulatilda, quceu of William I. It is 19 inches wide, 
214 feet long, and is divided into compartments show- 
ing the events from the visit of Harold to the Norman 
court to his death at Hastings: it is now preserved in 
the town house at Rouen. A copy, drawn by C. Stoth- 
ard, and colored after the original, was piiblished by 
the British Society of Antiquaries in 1821-3. Bayeux 
tapestry is now preserved iu the public library at Ba- 
yeux. 

BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Ruatan), in the Bay of 
Ilouduras, Ctnitral America, belonged to Spain till 1821, 
then to (ireat Llritain, which formed them into a colo- 
ny in 1S52, but ceded them to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. 
See Honduras. 

BAYLEN (S. Spain), where, on July 20, 1808, the 
French, consisting of 14,000 meu, commanded by Gen- 
erals Dupout aud Wedel, were defeated by the Span- 
iards under Kediug, Ooupigny, and other geuerals, 
whose force amounted to 25,000. The French had near- 
ly 3000 killed and wounded, aud the division of Dupont 
(about 8000 men) was made prisoners. 

BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end of fire- 
arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne, iu France, 
about 164T, ICTO, or 1690. It was used at Killiecraukie 
in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the French iu 1693, "with 
great success, against the enemy unprepared for the 
encounter with so formidable a novelty." The ring 
bayonet was adopted by the British, Sept. 24, 1693. — 

BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It was held 
by the English from 1265 till it was taken by Charles 
VII. The queens of Spain and France met here in 
1565 the cruel Duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of 
Spain abdicated here in fiivor of "his friend and ally" 
the Emperor Napoleon ; aud Ferdinand, prince of As- 
turias, aud Don Carlos and Don Antonio, renounced 
their rights to the Spanish throne, May 5, 1808. In the 
neighborhood of Bayonne was much desperate fighting 
between the French and British armies, Dec. 10, 11, and 
l.S, 1S13. Bayonne was invested by the British, Jan. 14, 
1814 : on Ai)ril 14 the French made a sally, and attack- 
ed the English with success, but were at length driven 
back. The loss of the British was considerable, aud 
Lieut. Gen. Sir John Hope v.'as captured aud taken 
prisoner. — A Franco-Spanish industrial and fine-arts 
exhibition was opened at Bayonne iu July, 1864. 

BAYREUTII (N. Germany), a margraviate, held 
formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg family, was, 
with that of Auspach, abdicated by the rcigning'priuce 
in favor of the King of Prussia,'lT90. The archives 
were brought (in 1783) from Plasseuburg to the city of 
Bayreuth, 'which was incorporated with Bavaria by Na- 
poleon iu 1806. 

BAZAR, or Covered Market, a word of Arabic ori- 
gin. The bazar of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is ex- 
celled by that of Tatiris, which has several times held 
30,000 men in order of battle. In London, the Soho 
Square Bazar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to re- 
lieve the relatives of persons killed in the war. The 
Queen's Bazar, Oxfin'd Street, a very extensive one, 
was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the loss esti- 
mated at i:.'iO,000, May 27, 1829. It was rebuilt and con- 
verted into the Princess's Theatre, opened Sept. 30, 
1841. The St. James's Bazar was built by Mr. Crock- 
ford in 1832. There are also the Pantheon, the West- 
ern Exchange, etc. The most imposing sale termed 
a bazar was opened for the benefit of the Anti-Corn- 
Law League, in Covent Garden Theatre, May 5, 1845; 
in six weeks i;25,000 was obtained, mostly by admis- 
sion money. 

BE ACHY HEAD, a promontory on the S.E. coast of 

* The alidicalion of Charles-Louis was mainly caused by his attach- 
ment to an intripuinff woman, known tliroujrhout Europe by the as- 
sumeil name of Lola Montes, who, in the end, was expelled the kinp;- 
dotii for her interference in state affairs, and afterward led a wandering 
life. She delivered lectures in London in 1859, and thence proceeded to 
the United States. She died at New York, Jan. IT, 1S61. 

F 



81 



BEA 



Susses, where the British and Dutch combined fleet, 
commanded by the Earl of Torriutrton, was defeated 
by a superior French force under Admiral Tourville 
June 30, 1690 ; the allies suflered very severely. The 
Dutch lost two admirals, 500 men, and several .ships- 
sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands of 
the enemy; the English lost two ships and 400 men. 
The admirals on both sides were blamed: the EntrJish, 
for not fighting ; the French, for not pursuing the vic- 
tory. 

BEACONS. See Light-homes. 

BEADS were early used in the East for reckoning 
prayers. St. Augustin mentions them, 366. About 
1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made a series 
of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is ascribed the 
invention of the Rosary (a series of 15 large and 150 
small beads), in honor of the Blessed Virgin, about 
1202. Beads soon after were in general use. The 
Bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose 
of whose souls a certain number of pravers were recit- 
ed, which the devout counted by a string of beads. 
Beads appear to have been used by the Druids, being 
found iu British barrows. 

BEAM AND Scales. The apparatus for weighing 
goods was so called, "as it weighs so much at the 
king's 6mm." A public beam was set up iu London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the city 
officer, called the weigh-master, M'ho was to do justice 
between buyer aud seller, statute 3 Edw. II., 1309. — 
Stnw. Beams and scales, with weights and measures, 
were ordered to be examined by the justices at quarter 
sessions in England. See Weights and Measures. 

BEANS, Black and Wuite, were used by the an- 
cients in gathering the votes of the people for the elec- 
tion of magistrates. A white bean sitrnifled absolu- 
tion, aud al)lack one condemnation. The precept of 
Pythagoras to abstain from beans, ahstine a/abis, has 
been variously interpreted. "Beans do not fiivor 
mental tranquillity."— CToero. The finer kiuds of 
beans were brought to Great Britain at the period of 
the introduction of most other vegetables, iu Henry 
VIII. 's reign. 

BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English sport, 
prohibited by act of Parliament iu 1835. 

BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear beards; 
the Assyrians did. They have been woru for centuries 
by the Jews, who were forbidden to mar their beards, 

B.C. 1490 Lev. xix., 2T. The Tartars waged a long 

war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because 
they would not cut their beards, after the custom of 
Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time 
of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be 
shaved, lest the beard should give a handle to their 
enemies, 330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 
297 B.C. The Emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (enti- 
tled "Miso2}ogon") against wearing beards, A.D. 362. — 
In England they were not fashioiiable after the Con- 
quest, 1066, until the 13th century, aud were discontin- 
ued at the Restoration. Peter the Great enjoined the 
Russians, even of rank, to shave, but was obliged to 
keep officers on foot to cut oft" the beard by force. 
Since 1851 the custom of wearing the beard has grad- 
ually increased. 

BEAUGE. See Anjou. 

BEAULIEIT, Abbey of, founded by King John, in 
the New Forest, Hampshire, in 1204. It was dedicated 
to the Blessed Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary, 
and was devoted to monks of the reformed Benedict- 
ine order. It aftbrded an asylum to Margaret, queen 
of Henry VI., after the defeat of the Earlof Warwick 
at Barnet, April 14, 1471. Here, too, Perkiu Warbeck 
obtained refuge in the reign of Henry VII., in 1497. 

BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bellovaci, and 
formerly capital of Picardy. On the town being be- 
sieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the 
head of 80,000 men, the women, under the conduct of 
Jeanne Fourquet, or Laine, also De la Hachette, from 
her using that weapon, particularly distinguished 
themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the 
siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of this, the women 



* A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the battle of Pul- 
towa, and presented to the Czar Peter I., 1*24 ; her beard measured l}^ 
yard. A woman is said to have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, 
and her whole body covered with hair.— Vint, de Trevmi. The great 
Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long, stiff beard. 
In liavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. 
Mdlle. Bois de Chfne, bom at Geneva (it was said) in 1S34, was exhib- 
ited in London in 18.V2-.3, when, consequently, eighteen years of age : 
she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large whiskers, and 
thick hair on her arms and down from her neck on her back, aud mas- 
culine features. 



BEA 



82 



BEL 



of Beauvais walk first in the procession on the anni- 
versary of their deliverance. — Heiiault. 

BEAVER DAMS, Affair at, in Upper Canada, 7 
mllea west of Queeustown. There was an engage- 
ment on the 23d of Jan., 1813, between 540 Americans 
under Lieut. Col. Bcerstler, and SUO British and Indians. 
The American loss, 25 killed, 50 wounded, and -160 offi- 
cers and men made prisoners. The British loss, 30 
killed, and 35 wounded. 

BECKET'S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, arch, 
bishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the altar, Dec- 
29, IITO. The king was absolved of guilty knowledge 
of the crime in 11T2, and did penance at the tomb in 
1174. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and 
jewels in 1220, but were burned in the reign of Ueury 
VIII., 1539. 

BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were aft- 
erward made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. The 
Romans are said to have first used feathers. Feather- 
beds were in use in England in the reign of Henry VIII. 
The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like 
modern couches, became common among the Roman 
upper classes. The ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, 
capable of holding twelve persons, was sold, it is said, 
to Charles Dickens, Sept. 6, 1864. A bedstead of gold 
was presented to the queen on Nov. 2, 1859, by the 
Maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds 
have been made since the manufacture of India-rubber 
cloth by Clark in 1813, and by Macintosh in 1823. Dr. 
Arnott's hydrostatic bed was invented in 1830. 

BEDER (Arabia). Here Mohammed gained his first 
victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It was con- 
sidered to be miraculous. 

BEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. London, renowned for 
its many free educational establishments endowed in 
1501 by Sir Wm. Harpur, a London alderman. Here 
John Bunyan preached, wrote "The Pilgrim's Prog- 
ress," and died (in 1088). 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great fen dis- 
tricts in the eastern counties, drained in the early part 
of the 17th century by the Earl of Bedford, aided by 
the celebrated Dutch engineer, Sir Cornelius Vermuy- 
den, amid great opposition. See Levels. 

BEDLAM. See Bethlehem. 

BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living on 
the plunder of travelers, etc. They profess a form of 
Mohammedanism, and are governed by sheiks. They 
are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to 
fulfill the prophecy respecting him, Gen. xvi., 12, 1911 
B.C. They are the scourge of Arabia and Egypt. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous 
flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has been po- 
etically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, in At- 
tica, was also famous for its bees and honey. The 
economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages; 
and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 
B.C. There are 292 species of the bee or ajtis genus, 
and 111 in Ens^land. Bees were first introduced into 
Boston, New England, by the English in 1070, and have 
since spread over the whole continent. It is asserted 
that the honey-bee is never seen in the wilderness of 
America more than 50 miles in advance of civilization. 
Mandeville's satirical "Fable of the Bees" appeared 
in 1723. Huber published his observations on bees in 
1792. The Apiarian Society had an establishment at 
Mnswell Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian 
variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced 
into England in 1S60. 

BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in England. 
Beta vulfiaris, red beet, is used for the table as a salad. 
Margraff first produced sugar from the ichite beet-root 
in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent sugar from it 
in 1799 ; and the chemists of France, at the instance 
of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet- 
root in ISOO. 60,000 tons of sugar, about half the con- 
sumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. 
It is also largely manufactured in other countries. A 
refinery of sugar from beet-root has been erected at 

* Thomas Becket was born in 1119. His father, Gilbert, was a Lon- 
don trailer, and his mother is stated to have been a convert from Mo-- 
hammedanism. He was educated at Oxford, and made archdeacon by 
Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, who introduced him to the liin^, 
Henry II. He became chancellor in 1155, but, on beinp elected Arcli- 
bishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chanceflorship, to the 
p'eat offense of the kinp. He opposed strenuously the constitutions 
of Clarendon in 1164, and fled the country ; and, in 1166, excommuni- 
cated all the clerpy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king 
met at Fretville, in Touraine, on July 22, 1170, and were formally rec- 
onciled. On his return he recommenced his struRcrle with the king, 
which led to his tragical death. The Merchant Adventurers were at 
one time termed " tlie Brotherhood of St. Thomas a Becket." 



the Thames bank, Chelsea. More recently in the. 
United States, paper of good quality for printing has 
been made of the refuse of the beet sugar factories. 

BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, being 
often musicians and ballad-singers. In modern times 
severe laws have been passed against them. In 1572, 
by 14 Eliz., c. 5, sturdy beggars were ordered to be 
"grievously whipped and burnt through the right 
ear." By the Vagrant Act In England, all public beg- 
gars are liable to a month's imprisonment. In the 
United States they may be sent to the state peniten- 
tiaries, or to work-houses as vagrants. See Poor Laws 
and Memlicitu Society. The "Beggars' Oi'era," by 
John Gay, a satire against the government of Sir 
Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln's Inn 
Fields Theatre, 1727, and had a run of 03 nights. 

BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns, first establish- 
ed at Liege, and afterward at Nivelle, in 1207, some 
say 1226. The " Grand Beguinage" of Bruges was the 
most extensive. Some of these nuns imagined that 
they could in this life arrive at impeccability. The 
Council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolish- 
ed a branch of the order in 1311. They still exist in 
Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to the sick 
and wounded, etc. 

BEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, intro- 
duced into England from Normandy (as a less igno- 
minious mode of putting high criminals to death) by 
William the Conqueror, 1076, when Waltheoft', earl of 
Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northumberland, was 
first so executed. Since then this mode of execution 
became frequent, particularly in the reigns of Henry 
VIII. and Mary, when even women of the noblest 
blood thus perished.* See Guillotin£. 

BEHISTL'N, in Persia. At this place is a rock con- 
taining important inscriptions in three languages, in 
cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which were 
deciphered and translated by Sir H. Rawlinsou in 
1S44-6, and published in the Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society. Each paragraph commences with " I 
am Darius the Great King." 

BEHRING'S STRAIT, discovered by Captain Vitus 
Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of Russia. 
He thus proved that the continents of Asia and Amer- 
ica are not united, but are distinct from each other 
about thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring's 
Island in 1741. The current from the west between 
the shores is very inconsiderable, the depth not being 
more than from twelve to thirty fathoms. In 1788 
Captain James Cook accurately surveyed the coast of 
both continents. 

BELFAST, capital of Ulster, Ireland. First men- 
tioned about 1315 ; its castle, supposed to have been 
built by John de Conrcy, was then destroyed by the 
Scots under Edward Bruce. See Orange. 
Belfast granted by James I. to Sir Arthur Chiches- 
ter, then lord deputy, 1612 ; and erected into a 

corporation 1613 

The long bridge, with 21 arches, 2562 feet long, 

built 1683-6 

The first edition of the Bible published in Ireland, 

printed here 1704 

Of three colleges established in Ireland under the 
act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed in 1845, one was in- 
augurated in Belfast Oct., 1849 

(See Colleges in Ireland.) 
Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanua per- 
sisting in open-air preaching, July, Aug., and 

Sept.,185T 

Exciting religions revivals Sept. ,1859 

Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and 
Protestants on account of the foundation of the 
O'Conuell monument at Dublin — 9 lives lost and 

lU) persons injured Aug. 10-27,1864 

Rioting again April 30,1805 

Election riots July, " 

BELGIUTSI, late the southern portion of the king- 
dom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of 
the Belga*, who were flnally conquered by Julius Cae- 
sar, 51 B.C. Its size is about one eighth of Great Brit- 
ain. The population, December 31, 1862, was 4,83C,.'566. 
Its government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, 

* Among other instances (besides queens of England) may be men- 
tioned the Lady Jane Grey, beheaded Feb. 12, 1554, and the venerable 
Countess of Salisbury— tlie latter remarkable for her resistance of the 
executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she 
refused to do it, telling him that she knew of no guilt, and would not 
submit to die like a criminal. He pursued her round and round the 
scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, after 
mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrify- 
ing manner. She was daughter of George, duke of Clarence, and last 
of the royal line of Plantagenet. May 27, 1541, — Hume. 



BEL 



83 



BEL 



founded in 1S31. For previous history, see Flanders, 
yi'thcrlaiui.s, and UoUand. 

The revolution coniniences at Brussels. . .Aug. 25,1S30 
The Provisional Government declares Belgium iu- 

dtpenden t Oct. 4, " 

Antwerp t:ikeu Dec.23, " 

Belu'ian independence acknowledged by the allied 

powers Dec. 20, " 

Duke de Nemours elected king (Ms father, the 

French kinir, refused his consent) Feb. 3,1831 

Surlot do Chokier is elected regent Feb. 24, " 

Leoimld, prince of Coburg, elected king, July 12, 

enters Brussels July 19, " 

The King of the Netherlands commences war, 

Aug. 3, " 
Conference of ministers of the five great powers 

held in London: acceptance of 24 articles of pa- 

citication Nov. 15, " 

France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and 

an armistice ensties Aug., 1832 

Antwerp besieged, Nov. 30; and taken by the 

French Dec. 23, " 

The French army returus to France Dec. 27, " 

Kiot at Brussels (see Bnttise's) April C,1S34 

Treaty* between Holland and Beliiium signed in 

London '.' April 19,1839 

Increase of army to 100,000 men voted May 10,1853 

The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian 

War May,1859 

Commercial treaty with France signed May 1,1861 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by 

the Chamber Aug. 22, " 

Great distress through decay of trade Aug., " 

Fierce dissensions between Komau Catholics, 

Jan. ; the ministry resigns, but resumes office, 

Feb. 4 ; dissolution of the Chambers, July 17 ; 

the Protestants superior in the election. ..Aug., 1864 

KING OF TUB BELGIANS. 

1631. Leopold,t first king of the Belgians; boru Dec. 

16, 1790 ; inaugurated July 21, 1831, at Brussels ; 

married, Aug. 9, 1832, Louise, eldest daughter 

of Louis PhiUippe, king of the French ; she 

died Oct. 11, 1850. The king died Dec. 10, 1805. 

llleir: his son Leopold, duke of Brabant, present kinsr, 

born April 9, 1S35 ; married Archduchess Maria of 

Austria, Aug. 22, 1853.] 

BELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on (he right 
bank of the Danube. It was taken from the Greek 
emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in lOSG ; gal- 
lantly defended by John Huniades against the Turks, 
under Mohammed II., July to Sept., 1486, when the 
latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. Bel- 

frade was taken by Sultan Solyman, 1522, and retaken 
y the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again re- 
verted to the Turks in 1090. It was besiegedTn Maj', 
1717, by Prince Eugene. On Aug. 5 of that year, the 
Turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve 
it, and a sanguinary battle was fotight at Peterwara- 
deiu on Aug. 22, in which the Turks lost 2o,()UO men ; 
after this battle Belgrade surrendered. In 1739 it was 
ceded to the Turk*, after its fine fortifications had 
been demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and 
restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 1799. The 
Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. In 
1815 it was pUiced under Prince Milosch, subject to 
Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. On 
June 19, 1S62, the Turkish pacha was dismissed for 
firing on the town during a riot. University estab- 
lished by private munificence, 1863. See Servia. 

BELL, Book, ani> C anhle : in the Romish ceremony 
of excommunication {which sec), the bell is rung, the 
book is closed, and candle extinguished ; the eflect 
being to exclude the excommunicated from the society 
of the faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its 
origin is ascribed to the 8th century. 

BELL-ROCK LIGHT-HOUSE, nearly in front of 
the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great Britain ; it 
is 115 feet high, is bnilt upou a rock that measures 427 
feet in length and 200 feet in breadth, and is about 12 
feet under" watcr.t It was erected in 1800-10; it is 
provided with two bells for hazy weather. 

* This treatv nrose out of the confei'enre held in London on the Bel- 
(rinn quMtiim ; by the decision of wliich the treaty of Nov. 15, 1831, 
W88 nmintjiined, nnd the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of 
fr incs offered by BelKiuui for the territories adjudged to Holland was 
declared inadnnssihle. 

t r.e.ipold married, in May, 1S16, the Princess Charlotte of Wales, 
dauu'hter of the prince ref:ent, afterward George IV. of England; she 
die.l in <hil,ibed,Nov.6, 1NI7. 

X Tpon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of the ancient monastery 
of .^berbrothock succeeded in tix'int; a bell in such a manner that it was 
runir by the impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners of their impend- 
ing danger. Tradition also tells us that tbU apparatus was carried 



BELLAIR, in North America. The town was at- 
tacked by the British forces under Sir Peter Parker, 
who, after an obstinate engagement, were repulsed 
with considerable loss ; their gallant commander was 
killed, Attg. 30, 1814. 

BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of Brittany, 
France, was erected into a duchy in favor of Marshal 
Belleisle iu 1742, in reward of his brilliant military and 
diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken 
by the British forces under Commodore Keppel and 
General Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, Jtme 7, 
1761, but was restored to France iu 1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES, OB Polite Leakning. See 

Academies and Literature. ^ 

BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim the 
hour of the night before ptiblic clocks became general, 
were numerous about 1556. They were to ring a bell 
at night, and cry, "Take care of your fire and candle, 
be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead." 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to 
have been the inventor of them, about 569 B.C. ; to 
him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the pot- 
ter's wheel, anchors for ships, etc. Bellows were not 
used in the furnaces of the Romans. The production 
of the great leviathan bellows of our founderies (sug- 
gested by the diminutive domestic bellows) must have 
been early, but we can not trace the time. See Blov> 
ing Machines. 

BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and 
Romans. The responses of the Dodonseau oracle 
were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. The monu- 
ment of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each 
surmounted by heUs.— Pliny. Jutroduced by Pauliuus, 
bishop of Nola, in Campagna, about 400. First known 
iu France iu 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of 
France, was frightened from the siege of Sens by the 
ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The sec- 
ond excerption of King Egbert commands every priest, 
at the proper hotirs, to sound the bells of his "church. 
Bells were tised in chtirches by order of Pope John IX., 
about 900, as a defense, bi; rinrfing them, against thun- 
der and lightning. First cast iu England by Tuiketel, 
chancellor of England under Edmund I. His success- 
or improved the invention, and caused the first tuna- 
ble set to be put up at Croyland Abbey, 900. — Stoio. 
The celebrated "Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 
1805), has been frequently translated. The celebrated 
bell now hanging in the tower of Independence Hall, 
Philadelphia, and which first announced by its peals 
to the waiting people that the declaration of independ- 
ence was signed, was brought from England iu 1752, 
and recast in Philadelphia on account of a fracture, 
when it probably received its prophetic inscription 
from Levit. xxv., 10, "Proclaim liberty throughout the 
land and to all the inhabitants thereof" It is no lon- 
ger used, having been cracked with being rung iu 
honor of Henry Clay's visit to Philadelphia. 

WeigJil—Tms. Cwt. 

Moscow, 1736 ;* broken, 1737 250 ? 

Another, 1817 110 ? 

Three others 10 to 31 

Novgorod 31 

Olmiitz 17 18 

Vienna, 1711 17 14 

Westminster, 1850,t" Big Ben" 15 Sy, 

Erfurt, 1497 13 15 ' 

Westminster, 1858, " St. Stephen" 13 lO'^ 

Sens 13 0? 

Paris, 1680 12 16 

Montreal, 1847 12 15 

Cologne, 1448 11 3 

Bresiau,1507 11 

GiJrlitz 10 17 

York, 1845 10 15 

Bruges, 1080 10 5 

St. Peter's, Rome 8 

O.xford,lG80 1 12 

Lucerne,1636 7 11 

Halberstadt, 1457 7 10 

Antwerp 7 3 

Brussels 7 1% 

Dautzic,1453 6 1 

Lincoln, 1834 5 S 

away by a Dutchman, who was afterward lost upon the rock, with his 
ship and crew. 

* The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at £66,565. 
Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in as votive offerings. 

t The largest bell in England (named Dig Ben, after Sir Benjamin 
Hall, the then chief Commissioner of Works), cast at Houghton-le- 
.^pring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, under the superintendence of 
^Ir. E. Becket Den'ison and the Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 
i;:)343 14j. 9rf. The composition was S2 parts copper and 7 tin. The 
diameter was 9 fl. 6>< in. ; the height, 7 ft. 10}^ in. The clapper 
weighed 12 cwt. — Rev.'W. Tai/hr. 



BEL 



8-t 



BEN 



Weight— Tons. Cwt. 

St. Paul's, 1716* 5 4 

Ghent 4 18 

Boulogne, new 4 IS 

Exeter,16T5 4 10 ? 

Old Lincoln, 1610 4 S 

Fourth quarter-hell, Westminster, 1857 4 

Baptism op Bells.— They were anointed and bap- 
tized in churches, it is said, from the 10th century. — 
Du Frcsnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dun- 
mow, in Esses, were baptized by the names of St. 
Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, etc., in 
1501._j(Vf i'cr. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, 
was baptized by the name of Duke of Angoulcme, 1S16. 
In Europe, in Roman Catholic states, they baptize bells 
as we do ships, but with religious solemnity. — Ashe. 

Ki>-GiNO OF Bells, in changes of regular peals, is 
almost peculiar to the English, who boast of having 
brought the practice to an "art. There were formerly 
societies of ringers in London. — Holden. A sixth bell 
■was added to the peal of Ave, in the church of St. Mi- 
chael, 1430.— .Stoio. Nell Gwynne left the ringers of 
the bells of St. Martin's - in - the - Fields money for a 
weekly entertainment, 1687, and many others have 
done the same. 

BELMONT (Miss.), Battle of, opposite Columbus, 
fought November 7, 1861. General Grant, command- 
ing the national forces, at lirst obtained a great ad- 
vantage over General Pillow, the Confederate com- 
mander ; but the latter, being re-enforced from Colum- 
bus, compelled Grant to withdraw from the tield. 

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia (S. Asia). 
The capital was taken by the British in the Afghan 
War, in 1839 ; abandoned in 1840 ; taken and held for 
a short time in 1841. 

BEMIS'S heights, first Battle at. Gen. Gates, 
at the head of the Northern American army, in the 
autumn of 1777, established a fortified camp on Be- 
mis's Heights, near Stillwater, where he was attacked 
by the British and Hessians, under Geu. Burgoyne, on 
the 19th of Sept. Night terminated the conflict, and 
both parties claimed the victory. Burgoyne fell back 
to his camp, a few miles above, to wait for expected 
re-enforcemeuts, before renewing the conflict. The 
British force engaged was about 3000, and the Ameri- 
can about 2500. The former lost, in killed, wounded, 
and missing, a little less than 500 ; the latter, 319. 

BEMIS'S HEIGHTS, second Battle at. Despair- 
ing of re-enforcemeuts, his army diinhiishing by deser- 
tions, Burgoyne perceived that he must tight or flee. 
He advanced, and again attacked Gates on the 7th of 
Oct., almost upon the battle-ground of the 19th of 
Sept. They fought severely, and Burgoyne fell back 
to the heights of Saratoga, now Schuylerville. There 
be was compelled to surrender on the 17th of Oct. 
The whole number of troops surrendered was 5791, of 
whom 2412 were Germans, or Hessians, under the Bar- 
on Riedesel ; the remainder were British regulars and 
Canadians. See iiaratoga. 

BENARES, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, 
abounding in temples. It was ceded by the Nabob of 
Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English in 1775. An 
insurrection took place here, which had nearly proved 
fatal to the British interests in Hiudostau, 17S1. The 
rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed iu consequence of it, 
in 1783. Mr. Cherry, Capt. Conway, and others, were 
assassinated at Benares by Vizier Aly, Jan. 14, 1799. 
In June, 1857, Col. Neil succeeded in suppressing at- 
tempts to joiu the Sepoy mutiuy. See India. 

BENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here O'Neill 
totally defeated the English under Monroe, June 5, 
1646. Moore says that it was " the only great victory 
since the days of Brian Boru, achieved by an Irish 
chieftain iu the cause of Ireland." 

BENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East India 
Company made a settlement here, \\'hrcli preserved to 
them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispos- 
sessed them of Bantam, 1682. — Anderson. York Fort 
was erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 1693 
a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the 
town being built on a pestilent morass : among others, 
the governor and council perished. The French, un- 
der Count D'Estaign, destroyed the English settle- 
ment, 1760 Bencodlen was reduced to a residency un- 
der the government of Bengal in 1801, and was ceded 
to the Dutch in 1825, in exchange for their possessions 
in Malacca. See India. 

* The clapper of St. Paul's bell ■we\shs. 180 lbs. ; the diameter of the 
bell is 10 feet, and its thickness 10 inches. The hour strikes upon this 
bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones. See Clocks. 



BENDER (Bessarabia, European Russia), is memo- 
rable as the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden after 
his defeat at Pultowa by the Czar Peter the Great, 
July 8, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded iu 
1711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, in 
Sept., 1770 ; was again taken by Potemkin in 1789, and 
again stormed in 1809. It was restored at the peace of 
Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. 

BENEDICTINES, au order of monks founded by 
St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who introduced the mo- 
nastic life into Western Europe in 5'29, when he found- 
ed the monastery on Monte Casino in Campania, and 
eleven others afterward. His licijula Moaachorwn 
(rule of the monks) soon became the common rule of 
Western monachism. No religious order has been so 
remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note and 
learning as the Benedictine. Among its branches the 
chief were the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and re- 
formed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1116; 
and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux (hence Char- 
ter House), founded by Bruno about 1084. The Bene- 
dictine order was introduced into England by Augus- 
lin in .59(i ; and William I. built au abbey for it on the 
plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 106G. 
See Battle-Abbey. William de Warrenne, earl of War- 
renne, built a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. 
"At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are 
denominated Benedictine dames." — Leigh. Of this 
order it is reckoned that there have been"40 popes, 200 
cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 
4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 
3600 saints. Their founder was canonized. — Baronius. 
The Benedictines have taken little part in politics, but 
have produced many valuable works ; especially the 
congregation of St. Maur, who published the celebra- 
ted I'.lrJ de Verifier les Bates in 1750, and edited many 
ancient authors. 

BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favor), or Fiep. 
Clerical benefices originated in the 12th century, when 
the priesthood began to imitate the feudal lay" system 
of holding lands for performing certain duties ; till 
then the p'riests were supported by alms and oblations 
at mass. In England, vicarages, rectories, perpetual 
curacies, and chaplaincies are termed benefices, in con- 
tradistinction to dignities, bishoprics, etc. A rector is 
entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small part or 
none. 
BENEFIT OF CLERGY. See Clcrgij. 
BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient city 
in South Italy, said to have been founded by Diomedes 
the Greek after the ftill of Troy. Pyrrhus of Macedou, 
during his invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near 
Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near it was erected the tri- 
umphal arch of Trajan, A.D. 114. Benevento was 
formed into a duchy by the Lombards, 571. At a bat- 
tle fought here, Feb. '26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, 
was defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus 
became virtually master of Italy. The castle was built 
1323 ; the town was neai'ly destroyed by an earthquake, 
1688, when the archbishop, afterward Pope Benedict 
XIII., was dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed 
to its subsequent rebuilding agaiu,*1703. It was seized 
by the King of Naples, but restored to the pope on the 
suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de Pori- 
gord, Bonaparte's arch -chancellor, had the title of 
Prince of Benevento conferred upon him. Benevento 
was restored to the pope in 1814. 

BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually Forced 
Loans) appear to have been claimed by the Auglo- 
Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied by Ed- 
ward IV., 1473 ; by Richard III., 1485 (although a stat- 
ute forbidding them was enacted in 1484) ; by Henry 
VII., 1492; and by James I. in 1613, on occasion of the 
marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with the King of 
Bohemia. In 1615, Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 
£5000, and Chief Justice Coke disgraced, for severely 
censuring such modes of raising money. Benevolences 
were declared illegal by the English Bill of Rights, 
Feb., 1689. 

BENGAL, the chief presidency of British India, con- 
taining Calcutta, the capital. It was ruled by govern- 
ors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi till 1340, when 
it became independent. It was added to the Mogul 
empire by Baber about 1529. See India and Calcutta. 
The English fleet permitted to trade to Bengal. . .1534 

They establish a settlement at Hooghly about 1652 

Factories of the French and Danes set up 1664 

Bengal made a distinct agency 1680 

The English settlement removed to Hooghly 1698 

Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in 
the company, by which it gained the sovereign- 
ty of the country Aug. 12,1705 



BEN 



BET 



India Bill; Bcii;ral made the chief presidency ; Sn- 
prenio Coiu-t of Judicature established, June 1(),17T3 

Bii^hop of Calcutta appointed July 21,1h13 

Kailway opened Aug. 15,185-1 

(See Itulia.) 
BENNINGTON, Battle of. This eiigasemeut took 
place at lloosic, New York, tive miles from Bennington, 
in Vermont, but is known as the battle of Bennington. 
It was fougl^t on the IGth of August, 1777, between 
British and German detachments, under Colonels 
Baume and Breyman, of Burgoyne's army, and Gen- 
eral John Stark," at the head of New Hampshire mili- 
tia. The British were defeated, with a loss, in Ivilled, 
wounded, and prisoners of almost a thousand men. 
The Americans had 100 killed and as many wounded. 
Burgoyue sent this expediticm to procure cattle and 
stores. It was a severe blow to him, and led to his 
final defeat. 

BENZOLE, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, 
discovered by Faraday in oils (1S25), and by C. B. 
Mansiield in coal tar (isi'.t), the latter of whom unfor- 
tunately died in consequence of being severely burnt 
while experimenting on it (Feb. 25, 1S55). Benzole 
has become useful in the arts. Chemical research 
has produced trom it aniline {which see), the source of 
the celebrated modern dyes mauve, magenta, etc. 

BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, de- 
scribing events which probably occurred in the middle 
of the 5th century, and supposed to have been written 
subsequent to 5'J7. An edition by Kemble was pub- 
lished in 18;!o. It has been translated by Kemble, 
Thorpe, and Wackerbath. 

BERBICE (British Guiana, S. America), settled by 
the Butch, who surrendered it to the British, April 23, 
179(), and again Sept. 22, 1803. It was finally ceded to 
England in 1814. 

BERESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the French 
main army after its defeat by the Russians, Nov. 25-20, 
1812. The French lost upward of 20,000 men, and their 
retreat was attended by great calamity and suffering. 

BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of the line 
of its counts in 134S, was incorporated witli Juliers. 
Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 1800. The 
principal part is now held by Prussia. 

BERGEN (in Germany), Battle of, between the 
French and allies, the lat'ter defeated, April 13, 175!).— 
(In Holland.) The Allies under the Duke of York were 
defeated by the French, under Gen. Brune, with great 
loss, Sept. 19, 17!)!). In another battle, fought Oct. 2, 
same year, the duke gained the victory over Brune ; 
birt on" the 0th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, 
and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which 
he exchanged his army for 0000 French and Dutch pris- 
oners in England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This place, whose 
works were deemed impregnable, was taken by the 
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. An attempt, 
made by the British under General Sir T. Graham (aft- 
erward Lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by storm, 
was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat 
was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly 
all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March S, 1814. 

BERKELEY' CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was begun 
by Henry I. in llOS, and finished in the next reign. 
Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by the contri- 
vance of his queen Isabella (a princess of France) and 
her paramour Mortimer, earl of March, Sept. 21, 1.^27. 
Mortimer was hanged at the Elms, near Loudon, Nov. 
29, 1330 : and Edward III. confined his mother in her 
own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till 
her death. 

BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province of Bran- 
denburg), was founded by the Margrave Albert, sur- 
namedlhe Bear, about 1103. Its five districts were 
united under one magistracy in 1714; and it was sub- 
sequently made the capital of Prussia. It was taken 
by an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons in 1700; 
but they were obliL'cd l.o retire in a few days. On Oct. 
27, 1800, afier the battle of Jena (( )ct. 14), the French en- 
tered Berlin ; and from this place Napoleon issued the 
famous lierlin decree, or interdict against the com- 
merce of England, Nov. 20. It declared the British 
islands to be in a state of blockade, and ordered all En- 
glishmen found in countries occupied by French troops 
to be treated as prisoners of war. On Nov. .5, 1808, Na- 
poleon entered into a convention with Prussia, by 
which he remitted to Russia the sum due on the war- 
debt, and witlidrew many of his troops to re-enforce 
his armies in Spain. An insurrection commenced here 
iu March, 184S. Berlin was declared in a state of siege, 



Nov., 1S4S. The contimiatiou of this state of siege was 
declared to be illegal without its concurrence by the 
Lower Chamber, April 25, 1849. The railway to "Mag- 
deburg was opened Sept. 10, 1841. The first Constitu- 
ent Assembly was held here on Jime 21, 1842. 

BERMUDAS, oe Someks' Isles, a group in the North 
Atlantic Ocean, discovered by Jofio Bermudas, a Span- 
iard, in 1522 or 1527, but not inhabited until 1009, when 
Sir George Somers was cast away upon them. They 
were settled by a statute 9 James I., 1012. Among th"o 
exiles from England during the Cfvil War was Waller, 
the poet, who wrote, while resident here, a poetical de- 
scription of the islands. There was an awful hurri- 
cane here, Oct. 31, 1780, and another, by which a third 
of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driv- 
en ashore, July 20, 1813. 

BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and vir- 
tu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., many j-ears chair- 
man of committees of Ways and Means in the English 
House of Commons. He died Aug. 20, 1854. The sale 
in March, 1S56, lasted 31 days, and enormous prices 
were given. The total sum realized was £62,080 6s. Sd. 

BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a monas- 
tery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in 962. 
Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, cover- 
ed with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is said, conduct- 
ed the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy (218 
B.C.) ; and it was by the same route, in May, ISOO, that 
Bonaparte led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, 
before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. On 
the summit of Great St. Bernard "is a large commimiiy 
of monks, who entertain travelers in their convent. 

BERNARDINES. a strict order of Cistercian monks, 
established by St. Bernard of Clairvaux about 1115. 
He founded seventy-two monasteries. 

BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, joined 
the Swiss League 1352; the town Berne surrendered to 
the French under General Brune, April 12, 1798. The 
town has bears for its arms, and some of these animals 
are still maintained on funds specially provided for the 
purpose. 

BERRY', an ancient province {Biturigum regis), Cen- 
tral France, held by the Romans since the conquest of 
Gaul by Csesar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the 
Visigoths, from whom it was taken by Clovis in 507. 
It was erected into a duchy by John in 1.360, and was 
not incorporated into the royal domains till 1601 ; since 
then the title of duke has been merely nominal. 

BERSAGLIERI, the sharp-shooters of the Sardinian 
army, first employed about 1848. 

BERSERKER RAGE. The name Berserkers was 
applied to the possessed champions of the ancient 
Scandinavians. These Berserkers at times were seized 
with fits of martial frenzy, during which they could 
perform the most miraculous feats. They broke iron 
with their fists, bit through iron shields, and were in- 
vincible against any assailant. After the fit was over 
reaction followed, and these men were so weak that 
they could be managed by even women or children. 
The Berserker rage appears to have been similar iu its 
manifestation to the demoniacal possessions recorded 
iu the Bible. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town on the 
northeast extremity of Englaud. It has been the the- 
atre of many bloody conquests between the English 
and Scots : and while England and Scotland remained 
two kingdoms, was always claimed by the Scots ns lie- 
longing to them, because it stood on their side of the 
river. It was taken from the Scots and annexed to 
England in 1333 ; and after having been taken and re- 
taken many times, was finally ceded to England iu 
1482. In 1.551 it was made independent of both king- 
doms. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1048, and 
afterward to General Monk in 16.59. Since the union 
of the English and Scottish crowns (James I., 1603), 
the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, 
have been much neglected. 

BESSARABIA, a frontier province of European 
Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being pos- 
sessed by the Goths, Huns, etc., it was conquered by 
the Turks in 1474, and ceded to Russia in 1812. 

BETHLEHEM (Syria) now contains a large convent, 
inclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ; a 
church erected by the Empress Helena in the form of 
a cross, about 325 ; a chapel, called the Chapel of the 
Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in 
which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of 
Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethle- 
hem is much visited by pilgrims.— The Bethlehemite 
monks existed in England in 1257. 



BEY 



86 



BIB 



BEYROUT (the ancient Berytus), a sea-port of Syria, 
colonized from Sidou. It was destroyed by an earth- 
quake, 5C6 ; was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed 
by the Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent 
change of masters, fell into the power of Amurath IV., 
since when it remained with the Ottoman Empire up 
to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha in 1832. The total de- 
feat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turk- 
ish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout 
(the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place 
Oct. 10, 1840. Sir (?. Napier was the English admiral 
engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence of 
the massacres in Syria in May, 1S60. In Nov., 1860, 
above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger of 
starving. See Syria. 

BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, with 
whom a treaty was made April 25, 1774. After fruit- 
less negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the British 
in Dec, 1864, in consequence of injurious treatment of 
an envoy. See India, lSC4r-5. 

BHURTPORE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, was be- 
sieged by the British, Jan. 3, 180.5, and attacked five 
times up to March 21, without success. The fortress 
was taken by General Lake, after a desperate engage- 
ment with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805. 
The defeat of Holkar led to a treaty, by which the 
Ra.jah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of ru- 
pees, and ceded the territories that had been granted 
to him by a former treaty, delivering up his" son as 
hostage, April 17, 1805. On the rajah's death, during 
a revolt against his son, Bhurtpore was taken by 
storm by Lord Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826. See India. 

BIANCIII (Whites), a political party at Florence in 
1300, in fiivor of the Ghibelines, or imperial party, 
headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the Neri (or 
Blacks), headed by Corso de' Donati. The latter ex- 
pelled their opponents, among whom was the poet 
Dante, in 1301. 

BIBERACH (Wurtemberg). Here Moreau twice 
defeated the Austrians— under Latour, Oct. 2, 1796, and 
under Kray, May !>, 1800. 

BIBLE (from the Greek bihlos, a book), the name 
especially given to the Holy Scriptures. The Old 
Testament is said to have been collected and arranged 
by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. The Apocrypha 
are considered as inspired writings by the Roman 
Catholics, but not by the Jews and Protestants. See 
Apocrypha. 



OLD TESTAMENT.* 



Genesis contains the history of the world 

from B.C. 4004-1 6.R5 

Exodus 1635-1490 

Leviticus 1490 

Numbers 1490-1451 

Deuteronomy 14.51 

Job about 1520 

Joshua from 1451-1420 

Judges 1425-1120 

Ruth 1.S22-1312 

1st and 2d Samuel 1171-1017 

1st and 2d Kings 1015- 562 

1st and 2d Chronicles 1004- 536 

Book of Psalms (principally by David) 1063-1015 

Proverbs written about 1000- 700 

Song of Solomon about 1014 

Ecclesiastes about 977 

Jonah about 862 

Joel about 800 

Hosea about 785- 725 

Amos about 787 

Isaiah about 760- 698 

Micah about 750- 710 

Nahum about 713 

Zephauiah about 630 

Jeremiah about 629- 

Lamentations about 588 

Habakkuk about 626 

Daniel from 607- 

Ezekiel 505_ 574 

Obadiah about 5s7 

Ezra about 5,36- 450 

gsther about 521- 495 

Haggai about 520 



5SS 



534 



* The division of the Bible into chapters has been ascribed to Arrh- 
bishop Lanfranc in the llth, and to Archbishop Langton in the 13th 
century ; but T. HartweU Home considers the real author to have been 
Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th century. 
The division into sections was commenced by Rabbi Nathan (author 
of a Concordance) about 1445, and completed by Athras, a Jew, in 
1661. The present division into verses was introduced by the celebrated 
printer, Robert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (1551) and in his 
Latin Bible (1556-7). 



Zechariah about B.C.520- 51S 

Nehemiah about 446- 434 ' 

Malachi about 397 

NEW TESTAMENT. 

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 

B.C. 5-A.D. 33 

Acts of the Apostles A.D. 33-05 

Epistles— 1st and 2d to Thessalonians about 54 

Galatians 58 

1st Corinthians 59 

2d Corinthians 60 

Romans CO 

Of James 60 

1st of Peter GO 

To Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Hebrews, 

Philemon 64 

Titus and 1st to Timothy 05 

2d to Timothy 66 

2d of Peter 06 

Of Jude 66 

1st, 2d, and 3d of John after 90 

Revelation 96 

The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures ex- 
isted at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel : it was 
of very early date, probably of the 4th century after 
Christ, some say about 60 years before Christ. The 
cojiy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 
1100. 

The oldest copy of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek is that in the Vatican, which was written in 
the 4th or 5th century, and published in 15S6. The 
next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to 
the 5th century) in the British Museum, presented 
by the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has 
been printed in England, edited by Woide and Ba- 
ber, 17S6-1S21. — Codex Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, 
ascribed to the 5th century, in the Royal Librar}', 
Paris : published by Tischendorf in 1843. 

The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. 
The complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by 
Soncino in Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament 
(edited by Erasmus) at Rotterdam in 1516. Aldus's 
edition was printed in 1518 ; Stephens's in 1546 ; and 
the tfxttis receptus (or received text) by the Elzevii's 
in 1624. 

TRANSLATIONS. 

The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuagint 
(ivhich see), generally considered to have been made 
by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, 
about 286 or 285 B.C. ; of this many fabulous" ac- 
counts are given. 

Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating 
MSS., commenced his pohjrilot Bible at Cresarea in 
A.D. 231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, 
Symmachus, and Theodotion, all made in or about 
the 2d century after Christ. 

The following are ancient versions : Sijriac, 1st or 2d 
century ; the old Latin version, early in the 2d cen- 
tury, revised by Jerome in 384; who, however, com- 
pleted a new version in 405, calle(i the Vulgate, 
ivhich see; the first edition was printed in 1402; 
Cojjtic, 2d or 3d century ; Ethiojnc; Armenian, 4th or 
5th century ; Sclavonic, 9th century ; and the Mceso- 
Gotliic, by Ulfilas, about 370, a manuscript copy of 
which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at I'psal. The 
Psalms were translated into Saxon by Bishop Ald- 
helm, about 706 ; and the Gospels by Bishop Egbert, 
about 721 ; the whole Bible by Bede, in the 10th cen- 
tury. 

ENGLISH VEEBIONS AND EBITTONS.* 

MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian 
Librarj', Oxford, dated by Usher 1290 

Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and his 
followers) about 1C80 

[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
the whole by Madden and Forshall, 18.50.] 

William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark 
from the Greek, 1524 ; of the whole New Testa- 
ment 1.525 or 1.526 

Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible 1535 

[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of 
every church, " for every man that would to look 
and "read therein."] 

T. Matthews's (fictitious name for John Rogers) 
version (partly by Tyndalet and Coverdale) 1.537 

Cranmer's Great Bible" (Matthews's revised) 1539 

* " T/,e Bible of Every Land," ed. 1860, published by Messrs. Bag- 
sters, London, is full of information respecting ancient and modern 
versions of the Bible. 

t He was strangrled at Antwerp in 1536, at the institrntion of Henry 
VIII. and his council. His last words were, " Lord, open the King of 
Entrland's eyes!" 14 editions of his Testament had then been pub- 
lished. 



BIB 



87 



BIL 



Geneva version (the first with figured verses), 

1540-155" 

Ardibii^hop Parker's, called "The Bishop's Bible" 
(eiu'ht of the fourteen persons employed being 
bi^li()l)s) 15C8 

Kiiiic James's Bible, the present authorized ver- 
sion—translation bet,'an 1(504; published ICll 

Roman Catholic authorized version: New Testa- 
ment, at Kheims,15S2. Old Test., at Douay ..1009-10 

Dr. Benjamin Blayuey's revised edition 1709 

Authorized Jewish Euirlish version 1851-01 



N.TL'St. Bible. 

Flemish A.D.14T7 

Spanish (Va-\ 

lencian) / 

Gorman 1.522 

Enirlish 1.520 

French 1.512 

Swedish , 1526 

Danish 1524 

Dutch 1,500 

Italian 14T1 

Spanish 1543 1.569 

Russian (parts) 1.519 1S22 
Welsh 1561 15S8 



14T8 

1.5.'50 
1585 
1.530 
1541 
1550 



1661 1663 

1686 



N.Test. Bil)!,!. 

Hungarian A.D.1574 15S'J 

Bohemian 1488 

Polish 1551 1561 

Virginian In- 
dians 

Irish .'. 1602 

Georgian 1743 

Portuguese. . 1712 1748 

Manks 1748 

Turkish 1666 

Sanscrit 1808 

Modern Greek. 1633 
Chinese 1814 



176T 
1814 
1822 
1821 
1823 

The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to 
make and print translations of the Bible in all the 
dialects of the world. See Polyglot. 

BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are 
Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 1722-8: Kitto's 
"Cyclopredia of Biblical Literature," 1S48; and Smith's 
" Dictionary of the Bible," 1S60. See Concordances. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and old- 
est societies which have made the dissemination of 
the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object are 
the following: The Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge was foiTued lOOS ; Society for Propagating 
the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society in Scotland 
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; Society for 
Promotinir Religious Knowledge among the Poor, 
17.50 ; Naval and Military Bible Society, ifSO ; Sunday- 
school Society, 1785 ; French Bible Society, 1702 ; Brit- 
ish and Foreign Bible Society, 1S04;* Hibernian Bible 
Society, 1806 : the Bible Sociky of Philadelphia. 1808 ; 
City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; the 
American Bible Society, 1S16; the American and For- 
eign Bible Society, 1S8"7 ; the American Bible Union, 
1S50. By means of these various societies the Bible is 
now printed in 100 languages, and since the beginning 
of the century nearly 50 millions copies of the Scrip- 
tures have been distributed. A bull from the Pope 
against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 

BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the Poor), con- 
sisting of engravings illustrating Scripture History, 
with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed 
early in the 15th century, was compiled by Bonaveu- 
tura, general of the Franciscans, abotrt 1200. A fac- 
simile was published by J. Russell Smith in 1859. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. Gesner's 
"Bibliotheca Universale" appeared in 1545, and De 
Bure's "Bibliographie Instructive" in 1763. The fol- 
lowing works on this subject are highly esteemed : 
Peignot, iSlanuel, 18-23: Home, Introduction to the 
Study of Bibliography, 1814 ; Scriptural, Orme, Biblio- 
theca Biblica, 1824 ; Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliograph- 
ica, 1854-S; Classical, the w'orks of Fabricius, Clarke, 
and Dibdin : E?ifilish, Watts's Bibliotheca Britaunicii, 
1824; Lowndes, Manual,iS34 (new edition bv Bohn, 
1857-64): FreoW), Querard, 1828-04 ; Brunet's" Manuel 
du Libraire (first published in 1810) is exceedingly 
valuable: the .5th edition, 1862-5 : British CataloL'ues, 
by Sani))son Low, 1S3.5-02. For the EuLtlish lanu'uaLre, 
Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, Philadelphia, is 
most valuable. 

BIBLIOMANCY, a method of consulting the future 
by means of the first words that meet the ej-e upon 
the opening of some book, usually the Bible. Tlie 
Sortes Vir<riliana> — in which Virgil was used for bibli- 
omancy— jirevaiU'd to a considerable extent among the 
ancients, and have not unfrequently been resorted to 
in modern times. Charles ]. of England, long before 
his disagreement with Parliament, is said to have re- 
sorted to this custom in a company of ladies and court- 
iers, and to have placed his finger upon the following 
passage: 

"Tot populis terrisque stiperbHm 
Rcfrnatorem Asia; ! Jacet jngenB litore trunous, 
"i caput, et Bine nomine corpus." 



* At the cnrt of 1851) this society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the 
Hil.le or parts of it : in May, 18B3, the number had risen to 43,1144,334. 
In IS57 tney publislied a catalogue of tlieir library, which contains a 
lari;e number of remarltable editions of the Bible. 



BIBLIOMANIA (or book madness) very much pre- 
vailed in isn, when Dr. Dibdin's work with this title 
was published. See Boccaccio.. 

BIDASSOA. The allied army under Lord WelliuT- 
ton, having driven the French from Spain, efi'ected the 
passage of this river, Oct. 8, 1813, and entered France. 

BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty party 
with an infamous mark. In England the punishment 
of this ofleuse, formerly, was death. The first act re- 
specting it was passed 5 Edw. I., 12T6.— r?«e»-'s Stat- 
utes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 
1 James I., 1603. Subjected to the same punishments 
as grand or petit larceny, 35 Geo. III., 1794. Now pun- 
ished, according to circumstances, by imprisonment or 
transportation ; in the United States by imprisonment. 

BIG BETHEL (Va.), Battle op. Fought on the 10th 
of June,lS61. The battle occurred about 12 miles south 
of Yorktown. General Pierce, with a few regiments 
of national troops, attacked General Magruder, who 
held an intrenched position with over 2000 Confeder- 
ates, and, after a partial success, ivas repulsed, losin"- 
about 40 men. Major Theodore Winthrop and Lieu- 
tenant John T. Greble were killed. 

BILBOA (N.E. Spain) was taken by the French in 
1795. This place, which had been invested by the Carl- 
ists under Villareal, and was in considerable danger, 
was delivered by the defeat of the besiegers by Espar- 
tero, assisted by British naval co-operation, Dec. 24, 
1830. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph next day. 

BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of tendering 
to a judge upon a trial between parries a bill of excep- 
tions to his charge, his definition of the law, or to rem- 
edy other errors of the court, was provided by the 2d 
statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I., 1284. Such bills 
are tendered to this day in American as well as Brit- 
ish courts. 

BILL OP Rights, etc. See Rights. 

BILLIARDS. The French ascribe their invention to 
Henrique Devigne, an artist in the reign of Charles 
IX., about 1571. Slate billiard tables we're introduced 
in England in 1827. 

BILLINGSGATE, the celebrated market-place for 
■fish in London, is said to have derived its name from 
Beliuus Magnus, a British prince, the father of King 
Lud, 400 B.C., but Stow thinks from a former owner. 
—Mortimer. It was the old port of London, and the 
customs were paid here under Ethelred II., A.D. 979. 
— Stoic. Billingsgate was made a perfect free market, 
1609. — Chamberlain. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews 
as a means of removing their property from nations 

where they were persecuted, 1100 A ndermn. Bills 

are said to have been used in England, 1307. The only 
legal mode of sending money from England, 4 Richard 
II., 1881. Hegulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782 ; duty 
advanced, 1797 ; again, June, 1801 ; and since. It was 
made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. 
In 1825, the year of disastrous speculaticms in bubbles, 
it was computed that there were 400 millions of pounds 
sterling represented by bills of exchange and promis- 
sory notes. The present amount is not supposed to 
exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills 
of exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV.7182S. 
An act regulating bills of exchange passed 3 Vict., 
Jul}', 1839. Great alterations were made in the law on 
the subject by 17 & 18 Vict., c. S3 (1854), and 18 & 19 
Vict., c. 67 (1855). For the various laws and regula- 
tions in force in the United States, see Harper's Cyclo- 
pedia of Commerce, p. 167 et seq. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY fob London. These bills 
were first compiled by order of Cromwell about 1538, 
30 Henry VIIL, but in a more formal and recognized 
manner in 1003, after the great plague of that year. 
No complete series of them has been preserved. They 
are now superseded by the weekly returns of the regis- 
trar geueral. 



Christcninffs. Burials. 

1780 16,634. 20,507 

1790 18,980 18,038 

ISOO 19,176 23,068 

1810 19,930 19,892 



Chriateninfrs. Burials. 

1820 26,1.58. 19,343 

1830 27, 028 23,.524 

1840 .80,387 26,774 

1850 39,973 36,94T 



IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Births. Deaths. 

1840 .502,3('3 356,6.34 

1845 .543,.521 349,366 

1849 578,1.59 440,889 

1853 612,.891 421,097 

18.56 657^4.53 390,.506 

1868 655,481 449,650 



Birtl;s. Deaths. 

18.59 689,881 441,790 

1860 684,048 422,721 

1861 696.406. ....436,114 

1862 712,684 436,573 

1863 729,399 47.5.582 

1804 739,763 495,520 



BIN 



88 



BIS 



IN LONDON AND 6TTBtrEBS. 

Births. Deaths. 

1S54 84,684 73,69T 

1856 86,833 5T,786 

1858 {Females, 43,400) ..88,620 {Females, 31,319) ..63,882 

1859 ( " 45,367).. 92,556 ( " 30,166) . .61,617 

1862 97,114 66,950 

1864 102,187 77,723 

BINOMIAL KOOT, in Algebra, composed of only 
two parts connected with the sigus plus or ininus; a 
term first nsed by Kecorda, about 1550, when he pub- 
lished his Algebra. The celebrated binomial theorem 
of Newton was first mentioned in 1688. — Hutton. 

BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and graiiho, 
I write), defined as history teaching by example. The 
book of Oenesis contains the biography of the patri- 
archs, and the Gospels that of Christ. Plutarch wrote 
the Lives of Illustrious Men; Cornelius Nepos, Lives 
of Military Commanders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the 
Twelve Cfesars (all three in the first century after 
Christ) ; Diogenes Lai.-rtins, Lives of the Philosophers 
(about 205).— Bosweirs Life of -Johnson (published in 
1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 

BIOLOGY, a name given to the science of life and 
living things, by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his work 
on Physiology, published 1S02-22. Biology includes 
zoology, anthropology, and ethnology, lohich sec. 

BIRCH-TREE. The black {Betula nirira), brought 
from North America, 1730. The birch-tree known" as 
the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew Gardens, En- 
gland, by Mr. James Gordon, from North America, 
1762. The tree known as the Birch is now largely cul- 
tivated in all the countries of Europe.— Hardy's An- 
nals. 

BIRDS were divided by Linnreas into six orders 
(1735) ; by Blumenbach, into eight (1805) ; and by Cu- 
vier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works on 
birds are those published by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they 
are to consist of about 31 folio volumes of colored 
plates, etc. Each set bound will cost about £500. Au- 
dubon's Birds, with colored plates, are also excellent 
and costly. 

BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a prosperous modern 
town on the Mersey, immediately opposite to Liver- 
pool. The great dock here was projected by Mr. John 
Laird, constructed by Mr. Rendell, and opened in Aug., 
1847, by Lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made 
a Parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected 
first representative. Population.in 1831, 200 ; in 1861, 
51,649. See Wrecks, 1852. 

BIRMAN EMPIRE, oe Empire of Ava. See Bur- 
mese Emx>ire and India. 

BIRMINGHAM, formerly Bromwicham and Brum- 
megem (Warwickshire), existed in the reign of Alfred, 
872 ; and belonged to the Bermengehams, at Domes- 
day survey, 1086. There were "many smythes" here 
in the time of Henry VIII. {Lclaml), but its great im- 
portance commenced in the reign of William III. It 
has been styled " the toyshop of Europe." 

BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in 
England, viz., birth of a duke, £80 ; of a common per- 
son, 2s., 7 Will. III., 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The iu- 
stances of four children at a birth are numerous ; but 
it is recorded that a woman of Konigsberg had five 
children at a birth, Sept. 3, 1784, and that the wife of 
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford Market, Lon- 
don, had also five children at a birth, in Oct., 1800. 
The queen usually presents a small sum of money to a 
poor woman giving birth to three or more children at 
one time. 

BISHOP (Greek epiaeoims, overseer), a name "-iven 
by the Athenians to those who had the inspection of 
the city. The Jews and Romans had also like ofticers 
The bishop has the government of Church affairs in a 
certain district. St. Peter, styled the first Bishop of 
Rome, was martyred 0.5. The episcopate became an 
object of contention about 144. The title of pope was 
anciently assumed by all bishops, and was exclusively 
claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 

BISHOPS IN Engt.ant)* were coeval with the intro- 
duction of Christianity. The see of London is said to 
have been founded by Lucius, king of Britain, 179. In 
Great Britain bishops are only of the Established 
Church, and they have seats in the House of Lords, and 
a voi ce in its deliberations. In the United States bish- 

* Bishops have the titles of Lord and Riqht Rev. Father in Ond. The 
Archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of all dukes, have 
the title of Grace. The Bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester 
nave precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority 
of consecration. 



ops are of various religious denominations, but have . 

no political rank. 

Bishops made barons 1072 

The Conge (rjiiire of the king to choose a bishop 
originated in an arrangement of King John. 

Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 
25 Henry VIII 1534 

Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Henry VIII., 1540 

Seven were deprived for being married 1554 

Several suffered martyrdom under Ciueeu Mary. 
See Cranmer 1555-6 

Bishops excluded from voting in the House of 
Peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles 1 1640 

Several committed for protesting against the legal- 
ity of all acts of Parliament passed while they 
remained deprived of their votes Dec. 28,1641 

The order of archbishops and bishops abolished 
by the Parliament Oct. 9,104C 

Bishops regain their seats Nov., 1001 

Seven sent to the Tower for not reading the king's 
declaration for liberty of conscience (intended 
to bring the Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical 
and civil power), June 8, and tried and acquit- 
ted June 29-30,1683 

The Archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
Norwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- 
ing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1089 ; 
deprived 1690 



ENGLISU J5I8UOPEI08. 



Sees. Founded. 

London (a&^jc.) (?) 179 

York {abpc.) 4th cent. 

Sodor and Man. ..4th cent. 

Llandaft" 5th cent. 

St. David's 5th cent. 

Baugor about 516 

St. Asaph about 560 

Canterbury 598 

London {see above) 609 

Rochester 604 

East Anglia {afterward 

Norwich, 1091) 630 

Lindisfarue, or Holy 
Island {afterw'd Dur- 
ham, 995) 634 

West Saxons {afterio'd 

Winchester, 705) .... 635 
Mercia {afterio'd Lich- 
field, 669) 656 

Hereford 676 



Founded. 
680 



705 



909 



Sees. 

Worcester . . , 
Lindisse {afterward 

Lincoln, 1067) 

Sherborne {afterward 

Salisbury, 1042) 

Cornwall " (afterward 

Devonshire, after- 

ivard Exeter, 1050). 

Wells " 

Bath 1088 

Elv 1108 

Carlisle 1132 

Peterborough 1541 

Gloucester* " 

Bristol* 1542 

Chester " 

Oxford " 

Ripon 1836 

Manchester 1847 



BISHOPS IN Ireland are said to have been conse- 
crated in the 2d century. 

Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
bishoprics in Ireland made, by Cardinal Paparo, 

legate from Pope Eugene III 11.51 

Several prelates deprived by Queen Mary. l.'5.54 

Bishop Athertou suflered death ignominously 1040 

Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to 

William and Mary 1091 

Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the num- 
ber of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37, 

passed Aug. 14,1833 

[By this statute, of the four bishoprics of j^rmagh, 
Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be 
abolished on the decease of the then arch-prelates, 
which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that 
eight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they 
became void, be henceforth united to other sees, 
which was accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish 
Church establishment at present consists of two 
archbishops and ten bishops.] 

BISHOPS IN Scotland were constituted in the 4th 
century. Episcopacy was abolished in 1038, but re- 
stored by Charles II., 1661, which caused an insurrec- 
tion. Episcopacy was again abolished in Scotland in 
16S0.t 

BISHOPS, Colonial. The first was Samuel Sea- 
bury, consecrated Bishop of Connecticut by four non- 
juring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. 
The Bishops of New York and Pennsylvania were con- 
secrated in London by the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
Feb. 4, 1787, and the Bishop of Virginia in 1790. The 

* The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united in 185G. 

+ Bishop Rose connected the established Episcopal Church of Scot- 
land with that form of it which is now merely tolerated, he having 
been Bishop of Edinburgfrom 16S7 till 1720, when, on his death. Dr. Ful- 
larton became the first post-revolution bishop of that see. Fife (now 
St. Andrew's, so-called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of Dunkeld (re- 
instituted in 1727) and that of Dunblane (reinstituted in 17M1). Riss 
(of uncertain date) was united to Moray (reinstituted in 1737) in 1838. 
Argj'U and the Isles never existed independently until 1S47, having been 
conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone," previously to that year, 
Galloway has been added to the see of Glasgow. 



BIS 



89 



BLA 



first Roman Catholic bishop of the United States was 
Dr. Carroll, of Miirylaud, in 1TS9. By 15 & IG Vict, c. 
52, and 10 & 17 Vict., c. 4'.), the colonial bishojis may 

Eerform all episcopal functions iutlie United lviuy;doin, 
ut have no jurisdiction. 

COLONIAL lilSHOPRlCS. 

Nova Scotia . ITST i Rupert's Land lS-19 

Quebec 1793 j Victoria " 

Calcutta 1814 ! Sierra Leone 1852 

Barlwdoes 1SJ4 I Graham's Town 1853 



Jamaica . 



Natal . 



Madras 18.05 Mauritius 1854 



Labuan 1855 

Christchurch 18.56 

Perth " 

Wellington 185S 

Nelson " 

Brisbane 1859 

British Columbia " 

Goulburn '• 

St. Helena " 

Waiapu " 

Melanesian Lslande.. 18G0 
Kingston, Canada . . . 18G1 
Ontario, " ... " 

Nassau, Bahamas. 

Central Africa 

Grafton, Australia. 
Niger Territory. 1SG4 



1863 



Australia 18SG 

Montreal " 

Bombay 1S,'!7 

Newfoundland 1839 

Toronto '' 

Gibraltar 1841 

New Zealand " 

Antigua 1842 

Guiaua " 

Ilurcm " 

Tasmania " 

Columbo 1845 

Fredcricton " 

Adelaide 1847 

Capetown " 

Melbourne " 

Newcastle " 

Sydney, Australia ... " 

BISMUTH was recognized as a distinct metal by 
Agricola in 15-29. It is very fusible and brittle, and of 
a yellowish-white color. 

BISSEXTILE. See Calendar and Leap Vear. 

BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, previously 
called Bebricia, is said to have been invaded by the 
Thracians under Bithynus, son of Jupiter, who gave 
it the name of Bithynia. It was subject successively 
to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. 
Most of the cities were built by Grecian colonists. 

Dydalsus revolted and reigned about fi.C. 430-440 

Botyras, his sou, succeeds .■ 37s 

Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the 

Greeks , 328 

Zipoetas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus 326 

He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
Nicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls 

into Asia) 278 

He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia 264 

Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns 243 

Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at 
a feast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is 
himself put to death, and his son Prusias I. made 

king, about 228 

Prusias defeats the Gatils, and takes cities 223 

Prusias allies with Philip of Macedou, and marries 

Apamea, his daughter 208 

He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugi- 
tive 187 

Who poisons himself to escape betrayal to the 

Romans 183 

Prusias II. succeeds ISO 

Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns.. 149 

Nic(miedes III., surnamed Philopater 91 

Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus 88 

Kestored by the Romans 84 

Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans 74 

Pliny the vniniLrer^ proconsul A.D. 103 

The OLThusian Tartars settle in Bithynia 1231 

The Othnian Turks take Prusa, the capital (and 
make it the seat of their empire till they possess 
Constantinople) 1327 

BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the Span- 
iards defeatetl the Ciermans on May 26,1730. and event- 
ually acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies for Don 
Carlos. 

BLACK BOOK* (Liber Xiger), a book kept in the 
British Exchequer, which received the orders of that 
court. It was published by Ilearn in 1728. 

BLACKBURN, Lancashire, England, so called in I 
Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called 
Blackburn check, carried on in 16.50, was superseded 
by Blackburn grays. In 17G7, James Hnrgreaves, of 
this town, invented the spinnintr-jeiniy, for which he ' 
was eventually expelled from the comity. About 1810 
or 1812, the townspeople availed themselves of his dis- 

* A hook was kept in the Eiiglisli mnnnsteries wlierein iletiiils ol' the ' 
acnndnlous enormities prarlired in reliirions Imuses were entered lor 
the inspertion of visitors, nnrler Henry VIII., IMS, in order to hhirken 
them and hasten tlieir dissolution : hence imssibly the phrase, " I'll set 1 
>'ou down in the black book." 1 



coveries, and engaged largely in the cotton manufac- 
ture, now their staple trade. 

BLACK DEATH. See Plagues, 1340. 

BLACK FRIARS. See Dominican. 

BLACKPRIARS BRIDGE, London. The first stone 
was laid Oct. 31, 1760, and it was completed by Mvlne 
in 1770. It was the first work of the kind executc'd in 
England, in which arches, ajiproachiug to the form of 
an ellipsis, were sulistituted for semicircles. It was 
repaired m 1834, ami in 1S37-40. Since 1850 the bridge 
gradually sank. The old bridge was pulled down, 
and a new temporary one opened for use in 1864. The 
foundation stone of the new bridge (to be erected ac- 
cording to a design by Mr. J. Cubitt) was laid by the 
lord mayor. Hale, July 20, 1SG.5. The first railway train 
(London, Chatham, and Dover) entered the city of Lon- 
don over the new railway bridge, Blackfriars, Oct. 6, 

BLACK HAWK WAR. In the spring of 1832, Black 
Hawk, a fiery Sac chief, at the head of portions of In- 
dian tribes living within the present State of Wiscon- 
sin, commenced warfare upon the frontier settlers of 
Illinois. After several skirmishes with United States 
troops and Illinois militia and volnnteers, under Gen- 
eral Atkinson, Black Hawk was captured, and the In- 
dians were driven beyond the Mississippi River. The 
war continued from the middle of May until the sec- 
ond of August, when, in a battle at the junctions of 
the Bad Axe River with the Mississippi, in a general 
battle between 400 regulars and 900 volnnteers, and 
500 Indians, Black Hawk was utterly defeated, and the 
war ended. Only 22 white people were killed and 40 
Avmiuded during the summer. The Indians lost iu 
killed 2G3 warriors and 40 women. For list of en- 
gagements, see Battles. 

BLACKHEATH, near London. Here Wat Tyler 
and his followers assembled, June, 1381 : and here also 
Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, June 
1,1450. See T/iler and Cade. Battle of Blackheath, in 
which the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flan- 
nock's insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cav- 
ern, on the ascent to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade, 
and the haunt of ban'ditti iu the time of Cromwell, 
was rediscovered in 1780. . 

BLACK HOLE. See Calcutta. . 
BLACK LEAD. See GraiMle. 

BLACK LETTER, employed in the first printed 
books iu the middle of the l&th centuiy. The first 
printing types were Gothic, but they were modified 
into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Nat- 
ural History being then printed in the new characters. 

BLACK MAIL, a compulsory payment made in 
parts of Scotland by the Lowlanders to the Highland- 
ers for the protection of their cattle, existed till with- 
in a few mouths of the outbreak of the Rebellion, 1745. 
It rendered agricultural improvement almost impos- 
sible. 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, April 6, 1351, 
"when the hailstones are said to have killed both 
men and horses in the army of King Edward III. in 
France."— i>a? to/. "This was a memorable Easter 
Monday, which in the 34th of Edward III. happened 
to be full dark of mist and hail, and so cold that many 
men died on their horses' backs with the cold," 1351. 
—Stou'. In Ireland, Black Monday was the day on 
which a number of the English were slaughtered at a 
village near Dublin, in 1209. 

BLACK ROCK. The vicinity of Black Rock, a 
short distance below Bufl'alo, was the scene of stirring 
events during the war of 1812-15. An American ex- 
pedition oppljsite that place destroyed the enemy's 
boats and batteries on the 2Sth of Nov., 1S12. On the 
11th of July, 1813, General Peter B. Porter, with a con- 
siderable force, defended it against a British force 340 
strong under Lieut. Colonel Bisshopp. The Ameri- 
cans lost 9 men, the British 23. On the SOth of Dec, 
1813, Colonel Hall, of New Y^ork, was at Black Rock 
with 1200 militia. They were attacked on that day 
by a British and Indian force 1000 strong. The Amer- 
icans had .50 killed and 52 wounded ; the British, 25 
killed and 50 wounded. Again, on the 3d of August, 
1200 British troops were repulsed in this vicinity by 
a rifle corps of 240 men, under Major Lodowick. The 
Americans lost 2 killed and 8 wounded. The British 
lost .50. 

BLACKSTOCKS, Battle at. On the 20th of Nov., 
1780, Americans under General Sumter, and British 
cavalry under Colonel Tarleton, had an engagement 
at Blackstock's plantation, on the Tyer River, Union" 



BLA 



90 



BLO 



District, S. C. After a sharp engagement, Tarleton 
fled, leaving nearly 200 men dead or wounded upon 
the lield. Sumter lost only 3 killed and 5 wounded. 

BLACK SEA, the Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the 
ancient^!), a large internal sea between the S.W. prov- 
inces of Russia and Asia Minor, connected with the 
Sea of Azof by the Straits of Yenikale, and with the 
Sea of Marmora by the Channel of Constantinople. 
This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Ital- 
ians till it was closed to all nations by the Turks after 
the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Russians ob- 
tained admission by the treaty of Kainardji in 1774. 
In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other 
traders, since which time the Russians gradually ob- 
tained the preponderauce. It was entered by the 
British and French fleets, Jan. 3, 1S54, at the requi- 
sition of the Porte, after the destruction of the Turk- 
ish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, Nov. 30, 1S53. A 
dreadful storm in this sea raged from Nov. 13 to 10, 
1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and 
valuable stores for the allied armies. See Russo-Tio-k- 
ish War. By the treaty of 1S56 the Black Sea was 
opened to the commerce of all nations. 

BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the loyal 
clans (Campbells, Monros, etc.) employed to watch 
the Highlands from about 1725 to 1730, when they 
were formed into the celebrated 42d regiment, which 
was formally enrolled "The Royal Highland Black 
Watch" in 1S81. Their removal probably facilitated 
the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark tartans, and 
hence were called Lkwk Watch. 

BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, August 14, 
159S, when the Irish chief O'Neal defeated the English 
under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement VIII. sent 
O'Neal a consecrated plume, and granted to his fol- 
lowers the same indulgence as to Cnisaders. 

BLADENSBURG, Battle of, in Maryland, 4 miles 
from the City of Washington, was fought on the '24th 
of Aug., 1814, between the Americans under General 
W^inder, and the British under General Ross, who 
was advancing upon Washington to destroy it. The 
Americans were defeated with a loss of 30 killed, 40 
wounded, and 120 taken prisoners. See Washington. 

BLANK VERSE. See Verse. 

BLANK ETEERS. A number of operatives who on 
March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter's field, near Manches- 
ter, England, many of them having blankets, rugs, or 
great -coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. 
This was termed the Blanket meeting. They pro- 
ceeded to march toward London, but were dispersed 
by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was 
to commence a general insurrection. See Derhy. 
Eventually the ringleaders had an interview with the 
cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between 
the working classes and the governmeut ensued. 

BLANIvETS are said to have been first made at 
Bristol by T. Blanket, about 1705. 

BLASPHEMY was punished with death by the law 
of Moses {Leo. xxiv., 1491 B.C.); and by the code of 
Justinian, A.D. 520. It is punishable by the civil and 
canon law of England, regulated by 60 Geo. III., c. 8 
(1819). In Scotland the blasphemer's tongue was cut 
out; he was punished with tine and imprisonment by 
law, 1006-7. Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and con- 
victed in Loudon of blasphemy, March 6, 1812. Robert 
Taylor, a Protestant clergyman, was tried twice for 
the same crime. He was sentenced to two years' im- 
prisonment, and largely fined, July, 1S31. "in Dec, 
1840, two publishers of blasphemous \vritings were 
convicted. In the United States blasphemy is a crim- 
inal ofl'ense ; but few of the states attis a penalty to 
its commission, and trials for blasphemy have been 
very rare. 

BLAZONRY. Bearing coats of arms was intro- 
duced and became hereditary in France and England 
about 1102, owing to the knights painting their'ban- 
uers with difterent figures, thereby to distinguish them 
in the Crusades. — Dwjdale. 

BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, India, 
and Gaul. — iiin;/. An improved chemical system was 
adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England 
and Scotland in 1763. There are large bleach-fields in 
Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in the vale 
of the Leven, iu Dumbarton. The application of the 
gas chlorine to bleaching is due to Berthollet about 
1785. Its combination with lime (as chloride of lime) 
was devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took 
out a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm 
it is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure 
published an elaborate series of experiments on this 



substance. In 1860 bleaching and dyeing works were 
placed under the regulations of the Factories' Act. 

BLENHEIM, or Blindheim, in Bavaria, the site of 
a battle fought Aug. 2, (New Style, 13), 1704, between 
the English and Confederates, commanded by the 
Dulie of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, 
under Marshal Tallard and the Elector of Bavaria. 
The latter were defeated, with the loss of 27,000 killed 
and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). Bavaria be- 
came the prize of the conquerors. The British nation 
gave Marlborough the honor of Woodstock and hun- 
dred of Wottou, and erected for him the house of 
Blenheim.* 

BLIND. The first public school for the blind was 
established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The 
first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, 
in Edinburg, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. 
Printing in raised or embossed characters for the use 
of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 17S6. The 
whole Bible was printed at Glasgow iu raised Roman 
characters about 184S. A sixpenny magazine for the 
blind, edited by the Rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so emi- 
nent for his exertions on behalf of these sufterers, was 
published iu 1855-6. There is hardly any department 
of human knowledge in whicli blind persons have not 
obtained distinction. t Laura Bridgman, born in 1829, 
became dumb and blind two years after ; she was so 
well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, IT. S., as to become 
an able instructor of blind and dtimb persons. By the 
census of 1851 there were in Great Britain 21,487 blind 
persons: 11,273 males; 10,214 females; about one blind 
in 975. Some of the most important improvements iu 
the education of the blind have been made in the 
ITnited States. There are asylums for the blind iu 
almost every state. The number of blind persons iu 
the United States iu 1860 was 12,648, being one iu every 
2486. 

BLINDING, by consuming the eye-balls with lime 
or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted an- 
ciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the 
Middle Ages the penalty was frequently changed from 
total blindness to a diminution of sight. A whole 
army was deprived of their eyes by Basil in the 11th 
century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern em- 
perors had their eyes torn from their heads. 

BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (400-35T B.C.), 
made, it is said, of cantharides, which see. 

BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports to all 
commerce ; a practice introduced by the Dutch about 
15S4. The principle recognized by the European pow- 
ers is that every blockacle, in order to be binding, 
must be efl'ective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great 
Britain, 1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 
1864 ; the Gulf of Finland by the Allies, 1S.'54 ; and the 
ports of the Southern States of North America by 
President Lincoln, April 19, 1S61. See Orders in Coun- 
cil, and Berlin. The naval force of the ITnited States 
then consisted of 90 vessels, of which only 42 were in 
commission, these latter mounting between 500 and 
600 guns. The Home Squadron consisted of 12 vessels. 
The institution of the blockade was a formal recogni- 
tion of the belligerent rights of the Confederates. A 
large number of vessels succeeded iu running the 
blockade during the war ; 1143 were captured by block- 
ading squadrons, valued at $24,500,000 ; and 355 de- 
stroyed, valued at $7,000,000. 

BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through the 
lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish i)hy- 
sician, iu 1553. Csesalpinus published an account of 
the general circulation, of which he had s<mie confused 
ideas, improved afterward by experiments, 1509. Paul 
of Venice, or Father Paolo (real name Peter Sarj)i), 
discovered the valves which serve for the circulation ; 
but the honor of the positive discovery of the circula- 
tion belongs to William Harvey, between 1619 and 
le^S.—Freincl. 
Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. ; to 

the Jews, Lev. xvii., etc. ; and to the Gentile converts 

by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, A.D. 52, 

Acts XV. 
Blood-dkinking was anciently tried to give vigor to 

the system. Louis XL, in his last illness, drank the 



* On Feb. 5, 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which destroyed the 
"Titian Gallery" and the pictures; the latter, a present from Victor 
Ama<ieus, king of Sardinia, to John, the preat duke of Marlboroufrh. 

+ .Tames Holman, the " blind traveler" (born 1786, died 1857), visit- 
ed almost every place of note in the world. His travels were put)liRhed 
in 1S'J5. In April, 1858, a blind clerijyman, Rev. J. Sparrow, was elect- 
ed chaplain to the Mercer's Company, London, and read the service, 
etc., from embossed books. Viscount Cranbourne (blind) was the 
author of many interesting historical essays. He died in .June, IfifiS. 
On July l.'i, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of political econ- 
omy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for Brighton. 



BLO 91 



BOH 



warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring 
his decayed strength, 14S3. — Ilinanlt. 
lu the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the de- 
clining vigor of the aged might he repaired by 
Tn.vNSFcsiNO into their veins the blood of young 
persons. It was counti'nanced in France by the 
physicians about U'iC<^, ami ] r^vaili'd for many years, 
till the most fatal efl'ecls lu.ving ensued, it was sup- 
pressed by an edict. It was attempted again m 
France in 171i7, and more recently there, in a few 
cases, with success ; and in England (but the in- 
stances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Journ. "An En- 
glish pliysician (Louver, or Lower) practiced iu this 
way : he died in KV.il." — Freind. 
BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded offi- 
cer of Oliver Cromwell's household, with his confeder- 
ates, seized the Duke of Ormoud in his coach, and had 
got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he 
was rescued by his friends, Dec. 4, 1G70. Blood after- 
ward, in the disguise of a clergyman, attempted to 
steal the regal crown from the jewcl-offire in the Tow- 
er, May 9, 1071 ; yet, uotwithstaiuling these and other 
ofl'ensos, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension 
of X5U0 per annum settled on him by Charles II., 1671. 
He died iu IGSd, in prison, for a libel ou the Duke of 
Buckingham. 

" BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in the west 
of England, in Autr., 10S5, after the defeat of the Duke 
of Monmouth iu the battle of Sedgmore. Upward of 
300 persons were executed after short trials ; very 
many were whipped, imprisoned, and lined ; and near- 
ly 1000 were sent as slaves to the American planta- 
tions. 

BLOOMER COSTUME. See a note to article Dress. 

BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied to an 
influential political party in the reign of George III., 
in consequence of the then Duke of Bedford, the chief, 
being the owner of Bloomsbury Square, etc. The 
Marquess of Stafford, the last survivor, died Oct. 20, 
1S03. 

BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), Battle or, Sept. 23, 
1459, in whicli the Earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists 
defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader. Lord Audley, 
was slain, with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross 
commemorates this conflict. 

BLOWING MACHINES. The large cylinders used 
in blowing machines were erected by I^ir. Smeaton at 
the Carroll iron works, 1700. One equal to the supply 
of air for forty forge flres was erected at the king's 
dock-yard, Wdolwich. The hot-air blast, a most im- 
portant improvement, was invented by Mr. James B. 
Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented iu "lS28. He diecl 
Jan. IS, 1S05. It causes great economy of fuel. 

_ BLOW-PIPE. The origin is unkno^vn. An Egyi> 
tian using a blow-pipe is among the paintings onthe 
tombs at Thebes. It was employed iu mineralogy by 
Andrew von Swab, a Swede, about 17.S3, and improved 
by Wollaston and others. In 1S02, Professor Robert 
Hare, of Philadelphia, increased the action of the 
blow-pijje by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. 
By the agencv of Newman's improved blow-pipes in 
1816, Dr. E. D.'Clarke fused the earthy, alkalies, metals, 
etc. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattner 
and JIuspratt, 1854. 

BLUE was the favorite color of the Scotch Cove- 
nanters iu the 10th century. Blue and orange or yel- 
low became the Whig colors after the Revolution in 
loss, and were adopted on the cover of the Whig pe- 
riodical, the "Edinburg Review," first published in 
1802. The Prussian blue dye was discovered by Dies- 
bach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine blues are now obtained 
from coal-tar, 1S04. See .l^rtmc.—BLDic-coAT Schools, 
so called in reference to the costume of the children. 
The Blue-coat school iu Newgate Street, London, was 
instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. Bluf.-stooki.ng, a 
term applied to literary ladies, was originally confer- 
red on a society comjirising both sexes (1700, et seq.). 
Beiijainin StilliuL'fleet, the naturalist, an active mem- 
ber, wore blue worsted stockings; hence the name. 
The beautiful ^Mrs. Jerninghain is said to have worn 
blue stockings at the convcrmzioneH of Lady Montagu. 

BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats made in England in 
the reiL'ii of William I. ; again brouLrht into use by 
Barker, a Diitclnnan, about 1690. See IJ/c-boat, A 
mode of buildiiiLT boats by the help of the steam-engine 
was ill vented by 2\Ir. Nathan Thompson, of New York, 
in 1S60, and premises were erectecl for its application 
at Bow, near London, in 1861. 

BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a collection of a 
hundred stories or novels (many very immoral), se- 



verely satirizing the clergy, feigned to have been re- 
lated iu ten days, during the plague of Ploreuce iu 
1348. Boccaccio lived 1313-75. A copy of the first edi- 
tion (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was knocked down at 
the Duke of Roxburgh's sale to the Duke of Marlbor- 
ough for i;220(i, June 17, 1812. This identical copy was 
afterward sold by public auction for 875 guineas, June 
5, 1819. 

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded in 1598, 
and opened in 1002, by Sir Thos. Bodley (died 1612). It 
is open to the public, and claims a copy of all works 
published in England. For rare works and MSS. it is 
said to be second only to the Vatican. 

BCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, 
known successively as Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hy- 
antis, Cadmeis, and Boeotia. Thebes, the capftal, was 
celebrated for its exploits and misfortunes of its kings 
and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by the Athe- 
nians as a synonym for dullness, but unjustly, since 
Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epamiuondas, 
and Corinna were Bcsotiaus. The early dates are 
doubtful. See Thebes. 
Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea {na[e.t,U94 • 

Clinton, 1313) B.C.1493 

Reign of Poly dore 1459 

Labdacus ascends the throne 1430 

Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone 

Laius 1383 

CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, kills him in 

an aflray, confirmi'ng the oracle foretelling his 

death by the hands of his son 1276 

ffidipns resolves the Sphinx's enigmas 1266 

War of the Seven Captains 1225 

Thebes besieged and taken 1213 

Thersander reigns, 1198 ; slain 1193 

The Thebans abolish roj'alty (ages of obscurity 

follow about 1120 

The Thebans fight with the Persians against the 

Greeks at Platsea 479 

Battle of Coronea, iu which the Thebans defeat the 

Athenians 447 

The Thebans, uuder Epaminondas and Pelopiclas, 

enroll their Sacred Band, and join Athens against 

Sparta 377 

Epamiuondas defeats the Lacedtemonians at Leuc- 

tra, and restores Thebes to independence 371 

Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cyaioscephalte.. . 364 
Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, but is 

slain 363 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and 

Athenians uear Chajronea 3SS 

Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house 

of Pindar 335 

Bceotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 

Greece ; and was conquered by the Turks under 

Mohammed II A.D.1456 

BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered with 
peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage of Irish 
bogs, passed March, 1836. The bog land of Ireland 
has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scotland 
at upward of 2,000,000; and that of Enarland at near 
1,000,000 of acres. In Jan., 1S49, Mr. Rees Reece took 
out a patent for certain valuable products from Irish 
peat. Candles and various other articles produced 
from peat have been since sold in London. 

BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian Forest (Boie- 
mum, Tacitus), derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic 
tribe. It was governed by dukes till Ottocar assumed 
the title of king, 1198. The kings at first held their 
territory from the empire, but at length threw oft' the 
yoke ; and the crown was elective till it came to the 
house of Austria, in which it is now hereditary. 
Prague, the capital, is fomous for sieges and battles. 
Population in 1857,4,705,525. See Prague. 

The Slavonians seize Bohemia about 550 

City of Prague founded 795 

Introductioli of Christianity 894 

Bohemia cmiquered by the Emperor Henry III., 

who spreads devastation through the country.. 1041 
Ottocar (or Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia . . .1198 
Ottocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, 

etc., 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown 1272 

Ottocar vanquished by the Emperor Rudol])h, and 
deprived of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, 1277 ; 

killed at Marchfeld 1278 

King John {blind) slain at the battle of Crecy — 1346 
John IIuss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first 
Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which occasions 

an insurrection 1415,1410 

Ziska, leader of the Hussiies, takes Prague, 1419 ; 

dies of the plague 1424 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of 



BOH 



92 



BOM 



the late emperor and king, and receives the 

crowns of Bohemia and Hungary 1437 

The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the 
King of Poland, aud George Podiebrad, a Prot- 
estant chief 1440-145S 

Ladislas, kiug of Poland, elected king of Bohemia 

on the death of Podiebrad 1471 

The Emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of 

Lonis the late king, and obtains the crown 1527 

The Emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the Prot- 
estants, is deposed, and Frederick, the elector- 
palatine, elected king Sept. 5,1619 

Frederick, totally defeated at Prague, flies to Hol- 
land Nov. 9,1620 

Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty 1648 

Silesia aud Glatz ceded to Prussia 1742 

Prague taken by the Prussians 1744 

The Prussians defeat ihe Austrians at Prague, 

^ May 6,1757 

Eevolt of the peasantry 1775 

Edict of Toleration promulgated 17S1 

The French occupy Prague 1806 

Insurrection at Prague, June 12 ; submission, state 

of siege raised July 20,1S4S 

The Prussians defeat the Austrians at Sadowa, 

July 3,1866 

KINGS. 

1198. Premislas I., or Ottocar I. , 
1230. Wenceslas III. 
1253. Premislas II., or Ottocar II. 
1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 

1305. Wenceslas V. 

1306. Rudolph of Austria. 

1307. Henry of Carinthia. 

1310. John of Luxemburg (killea at Crecy). 
1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 
1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 
1419. Sigismuud I., emperor. 
1437. Afbert of Austria, emperor. 
1440. Ladislas V. 
1458. George von Podiebrad. 
1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 
1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 
1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I., 
elected king. 

BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of Christians in 
Bohemia, appear to have separated from the Calix- 
tiues {which see), a branch of the Hussites, in 1467. Du- 
pin says " they rejected the sacrament of the Church, 
were governed by simple laics, and held the Scriptures 
for their only rule of faith. They presented a Confes- 
fession of Faith to King Ladislas in 1504 to justify 
themselves from errors laid to their charge." They 
appear to have had communication with the Walden- 
ses, but were distinct from them. Luther, in 1533, tes- 
tifies to their purity of doctrine, and Melancthon com- 
mends their severe discipline. They were doubtless 
dispersed during the religious wars of Germany in 
the 17th century. 

BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated into 
Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 283 
B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 
B.C. 

BOILING OF LiQTTins. Dr. Hooke, about 1683, ascer- 
tained that liquids were not increased in heat after 
they had once begun to boil, and that a fierce fire only 
made them boil more rapidly. The following boiling 
points have been stated: 



Phosphorus 554° Fah. 

Oil of turpentine 312 " 

Sulphur 822 " 

Mercury 662 " 



Ether 94° Fah. 

Alcohol 173 " 

Water 212 " 

Nitric Acid 187 " 

Sulphuric Acid.. 600 " 

BOILING TO Deatu made a capital punishment in 
England by statute 22 Henry VIII., 1531. This act was 
occasioned by seventeen persons having been poison- 
ed by John Roose, the bishop of Rochester's cook, two 
of whom died. Margaret Davie, a young woman, suf- 
fered in the same manner for a similar crime in 1542. 

BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a battle 
between the British and the French Re[)ublican army, 
in which the British were defeated, and forced to abaii- 
don their position and retreat to Schyndel, Sept. 14, 
1794. This place was captured by the French, Oct. 10 
following ; it surrendered to the Prussian army, under 
Bulow, in Jau., 1814. 

BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after successive- 
ly forming part of the empires of Persia, of Alexander, 
and of Dactriana, was conquered by the Turks in the 
6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs 
about 705. After various changes of masters it was 



stibdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its present possessors', 
in 1505. The British envoys. Colonel Stoddart and 
Captain Couolly, were murdered at Bokhara, the cap- 
ital, by the khan, in 1843. 

BOLIVIA, a reptiblic in South America, formerly 
part of Peru- Population in 1858, 1,987,352. 
The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by 

Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here 1780-2 

The country declared its independence Aug. 6,1824 

Took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General 

Bolivar Aug. 11,1825 

First Congress met May 25,1826 

Slavery abolished 1836 

General Sucre governed ably 1826-8 

Santa Cruz ruled 1828-34 

Free-trade proclaimed 1853 

General Cordova, president 1855-7 

Succeeded by the Dictator Jose Maria Linares, 

March 31,1859 

George Cordova, constitutional president 1860 

Succeeded by Jose M. de Acha May,1861 

General Melgarejo defeats the troops of President 
De Acha, Dec. 28, 1864 ; and becomes chief of the 
republic, Feb., 1S05. He puts down an insurrec- 
tion under Belzu March,lS65 

BOLLANDISTS. See Acta Sanctorum. 
BOLOGNA, Central Italy, the ancient Bononia, a 
city distinguished for its architecture. 

University founded by Theodosius 433 

Bologna joins the Lombard League 1167 

Pope" Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triumph, 

Nov. 11,1506 

It becomes part of the States of the Church 1515 

In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its 
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (over 
one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575). . .1653 
Bologna was taken by the French, 1790 ; by the 
Auztrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the 
battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the 

Pope in 1815 

A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference 1831 

The Austrians evacuate Bologna, and Cardinal 
Ferretti departs ; the citizens rise and form a 

provisional government June 12,1859 

Which decrees that all pitblic acts shall beheaded 
"Under the reigu of King Victor Emmanuel," 

etc Oct. 1,1860 

He enters Bologna as sovereign May 2, " 

BOMAESUND,a strong fortress on one of the Aland 
Isles in the Baltic Sea, taken by Sir Charles Napier, 
commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the 
French military contingent under General Baragttay 
d'llilliers, Autr. 16, 1854" The governor Bodisco'and 
the garrison, about 2000 men, became prrsoners. The 
fortifications were destroyed. 

BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of the In- 
dian presidencies, was visited by the Portuguese in 
1509, aud acquired by them in about 1530. It was giv- 
en (with Tangier in Africa, and £300,000 in money) to 
Charles II. as the marriage portion of the Infanta 
Catharine of Portugal, 1061. In 1608 it was granted to 
the East India ConTpany, who had long desired it, "in 
free and common socage," as of the'manor of East 
Greenwich, at an annual rent of XIO. Confirmed by 
William III., 16S9. The two principal castes at Bom- 
bay are the Parsees (descendants of the ancient Per- 
sian fire-worshipers) and the Borahs (sprung from ear- 
ly converts to Islamisni). They are both remarkable 
for commercial activity. 

First British factory established at Ahmednuggnr,1612 
Mr. Gyfford, deputy governor, 100 soldiers,'" and 
other English, perish through the climate, 

Oct., 1675-Feb., 1676 

Captain Keigwin usurps the government 1681-84 

Bombay made chief over the Company's settle- 
ments 1687 

The whole island, except the fort, seized and held 

for a time by the Mogul's admiral 1690 

Bombay becomes a distinct presidency 1708 

Additions to the Bombay territory ; Bancoot Riv- 
er, 1756; island of Salsette 1775 

Bishopric established 18.33 

Population of the Presidency, 12,034,483 1858 

The benevolent Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee 
(who erected several hospitals, etc.), dies, 

April 15,1859 

His son. Sir Cursetjee, visits England 1800 

Rioting against the income-tax suppressed, 

Nov. and Dec, " 
Sir Henry Bartle Frere appointed governor, March, 1S62 
Greatly increased prosperity through the cotton 
trade leads to immense speculation Nov.,lSG4 



BOM 



Keportcd failure of Mr. Byrarajce Cama, a Parsee, 
for i;3,o00,UU0; otlicr failures, aud great depres- 
sion ; the projected iuteruatioual exLibitiou iu 

ISUT abandoned May,1865 

Eeeoveriiii; from commercial crisis Aug., " 

BOM15S (iron tJliells filled with gunpowder), said to 
have liecii invented at Venio in ]495, and used by the 
Turlis at tlie siege of Rhodes iu 15-2'2. They came into 
general use in l(i;i4, having been previously used only 
by the Dutch and Spaniards. Bomb-vessels were in- 
vented in France in lOSl. — Voltaire. The shrapnel 
shell is a bomb tilled with balls, aud a lighted fuse to 
make it explode before it reaches the enemy: a thir- 
teen-iuch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 

BOMAPAKTE FAMILY, etc. See J'mncc, 1T93, and 
note. 
BONDAGE. See Villanafje. 

BONE-SETTING can not be said to have been prac- 
ticed scientifically imtil 1620. — Bell. 

BONES. The art of softening bones was discovered 
about loss, aud they were used in the cutlery manu- 
facture, etc., immediately afterward. The declared 
value of the bones of cattle and of other animals, and 
of fish (exclusive of whale-fins), imported into Great 
Britain from Russia, Prussia, Holland, Denmark, etc., 
amounts annually to more than £300,000 (iu 1S51 about 
32,01 10 tons). Bone-dust has been extensively employed 
iu manure since the publication of Liebig's researches 
iu 1S40. 

BONIIOMMES, hermits of simple and gentle lives, 
appeared iu France about 125T ; in England about 12S3. 
The prior of the order was called U bon homme by 
Louis VI. 

BONN, a town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonua), 
was iu the electorate of Cologne. It has been fre- 
quently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia iu 1S14. 
The Prince Consort of England was a student at the 
University, founded in 1818. 

BOOKS (Anglo-Saxon, hoc; German, bnch). Books 
were originally made of boards, or the inner Ijark of 
trees ; afterward of skins and parchment. Papyrus, 
an indigenous plant, was adopted in Egypt. Books 
with leiives of vellum were invented by Attains, king 
of Pergamus, about 198 B.C., at which time books were 
in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Ilerculaneuni con- 
sist of papyrus, rolled, and charred, and matted togeth- 
er by the fire, and are about nine inches long, audone, 
two, or three inches in diameter, each being a sepa- 
rate treatise. The most ancient books are the Penta- 
teuch of Closes, and the poems of Homer and Hesiod. 
The first, Printed Books (see Printing) were printed 
on one side only, the leaves being pasted back to back. 
Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered 
to be destroyed in England as being infected 

with magic, G Edw. W.—^toic 1552 

2032 volumes of new works, and 7T3 of new edi- 
tions, were published iu London in 1839 

3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, exclusive 

of 90S ])ainplilets, were published iu 1852 

3553 volumes were pal)Iished in 1SG4 

In Paris, 0445 volumes were published in 1842 ; aud 
7350 in 1S51. See liiblioijrcqjhy. 
Prices of Books. — Jerome (who died 420) states that 
he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works 
of Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for one 
on cosmography, about 872. The Roman do la Rose 
was sold for about X'30 ; and a homily was exchanj|ed 
for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books fre- 
quently fetched double or treble their weightin gold. 
They sold at prices varying from £1(\ to i;40 each in 
1400. A copy ot Macklin's^Rible, ornamented by Mr. 
Tomkins, was declared worth .lOO guineas. — Butler. A 
yet mf)re superb copy was insured iu a Loudon office 
for £3000. See Buecaccio. 

BooK-BiNi>iNG -The book of St. Cuthbert, the ear- 
liest ornamental book, is sujiposed to have been 

bound about 650 

A Latin Psalter, in oak boards, was bound in the 

9th century. 
A MS. copy of the Four Evangelists, the book on 
which the English kings from Henry I. to Ed- 
ward VI. took their coronation oath, was bound 

in oaken boards nearly an inch thick 1100 

Velvet was the covering iu the 14th century, and 
silk soon after. Vellilm was introduced early iu 
the l.lth century ; it was stamped aud ornament- 
ed about 1510 

Leather came into use about the same time. 
The rolliiiLT-machine, invented by Mr. \Vm. Burr, 
was siilistituted for the beating -hammer, and 
gas-stoves began to take the place of the char- 



93 BOR 

coal fires Uised to heat the gilder's finishing tools, 

about 1830 

Cloth binding superseded the common boards 

generally about 1S31 

Caoutchouc, or India-rubber backs to account- 
books and large volumes were introduced in. ..1841 
Book-IIawkino Sooieties (already in Scotland) 
began in England in 1S51 by Archdeacon Vv^igram 
(since Bishop of Rochester). The hawkers vend 
moral and religious books iu a similar manner 
to the French colporteurs. 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double entry, 
called originally Italian book-keeping, was taken from 
the course of Algebra published by Burgo, in the 15th 
century at Venice. Hugh Oldcastle published a trea- 
tise "on the kepyng of the famouse reconynge 

Debitor aud Creditor," London, 1543. This is nifr ear- 
liest work on book-keeping. James Peele published 
his Book-keeinng in 1509. John Mellis published "A 
Briefe Instruction and Manuer how to Keepe Bookes 
of Accompts" in 1588. Improved systems were pub- 
lished by Benjamin Booth in 1789, and by Edw. Thos. 
Joues iu 1821 aud 1831. 

BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like hawkers, be- 
came known as stationary, from their practice of hav- 
ing booths or stalls at the corners of streets and in 
markets. They were long subject to vexatious re- 
strictions, from which they were freed in 1T5S.* 

BOONEVILLE (Mo.), Battle of, fought June 17, 
1801. Governor Jackson, of Missouri, a Confederate 
sympathizer, had abandoned Jefterson City, which was 
immediately occupied by General Lyon. The Confed- 
erate forces in the state were concentrating about 
Boone ville, 50 miles above Jefterson City. Before they 
could accomplish this, however, Lyon moved upon 
Booneville, and, with 2000 men, defeated Marmaduke, 
who ofl'ered little resistance. The action only lasted 
20 minutes. The result of Lyon's prompt movement 
compelled the Confederate detachments to concentrate 
on the southern border of the state. 

BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, the N.W. 
point of America, discovered by Sir John Ross iu 1831, 
aud named after Sir Felix Booth, who had presented 
him with £20,000 to fit out his Polar expeditiou. Sir 
Felix died at Brighton in Feb., 1850. 

BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the Ca- 
rians, were made of iron, brass, or leather. Leather 
boots were mentioned by Homer 907 B.C., and fre- 
quently by the Roman historians. A variety of forms 
may be seen in Fairholt's " Costume in England." An 
instrument of torture termed "the boot" was used iu 
Scotland so late as 1690. 

BORAX (Boron), known to the ancients, is used iu 
soldering, brazing, and casting gold and other metals, 
and was called chri/soeulla. 6oras is produced natu- 
rally in the motmtains of Thibet, and was brought to 
Europe from India about 1713. Homberg, iu 1702, dis- 
covered in borax boracic acid, which latter in 1808 was 
decomposed by Gay-Lussac, Theuard, and H. Davy 
into oxygen, and the previously unkuowu element, 
boron. Borax has lately been found iu Saxony, and 
is now largely manufactured from the boracic acid 
found by itapfer to exist in the gas arising from cer- 
tain lagoons in Tuscany ; an immense fortune has been 
made by their owner, M. Lardarel, since 1818. 

BORDEAUX, or Bouedeatjx (W. France), was united 
to the dominions of Henry II. of England by his mar- 
riage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black 
Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, 
to this city after the battle of Poictiers in 1350, and 
here held his court during eleven years ; his sou, our 
Richard II., was born at Bordeaux, 13G6. Bordeaux 
was entered by the victorious British army after the 
battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 27, 1814. 

BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the largest 
iu the world except Australia, was discovered by the 
Portuguese about 1520. 

The Dutch trade here in 1004, and establish facto- 
ries in 1T7G 

The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British iu 

1813, and by Captain Keppel in March,lS43 



* Booksellers' Association. In 1829, a number of eminent pub- 
lishers in London formed themselves into an association for the regula- 
tion of the trade, and fi.xed the amount of discount to be allowed, Dec. 
29, 1829, and for some years restricted the retail booksellers from sell- 
inp copies of works under the full publishing price. A dispute after- 
ward arose as to the right, maintained by the latter, to dispose of books 
(when they had once become theirs by purchase) at such less profit as 
thev might deem sufficiently remunerative. The dispute was referred 
to Lord Chief Justice Campbell, before whom the parties argued their 
respective cases, at Stratheden House, April 14, 1S52. Hia lordship 
gave Judgment in eflect against the association j this led to its imme- 
diate'dis5olution,May 19 following. 



BOR 



04 



EOT 



By a treaty with the sultan, the island of Labooan, 
or Labuan (N.W. of Borneo), and its dependen- 
cies, incorporiited with the British empire, and 
formally taken possession of in presence of the 

Bornean chiefs Dec. 2,1S40 

James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak, by whose exer- 
tions the island was annexed to the British 
crown, governor of Labuan and consul general 
of Borneo, visits England and receives many 

honors Oct.,lS4T 

lie destroys many of the Bornean pirates. 1849 

Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop was conse- 
crated at Calcutta, the first English bishop con- 
secrated out of England Oct. 18,1855 

The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection, and 
massacre a number of Europeans ; Sir J. Brooke 
escapes by swimming across a creek ; he speed- 
ily returns with a force of Malays, etc., and chas- 
tises the insurgents, of whom 2000 were killed, 

Feb. IT, 18,1857 
lie comes to England to seek help from the gov- 
ernment, without success 1S5S 

His health being broken up, an appeal for a sub- 
scription for liim made " 

Deputation of merchants waits on tbe Earl of 
Derby, recommending the purchase of Sarawak, 

which is declined Nov. 30, " 

Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo Nov. 20,18G0 

BORNOU, an extensive kingdom in Central Africa, 
explored by Denham and Clapperton, who were sent 
out by the British government In 1822. The popula- 
tion is estimated by Denham at 5,000,000, by Batth at 
9,000,000. 

BORODINO, a Russian village on the River Mosk- 
wa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, Sept. 
7, 1812, between the French under Napoleon, and the 
Russians under Kutusoff ; 240,000 men being engaged. 
Each party claimed the victory, but it was rathe'r in 
favor of Napoleon ; for the Russians retreated, leaving 
Moscow, which the French entered, Sept. 14. See 
Moscow. 

BOROUGH, or Burgh, anciently, in England, a com- 
pany of ten families living together, now such towns 
as send members to Parliament, since the election of 
burgesses in the reign of Henry III., 1205. Charters 
were granted to towns by Henry I., 1132, which were 
remodeled by Charles II. in 1682-84, but restored in 
1088. 22 new English boroughs were created in 1.^53. 
Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish Parlia- 
ment by Robert Bruce, 1326 ; and into the Irish, 1365. 
The "Act to amend the Representation of the People 
in England and Wales" was passed June 7, 1832; and 
the Act for the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 
Sept. 9, 183.5. 

BOROUGHBRIDGE (W. R. of York), the site of a 
battle between the Earls of Hereford and Lancaster 
and Edward II., March 16, 1322. The latter, at the 
head of 30,000 men, pressed Lancaster so closely that 
he had not time to collect his troops together in suffi- 
cient force, and, being defeated and made prisoner, 
was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an eminence near 
Pontefract, or Pomfret, and beheaded by a Londoner. 
BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire, where 
Charles II. concealed himself after his defeat at 
Worcester {lohich sec), Sept. 3d, 1651.* 

BOSNIA, a province in Turkey, formerly a depend- 
ent upon Servia, was conquered by the Turks about 
1520, who still retain it after losing it several times. 

BOSPHORUS, TnRAciAN (now Channel of Constan- 
tinople). Darius Ilystaspes threw a bridge of boats 
over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 B.C. 
See Conxtantinn2'>le. 

BOSPORUS (improperly Bosphoeus), now called 
Circassia, near the Bosphorus Cimmerius, now the 
Straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of the 
kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued 
for "350 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the 
Cimvieri, who dwelt on its borders about 750 B.C. 

The Archsnactidffi from Mitylene rule B.C. 502-4S0 

They are dispossessed by Spartacus 1 480^33 

Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 

Leucon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades S48 

Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Satyrus 

II., is defeated; but Satyrus is killed 310 

Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, 

but is murdered by Eumelus 310-9 

Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; and 
is killed 304 

* Tlie kinir, rtisKuised in the clothes of the Pendrills, remained from 
Sept. 4-6, at White Ladies ; on Sept. 7 and 8 he Iny at Boscobel House, 
near which exists an oak, said to be the scion of the royal oak in which 
the king was part of the time hidden with Col. Careless. — Sharpe. 



The Scythians conquer Bosporus 283 

Mithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus. . . 80 
He poisons himself; and the Romans make his 

son Pharnaces king 63 

Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Cajsar over Phar- 
naces II. (Caesar writes home, Veni, vidi, vici, "I 

came, I saw, I conquered") 47 

Asander usurps the crown " 

Cffisar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king " 

Polemon conquers Bosporus, and, favored by 

Agrippa, reigns 14 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Mreo- 

tis A.D. 33 

Polemon II. reigns, 33 ; Mithridates II. reigns. . .. 41 
Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by or- 
der of Claudius, and his kingdom made a prov- 
ince of the empire. 

BOSTON, the capital City of New England, and sec- 
ond commercial city of the United States, was founded 
in 1630. It is upon a peninsula originally comprising 
700 acres, but which has been more than doubled by 
"filling in." Here originated many of the measures 
which led to the war between Great Britain and her 
colonies in 1775. In Dec, 1773, the citizens who had 
declared that no tea should be imported, because an 
impost duty for the purpose of a tax was laid upon it, 
cast two cargoes of the obnoxious article into their 
harbor from British ships. In retaliation, the govern- 
ment destroyed its commerce by shutting up its port 
in June, 1774. British troops took possession of the 
town, and in June, 1775, the battle of Bunker's Hill 
was fought within cannon shot of the city. From 
July, 1775, until March, 1776, the Americans under 
Washington besieged it, when the British were com- 
pelled to flee. They left the town on the 17th of 
March, and, with a large number of Loyalists, sailed 
for Halifa.x. See Dunker's Hill. 

BOSTON, Evacuation of, March 17th, 1776. The 
American army under Washington had hemmed the 
British army within the small area of the peninsula 
in which Boston stands for several months, durinjj 
which time there had been frequent skirmishing and 
some cannonading. At length Washington took such 
a commanding position upon Dorchester Height that 
the British general, Howe, agreed to leave the city im- 
mediately, if allowed to do so in peace. The permis- 
sion was granted, and on the 17th of March, General 
Howe, with 7000 soldiers, 4000 seamen, and 1500 loyal- 
ist families, sailed for Halifax. The American army 
then took possession, to the great joy of the remaining 
inhabitants. Congress gave Washington a gold medal 
in commemoration of the event. 

BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the site of the 
thirteenth and last battle between the houses of York 
and Lancaster, August 22, 1485; Richard III. was de- 
feated by the Earl of Richmond, afterward Henry VII., 
and slain. Sir William Stanley at a critical moment 
changed sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. 
It is said that Henry was crowned on the spot with 
the crown of Richard, found in a hawthorn bush near 
the field. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of 
the science of botany (about 347 B.C.). Ilistoria Plan- 
tarum of Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. 
Authors on botany became numerous at the close of 
the 15th century. JFuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cresalpinus, 
and others, -wrote between 1535 and 1000. The system 
and arrangement of the great Linnreus was made 
known about 1750 ; and Jussieu's system, founded on 
Tournefort's, and called "the natural system," in 175S. 
AtLinnreus's death, 1778, the species of plants actually 
described amounted in number to 11,800. The num- 
ber of species now recorded can not ftill short of 
100,000.' J. C. Loudon's " Encyclopedia of Plants," a 
most comprehensive work, first appeared in 1829. De 
Candolle's " Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni 
Vegetabilis" (of which vol. i. appeared iu 181S), is near- 
ly completed (1865). 

BOTANIC GARDENS. 
Established about 
1.545 



Padua... 

Levden 1577 

Leipsic 1580 

Paris (J. des Plantes) 1624 

Jena 1629 

Oxford 1632 

Upsal 16.57 

Chelsea 1673 

Edinburg 1680 



Established about 

Vienna 1753 

Madrid " 

Kew (gr'tly improv'd, 

1841-65) 1760 

Cambridge 1703 

Coimbra 1773 

St. Petersburg 17S5 

Calcutta 1793 

Dublin 1800 



* Robert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his survey of New 
Holland in 1SI)3, died June 10, 1858, a?ed 85. He was ncknWledged 
to be the chief of the botanists of his day {facile^rinceps). 



BOT 



95 



■BOX 



I Estahlislied about 

Roj-al Ilorticultural 
Society's, So. Keu- 
siugtou ISGO 



Established about 

Horticultural Soc.'s., 

Chiswick 1821 

Royal Botanic Socie- 
ty's, Regeut's Park. 1839 I 
BOTANY BAY, Australia, was discovered by Cap- 
tain Conk, April '-'8, 1770, and took its name tVom the 
fi'cat vari(^ty of plants which abounded on the shore, 
t was ti.xcd on for a colony of convicts from (Ireat 
Britain. The tirst governor. Captain Artliur Pliilli]), 
will) sailed from England in May, 17^7, arrived at tlie 
scttlonient in Jan., 17sS. The colony was eventually 
estahlislied at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to 
the nortli of the bay. See A'ciu South iVales and Trans- 
ixirtatkiii. 

BOTIIWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The Scotch 
Covenanters took uj) arms against the intolerant gov- 
ernment of Charles II. in IGt'.t, and defeated the cele- 
brated Claverhouse at Drumclog. They were, how- 
ever, totally routed by the Earl of Monmouth at Both- 
well Bridge, June 22, 1679, and mauy of the prisoners 
were cruelly tortured and afterward executed. 

BOTTLES in ancient times were made of leather. 
Bottles of glass were first made in England about 155S. 
See Glanx. "The art of making glass bottles and drink- 
iug-glasges was known to the Romans at least before 
79 tor these articles and other vessels have been found 
in the ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained 
two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, in 
Scotland, in Jan., 1747-8. 

BOULOGNE, a sea-port in Picardy, N. France, was 
taken by the British under Heni-y VIII. on Sept. 14, 
15-14, but restored at the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson 
attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels and sinkin" 
five, Aug. 3, Isui. In another attempt he was repulsed 
with great loss, and Captain Parker of the Medusa, and 
two thirds of his crew, were killed, Aug. IS following. 
In 1:^04 Bonai)arte assembled 100,000 men and 10,000 
horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors 
to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex 
were covered with niartello towers and lines of de- 
fense ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain 
was formed into Volunteer corps. It is supposed that 
this French armament served merely for a demonstra- 
tion, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the 
invasion. Sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted 
to burn the flotilla with fire-machines called catama- 
rans, Oct, '2, 1804. Congreve rockets were used in an- 
other attack, and they set the town on fire, Oct. 8, 180G. 
The army was removed on the breaking out of war 
with Austria in 1805. Louis Napoleon (now emperor) 
made a descent here with about 50 followers, Aug. (5, 
1S40, without success. On July 10, 1854, he reviewed 
the French troops destined for the Baltic, and on Sept. 
2, following, he entertained Prince Albert and the King 
of the Belgians. See France. 

BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, ex- 
porter, or importer of certain articles; a principle in- 
troduced into commerce by the British Parliament. 
The first granted on com in 1G88 were repealed in 
1815. They were first legally granted in England for 
raising naval stores in America, 1708, and have been 
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and otlier goods. A boun- 
ty or allowance has been commonly allowed by gov- 
ernments in consideration of the fisheries being nurs- 
eries for seamen, and a chief dependence in time of 
war to supi)ly the marine. 

In 18.^2 tlie" bounty laws in this country gave to ves- 
sels: "If measuring more than five tons, and not ex- 
ceeding thirty tons, $3 ."iO per ton. 

"If measuring more than .SO tons, $4 per ton. 

" If the above 30 tons, with crews not less than 10 
persons, and having been exclusively employed at sea 
in the cod-fishery Si calendar months, $3 >5o"per ton. 

"The allowance for one vessel during the season, 
whatever may be tier tonnage, can not exceed $360. 

"Vi'ssols exclusively employed at sea in the cod- 
flshcry tlic full time required to entitle them to boun- 
ty, and afterward wrecked, may be allowed bounty un- 
der the provisions of the act of 26th May, 1824, which 
requires the evidence of the loss of the vessel to be 
transmitted to the comptroller for his decision there- 
on. I'nder the act of March 3, 1849, this duty has been 
transferred to the commissioner of the customs, to 
whom tlie j)roof, certified by the collector of the dis- 
trict to which the vessel belonged, should be sent for 
his oflicial direction thereon." 

BOUNTY JIUTINY, took place on board the nou7i- 
t'l, an armed ship which quitted Otaheitc, with bread 
fruit-trees, April 7, 1789. The mutineers put their cap- 
tain, Bligh, and nineteen men, into an open boat, near 
Annamooka, cue of the Friendly Isles, April 28, 1789 



these reached the island of Timor, south of the Moluc- 
cas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 
miles; their preservation was next to miraculous. 
Some of the mutineers were tried, Sept. 15, 1792 ; six 
were condemned and three executed. For the fate of 
the others, see I'itcairn'a Inland. 

BOURBON, House ov (from which come the royal 
houses of Prance, Spain, and Naples), derives its ori- 
gin from the Archambauds, lords of Bourbon in Berry. 
Robert, count of Clermont^ son of Louis IX. of France, 
married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 ; their son, Louis 
I., was created Duke of Bourbon and peer of France 
by Charles IV. in 1327. The last of the descendants of 
their elder son, Peter I., was Susanna, wife of Charles, 
duke of Montpeusier, called Constable of Bourbon, 
who, offended by his sovereign Francis I., entered into 
the service of the Emperor Charles V., and was killed 
at the siege of Rome, May 0, 1527. From James, the 
younger sou of Louis L, was descended Antony, duke 
of Vendome, who married (154S) Jean d'Albret, daugh- 
ter of Henry, king of Navarre. Th.jir son, the great 
Henry IV., was born at Pan, Dec. 23, 1,553, and became 
King of France July 31, 1589.— The crown of Spain 
was settled on a younger branch of this family, 1700, 
and giiarauteed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713.— itopm. 
The Bourbon Family Compact (which nee) was made 
1701. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791 ; re- 
stored, 1814 ; again expelled on the return of Bona- 
parte from Elba, and again restored after the battle of 
Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once 
more in the perscm of Charles X. and his family in 
1830, in consequence of the revolution of the memora- 
ble days of July in that year. The Orleans branch as- 
cended the throne in the person of the late Louis Phil- 
ippe, as "King of the French," Aug. 9, following. He 
was deposed Feb. 24, 1848, wtien his family also was 
expelled. The Bourbon family fled from Naples, Sept. 
6, 1860 ; and Francis II. lost his kingdom. See France, 
SxKiin, Xctx>leii, Orleans, Parvia, Conde, and Lerjitunists. 

BOURBON, Isle of (in the Indian Ocean), discover- 
ed by the Portuguese about 1545. The French are said 
to have first settled here in 1642. It surrendered to the 
British, under Admiral Rowley, Sept. 21, 1809, and was 
restored to France in 1815. — Alison. An a^vful hurri- 
cane in Feb., 1829, did much mischief. See Mauritius. 

BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Antoinette 
Eourignon, who in 1658 took the Augustine habit and 
traveled. in France, Holland, England, and Scotland; 
in the last she made many converts about 1670. She 
maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith 
and practice, but in inward feeling and supernatural 
impulse. A disciple named Court left her a good es- 
tate. She died in 1680, and her works, in 21 volimies 
8vo, were published in 1686. 

BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded garment 
worn in Algeria, which has been introduced in a modi- 
fled form into England and France since 1847. 

BOUVINES (N. France), the site of a desperate bat- 
tle, July 27, 1214, in which Philip Augustus of France 
obtained a complete victory over the Emperor Otho 
and his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. 
The Earls of Flanders aiid Boulogne were taken pris- 
oners. 

BOWLS, OR Bowling, an English game as early as 
the loth century. Charles I. played at it, and also 
Charles II., at Tunbridge. — Grammont. 

BOWS ANn Akrows. See Archery. 

BOWYER, FORT, near Mobile, Ala., was attacked 
by a British land force of 730 troops and 200 Creek In- 
dians on the 15th Sept., 1814, assisted by a naval force. 
The garrison, of 134 men rank and file, defended it suc- 
cessfullv. They lost five killed and four wounded. 
The British lost 162 killed and 70 wounded. 

BOXING, OR Prize-figutino, the pngilatus of the 
Romans, once a favorite sport with the British, who 
possess an extraordiuary strength in the arm, an ad- 
vantage which gives the Britisli soldier great superi- 
ority in battles decided by the bayonet. A century ago 
boxing formed a regular exhil)ition, and a theatre was 
erected for it in Tottenham Coui-t.— Broughton's am- 
phitheatre, behind Oxford Road, was built in 1742. 
Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a 
science in 1790. Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the 
Strand in 1791. Boxing was much patronized from 
about 1S20 to 1830, but is now out of favor.* John 



* On April 1", ISfin.alnrRe number of persons of all classes assembled 
at Farnhoroueh to witness a desperate conflict between Thomas Snyers, 
the champion pf England, a liflht Sussex man, about 5 feet 8 inches high, 
and Jolin Heennn, the " Benicia Boy," a hujie American, in heiprht 6 (eet 
1 inch. Strength, however, was matched by skill ; snd eventually the 
fight was interrupted. Both men received a silver belt on May 31 fol- 



BOX 



96 



BRA 



Gully, originally a butcher, afterward a prize-fighter, 
acquired \ve;ilth and became M.P. for Poutefruct iu 
lSo5. He died March 9, 1803. 

BOXTEL (iu Dutch Brabant), where the British and 
allied army, commanded by the Duke of York, was de- 
feated by the French Republicans, who took 2000 pris- 
oners and eight pieces of cannon, Sept. IT, 1794:. 

BOX-WOOD, the wood of the box-tree (Dnxvs sem- 
jiervirens), growing wild from Massachusetts to Flori- 
da. A very common name iu the United States is dog- 
wood, though both names are used. This tree was 
greatly admired by the ancient Romans, and has been 
much cultivated iu modern times, on account of the 
fiicility with which it is fashioned into different forms. 
Box is a very valuable wood. It is of a yellowish col- 
or, close-grained, very hard, and heavy ; it cuts better 
than any'other wood, is susceptible of a very fine pol- 
ish, and is very durable. In consequence, it is much 
used by turners, and mathematical and musical instru- 
ment makers. It is too heavy for furniture. It is the 
onli/ wood used by the engravers of wood-cuts for 
books ; and, provided due care be exercised, the num- 
ber of impressions that may be taken from a box- 
wood cut is very great. In France box-wood is ex- 
tensively used for combs, knife-handles, and button 
moulds, and sometimes, it has been said, as a substi- 
tute for hops in the manufacture of beer. The value 
of the box-wood sent from Spain to Paris is reported 
to amount to about 10,000 francs a year. In 1815, the 
box-trees cut down on Box Hill, near Dorking, in Sur- 
rey, England, produced upward of £10,000. 

BOYLE LECTURES, instituted in 1691 by Robert 
Boyle (son of the great Earl of Cork), a philosopher 
distinguished by his genius, virtues, and benevolence. 
Eight lectures (in vindication of the Christian religion) 
are delivered at St. Mary-le-bow Church, London, on 
the first Monday in each mouth from January to May 
and September to November. 

BOYNE (a river in Kildare, Ireland), near which 
William HI. defeated his ftither-iu-law, James II., July 
1, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men ; the 
Protestant army lost about a third of that number (out 
of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, 
and escaped to France. The Duke of Schomberg was 
killed iu the battle, having been shot by mistake by 
his own soldiers as he was crossing the river. Here 
also was killed the Rev. George Walker, who defended 
Londonderry in 1689. Near'Drogheda is a splendid 
obelisk, 1.50 "feet in height, erected in 1736 by the Prot- 
estants of the empirelu commemoration of this vic- 
tory. 

BRABANT (now part of the kingdoms of Holland 
and Belgium), an ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's 
empire,"fell to the share of his son Lothaire. It became 
a separate duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. 
It descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, and in regular 
succession to the Emperor Charles V. In the ITth cen- 
tury it was held by Holland and Austria as Dutch Bra- 
bant and the Walloon provinces, and underwent many 
changes through the wars of Europe. The Austrian 
division was taken by the French in 1740 and 1794. It 
was united to the Netherlands iu 1814, but has formed 
part of Belgium, under Leopold, since 1830. His heir 
is styled Duke of Brabant. See Belgium. 

BRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and armil- 
Ice were Roman military rewards. Those of pearls and 
gold were worn by the Roman ladies. 

BRADFORD. See Poison. 

BRAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to Alfon- 
so, natural son of Pedro I., of Portugal (iul422), found- 
er of the house of Braganza. When the nation, iu a 
bloodless revolution iu 1040, threw oft' the Spanish 
yoke, John, duke of Braganza, as John IV., was called 
to the throne ; his fanilly continues to reign. See 
Portugal and Brazil. 

BRAHMINS, the highest of the four castes of the 
Hindoos. Pythagoras is thought to have learned from 
them his doctriiie of the Metevijjsi/chosis ; and it is 
affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
India on purpose to converse with them. The modern 
Brahmins derive their name from Brahmah, one of 
the three beings whom God, according to their theol- 
og}', created, and with whose assistance he formed the 
world. The modern Indian priests are still the depos- 
itaries of the sacred learning of India. See Vedas. 

lowinfj. Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion'a belt, etc., 
Nov. 26, 1862 ; he beat Goss, Sept. 1, 1863, and Heenan (nearly to death) 
Dec. 10, 1863. A trial in consequence of the last fig:ht ensued : the cul- 
prits were discharged on promising not to otfend again, April 5, 1864. 
On Jan. 4, 1865, Wormald obtained the championship after a contest 
with Marsden. 



BRAMHAM (W. R. York) : near here the Earl of- 
Northumberland and Lord Bardolf were defeated and 
slain by Sir Thomas Rokebv, the general of Henry 
IV., Feb. 19, 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated by the 
Royalists under the Duke of Newcastle, March '29, 
1043. 

BRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, foiraded by the 
Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which 
signified Guard of the Forest, according to some ; oth- 
ers say Burg, or city of the Brenns. Henry I., sur- 
named" the Prowler, after defeating the Slavonians, for- 
tified Brandenburg, 926, as a rampart against the Huns, 
and bestowed the' government on Sigefroi, count of 
Ringelheim, with the title of margrave, or protector 
of the marches or frontiers. The Emperor Sigismund 
gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- 
burg, ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, who waa 
made elector in 1417. For a list of the margraves 
since 1134, see Prussia. 

BRANDENBURG HOUSE, Hammersmith. See 
Queen Caroline. 

BRANDY (German Branntivein, burnt wine), the 
spirit distilled from wine. It appears to have been 
known to Raymond Lully in the 13th century, and to 
have been manufactured iu France early in the 14th. 
It was at first used medicinally, and miraculous cures 
Avere ascribed to its influence. The United States in 
1855 imported 1,024,497 gallons of brandy, valued at 
$1,479,302. The importation of brandy is much less 
now (1807), owing to the increased consumption of 
the home-made whiskies. 

BRAND YWINE, a river in N. America, near which 
a battle took place between the British and the re- 
volted Americans, in which the latter (after a day's 
fight) were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia 
fell into the possession of the victors, Sept. 11, 1777. 

BRASS was known among all the early nations.— 
Usher. The British from the remotest i)eriod were 
acquainted with its use. — Whitaker. Wlieu Lucius 
Mnmmius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., he 
fiumd immense riches, and during the conflagration, 
it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and, run- 
ning together, formed the valuable composition de- 
scribed as Corinthian Brass. This, however, may well 
be doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long before 
obtained great credit for their method of combining 
gold and silver with copper; and the Syriac transla- 
tion of the Bible says that Hiram made the vessels for 
Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass.— I'm Fresnoy. 
Some of the English sepulchral engraved brasses are 
said to be as old as 1277. 

BRAURONIA, festivals in Attica, at Brauron, where 
Diana had a temple. The most remarkable that at- 
tended these festivals were young virgins in yellow 
gowns, dedicated to Diana. They were about ten years 
of age, and not under live ; and therefore their conse- 
cration was called " dekateucin," from deka, ten ; 600 
B.C. 

BRAY, THE Vicar or. Bray, iu Berks, is famous in 
national song for its vicar, the Rev. Symon Symouds, 
who is said to have been twice a Papist and twice a 
Protestant — in four successive reigns— those of Henry 
VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Eliz.abeth, between the 
years 1533 and 155S. Upon being called a turn-coat, he 
said he kept to his principle, that of " living and dying 
the Vicar of Br-^y."— Fuller's Church Uistonj. 

BRAZIL, an empire in South America, was discov- 
ered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was 
driven upon its coasts by a tempest, Jan. 26, 1500. He 
called it the land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subse- 
quently called Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal 
family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and landed 
March 7, ISOS. The dominant religion is Roman Cath- 
olic ; but others are tolerated. Population in 1856, 
7,677,800. See Portugal. 
Pedro Alvarez Cabral discovers Espiritu Santo, 

coast of Brazil, and lauds May 3,1500 

Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci about 1504 

Divided into captaincies by the King of Portugal,1530 
Martin le Souza founds the first European colony 

at San Vincente 1531 

Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil 1548 

San Salvador (Bahia) foitnded by Thome de Souza,1549 
French Protestants occupy Bay of Rio Janeiro. . . 1.555 

Expelled 156T 

Sebastian founded " 

Brazil, with Portugal, became subject to Spain. . .1580 

James Lancaster captures Pernambuco 1593 

The French establish a colony atMaranham 1504 

Belem founded by Caldeira 1615 



BRA 

The French expelled " 

The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, and hold I'er- 

nambuco 1630 

Defeated at Guararapes HUG 

Give up Brazil IGOl 

Gold miiiiiijr commences 1093 

Destruction of Palmares 1697 

The French assault aud capture Rio Janeiro . .1710-11 

Diamond niiiies discoverecl iu Sezzo Frio 1T29 

Jesuits cxijellcd 175S-60 

Capital transferred from Bahia to Kio Janeiro.. ..1703 
Koyal family t)f I'ortULrai arrive at Brazil, March 7,1S0S 

First printiiiir-prcss established " 

Brazil becomes a kini;diim , 1S15 

King Johu VI. returns to Portugal, aud Dom Pe- 
dro becomes regent 1S21 

Brazil declares its iudepcudeuce Sept. 7,1822 

Pedro I. crowned emperor Dec. 1, " 

New Constitution ratitied March 25,1824 

Independence recognized by Portugal Aug. 29,1825 

Abdication of Doni Pedro I April 7,1831 

Keform of the Constitution 1834 

Accession of Pedro II 1S40 

Steam-ship line to Europe commenced 1850 

Suppression of the slave-trade; railw.ays com- 
menced 1S52 

Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1S54 

The British ship "Prince of Wales," wrecked at 
Albardas, on the coast of Brazil, is plundered by 
S(mie of the natives, aud some of the crew killed, 

about June 7,1801 

Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five Bra- 
zilian merchant ships being seized by the Brit- 
ish Dec. 31,1802 

The Brazilian minister at London pays XSiOO as 

an indemnity, under protest Feb. 20,1803 

The Brazilian government request the British to 
express regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplomat- 
ic intercourse between the two countries sus- 
pended May 5-28, " 

Dispute between the British aud Brazilian govern- 
ments respecting the arrest of some British offi- 
cers at Piio Janeiro (June 17, 18C2) is referred to 
the arbitration of the King of Belgium, who de- 
cides in fiivor of the latter. June 18, " 

New ministry formed : F. J. Furtado, president — 
prospect of reconciliation with Great Britain, 

Aug. 30,1804 
U. S. war steamer " Wachusett" seizes the Confed- 
erate steamer "Florida" in the port of Bahia, 
while under protection of Brazil, Oct. 7 ; after re- 
monstrance, Mr. Sewardj U. S. foreign minister, 
apologizes. [The " Florida" had been (inadvert- 
ently?) sunk.] Dec. 26, " 

The Comte d'Eu and the Princess Isabella (on their 

marriage tour) land at Southampton Feb. 7,1805 

War with Uruguay — the Brazilians take Paysan- 

dii, and march upon Monte Video Feb. 2, " 

Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against 
the Argentine Republic, which unites with Bra- 
zil — new combinations forming April, May, " 

Amicable relations with England restored . .Aug., " 
The emperor joins the arm/marching against Lo- 
pez Aug., " 

General Melgarejo defeats the troops of President 
De Acha, Dec. 28, 1864, and becomes chief of the 
republic, Feb., 1805. He puts down an insurrec- 
tion under Belzu March, 1865 

The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at 

Santayuua, on the Uruguay Sept., 1865 

Uruguayans surrender to the" allies Sept. 18,1805 

E.MPERORS OF BBAZII,. 

1825. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) first emperor, Oct. 12, 
abdicated the throne of Brazil in favor of his 
infant sou, April 7, 1831, died Sept. 24,18.34. 
1831. Dom Pedro II. (born Dec. 2, 1825) succeeded on 
his father's abdication ; assumed the govern- 
ment July 23, 1840 ; crowned July IS, 1841 ; 
married Sept. 4, 1843, Princess Theresa of Na- 
ples ; the puESENT emperor (186.")). 
IHeiress: Isabella, born July 29, 1846 ; married to Lou- 
is, comte d'Eu, son of the Due dc Nemours, Oct. 15, 
1864.] 

BRE.\D. ChiuL'-Noung, the snccessor of Fohi, is 
reputed to have been the first who taught men (the 
Chinese) the art of husbandry and the method of mak- 
iug bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B.C. 
— U^niv. IJist. Baking of bread was known in the pa- 
triarchal ages ; see Kxodu.i xii., 15. It became a pro- 
fession at Rome, 170 B.C. After the conquest of 
Macedon, 14s B.C., numbers of Greek bakers came to 
Rome, obtained special privileges, and soon obtained 
the monopoly of the baking trade. During the siege 
G 



97 



BRE 



of Pans by Henry IV., owing to the fomine which 
then raged, bread, which had been sold while any re- 
mained for a crown a pound, was at last made from 
the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, 
A.D. 1594.— Hhiault. In England, in the time of James 
I., barley bread was used ty the poor ; and now iu 
Iceland, codfish, beaten to powder, is made into bread • 
potato-bread is used in Ireland. The London Bakers' 
Company was incorporated iu 1307. Bread Street was 
once the London market for bread. Until 1302 the 
London bakers were not allowed to sell any iu their 
own shops. — sYo(c. Bread was made with yeast by 
the English bakers iu 1034. In 1856 and 1857 Dr Dau- 
glish patented a mode of making "aerated bread" 
m which carbonic acid gas is combined with water 
and mixed with the flour, which is said to possess the 
advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, and uniformity.' 
In 1862 a company was formed to encourage Stevens's 
bread-making machinery. An act for regulating bake- 
houses was passed in July, 1863. 

BREAD-FRUIT-TREE, mentioned by Dampier, An- 
sou, 'W alhs, and other vovagers. A British vessel, un- 
der Captain Bligh, was fitted out to convev these trees 
to various British colonies in 17S9 (see Eounti/), and 
again in 1791. The number taken on board at Okheite 
was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 352 at Jamaica, 
and five were reserved for Kew Gardens, 1793. The 
tree was successfully cultivated in French Guiana, 1802. 

BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the Plymouth 
(England) breakwater was lowered Aug. 12, 1S12. It 
was designed to break the swell, and stretches 5280 
feet across the Sound ; it is 300 feet in breadth at the 
bottom, aud more than 30 at the top, and consumed 
3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons 
each, up to April, 1841, and cost a million and a half 
sterling. The architects were Mr. Johu Rennie and 
his son Sir John. The first stone of the light-house 
on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. Break- 
waters are now in course of construction at Holyhead, 
Portland, Dover, etc. (1805). 

BRECHIN, Scotland ; sustained a siege against the 
army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin was 
fought between the forces of the Earls of Huntly and 
Crawfurd ; the latter defeated, 1452. The see of Brech- 
in was founded by David I. in 1150. One of its bish- 
ops, Alexander Campbell, was made prelate when but 
a boy, 1556. The bishopric, discontinued soon after 
the Revolution iu 1688, was revived in 1731. 

BREDA, Holland, was taken by Prince Maurice, of 
Nassau, in 1500 ; by the Sjjaniards, under Spinola, in ■ 
1625; and by the Dutch iu 1637. Charles II. resided 
here at the time of the Restoration, 1000. See liexto- 
ration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793. The 
French garrison was expelled by the burgesses in 1813. 
The " Covipromise of Breda" was a proposal to Philip 
II., deprecating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, 
presented and refused in 1506. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment in- 
dicated slavery. It was worn by the Daciaus, Parthi- 
ans, aud other northern nations ; aud in Italy, it is 
said, was worn in the time of Augustus Ctesar. 'in the 
reign of Houorius, about .394, the braccarii, or breeches- 
makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon after- 
ward the use of breeches was adopted in other coun- 
tries, and at length became general. 

BREHONS, ancient judges iu Ireland, are said to 
have administered justice with religious impartiality, 
but iu later times with a tendency to love of country. 
It was enacted by the statute of Kilkenny that no 
English subject should submit to the Brehon laws, 40 
Edw. III., 136.5. These laws, however, were recognized 
by the native Irish till about 1650. A translatum of 
them was proposed iu 1852, the publication of which 
may be expected. 

BREITENFELD, Battle of. See Leipsic. 

BREMEN (N. Germnny), said to have been founded 
in 7SS, and long an archbishopric and one of the lead- 
ing towns of the Ilanseatic League, was allowed a seat 
and a vot,e in the college of imperial cities in 1640. In 
1648 it was secularized and erected into a duchy, and 
held by Sweden till 1712, when it was taken possession 
of by Denmark in 1731, by whom it was ceded to Han- 
over. It was taken by the French in 1757, who were 
expelled by the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was 
annexed by Napoleon to the French Empire in 1810; 
but its independence was restored in 1813, and all its 
old franchises in 1S15. Population of the province in 
1S62, about 90,000. See Ilanae Towns. 

BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia'i, became im- 
portant under the Lombards, and suffered by the wars 



BRE 



98 



BRI 



of the Italian republics. It was taken by the French 
under Gaston de Foix in 1512, when it is said 40,000 
of the inhabitants were massacred. It surrendered to 
the Austrian General Haynau, March 30, 1849, on se- 
vere terms. 

BRESLAU, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mongols in 
1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia in 
Jan., 1741. A lierce battle took place here between 
the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under Prince 
Bevern, who was defeated Nov. 22, 175T. Breslau was 
taken ; but was regained, Dec. 21, the same year. It 
was besieged by the French, and surrendered to them 
Jan., ISOT, and again in 1813. 

BREST, a sea-port, N.W. France, was besieged by 
Julius Ciesar 54 B.C.— possessed by the English, A.D. 
13T8_given up to the Duke of Brittany, 1390. Lord 
Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed 
here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, 
to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. 
The marine hospitals, with fifty galley slaves, burut, 
1766. The magazine again destroyed by Are, July 10, 
1784. From this great dopot of the French navy nu- 
merous squadrons were equipped against England, 
among them the fleet which Lord Howe defeated on 
the 1st of June, 1794. England maintained a large 
blockading squadron off the harbor from 1793 to 1815, 
but with little injury to France. It is now a chief na- 
val station of that country, and from the fortifications 
and other vast works of late construction it is con- 
sidered impregnable. The British fleet visited Brest, 
August, 1805. 

BRETIGNY, Peace or, concluded with France, 
May S, 1360, by which England retained Gascony and 
Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; renounced 
her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Nor- 
mandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to re- 
lease Kin^ John, long a prisoner. The treaty not be- 
ing carried out, the king remained and died in London. 

BRETON. See Cajjc Breton. 

BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment of 
the books used in the Roman Catholic service) con- 
taius the seven canonical hours, viz. : matins or lauds, 
primes, tierce, sexte, nones, vespers, and complines. 
Its origin is ascribed to Pope Gelasius I. about 492. 
It wasTfirst called the ctistos, and afterward the brevi- 
ary; and both the clergy aud laity use it publicly and 
at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical or- 
ders about lOSO; and was reformed by the councils of 
Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urbau VIII., aud 
other popes. The quality of type in which the brevi- 
ary was first printed gave the name to the type called 
Brevier. 

BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brewing was 
known to the Anglo-Saxons. — Tindal. " One William 
Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two 
horses all trapped with gold, 1414."— .SYoic. In Oct., 
1851, there were 2305 licensed brewers in Euglaud, 146 
m Scotland, and 97 in Ireland ; total, 2548 : "these are 
exclusive of retail and intermediate brewers. There 
were 40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom 
in 1858, the revenue from whom to the state was in 
that year £81,030. In 1858, in England, there were 205 
great brewers. See Ale, Porter. 

BRIBERY forbidden, Dcttt. xvi., 19. Samuel's sons 
were guilty of it, B.C. 1112 (1 Smn. viii., 3). Thomas 
de Weyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in 1288 ; 
he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. William 
de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was 
hanged for bribery in 1351. Another English judge 
was fined i;20,000 for the like offense, 1016. Mr. Wal- 
pole, secretary at war, was sent to the Tower for brib- 
ery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from 
voting in the Irish House of Lords for soliciting a 
bribe, January, 1784. 

BRIBERY AT Elections. In 1854 an important act 
was passed consolidating and amending previous acts 
relating to this offense, from 7 Will. III'. (1695) to 5 & 6 
Vict., c. 184.* In the United States there are various 
statutory enactments against bribery of elaction, as 
well as against bribery of state oflicers,judges, juries, 
etc. 

BRICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and 
Rome; in Ena;land, by the Romans, about A.D. 44. 
Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 
880. — Saxon Chron. The size regulated by order of 
Charles I., 162.5. Taxed, 1784. The number of bricks 



which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000;- 
in 1830, above 1,1(M1,000,000 ; in 1840, 1,400,000,000 ; and 
in 1850, 1,700,000,000. The duties and drawbacks of 
excise on bricks were repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. 
Cooke and Cunuiugham brought out their machinery, 
by which, it is said, 18,000 bricks may be made in ten 
hours. Messrs. Dixon and Corbett, near Newcastle, 
in 1861, were making bricks by steam at the rate of 
1500 per honr. The machinery is the invention of 
Clayton and Co., London. 

BRIDEWELL, originally a palace of King John, 
near Fleet Ditch, Loudon, was rebuilt by Henry VIII., 
1522, and given to the city for a workhouse by Edward 
VI., 1553. 

BRIDGES were first of wood. The ancient stone 
bridges in China are of great magnitude. Abydos is 
famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built 
across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Trajan's magnificent 
stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was 
built in A.D. 105. Brotherhoods for building^bridges 
existed in S. France about 1180.* 
Triangular bridge at Croyland Abbey referred to 

in a charter dated 943 

First stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, 

by Queen Matilda about 1100-18 

Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1295 

London bridge: one existed about 978; one built 
of wood, 1014 ; one by Peter of Colechurch, 117G 

-1209 ; new London bridge finished 1831 

The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, 

Shropshire 1T77 

Sunderland bridge, by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 

arch with a span of 236 feet 1796 

The fine chain suspension bridge at the Meuai 

Strait 1S25 

The finest suspension bridge in the world is from 
the American to the English shore below Niaga- 
ra. It has a span of 821 feet, and the railway is 
2.54 feet above the water. The bridge is sus- 
tained by 14,560 wires, whose estimated strength 
is supposed equal to a strain of 12,000 tons. 

Completed in 1855 

Westminster, 1750 ; Blackfriars, 1709 ; Waterloo, 
1817; Southwark, 1819 ; Ilungerford, 1S45 ; Chel- 
sea, 1358; Vauxhall, 1816. 
A railway bridge 2)4 miles long is projected over 

the Firth of Forth Dec.,lS64 

Probably the widest bridge in the world at present 
is the Victoria bridge over the Thames (by 
which the London, Chatham, and Dover railway 
will enter the Victoria station, Pimlico) ; found- 
ed by Lord Harris Feb. 22,1865 

For details see separate articles, and also Tubular 
Bridge, Victoria Bridge, etc. 

BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incorporated 
by King .John in 1200. In the war between Cliarles I. 
aud the Parliament, the forces of the latter reduced 
part of the town to ashes, 1043. Here stood an ancient 
castle in which the ill-advised Duke of Monmouth 
lodged when he was proclaimed king in 1085. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of 
the kind in England, was begun by the Duke of Bridge- 
water, styled the father of canal navigation in this 
country, in 1759, and opened 1761. Mr. Brindley was 
the engineer. It commences at Worsley, seven miles 
from Manchester ; and at Barton Bridge is an aque- 
duct which, for upward of 200 yards, conveys the canal 
across the River Irwell. The length of the canal is 
about twenty-nine miles. 

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, 
earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, leaving by 
will £8000, to be given to eight persons, appointed by 
the president of the Royal Society, who should write 
.an essay " on the Power, Wisdom, aud Goodness of 
God, as manifested in the Creation." The essavs (by 
Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William 
Buckland, William Prout, Peter Roget, and the Revs. 
William Whewell and William Kirby) were published 
1833-5. 

BRIEF, a written instrtiment in the Roman Catho- 
lic Church, of early but uncertain date. Briefs are the 
letters of the Poi)e dispatched to princes and others 
on public affairs, and are usually written short, hence 



* On April 17, 1858, in the case of Cooper i;. Slade, it was niled that 
the payment of travelintj expenses was bribery ; and in the same year 
an act was jiassed which permits candidates to" provide conveyance's for 
voters, but forbids payment of traveling expenses. 



* The Devil's bridpre, in the canton of Uri, so called from its fright- 
ful situation, was built on two hi<;h rocks, so that it could scarcely be 
conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented 
to account for it. At Schaffhausen an'extraordinary bridge was built 
over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide ; there was a pier in the 
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upolj 
it : a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet 
wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. The bridge was 
destroyed by the French iu 1799, 



BRI 



99 



BRI 



the name, ami without preface or preamble, aiul on 
paper; iu which jjurticiUars they arc distinguished 
Iroin bulls. The latter are ample, and are always writ- 
ten on i)archment. Briefs are sealed with red wax 
and the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, 
and always in the presence of the Pope. 

BRIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied armies 
of Kussia and Prussia were defeated by the French, 
Feb. 1 and 2, 1S14. 

BRIER CREEK, Battle op. General Ashe, of North 
Carolina, was sent by General Lincoln, with 20U0 men, 
to drive Colonel Camjibcll, the British commander in 
Georgia, from Augusta. Camjibell lied toward Savan- 
nah. Ashe pursiied as far as Brier Creek, 40 miles be- 
low Augusta, where he was surprised aud attacked by 
General Prevost, who was marching to the relief of 
Campbell, on the 3d of March, 1779. In the engage- 
ment Ashe was defeated. He lost his entire army 'by 
death, captivity, aud dispersion. 

BRIGHTON, or Bkigutuelmstoni!, in Sussex, for- 
merly inhabited chiefly by fishermen, now a place of 
fashionable resort. The length of the esplanade here 
from the Steync is about 1250 feet Here Charles II. 
embarked for France after the battle of Worcester. 

BRILL (or Briel), Holland. A sea-port, seized by 
the expelled Dutch confederates, became the first seat 
ot their independence. Brill was given up to the En- 
glish In 15S5 as security for advances made by Queen 
Elizabeth to the States'of Holland. It was restored in 
161C. 

BRISTOL (W. England), built by Brennus, a Brit- 
ish prince, 3S0 B.C., is mentioned in A.D. 430 as a for- 
tified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the val- 
ley of Bath ; aud sometimes Caer Brito, the British 
city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, pleasant place. 
Gildas aud Neuuius speak ofTiristol iu the 5th aud 7th 
centuries. 

Taken by the Earl of Gloucester, in his defense of 
his sister Maud, the empress, against King Ste- 

^ Phen U3S* 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geofl'rev, son of 
Henry I.) dies in the castle after 39 years' impris- 
onment. 1241 

St. ]\Iary's Church built 1292 

Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III 1373 

Bishopric founded by Henry VIII 1.542 

A new charter obtained 15S1 

Taken by Prince Rupert, Julv 26, 1C48 ; by Crom- 
well ." Sept., 1645 

Edward Colston's hospital, a free-school, aud oth- 
er charities established [his birthday, Nov. 14, 

kept annually] 170S 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected 1741 

Bread riots 1753 

Bridge built May, 17C0 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire Jan. 22,1777 

Riot on account of a toll ; the troops fire on the 

populace, aud many are wounded Oct. 25,1793 

Docks built 1S04-9 

Riot on the entrance of Sir Charles Wetherell, the 
recorder, into tlie city. He was opposed to the 
Reform Bill, and thiis obnoxious to the lower 
classes. The mansion house, the bishop's palace, 
several merchants' stores, some of the prisons 
(the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses, 
had been burned and many lives lost, Oct. 29-31,1831 
Trial of rioters,*Jan. 2 (four executed and twenty- 
two transported). Suicide of Col. Breretou dur- 
ing his trial by court-martial Jan. 9,1S32 

Meeting of British Association Au£r.,lS36 

Railway to London completed June 30,1841 

Clifton suspension bridge opened Dec. 8,1SG4 

BRITAIN (called by the Romans Britannia, t from 
its Celtic name Prydhain, Camden). The earliest rec- 
ords of the history of this island are the manuscripts 
and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts, the ances- 
tors of the Britons aud modern Welsh, were the first 
inhabitants of Britain. It is referred to as the Cassi- 
tcrides, or Tin Islands, by Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Al- 
bion, or lernc, by Aristotle, ,'!.5(» B.C.; Polvbius, 260 
B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, aiid Wales, 
was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being 

* From the period of Henry II. in the 15th to the mi.liUe of the isth 
centurv, lirlstol ninkeil next to London ns the most populous, commer- 
ciiil, and nourishins place in the kinffdoin ; but since the latter time it 
liiis declined, anri been exceeded in tlieae respects by Liverpool, Man- 
chester, I^eds, Birminehani, and Cllastrow. 

t The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britannia Prlmn (the 
country Ronth of the Thames and Severn) ; IJrilannla Srninda (Wales) ; 
/Vnrin C<r.wrie)ni.! (between the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Mai- 
tiaa C<riiarientis (between the Humher and the Tyne) ; and Vahnlia 
(between the Tyne and the Firth of Forth). 



applied to all the islands collectively— Albion to only 
one — Phnii. See Albion. It was invaded by Julius 
Cresar, 55 B.C. ; subdued by Agricola, A.D. 84 • left by 
the Romans about 4-J6 ; invaded by the Saxons, 409 ■ 
the southern part became one kingdom under Egbert' 
S2S ; subdued by William I., 1066. See Englanif, Scot- 
land, and Wales. 
Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to 

have supremacy over part of Britain B C 57 

First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under Ju- 
lius CtBsar 55-54 

He clefeats Cassiyelaunus, generai'of theBritons, 54 

C ymbeline (Cunol)ehu), king of Britain 4 

Auhis Plautus defeats the Britous, A.D. 43 •' he" anci 

Vespasian reduce S. Britain .' ' 47 

Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 5o';"carried iii 

chains to Rome 5^ 

Romans defeated by Boadice.aVioiooo'slaiu 'and 
London burnt; she is defeated by Suetonius- 

80,000 slain _ ; g^ 

Agricola conquers Auglesea, and overruns Bri'taiu 
m seven campaigns, and reforms the govern- 
ment 7S-S4 

He defeats the Caledonians under Galgaciis"; sur- 
renders the islands S4 

The Emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120; and bii'iids 

a wall from the Tyne to the Solway 121 

Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an 
embassy on religious afi"airs to Pope Eleutherius 

about isi 

The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons 

by Severus 197 

Southern Britain subdued and divided by the Ro- 
mans into two provinces 204 

Severus keeps his court at York, then c'alledEbo- 
racum, 208 ; finishes his wall, aud dies at York, 211 

Carausius usurps the throne of Britain 280 

He is killed by Alectus, another usurper 294 

Constantius recovers Britain from Alectus 290 

St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede).. 304 

Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York .S06 

British bishops .at the Council of Aries 314 

Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360; routed by 

Theodosius 3(38 

Romans gradually withdraw from Britain 402-418 

The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the 

natives against the Picts and Scots 429 or 449 

Having expelled these, the Anglo-Saxons attack 

the Britons, driving them into Wales 455 

Many Britons settled in Armorica (Britanny). .388^57 
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven 

or more kingdoms 457 

Supposed reigns of Vortigern, 440; Vortimer, 464 ; 
Vortigeru again, 471; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; 

and Arthur Pcndragon ."jOO 

The renowned King Arthur said to reign 500-542 

Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-estab- 
lishment of Christianity 597 

Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns 678 

Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen . . 794 
The Saxon Heptarchy ends, and Egbert, king of 
Wessex, becomes King of England S2S 

KINGS OF THE UEPTAECHY.* 

Kent. ITIie shire of Ketit.J 
454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
488. .(Esc, Esca, or Escus, sou of Hengist; in honor of 

whom the kings of Kent Avere for some time 

called ^scings. 
Octa, sou of jEsc. 

Hermenric, or Erinenric, son of Octa. 
St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled RexAn- 

ciJorwn). 
Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 
Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 
Lother, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 
Edric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject 

to various leaders.] 
Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 

Ethelbert II I ^°"® °^ Wihtred, succeediug each 

Alric, ■') "'l^*''"- 

Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryu ; deposed. 

Cuthred, or Guthred. 

Baldred ; who iu 823 lost his life and kingdom to 
Eguert, king of Wessex. 
SocTii Saxons. [Sv-ssex and Sitrrey.'] 

Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 

Cissa, his son, whose reign was long aud peace- 
ful, exceeding 70 years. 



* The term *' Octarchy" is sometimes used ; Northumbria being 
.ided into Bernicin aud Deira, ruled by separate kings. 



.^ -C C 



BRI 



100 



BRI 



[The South Saxous then fell into an almost total 
dependence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 

64S. Edihvald, Edilwach, Adelvvach, or Kthehvach. 

636. Authun and Berthun, brothers : reigned jointly ; 
vanquished by lua, king of Wessex, 6S9 ; king- 
dom conquered in 725. 

West Saxons. [.Berks, Southampton, Wilts, Somerset, 
Dorset, hevon, and part of Coriiu-aU.'] 

519. Cerdicus. 

534. Cyuric, or Kenrick, son of Cerdic. 

560. Ceawlin, son of Cynric; banished; dies in 593. 

591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 

597. Ceolwulf. 

611.) Cynegils, and in 

614./ Cwichelm, his son, reigned conjointly. 

64.3. Ceuwal, Cenwalh, or Ceuwald. 

672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mcr- 
cia; of great qualities; probably deposed. 

674. Escwine ; in conjunction with Centwine ; on the 
death of Escwine. 

670. Centwine rules alone. 

6S5. Credwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of 
blood, and died there. 

683. lua or Inas, a brave and wise ruler; journeyed 
to Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 

723. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 

740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 

754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his 

friend Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was 
compelled to fly. He was slain by one of his 
victim's retainers. 

755. Cynewulf, or Keuwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth 

of the line of Cerdic ; murdered by a banished 

subject. 
7S4. Bertric, or Beorhtric : poisoned by drinking of a 

cup his queen had prepared for another. 
800. Eguekt, afterward sole monarch of England, and 

Bretwalda. 
East Saxo>-s. lEssex, Middlesex, and 2)art of Herts.} 
526, 527, or 530. Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 
5S7. Sledda, his son. 
597. St. Sebert, or Sabert, son of the preceding ; first 

Christian king. 
614. Saxred, or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sigebert 

and Seward ; all slain. 
623. Sigebert II., suruamed the little ; son of Seward. 
655. Sigebert III., surnamed the good ; brother of Se- 
bert: put to death, 
cot. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Scxbald. 
663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Scbbi, or Sebba, 

who became a monk. 
693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
700. Offa ; left his queen and kingdom, and became a 

monk at Rome. 
709. Suebricht, or Selred. 
73S. Swithred, or Swithed : a long reign. 
792. Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
799. Sigered. 
823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 

Noetuumbbia. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, West- 
moreland, Durham, and Northumberland.} 
\* Northumbria was at first divided into two sepa- 
rate governments, Bernicia and Deira; the former 
stretching from the River Tweed to the Tyiie, and 
the latter from the Tyne to the Humber. 
547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. 
5ii0. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernicia. 
" Ella, king of Deira ; afterward the sole king of 
Northumbria (to 5S7). 
567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea ; Bernicia. 

572. Heodwulf; Bernicia. 

573. Freodwulf; Bernicia. 
580. Theodoric ; Bernicia. 
588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 

593. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 

617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590. The 
greatest prince of the Heptarchy in that age.— 
Hume. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 

634. The kingdom divided : Eaufrid rules in Bernicia, 

and Osric in Deira ; both put to death. 

635. Oswald, slain in battle. 

642. Osweo, or Oswy: a reign of great renown, 

670. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 

685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 

705. O.sred, son of Ealdferth. 

716. C'enric ; sprung from Ida. 

718. Osric, son of Alcfrid. 

729. Cenlwulf ; died a monk. 

737. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 

757. Oswulf, or Osnlf ; slain in a sedition. 

7.59. Edihvald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired. 

705. Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed. 



774. Ethelred, soi] of Mollo; expelled. 

T7S. Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 

789. Osred, son of Aired; fled. 

790. Ethelred restored ; afterward slain. 
794. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 

806. Alfwold. 

808. Erdulf restored. 

809. Eanred. 

841. Kingdom annexed by Eqbeet. 

East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Elj.} 
.571 or ,575. UtTa; a noble German. 
5iS. Titilus, or Titulus, son of Uflfa. 
599. Redwakl, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of 

the East Angles. 
624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
627. Richbert. 

629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 
632. Egfrid, or Egric, cousin to Sigebert. 
635. Anna, or Annas; a just ruler; killed. 

654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 

655. Ethelwald, his brother. 
064. Aldulf, or Aklwulf. 
713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
746. Alphwuld. 

749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 

758. Beorna alone. 

761. Ethelred. 

790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbr.vht ; treacherously put to 
death in Mercia in 792, when Ofi'a, king of Mer- 
cia, overran the country, which was finally sub- 
dued by Eguket. 

Mekoia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Wor- 
cester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, Bucks, 
Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Hutland, Hunt- 
itigdon, and part of Herts.} 

586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 

593. [Interregnum — Ceolric.] 

597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 

615. Ceorl, or Cheorl, nephew of Wibba. 

626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 

655. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 

656. Wulfhere (brother) : he slew his two sons with his 

own hand. 
675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 
704. Cenred, Ceudred, or Kendred ; became a monk at 

Rome. 
709. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred, son of Ethelred. 
716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by one of his own 

chieftains, his successor, after a defeat in battle. 
755. Beorured, or Bernred ; himself slain. 
" Offa ; he formed the great dike on the borders of 

Wales known by his name. 
794. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Ofi'a ; died suddenly. 

" Cenulph, Cenwulph, or Kenulph ; slain. 
S19. Keuelm, or Cenelm, a minor; reigned five months ; 

killed by his sister Quendreda, from the hope of 

reigning. — Hume. 
" Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
821. Beoruulf ; killed by his own subjects. 
823. Ludecan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. 
825. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, S77. 

[The kingdom merged into that of England. 
BRITISH AMERICA comprises Lower and Upper 
Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brnnswick, Newfound- 
land, and Prince Edward's Island, Labrador, British 
Columbia, and Vancouver's Island. Population about 
3,334,000. Delegates from the first si.x provinces met 
at Quebec on Oct. 10, 1804, and on Oct. 20 agreed to the 
basis of a federal union, with the queen as the execu- 
tive (represented by the governor general), a Legisla- 
tive Council of 96 members for life, and a House of 
Commons of 194 members. The project has been 
transmitted to lay before Parliament, and the secre- 
tary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, expressed his ap- 
proval of the plan, Dec. 3, 1864. The plan was opposed 
by New Brunswick, March 7, 1805. Messrs. Cartier 
and Gait came to England in April, 1805, to advocate 
the project, and were well received. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement 
OF SoiENOE was established by Sir David Brewster, 
Sir R. I. Mtirchison, etc., in 1831. Professor John Phil- 
lips was secretary till 1803. It holds annual meetings ; 
the first of which was held at York on Sept. 27, 1831. 
One of its main objects is " to promote the intercourse 
of those who cultivate science with each other." It 
appoints commissions and makes pecuniary grants for 
scientific research; publishes annually a volume con- 
taining Reports of the proceedings. Kew Observatory 
was presented to the association by the queen in 1842. 



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BRITISH COLmiBIA (N. America). In June, 1S58, 
news ciuno to California tliat in April Rokl had been 
found in abundance on the main land of North Amer- 
ica, a little to tlie north and east of Vancouver's Island. 
A ^reat inllux of j;old-dij,',L;ers (ill a few weeks above 
50,01)0) from all parts was the consequence. Mr. Doug- 
las, governor of Vancouver's Island, evinced much 
ability in preserving order. The territory, with adja- 
cent islands, was made a Britisli colony with the above 
title, and placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was 
nominated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vic, 
C. 99 (Aug., 1S5S), and a bishop nominated in 1859. — 
For a dispute in July, 1S59, see United States. 

BRITISH LEGION, raised by Lord John Hay, Col. 
De Lacy Evans, aad others, to assist (jMieen Isabella 
of Spain against the Carlists in 1^.';,'">, del'eated tliem at 
Hernani May 5, 1S3C, and at St. Sebastian's Oct. 1. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the grant bv 
Parliament (April 5, 1T53) of X20,000 to the daughters 
of Sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library, and 
vast collection of the productions of nature and art, 
which had cost him X50,000. The library containecl 
50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 09",;i52 articles 
of virtu enumerated in the catalogue. Montagu House 
■was obtained by government as a place for their recep- 
tion. The museum was opened in 17.59, and has since 
been enormously increased by gifts, bc(iuests, and pur- 
chases; by the Cottoniau,Harleian,and other libraries; 
by the Townley marbles (in 1812) ; by the Elgin marbles 
(ISIO): by the Lyciau marbles obtained by SirC. Fel- 
lows (1S4-2-C) ; by the Assyrian antiquities collected by 
Mr. Austin Layard between 1S47 and 1850; by the an- 
tiquities brought from Halicaruassus (now Budrum), 
including remains of the celebrated tomb of Mausolus, 
by Mr. C. T. Newton (Nov., 1S5S) ; and by antiquities 
from Carthage (ISOO), Cyreue, Rhodes, and the Farnesc 
palace (1804). George II. presented the royal library in 
175T; and in 1S23, George IV. presented the library col- 
lected at Buckingham House by George III., consisting 
of 05,250 volumes, and about 19,000 pamphlets. In 1840 
the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville bequeathed to the mu- 
seum his librar}', consisting of 20,240 volumes. Great 
additions to, and improvements in, the buildings have 
since been made, independently of the annual grant.* 
The fine iron railing inclosing the frontage was com- 

Eleted in 1S52. The'magniflcent reading-room, erected 
y Mr. Sydney Smirke, according to a plan by Mr. An- 
tonio Panizzi, the librarian, at a cost of about £150,000, 
was opened to the public. May IS, 1857. The height 
of the dome is 106 feet, and the diameter 140 feet. The 
room contains aboutSO,OOOvolumes, and accommodates 
300 readers. — The daily increasing library contained in 
ISGO above 502,000 volumes, exclusive of tracts, MSS., 
etc. In 18C1 the incorporation of the four library cat- 
alogues into one alphabet began— three copies being 
made. The proposed separation of the antiquarian, 
literary, and scientific collections was disapproved by 
a commission in ISOO ; and a bill to remove the natu- 
ral history collections to South Kensington was reject- 
ed by the Commons on May 19, 18(52. "A refreshment- 
room for readers was opened Nov. 21, 1804. Mr. Panizzi 
resigned his office in 1805. 

BRITISH PORTRAIT GALLERY. See Xational, 
etc. 

BRITTANY, or Bretagne (N.W.France), the an- 
cient Armorica, which see. It for^ned part of the king- 
dom of the Franks. 

Nomenoi revolts and becomes the first count 841 

Geoft'roy I., the first duke 992 

Alan v., KiOS ; Ccman II 1040 

Hoel v., 1000 ; Alan VI 10S4 

Conan III 1112 

Hoel VI. expelled; Geoftroy of Anjou elected duke, 1155 
Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geoffroy, 
cedes Brittany to Henry II. of England, and be- 
troths his daughter Constance to Henry's sou 

GcofiVoy (l)oth infants) 1159 

Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament . .1185 
His son Arthur murdered by his uncle John of En- 
gland ; his daughter Eleanor imprisoned at Bris- 
tol (for 39 years?) 1202 

Alice, daughter of Constance, and her second hus- 
band, (iuy de Thours, i)roclaimed duchess, 1203 ; 

marries Peter of Dreux, made duke 1213 

John I. duke, 1237 ; John II 1286 

John III., 1312 ; dies without issue _ 1341 

The succession disputed between John of Mdntfort 
(John IV.), supported by Edward of England, 

~» Tlio totiil cxponriitiire hv tho p.vmim.Mit nn tlu-HrilisiriVhiJ^^ 
for tlic vf.ir i-ncliiic MRrch .■?!', Isfid, wau i:7-<,+4r. ; 1m;1, i::ii,77B , \^i\4, 
jE95,51ui: lIieminibcT of visitors to the gi-neral collection in lsf.l (exlii- 
bition yenr), S..'i24,7.14 ; in 1859,517,895; in 1S62 (exhibition year), 
895,007; in 1863,440,801. 



and Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. 
of France. John is made prisoner ; his wife, 
Jane, besieged at Heunebonne, holds out, and i.? 
relieved by the English, 1343 ; John of Montfort 

dies 1345 

Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, Sept. 

29 ; John v., son of Montfort, duke 13C4 

John VL duke, 1,399 ; Francis 1 1442 

Peter IL, 1450 ; Arthur III ',"[[ \u51 

Francis IL, 1458 ; takes part with the Orleanists in 
France ; defeated at St. Aubiu, July 28, 14SS ; he 
dies in 1488; his heiress, Anne, compelled to 
marry Charles VIII. , who annexes Brittany to 

France 1491 

Brittany held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by 

Henry IV 1594 

The Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection 

(see La Vendee) in 1791 

BROCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold or 
silver, and enriched with flowers and figures, original- 
ly made by the Chinese ; the manufacture was estab- 
lished at Lyons in 1757. 

BROCOLI was brought to England from Italy in 
the 17lh century. 

BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, were 
known early in England. See Ajjpraisers. They are 
licensed, and their dealings regulated by law in 1695-0, 
1S16, and 1826. The dealings of stock-brokers were reg- 
ulated in 1719, 1733, and 1730, and subsequently. See 
Pawnbi-oker. 

BROMINE (from the Greek bromos, a stink), a poi- 
sonous volatile liquid element discovered in salt water 
by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in combination with 
metals and mineral waters, but not as yet in the free 
state. 

BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of whose 
bronze statues, vessels, etc., are in the British Museum. 
The bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, iu 
the Place Vendome at Paris (demolished Aug. 10, 1792), 
the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. 
Bronze is composed of copper and tin, with sometimes 
a little zinc and lead. — [Tre. 

BROUGHAM. This popular vehicle is said to have 
been invented iu 1839, and received its name in conse- 
quence of its adoption by Lord Brougham soon after. 

BROWN, FoKT, a work partly completed by the 
Americans on the Rio Grande, opposite Matamoras, 
in the spring of 1846, and commanded by Major Brown, 
in honor of whom it was named. It was cannonaded 
from Matamoras on the 3d of May, 1846. Major Brown 
was mortally wounded. General Taylor marched from 
Point Isabel to its relief, which was afforded after a 
cannonade and bombardment of 160 hours. This was 
the opening of hostilities between the United States 
and Mexico. See Mexican War. 

BROWNIAN MOTION. So called from Robert 
Bro^^Ta, the celebrated botanist, who, iu 1827, by the 
aid of the microscope, observed iu drops of dew a mo- 
tion of minute particles which at first was attributed 
to rudimentary life, but was afterward decided to be 
due to currents occasioned by inequalities of tempera- 
ture and evaporation. 

BROWNISTS (afterward called Barrowists), the first 
Independents {which see), began with Robert I5rown, a 
schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1.5S0. In 1592 there 
were said to be 20,000 Brownists. Henry Penr}', Hen- 
ry Barrow, and other Brownists, were cruelly executed 
for alleged sedition. May 29, 1593. 

BROWNSTOWN (Mich.), 20 miles below Detroit. 
Here 200 Ohio volunteers, under Major Van Home, 
were defeated by some British and Indians on the 4tli 
of August, 1812. The Americans lost 17 killed and 
eight wounded. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the "Abyssin- 
ian Traveler," set out in June, 1708, to discover the 
source of the Nile. Proceeding first to Cairo, he navi- 
gated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to 
the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, passed some 
months in Arabia Felix, au'd after various detentions 
reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb., 1770. 
On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained a sight of the sources 
of the Blue Nile. He returned to England iu 1773, and 
died in 1794. 

BRUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was capital 
of Flanders, andln the 13th and 14th centuries had be- 
come almost the commercial metropolis of the world. 
It suffered much through an insurrection in 1488, and 
the consequent repression. It was incorporitted with 
France in 1794, with the Netherlands in 1814, and with 
Belgium in 1830. 



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BRUNSWICK CLUBS, established to maintain the 
house of Hanover and the Protestant ascendency in 
Church and State, began in England at Maidstone, 
Sept. 18, 1S2S ; in Ireland at the Rotunda in Dublin, 
Nov. 4, same year. Other cities formed similar clubs. 

BRUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of Brunswick, 
in Lower Saxony, was conquered by Charlemagne, and 
governed afterward by coimts and dukes. Albert- 
1.ZZO, marquis of Italy and lord of Este, died in 1055, 
and left by his wife Cunegoude (the heiress of Guelph, 
duke of Carinthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was 
iuvited into Germany by Imitza, his mother-in-law, 
and invested with all the possessions of his wife's 
step-father, Guelph of Bavaria. (See Bavaria.) His 
descendant, Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter 
of ilenry II. of Eugland, and is always looked upon as 
the founder of the'Bruuswick family. His dominions 
were very extensive ; but, having refused to assist the 
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against Pope 
Alexander III., through the emperor's resentment he 
was proscribed at the Diet at Wurtzburg in 1180. The 
duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is de- 
scended the family of Bavaria; the duchy of Saxony 
to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; 
and his other territories to different persons. On this 
he retired to England ; but, at the intercession of Hen- 
ry II., Brunswick and Luneburg were restored to him. 
The house of Brunswick in 1409 divided into several 
branches. Brunswick was included by Napoleon in 
the kingdom of Westphalia in 1S06, but was restored 
to the duke in 1815.— Population of the duchy of 
Brunswick in 1858, 273,400 ; 1862, 282,400. 

DUKES OP BKUNSWIOK. 

1139. Henry the Lion, succeeded by 

1195. Henry the Long and William (sons). 

1213. Otho I. (son of William). 

1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 

12TS. Albert II. (sou.) 

1318. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 

136S. Magnus 11. (Torquatus) (sou of Magnus I.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWIOK-WOLFENBUTTEL. 

First Branch. 

1400. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 

1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). 

1482. Frederick and William II. 1 „ „„ „T■^T^•^^■ t 

1495. Henry III. and Eric. ) ^°°^ °f William L 

1514. Henry IV. (sou of Henry II.) 

1508. Julius (son of preceding). 

1589. Henry-Julius (son). 

1613. Frederick-Ulric (son) died without issue. 
Second Branch. 

1G34. Augustus (son of Henry of Luneberg). 

1606. Rodolph- Augustus; who associated his next 
brother, Anthon3'-Ulric, in the government, 
from 1685; died, 1704. 

1704. Anthony-Ulric now ruled alone ; became a Ro- 
man Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 

1714. Augustus-William (sou). 

1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 

1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brun.swick-Bevern, 
married Autoiuette-Amelia, daughter of Lew- 
is-Rodolph, and succeeded him. 

1735. Charles (sou). 

1780. Chaiies-William-Ferdinand (son) : a great gen- 
eral (served under his uncle Ferdinand in the 
Seven Years' War, 1756-1763) ; married Prin- 
cess Augusta of England ; was killed at the 
battle of Auerstadt, Oct. 14, 1806 ; succeeded 
by his fourth sou (his elder sons being blind, 
abdicated). 

1S03. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated 
from the battle of Leipsic in Oct., 1813 ; fell at 
Quatre-Bras, commanding the avantnardc un- 
der the Duke of Wellington, June' 16, 1815; 
succeeded by his eldest son, 

1815. Charles- Frederick- William; assumed goveni- 
ment Oct. 30, 1823. [Revolution at Brunswick ; 
the duke retires to England, Sept. 7, 1830.] 

1S30. William-Augustus-Louis, brother ; born April 25, 
1806 ; succeeded provisionally, Sept. 7, 1830 ; 
and, on the demand of the Germanic diet, defin- 
itively, April 25, 1831 ; the teebent duke ; un- 
viarricd. (His magnificent palace was destroy- 
ed by Are, Feb. 24, 1865.) 

DUKES OP BKUNSWIOK-LUNEBUKG. 

1409. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick. 

See above). 
1434. Otho and Frederick (his sons). 
1478. Henry (son of Otho). 
1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho.) His sons were 



1546. Henry (founder of seco7ul branch of Brunswick"- 
Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sous 
cast lots to determine who should marry. The 
lot fell on Geokge, sixth son. Four of the 
brothers reigned, viz. : 

1592. Ernest IL ~1 

ion. Christian. i no issue 

1633. Augustus. ^ no issue. 

1636. Frederick ILJ 

1648. Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-men- 
tioned). 

1605. George-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), 
dies in 1705, leaving as heiress Sopiiia-Doko- 
iiiEA, his daughter, who married in 1682 her 
cousin, Prince"GEOKOE-LEwis of Hanover, aft- 
erward George I. of England (son of Ernest of 
Hanover, youngest sou of the above-mentimied 
George). 

(See Hanover and England.) 

BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well Street, London, was 
built to replace the Royaltv, burnt down April 11, 1S26. 
It was opened Feb. 25, 1828. On the 29th the building 
was destroyed by the falling in of the walls, due to too 
much weig'ht being attached to the heavy iron roof. 
Fortunately, the catastrophe happened in the daytime 
(during a rehearsal of Guy Mannering), and only twelve 
persons perished. 

BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, now 
of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. Gery, of 
Cambray, in the 7th century. It is celebrated for its 
fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. The Hotel de Ville has 
a turret 364 feet in height, and on its top is a copper 
figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the 
wind. See Belgium. 
Bombarded by Marshal Villeroi, 14 churches and 

4000 houses destroyed ; Aug., 1695 

Taken by the French, 1746 ; aud by Dumouriez. ..1792 

Tlie revolution commences Aug. 25,1830 

The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in 
consequence of a display of attachment to the 

house of Orange April 5,1834 

Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- 
logical observations held here 1853 

International philanthropic congress meet, Sept., 1856 
International association for social science meet, 

Sept. 22-5,1802 

BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Oltra), S. Italy. The 
Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew Alexander 
of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. They were conquered 
by Rome, 277 B.C. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES. See Comimnies, Law's Bub- 
ble, and South Sea Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS,* piratical adventurers, chiefly 
French, English, and Dutch, who commenced their 
depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after 
the latter had taken possession of that continent and 
the West Indies. Their numbers were much increased 
by a twelve years' truce between the Spaniards and 
Dutch in 1009, when many of the discharged sailors 
joined the buccaneers, aud extended the range of their 
ravages. The first levy of ship-money in England in 
1635 was to defray the expense of chastising these pi- 
rates. The principal commanders of the first bucca- 
neers were Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, 
said to have murdered thousands and plundered "mil- 
lions. The expedition of Van Horn, of 0.-;tend, was 
undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont in 1685 ; and that 
of Pointis in 1697. 

BUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the Doge of Ven- 
ice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, from the 12th 
to the 18th century. 

BUCHAREST (in Wallachia). Preliminaries of 
peace were ratified at this place between Russia and 
Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be 
the frontier of the two empires ; signed May 28, 1812. 
The subsequent war between these powers altered 
many of the provisions of this treaty. Bucharest was 
occupied by the Russians, Turks, and Austrians suc- 
cessively in the Crimean War. The last quitted it in 
1856. 

BITCKINGHAM PALACE, the London residence 
of the sovereign. Old Buckingham House was built 
on the "Mulberry Gardens," by John Sheffield, duke 
of Buckiugham, in 1703. In 1761 it was bought by 
Georije III., who in 1775 settled it on his queen, Char- 
lotte." She made it her town residence ; and here all 

* Raynal asserts that the name is derived from a Caribhae word hou- 
can, siKnifyins: the place where the native savapres dried tfleir food by 
Binolie ; a custom necessarily adopted by the pirates from their mode 
of life. 



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her children, except the eldest, were born. Here were 
married the Duke of York and Princess Frederica of 
Prussia, ill 1791 ; the Duke of Gloucester and Princess 
Mary, 1S16 ; the Prince of Hesse-lloniburi,' and Prin- 
cessElizabeth, tSlS ; and the Duke of Cambridge and 
Princess of Ilesse the same }"ear. The house was pull- 
ed down iu IS'25, and the present i)alace commenced 
on its site. After an expenditure of nearly a million 
sterlini^ it was completed, and occupied by Queen Vic- 
toria, July 13, 1S3T. Farther improvements were made 
in 1S53. The marble arch, taken down from the exte- 
rior of this palace, was re-erected at Cumberland Gate, 
Uyde Park, March '29, 1S51. 

BUCKLERS, used iu single combat, are said to have 
been invented by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos, about 
1370 H.C. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- 
nitcs, he took from them bucklers of gold and silver, 
309 B.C. The light cuirass of the horse-soldiers called 
cuirassiers is something akiu to the ancient buckler. 

BUCKLES were first worn instead of shoe-strings iu 
the reign of Charles IL, and soon became fashionable 
and exjiensive from the richness of their material ; 
about 179^1 they had fallen out of use. Buckles con- 
tinue to be used in court dress and by persons of rank 
iu most countries of Europe. 

B U D A, ou the Danube, once called the Key of 
Christendom, is, iu conjunction with Pesth, the cap- 
ital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne iu 
799, and sacked by Solymau IL after the battle of Mo- 
hatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 
200,000 of his subjects carried away captives, 15'20. 
Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabit- 
ants were put to the sword, and Hungary was annex- 
ed to the Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Im- 
perialists under the Duke of Lorraine, and the Moham- 
medans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, IGSO. 
It suflered much iu 1S4S-9. See Hungary. 

BUDDHISM, the religion (formerly of India, and now 
of a large part of Asia beyond the Ganges aud Japan) 
from which Brahminism is Said to be derived. Buddha 
(also Bud, Bot, and Poot), or the Wise, flourished about 
1000 or SUO B.C. The Buddhists believe the soul is an 
emanation from God, and that if it continue virtuous, it 
will return to him ou the death of the body ; but if 
not so, that it will undergo various degrees and changes 
of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India about 
A.D. 950. 

BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Cornwall, 
the residence of Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, its invent- 
or) consists of two or more concentric "argand gas- 
burners, one rising above another, which produce a 
most brilliant flame, like the petals of t^ rose. The 
illuminatiug powers were increased by subjecting to 
the action of the flame manganese, etc., iu order to 
produce oxygen aud hydrogen gas. The patent was 
issued iu lS4i. 

BUENA VISTA, Battle of. This important con- 
flict took place on the 2'2d and 23d of February, 1S47. 
Taylor, with only about 5000 men (500 of them regu- 
lars), was compelled to confront a Mexican army of 
20,000, under General Santa Anna, not far from San 
Luis Potosi. There was slight skirmishing ou the 
22d, but on the morning of the 23d a terrible battle 
opened. The conflict was a fierce and bloody one. 
The Americans held the field, and that night the Mex- 
icans withdrew, leaving their dead and wounded be- 
hind. The American.s'lost 267 killed, 4.5G wounded, 
aud 23 missing. The Mexicans lost almost 2000. They 
left 500 of their comrades dead ou the field. See yiex- 
ican War. 

BUENOS AYRES, a republic of S. America. The 
country was explored by Sebastian Cabot iu 1526, and 
the capital founded by Don Pedro de Meudoza in 1.535. 
In l.^-^S the city was rebuilt and recolouized, after 
several abandonments. Population in 1S59 about 
35(t,000. 

A British fleet aud army, under Sir Home Popham 
and General Beresford, take the city with slight 

resistance, June 27 ; it is retaken Aug. 12 ISOG 

Monte Video taken by storm by Sir Saniuel Auch- 

muty, Feb. 3 ; evacuated July 7 1807 

General Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos 

Ayrcs : severely rei)ulsed July 5,1807 

Independence of the province declared July 19,1816 

Recognized as forming part of the Argentine Con- 
federation ■ .^ Feb.,lS22 

[A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues 
of Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, aud others, for many 
years.! f 
Oribe defeated by General Lrquiza, to whom Bue- 
nos Ayres capitulates Feb. 3,1852 



Rosas flees ; arrives at Plymouth April 25,1S52 

Urquiza deposed, Sept. 10 ; invests the city ; after 
some successes he retires Dec, " 

Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine Confed- 
eration, aud i.s recognized as au independent 
state ; the first governor. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, 
elected Oct. 12,1853 

Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor May,lS57 

V/>a.T breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces of 
the Argentine Confederation, has an indecisive 
conflict with the Buenos Ayres General Mitre, 

Oct. 23, 1S59 

A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is reunited 
with the Argentine Confederation Nov. 11, " 

Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza iu au al- 
most bloodless contest at Pavou; Urquiza re- 
tires .* Sept. 17,1801 

BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks iu the 
Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged by 
Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98. See Jesters. 

BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in caves ; 
wood and clay were the first building materials. 
Building with stone was early among the'Tyrians ; in 
England it may be referred to Benedict the monk, 
about 670. In "Ireland a castle was built of stone at 
Tuam by the King of Connaught in 1161 ; and it was 
" so new and uncommon as to be called the Wonderful 
Castle." Building with brick was introduced by the 
Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it 
in Euglaud in 880. It was adopted by the Earl of 
Arundel about 1598, London being then almost wholly 
built of wood. See Architecture. 

BULGARIA, anciently McEsia, now part of European 
Turkey. The Bulgarians were a Slavonian tribe, who 
harassed the Eastel-n empire and Italy from 499 to 678, 
when they established a kingdom. They defeated 
Justinian II., 687 ; but were subdued, after several con- 
flicts, by the Emperor Basil, iu 1018, who, in 1014, hav- 
ing taken 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, caused their 
eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hun- 
dredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen 
home. The kingdom was re-established in 1096, but, 
after many changes, it was conquered and annexed to 
the Ottoman Empire about 1391. In Jan., 1S61, it was 
stated that the Bulgarians had seceded from the Greek 
to the Roman Church. 

BULL, OK Edict of the Pope. The bulla is prop- 
erly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or wax. Ou 
one side the heads of Peter and Paul, and on the other 
the name of the pope, and year of his pontificate. A 
bull against heresy was issued by Gregory IX. in 1231. 
Pius V. published a bull against Eliz^abeth, April 25, 
1570 ; in 1571 bulls were forbidden to be promulgated 
iu England. The bull Uni(iemtus against the Jausen- 
ists was issued by Clement XI. iu 1713. The Golden 
Bull of the Emperor Charles IV., so called from its 
golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the 
German Empire at the Diet of Nuremburg, 1356. 

BULL-BAITING, or Bnr.i. Fighting, a sport some- 
what equivalent to the fights of the gladiators among 
the Romans, still exists in Spain, where the ladies are 
among the spectators. It is recorded as being an 
amusement at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 
1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury iu 1374. 
In the Sports of Evfikmd we read of the "Easter fierce 
hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, 
and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ;" 
aud near the Clink, Loudon, was the Paris, or Bear 
Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the 
exhibition of l>ear-baiting, then a fashionable amuse- 
ment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out 
iu the Commons, chiefly through the influence of the 
late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in fa- 
vor of the custom, ISIay 24, 1802. It was made illegal 
iu 18.35. See Crurlti; to Animals. Bull-figlils were in- 
troduced into Spaiii about 1260; abolished there, "ex- 
cept for jjiovs and jmtriotic purposes," in 1784. In 
June, 18.33, ninety-nine bulls were killed at bull-fights 
at Madrid. There was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo 
de Santa Anna, atteuded by 10,000 spectators, ou Sun- 
day, June 14, 1840. 

BULLETS of stone were iu use, 1514. Iron ones 
are mentioned iu the Foedcra, 1550. Leaden bullets 
were made before the close of the 16th century. The 
cannon-ball iu some Eastern countries was long of 
stone.— yls/tf'. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invent- 
ed by Capt. Miuie about 1833 ; a modification of this 
(conoidal, but without cup), by Mr. Pritchett (1853), is 
used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have been 
since devised. 

BULL RUN BATTLES. See Manassas. 



BUL 



104 



BUR 



B■DL^\^R - CLAYTON TREATY, ratified July 4, 
1S50, by which Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer on behalf of 
the British, aud Mr. Claytou ou behalf of the Ameri- 
can government, declared that neither would obtain 
exclusive control over the proposed shijj canal through 
Central America, or erect any fortification on any part 
of the country. Disputes afterward arose with respect 
to this treaty and the connection of Great Britain with 
the Mosquito territory {which see), which were settfed 
in 1857. 

BUNKER'S HILL, Battle op (near Boston), was 
an engagement between American aud British troops 
on the 17th of June, 1775. The former were command- 
ed by Colonel Prescott and General Putnam, and the 
latter by General William Howe. The British loss, in 
killed and wounded, was.1054 ; that of the Americans, 
450. Although the Americans were driven from their 
position after their powder was exhausted, and the 
triumph of arms was with the British, the moral eflect 
of this first battle of the Americans, and the immense 
loss to the enemy, made it equivalent to a victory for 
the Republicans. On the ground where the hottest 
of the battle was fought, a granite obelisk, 220 feet in 
height, has been erected in commemoration of the 
event at a cost of $100,000, raised by voluntary sub- 
scription. The corner-stone was laid by General La- 
fayette, when the guest of the United States in 1825. 
It was completed iii July, 1842. 

■ BURGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a distinc- 
tion coeval in England with its corporations. They 
were called to Parliament in England, 1265 ; in Scot- 
land in 132(5 ; and in Ireland about 13G5. BurMsses 
to be resident in the places they represented in Parlia- 
ment, 1 Hen. V. (1413). Durinf' the colonial period the 
House of Representatives of Virginia was called the 
House of Burgesses. See Boroucjh. 

BURGLARY is breaking into an occupied house in 
the night, and in the United States is punished by im- 
prisonment for terms ranging in the different states, 
and with the degree of atrocity proved. It was a cap- 
ital offense in England until 1829. Formerly, he who 
convicted a burglar was exempted from parish offices, 
16'.)9 ; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 1700 ; and 6 Geo. I., 
1720. Receivers of stolen plate and other goods to be 
transported, 10 Geo. III., 1770. Persons having upon 
them picklock- keys, etc., to be deemed rogues and 
vagabonds, 13 Geo. III., 1772-73. The laws with re- 
spect to burglary were amended by Mr. (afterward Sir 
Robert) Peel's acts between 1823 and 1829. 

BURGOS (Spain), the burial-place of the Cid, 1099. 
Lord Wellington entered Burgos on Sept. 19, after the 
battle of Salamanca (fought July 22, 1812). The castle 
■was besieged by the British aud allied army, but the 
siege was abandoned Oct. 21, same year. The fortili- 
cations were blown up by the French, June 12, 1S13. 

BURGUNDY, a large province in France, derives 
its name from the Burguudiaus, a Gothic tribe who 
overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out by the Em- 
peror Probus : they returned in 287, and were defeated 
by Maximin. In 413 they established a Kingdom, com- 
prising the present Burgundy, large parts of Switzer- 
land, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, etc. Gondicar, 
their leader, was the first king. — The second kingdom, 
consisting of a part of the first, began with Goutran, 
son of Clotaire I. of France, in 501. The kingdom 
of Aries, Provence, and Transjurane Burgundy were 
formed out of the old kingdom. — In 877 Charles the 
Bald made his brother-in-law Richard the first Duke 
of Burgundy. In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, 
founder of the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. 
His descendant, Henry, on becoming King of France, 
conferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it 
remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, without 
issue, in 1301. In 1363, King Joliu of France made his 
fourth son, Philip, duke, who greatly enlarged his do- 
minions by marrying the heiress of Louis, count of 
Flanders, Artois, etc. (See Austria and Germany.) 
1363. Philip the Bold. 

1404. John the Fearless (son), joined English invading 
France ; supposed to have been privy to the 
assassination of the Duke of Orleans in 1407 ; 
was himself assassinated at Montereau, in the 
presence of the dauphin, Sept., 1419. 
1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke 
in the world ; married to Margaret of York, 
sister to Edward IV. 
1467. Charles the Bold: killed in an engagement with 

the Swiss, before Nancy, Jan. 4, 1477. 
1477. Mary (daughter) ; married August, 1477, to Maxi- 
milian of Austria ; died March 27, 1482. 
1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The 
other dominions fell to Austria. 



BURIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Machpelah, . 
1800 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial were conse- 
crated under Pope Calixtus I. in A.H.'iM.—Eusehius. ^ 
The Greeks had their burial-places at a distance from 
their towns ; the Romans near the highways ; hence 
the necessity for inscriptions. The first Christian 
burial-place, it is said, was instituted in 596 ; burial in 
cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 
758. Many of the early Christians are buried in the 
catacombs at Rome. See Catacombs. Vaults were 
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woolen 
shrouds were used in England, 1666. Linen scarfs 
were introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and 
woolen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695— 
again, 1783. The acts relating to metropolitan burials 
were passed 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1857. See Ctmeterics. 
Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages 
were instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, 
about 15oS.—Stoio. A tax was enacted on burials in 
England— for the burial of a duke, X50, aud for that of 
a common person, 4s. — under Will. III., 1695, and Geo. 
in.,17S3. ^ee Bills of Mortality. 

BURKING, a new species of murder, coiflmitted in 
Britain, thus named from Burke, the first known crim- 
inal by whom it was perpetrated. His victims were 
killed by pressure or other modes of suffocation, and 
the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, 
were sold to the surgeons for dissection. He was ex- 
ecuted at Edinburg, Jan. 28, 1829. A monster named 
Bishop was appreliended in Nov., 1831, and executed 
in London, Dec. 5, with Williams, one of his accom- 
plices, for the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy 
named Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and 
other similar murders. 

BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. Here a fierce contest 
took place between the British and American forces, 
June 6, 1813. The British carried the Heights. 

BURMESE, OK BIRMAN EMPIRE, founded in the 
middle of the ISth century by Alompra, the first sover- 
eign of the preseut dynasty. England's first dispute 
with this formidable power in 1795 was amicably 
adjusted by General Erskine. Hostilities were com- 
menced by the British in 1824, aud they took Rangoon 
on May 11. The fort and pagoda of Syriam were taken 
in 1825. After a short armistice, hostilities were re- 
newed, Dec. 1, same year, and pursued until the suc- 
cessive victories of the British led to the cession of 
Arracau, and to the signature of peace, Feb. 24, 1820. 
For the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, see 
India. Pegu was annexed to the British Indian em- 
pire, Dec. 20, 1852. The war ended June 20, 1853. 

BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the Ro- 
mans, Jews, and other nations, on the betrayers of 
counsels, incendiaries, and for incest. The Britons 
punished heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker- 
baskets. See Stonehenge. — This punishment was coun- 
tenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered 
in this manner. See Witches. Many persons have 
been burned alive on account of religious principles. 
The first sufferer was Sir William Sawtre, parish priest 
of St. Osyth, London, 3 Hen. IV., Feb. 9, 1401. In the 
reign of Mary numbers were burned ; among others, 
Ridley, bishop of London, Latimer, bishop of Roches- 
ter, and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, at Oxford 
in 1555 and 15.56.* Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward 
Wightman were burned for heresy in 1612, by warrant 
of James I. 

BURNING THE DEAD was practiced among the 
Greeks and Romans, and the poet Homer gives de- 
scriptions of it. It was very general about 1225 B.C., 
and was revived by Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still 
practiced in parts of the East Indies. Its revival has 
been advocated within a few years in the United States, 
Great Britain, and France. See Stittees, Barroivs. 

BURNING-GLASS and Concave Mieeoks. Their 
power was known to Arcliimedes, and it is even as- 
serted that by their aid he burnt a fleet in the harbor 
of Syracuse, 214 B.C. ; their powers were increased by 
Settalla ; Tschirnhausen, 1680 ; Buffon, 1747 ; and Par- 
ker and others more recently. The following experi- 
ments were made about isdo, with Mr. Parker's lens 
or burning mirror, which costX700, and is said to have 
been the "largest ever made. It was sold to Captain 
Mackenzie, who took it to China, aud left it at Pekin. 



* It is computed thnt during the throe years of Mary's rciprn there 
were 277 persons brought to the stake, besides those who were pun- 
ished by Imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who 
sutTered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 
tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 56 women, and 4 
children. The principal agents of the queen were the Bishops Gar- 
diner and Bonner. The latter is said to have derived a savage pleas- 
ure from witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 



BUR 



105 



BYZ 



Substances fused. ■n-eielit. Time. 

Pure gold oq grains 4 seconds. 



3 
20 

3 

3 
12 
45 
25 

G 
80 
75 
24 



Silver 20 

<-'i>Pl'er .'."!!'.!83 

riatina 10 

Cast irou (a cube) !!'.!! 10 

Steel 10 

A topaz 3 

Au emerald ' 2 

A crystal pebble 7 

Flint 10 

Cornelian 10 

Pumice stone 10 ^-t 

Green wood takes lire instantaneously water boils 

immediately; bones are calcined; and things not 

capable of melting at once become red-hot, like iron. 

BURY ST. EDMUND'S, Suffolk, named from St. 

Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was murdered by 

the Danes m STO, and buried here, and to whom its 

maguiiicent abbey was founded. It shares with Run- 

nymede the honor of producing Magna Charta in 1''15 

it having been prepared here by the barons in l''l4' 

Henry \I. summoned a Parliament in 1447, when 

Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and 

died here, it is supposed by poison. It was almost 

consumed by fire iu IGOS, and was desolated by plague 

BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in 
Bceotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of 
Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman 
vestals were subjected to it for any levity that excited 
suspicion of their chastit)-. The vestals buried alive 
on a charge of incontinence were Miuutia, 337 B C ■ 
Sextilla, 274 B.C. ; Conielia, A.D. 92. Lord Bacon o-'ives 
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been 
buried ahve; the famous Duns Scotus is of the num- 
ber. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, president of 
Greece, were sentenced to be immured in brick walls 
built around them up to their chins, and to be sup- 
plied with food in this species of torture until they 
died, Oct., 1S31. ^ 

BUSACO, or Bczaco (Portugal). Here the British, 
under Lord Wellington, repulsed the French army 
commanded by Massena, Sept. 27, 1810 ; the latter los- 
ing one general and 1000 men killed, two generals and i 
about 3000 men wounded, and several hundred pri«on- 
ers; the loss of the Allies did not exceed 1300. The 
British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, which 
were too strong for Alassena to force, and the two ' 
armies remained iu sight of each other to the end of 
the year. 

BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to contain 
eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VHL, 1520 • the le"-al 
Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. Ill ,' 1697 • the 
irnperial corn bushel of 221S-192 cubic inches is to the 
Wiuches^ter of 21.50-42 as 32 to 31. Reirulated by act 
S Geo. I\., June, 1S24, which act came into operation 
dan. 1, 1S26. The same In the United States. 

BUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf), attacked bv sea by 
Sir H. Leeke and by laud by General Stalker, was taken 
Dec. 10, 1S.56. The place proved stronger than was ex- 
pected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stop- 
ford and Col. ^falet were killed iu a previous attack 
on the fort at Reshire, Dec. 9. The loss of the British 
was four officers killed and one wounded; five men 
Killed and thirty-five wounded. • 

BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance 
ot the human features is the same with the hennce of 
the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the invent- 
or of moulds, from which he cast wax figures, 32S B C 
—Plii'V- Busts from the face in plastei^of Paris were 
lirst taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A. D. 14GG 
Smaller busts and statuettes are now accurately pro- 
duced from larger ones by machinery. 

BUTE ADMINISTRATION. John, ear] of Bute, 
tutor of Prince George (afterward George III.), ob- 
tained great influence over him. His administration 



formed iu May, 1762 ; resigned April, 1TC3. It was se- 
verely attacked by Junius and John Wilkes 
John, earl of Bute, First Lord of the Treamrv. 
Sir Jniucis Dashwood, Chancellor of the Exchequer 
Lord Greuville, President of the Council. ^ 

Duke of Bedturd, rrivy Seal. 
Earl of Halifax, Admiralty. 

Jca?!^"''^'"""' ""'^ ^''"'■S'^ Grenville, Secretaries of 
Lord Ligonier, Ordnance. 

^i-wl"^' '''^'"■'^^''^ Lo""*! Holland, Paymaster of the 
Viscoiint Barrington, Treasurer of the Xavy. 
Lord Sandys, I<'^rst Lm-d of Trade 

lord^SMta""*"' ^''' '^''"'°*' ^°'"^ Huntingdon. 

BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had anv 
uotion of butter, and by the early Romans it w^s used 
&f h'^ medicine-never as food. The Christians of 
Eppt burnt binter m their lamps instead of oil in the 
od century. Butter forming an important article of 
commerce as well as food in Great Britain, various 
statutes have been passed respecting its package 
Til^h'n"'^ f?!*"' the principal of which are the 3Gth 
& 3bth Geo. III. and 10 George IV., 1,^29. In Africa 
yegetablebutter is made from the fruit of the shea- 
tree, and IS of richer taste, at Kebba, than auv butter 
made from cow's mii]^. Munyo Park. The" import 
«Q^i?-,nft-e?^'' ''Z\- °'' ^^'■«'«° '^""er (producing in 
1S59 £104,587 on 421,354 cwts.) was repealed iu 1860. 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture iu England- 
those covered with cloth were prohibited by a statute' 
thereby to encourage the manufacture of 'metal but- 
tons, 8 Geo. L, 1721. They are now made of glass 
porcelain, etc. " ' 

op-^l-?,^?-' \}°'^^ in Bengal, near to which, on Oct. 
ii'}t°^' ^"" Hector Monro (with 857 Europeans and 
6215 Sepoys, gamed a great victory over the troops of 
the Nabob of Oude, etc., 50,000 in number; 6000 of 
tliese were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon were taken 
The loss ot the English was trifling. 

BY-LAM'S, OE Bye-Laws (from Danish, bj/e), a town 
private ordinances made by subordinate communities' 
such as corporations. These laws must not militate 
against the law of the laud. By 5 & 6 Will IV 1834 
those made by corporate bodies become valid if not 
disallowed by the king's council within forty days ' 
after their enactment. 

BYNG, Hon. Admiral JonN, was charged with ne''- 
lect of duty m an engagement with the enemy off Mi- 
norca, May 20, 1856, condemned for an error of jude- 
ment and shot on board the Monarch at Spithead. 
March 14, 1757. ' 

BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Bvron left En- 
gland on his voyage round the globe June 21, 17G4 
and returned May 9, 1760. He discovered the popu- 
lous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name 
Aug. 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was 
his general ill fortune at sea that he was called by the 
sailors of the fleet " Fouhveather Jack." 

BYZANTIUM, now Constantimiile, founded by a 
colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. • but va- 
rious dates and persons are given. It was taken suc- 
cessively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spartan* In 
340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, the Bvzan- 
tines defeated the fleet of Philip of Macedon. Dnrintr 
the wars with Macedon, Syria, etc., it became an ally 
of the Romans, by whom it was taken, A.D. 73. Re- 
belling, it was taken after two vears' siege and laid in 
rums by Severus in 196. Byz.intium was re-founded by 
Constantine in 324, and dedicated iu Mav 22, 330 ail 
the heathen temples being destroved ; from him it re- 
ceived the name of Constantinople. See Oomtantino- 
pie. Byzantine Akt flourished from the time of Con- 
stantine to about 1204. The Bvzantine or Eastern 
Empire really commenced in A.D. 395, when Theodo- 
sius divided the Roman Empire. See East 



CAB 



106 



CAI 



c. 



CABAL (from Italian and Spanish, cabala, secret 
knowledge). In English history the term was applied 
to the cabinet of Charles II. in 1070, the word Cabal 
being formed from the initials of their names: Sir 
Thomas, afterward Lord Clifford (C) ; the Lord Ash- 
ley (A), (afterward Earl of Shaftesbury) ; George Vil- 
liers, duke of Buckingkam (B) ; Henry, lord Arhugton 
(A) ; and John, duke of Lauderdale (L). 

CABBAGE. Varieties were brought to England 
from Holland about 1510. To Sir Arthur Ashley, of 
Dorset, the first planting in England is ascribed. It 
was introduced into Scotland by^tbe soldiers of Crom- 
well's army. See Gardening. 

CABBALA, a Hebrew word signifying recension or 
tradition, applied to a mystical mode of interpreting 
the Scriptures as well as natural things, said to have 
been given to Adam by angels, and transmitted from 
father to sou bv his descendants. It is said to have 
been lost at the'Babylouiau captivity (.587 B.C.), but to 
have been revealed again to Ezra. The Cabbalists 
were opposed by the philosophers and by Talmudists, 
lohich see. 

CABINET COUNCIL. In the U. S. government the 
heads of the difterent departments compose a council, 
which is known as a cabinet. They are appointed by 
the President, and hold office at his will, and are, under 
him, the executive officers of the general government. 
The Secretaries ot State, Treasury, War, Navy, Interior, 
and the Postmaster Oeneral a.nA. Attorney General, form 
the cabinet. There were councils in England as early 
as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, 690 ; Offa, 
king of the Mercians, 753; and in other reigns of the 
Heptarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the 
Great. — Spelman. See Administrations, p. 22. 

CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792 for mak- 
ing the largest, by which human labor was reduced 
nine tenths. Chain cables were introduced into the 
British navy about 1812. 

CABRIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, 
were introduced into the streets of Loudon in 1S23, 
when the number plying was twelve. In 1831 they 
had increased to 16.5, and then the licenses were thrown 
open. The number in 1862 running in the metropolis 
exceeded 6000 (of which about 1800 only plied on Sun- 
day). Previous to throwing open the trade the num- 
ber of hackney carriages was limited to 1200, when 
there were few omnibuses, ivhich see. 

CABUL, OK Cabooi., a city of Afghanistan, taken 077 
by Subuctajeen, grandfather of Mohammed, fimnder 
of the Gasnevide dynasty. It was taken by Nadir 
Shah in 173S. It was the capital of the Durani empire 
at the end of the last century. In 1S09, the sovereign. 
Shah Soojah, was expelled, and eventually Cabul came 
into the hands of Dost Mohammed, a clever and ambi- 
tious chieftain. In 1839 the British restored Shah Soo- 
jah ; but in 1S42 a dreadful outbreak took place. The 
chief British civil officer. Sir Wm. M'Naghten, was 
massacred, and the British commenced a most disas- 
trous retreat. Of 3840 soldiers and about 12,000 camp 
followers, only one European, Dr. Dryden, and four or 
five natives, escaped. In the same year (Sept. 16), Gen- 
eral, afterward Sir George, Pollock retook the town, 
and rescued Lady Sale and many of the prisoners. 
After destroying many public buildings, he left Cabul 
to its fate, Oct. 12, 1842. 

CiVCHET. See Lettres de Cachet. 

CADDEE, OR League of God's Hottse, the celebra- 
ted league of independence in Switzerland, formed by 
the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1400 to 1419. A 
second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or 
Gray League, about 1424. A third league, called the 
League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436. 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irish- 
man, a fugitive on account of his crimes, assumed the 
name of Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish 
men, who armed "to punish evil ministers and pro- 
cure a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew 
Sir Humphry Stafford, at Sevenoaks, June 27, 14.')0 ; en- 
tered London in triumph, and beheaded the lord treas- 
urer, Lord Saye, and several other persons of conse- 
quence, July 3. The insurgents at length losing 
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, 



deserted by his followers, fled. A reward was offered 
for his apprehension : he was discovered, and, refus- 
ing to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff 
of Kent, July 11. 

CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Roman Ga- 
des ; said to have been built by the Phoenicians. 
One hundred vessels of the Spanish Armada de- 
stroyed in the port by Sir Francis Drake 1587 

Cadiz was taken by the French, under the Earl of 

Essex, and plundered Sept. 15,1.596 

Vainly attacked by Sir George Rooke 1702 

Bombarded by the British in 1797 

Blockaded by" Lord St.Viucent for two years — 1797-9 

Again bombarded by the British Oct.,lS00 

AFrench squadron of five ships of the line and a 
frigate surrender to the Spaniards and British, 

June 14,1808 
Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised 

aftel- the battle of Salamanca July,1812 

Massacre of a thousand inhabitants by the sol- 
diery Alarch 10,1820 

Taken by the French in 1823, and held till 1828 

Declared a free port 1829 

CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer iu 
1818. 

CAEN (N. France), a place of importance before 912, 
when it became the capital of the possessions of the 
Normans, under whom it flourished. It was taken by 
the English in 1340 and 1417, but was finally recovered 
by the French in 1450. 

CAERNARVON (N.Wales). In the castle (founded 
in 1283 or 12S4) Edward II. was born, April 25, 1284 ; 
and the town was chartered by Edward I. in the same 
j'ear. The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, 
but was finally retained for the Parliament. 

CESAREAN SECTION, which, it is said, first gave 
the name of Cresar to the Roman family, is performed 
by cutting the child out of the womb when it can not 
otherwise be delivered. The case of Alice O'Neal, an 
Irishwoman who survived the section, which was per- 
formed by a female, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel 
King, of Armagh, and Surgeon Duncan Stewart, of 
Dungannon. In Jan., 1847, the operation was per- 
fornied in St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, on a 
young woman of diminutive stature, under the influ- 
ence of ether; but she died the next day. On Dec. 9, 
1860, a similar operation was successfully performed 
by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the 
Continent the operation is said to have been more fre- 
quent and more successful. Cooper's Surgical Dic- 
tionary (ed. 1861) contains a table, which, out of 2009 
cases, gives a mortality of 55 -4 per cent, of the moth- 
ers and 29-45 per cent, of the children. 

C^SARS. See Rome ; Em2}erors. The Era of the 
Coesars, or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the 1st of 
Jan., 33 B.C., being the year following the conquest of 
Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa.Spain, 
and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 
its use was abolished iu all the churches dependent on 
Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Aragon abolished the use of 
it in his dominions in 13.50. "John of Castile did the 
same in 1383. It was used in Portugal till 141.5, if not 
till 1422. The months and days of this era are identi- 
cal with the Julian Calendar ; and to turn the time into 
that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year ; but 
if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 

CESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found 
in some mineral waters by Bunsen in 1861, by means 
of the "Spectrum analysis," which see. 

CAFFRARIA, and Caffee Wak. See Kaffraria. 

CAGLIARI. See KapUs, note. 

CA IRA ! the burden of a popular song during the 
French Revolution, 1791 : 

" Ah ! qa. ira, ?a ira, i;a ira ! Les Aristocrates a la lanterne !" 
(" It wiU proceed ! etc. Hanj; the aristocrats.") 

CAI-FONG (China), was besieged by 100,000 rebels 
in 1642. The commander of the relieving forces, in 
order to drown the enemy, broke down its embank- 
ments. All the besiegers perished ; but 300,000 of the 
citizens also. 



CAI 



107 



CAL 



CAIRO, OP. Gn.vNTi CAtno, the modern capital of 
Esypt, remarkable for the minarets of its mosques and 
tlie sepulchres of its caliphs in what is called the "city 
of the dead." 

It was built by the Saracens 060 

Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Crusaders,1220 
Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans.. .1517 
Ituiiiod bv an earthquake and a. great lire, when 

4ii,(Hi(> iKTsoiis perished Junc,1754 

Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte ; 

tlicv enter the city July '2.S,179S 

Takeii by the British and Turks, when 6000 French 

capitulated June 27, ISOl 

CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia, S.E. Italy), was 
conquered by the Romans 26t> B.C. It formed part of 
the kingdom of tlie Ostrogoths under Theodoric, A.D. 
493 ; was reconquered (for the Eastern Empire) by Be- 
lisarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined to 
the duchy of Benevento, .^72. After various changes, 
it was conquered by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 
105S, who obtained the title of Duke of Calabria, and 
eventually that of King of Naples. See Naples. 

CALAIS (N.W. France), taken by Edward IIL after 
a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1.''.47, and held by England 210 
years. It was retaken by the Duke of Guise in the 
reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 155S, and its loss so deeply touch- 
ed the queen's heart as to cause some to say it occa- 
sioned her death, which occurred soon afterward, Nov. 
17 same year. "When I am dead," said the queen, 
" Calais will be found written on my heart." It was 
held by the Spaniards, 1594-0, and was bombarded by 
the English, 1094. Here Louis XVIIL landed after his 
long exile from France, Ajjril, 1S14. 

,.^ CALATRxVVA. See Knighthood. 

^ CALCIITM, the metallic base of lime, was discover- 
ed at the Royal Institution, London, by Humphry Da- 
vy in 1S03. 

CALCULATING MACHINES. With the utmost 
care, errors in computation and in printing will al- 
ways occur in logarithms and tables of figures. To 
avoid them, machines to calculate and print have been 
devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of age, invent- 
ed one about 1650. The construction of Mr. C. Bab- 
bage's machine was commenced at the expense of gov- 
ernment in 1S21, and continued till 1S33, when the w-ork 
was suspended after an expenditure of above £15,000. 
The portion completed is in the library of King's Col- 
lege, London. In 1S57, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, two 
Swedish engineers, published in London specimen ta- 
bles, calculated and printed by machinery constructed 
between 1837 and 1S43, after a study of the account of 
Mr. Babbage's machine. jSIessrs. Scheutz brought 
their machine to England in 1854. It was bought for 
$1000 by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an American merchant, 
to be presented to Dudley Observatory, Albany, N.Y. 
In 18.57, Messrs. Scheutz were engaged to make one for 
the British government, which is now completed. Mr. 
Wiberg's niachine, exhibited at Paris, Feb., 1863, was 
much commended. Tables constructed by means of 
Scheutz's machine, edited by Dr. W. Farre, were pub- 
lished by the government in 1S64. 

CALCUTTA, capital of Benojal and British India. 
The first settlement of the English here was made in 
1689. 

It was purchased as a zemindary, and Fort Wil- 
liam built, in 1698 

Made the head of a separate i)residency 1707 

The fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 
horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 of the 
British crammed into the "Black-hole Prison," 
a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence 23 
only came forth the next morning alive), June 18,1756 
Calcutta retaken by Clive, and the Soubah put to 

death Jan. 2,17.57 

Supreme court of judicature established 1773 

College founded 1801 

Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act July,1813 

An industrial exhibitiim held in Jan., 1855 

Great cyclone, followed by a "bore" or spring tide 
in the Hooghly; water rises 30 feel high; im- 
mense damage done to shipping and houses ; 

43 lives lost in Calcutta (see Cijclonc) Oct. 5,1864 

Population in 18.50, 413,582. 

(See Bengal and India.) 

CALEDONI.\ (now Scotland). The name is sup- 
posed by sonic to be derived from Gael, or Gad-men, or 
GaiJi'l-liiilne. corrnjitcd l)y the Romans. Tacitus, who 
died 99, distiniruislu's this portion of Britain by the ap- 
pellation of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it 
retained this name until 258, when it was invaded by a 



tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The anqient in- 
habitants appear to have been the Caledonians and 
Picts, tribes of the Celts, who passed over from the op- 
posite coast of Gaul. About the beginning of the'4th 
century of the Christian era they were invaded (as sta- 
ted by some authorities) by the Scuyths or Scythius 
(since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into 
the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name 
to the whole country. Hence the remarkable distinc- 
tion of language, habits, customs, and persons between 
the Highlanders and the southern inhabitants. See 
Scotland. 
Caledonian monarchy, said to have been founded 

by Fergus I., about B.C. ."30 

The Picts from England settle in the south 140 

Agricola carries the Roman arms into Caledonia, 

in the reign of Galdus (Corbred II.) A.D. 79 

He defeats' Galgacus, and builds a wall between 

the Frith and Clyde 84 

Wall of Antoninus built 140 

ITIpius Marcellus repels their incursions 184 

Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I., 201 
The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repel- 
led bv the Emperor Severus, who advances to 

the Moray Frith 209 

Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Scotti, from 

Ireland, about 306 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II 404 

After many wars, Kenneth II., king of the Scotti, 
subdues the Caledonians and Picts, and unites 
the country under one monarchy, then named 
Scotland 838 to 843 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the 
Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construction received 
the royal assent July 27, 1808, and the works were com- 
menced the same year. The nautical intercourse be- 
tween the western ports of Great Britain, and those 
also of Ireland to the North Sea and Baltic, is short- 
ened in some instances 800, and in others 1000 miles. 
A suin exceeding a million sterling was granted by 
Parliament from time to time; and the safe naviga- 
tion for ships of nearly every tonnage was opened 
Nov. 1, 1822. It has not paid. Annual income from 
tonnage. May 1, 1859, £5080 ; expenditure, £6951. 

CALENDAR. The Roman Calendar, which has in 
great part been adopted by almost all nations, was in- 
troduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten 
months, comprising 3(i4 days, 738 B.C. This year was 
of fifty days' less duration than the lunar year, and of 
sixty-one "less than the solar year, and its commence- 
ment did not, of course, correspond with any fixed sea- 
son. Numa Pompilius, 713 B.C., corrected this calen- 
dar by adding two months ; and Julius C-esar, 45 B.C., 
desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year 
at 365 days and 6 hours, every fourth year being bis- 
sextile or leap year. See Leap Vear. This almost per- 
fect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, 
and prevailed generally throughout the Christian 
world till the time of Pope Gregory XIII. The calen- 
dar of Julius Cffisar was defective in this particular, 
that the solar year consisted of 305 days, 5 hours, and 
49 minutes, and not of 3C5 days 6 hours. This differ- 
ence, then, amounted to 10 entire days, the vernal equi- 
nox ftilling on the 11th instead of the 21st of March. 
To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that 
that year should consist of 356 days only (Oct. 5 be- 
came Oct. 15) ; and to prevent farther irregularity, it 
was determined that a year beginning a century should 
not be bissextile, withthe exc'eption of that beginning 
each fourth century ; thus, 1700 and ISOO have iTot been 
bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; btit the year 2000 will 
be a leap year. In this manner three days are re- 
trenched in 400 years, because the lapse of eleven min- 
utes makes three days in about that period. The year 
of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to 
correspond with the true .solar year, and future errors 
of chronology are avoided. See New Style and French 
Revolutionary Calendar. 

COBREBPONnF.NOE OP CAI.ENnABS WITH A.D. 1S65. 

Year of the world (Jewish) 5625 

Julian Period 6573 

Hecira, 1282 (began May 27, 1SG5 ; ends May 15, 

1866). 

Foundation of Rome (Varro) 2616 

United States' Independence 89-90 

Year of Queen Victoria 29-30 

Year of Napoleon III 14 

CALENDER, a machine used in glazing various 
kinds of cloth, was introduced into England by the 
Hutruenots, who were driven by persecution from 
France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these cotm- 
tries about 16S5.— Anderson. 



CAL 



108 



CAL 



CALENDS were the first day of the Roman months. 
The Nones of March, May, July, and October fell ou the 
7th, aud their Ides ou the 15th. The other mouths had 
i'hQ- Nones ou the 5th aud the Ides on the l.Sth. As the 
Greeks had no Calends, ad Orcecas Cakndas, "on the 
Greek Calends," meant never. 

CALICO, the well-known cotton cloth, is named 
from Calicut, a city of India, which was visited by the 
Portuguese in 1498. Calico was tirst brought to Eu- 
gland by the Eastludia Company in 163L Calico-priut- 
inc and the Dutch loom engine were tirst used in En- 
gland iu 16TC, when a Frenchman established a factory 
at Richmond, near LonAou.— Anderson. Calicoes were 
prohibited to be printed or worn in 1700 ; and agaiu, 
in 1721, a penalty of £5 was laid on the wearer, and 
i;20 on the seller of calico. In 1S31, by the exertions 
of Mr. Poulett Thompson, afterward Lord Sydeuham, 
and others, the consolidated duty of 3^rf. ou the square 
of printed calico was taken ofl'. Since 1834, the manu- 
fiicture has beeu srreatly increased by the applications 
of science. Cylinders for printing are now engraved 
by galvanism, and new dyes have been introduced by 
the discoveries of Liebig, Hofmann, Perkiu, etc. See 
Cotton and Dyeing. 

CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Calicnte Fomalla, 
hot furnace, in allusion to the climate) was discovered 
by Cortez in 1537 ; others say by Cabrillo in 1542 ; and 
visited by Sir Francis Dral^e, who named it New Al- 
bion, in 1571). California was admitted into the United 
States in 1850. It is advancing rapidly iu wealth and 
Importance. The population in 1856 was 506,007 only ; 
in 1860, 700,000. 
The Spanish establish missionary and military 

stations 169S 

California becomes subject to Mexico 1823 

After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually 

independent 1830 

Occupied by the armv of the United States 1846 

Ceded to the United States 1846 

Gold discovered in great abundance by Captain 

Sutter and Mr. Marshall Sept., 1847* 

Made a sovereign state 1850 

CALIFORNIA, Upper, was a province of Mexico, 
after the revolution in 1824. Its coasts were explored 
by the United States naval expedition, under Com- 
mander Wilkes, in 1841-3, co-operating with a land 
expedition under Captain Fremont. It was again ex- 
plored by Fremont in 1845-6. In July, 1846, San Fran- 
cisco was taken possession of by Commodore Mont- 
gomery. During that summer a military government 
was established there by American commanders on 
the coast. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (which 
see) secured California to the United States in 1848. A 
state Constitution was framed by a Convention held at 
Monterey in August, 1849 ; in December it was adopt- 
ed by a popular vote, and P. H. Burnet was chosen the 
first governor. It was admitted into the Union in Sep- 
tember, 1850. 

CALIPER COMPASS, whereby founders and gun- 
ners measure the bore or diameter of cannon, small- 
arms, etc. : shot is said to have beeu invented by an 
artificer of Nuremberg in 1540. 

CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Apostle, the title as- 
sumed by the Sophi of Persia as successor of Ali, aud, 
since 1517, by the Sultan of Turkey as successor of Mo- 
hammed. The caliphat begau with Abubeker, the fa- 
ther of the Prophet's second wife. 

CALlPnS OF ARABIA. 



632. Abubeker. 
634. Omar I. 
644. Othmau. 
65.5. Ali. 
661. Hassan. 

The O.MMiAUES ruled 661- 
750. 



The Abuassideg ruled 750- 

125S. 
In 775 they were styled 

caliphs of Bagdad. 
Ilaroun - al - Rashid ruled 

7S6-S09. 



(See Ommiades and Alibassides.) 



* Cnptain Sutter says : He wns sittiii}; one evening in his room writ- 
ing:, wlien Mr. Miirshall suddenly entered, with great excitement in his 
face, and, unable to speak, flung upon the table a haudful of scales of 
pure virgin gold. He at length explained that, while widening a chan- 
nel which had been made too narrow to allow a mill-wheel to work 
properly, a mass of sand and gravel had been thrown up by the exca- 
vators. Glittering in this sand, Mr. Marshall noticed what he thought 
to be an opal, a stone common in California : it was, however, a scale 
of pure gold, and the tirst idea of the discoverer was, that some Indian 
tribes or ancient possessors of the land had buried a treasure. But ex- 
amination showed the whole soil to teem with the precious metal ; and 
then, mounting a horse, he rode down to carry the intelligence to his 
partner. To none but him did he communicate it, and they two agreed 
to keep it secret. Proceeding together to the spot, they picked up a 
quantity of the scales i and, with nothing but a small knife, Captain 
Sutter extracted from a little hollow in the rock a solid mass of gold 
weighing an ounce and a half. The attempt to conceal this valuable 
discovery was not successful. An artful Kentuckian laborer, observ- 



CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, to cor- 
rect the Metouic cycle, consists of four cycles, or of 
seventy-six years, at the expiration of which he imag- 
ined the ue\v and full moons returned to the same day 
of the solar year, which is incorrect. This period be- 
gan about the end of June, in the third year of the 
112th Olympiad, in the year of Rome 424, and 330 B.C. 

CALIXTINS, a sect derived from the Hussites, 
about 1451, demanded the cup (Greek, Kalix) in the 
Lord's Supper. Also the followers of ueorge Calixtus, 
a Lutheran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the 
celibacy of the priesthood, aud proposed a reunion of 
Catholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' 
Creed. 

CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, dates 
from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and begins 
with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign As- 
win, now ou April 11, N. S. In 1600 the year began 
on April 7, N. S., from which it has now advanced four 
days, and from the precession of the equinoxes is still 
advancing at the rate of a day iu sixty years. The 
number produced by subtracting 3102 from any given 
year of the Cali Yuga era will be the Christian year iu 
which the given year begins. 

CALLAO (Peru). Here, after an earthquake, the 
sea retired from the shore, and returned in mountain- 
ous waves, which destroyed the city iu 1687, and on 
Oct. 28, 1746. , 

CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Callicrates is 
said to have written an elegant distich ou a sesamum 
seed, 472 B.C. Iu the 16th century Peter Bales wrote 
the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, two short 
Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, 
year of our Lord, and of the reign of Queen Elizabeth 
(to whom he presented them at Hampton Court), all 
within the circle of a silver penny, enchased iu a ring 
aud border of gold, aud covered with crystal, so accu- 
rately done as to be plainly legih\e.—Uolinshed. 

CALMAR, Union of. The treaty, whereby Den- 
mark, Sweden, aud Norway were united under one 
sovereign; Margaret of Waldemar, "the Semiramis 
of the North," being the first, June, 1397. The depu- 
ties of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar for 
the election of a king ; aud Margaret, having defeated 
Albert of Sweden (whose tyranny had caused a revolt 
of his subjects) in 1393, was made choice of to rule 
over Denmark, as well as Sweden aud Norway, of 
which she was then queen. This union was dissolved 
by Gustavus Vasa iu 1523. 

CALMUCKS. See Tartary. 

CALOMEL ("beautiful black"), a compound of mer- 
cury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, first men- 
tioned by Crollius early in the 17th century. The first 
directions given for its" preparation were by Beguin in 
1608. 

CALORESCENCE. In Jan., 1805, Professor Tyndall 
rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum of the elec- 
tric light visible by causing them to impinge on a plate 
of pLitiuum raised to a white heat. He termed the 
phenomenon Calorcscence. See Fluorescence. 

CALORIC. See Heat. 

C ALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek kalos, beau- 
tiful),by which negative photographs are produced on 
paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, about 
1840. 

CALOYERS (meaning good old men). The monks 
of the Greek Church, of the order of St. Basil. Their 
most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, 
endowed by Justinian (died 565) ; the European one is 
at Mount Athos. 

CALVARY, MornT, the place where the Redeemer 
suffered death, April 5, A.D. 30 {Hales, 31 ; Clinton, 29 ; 
others, 30). See Luke xxiii., 85. Adrian, at the time 
of his persecution of the Christians, erected a temple 
of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis 
on the manger at Bethleheni, 142. The Empress Hele- 
na built a church here about 326. See Holy Places. 

CALVES' HEAD CLUB, London, noblemen and 
gentlemen, who exposed raw calves' heads at the win- 
dows of a tavern, Jan. 30, 173.5, the anniversary of the 
execution of Charles I. An incensed mob was dis- 
persed by soldiers, and the club was suppressed. 

CALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged the 



ing the eager looks of the two searchers, followed and imitated them, 
picking up several flakes of gold. Gradually the report spread, and, 
as the would-be monopolists returned toward the mill, a crowd mot 
them, holding out flakes of gold, shouting with joy, and calling out 
" Oro ! oro ! Gold! goldl" 



CAL 



109 



CAM 



fortress of Calvi, June 12, 1T94. After fifty-nine days 
it surrendered ou Aug. lU. It surrendered to the 
Freucli in ITiiO. 

CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or Chau- 
vin), who was born at ISoyon, in Picardy, July 10, 1509. 
Ad()|)ting the reformed doctrines, he tied to An^rou- 
lOnie, where he coinito^cd his IiinlitKtki ChriHtiaiur y,'c- 
lUjioniH in Xb'i'i ; jiulilished in \f)M. lie retired to r>;isle, 
and settled in Cieneva, where he died, May -T, lf)tJ4. 
lie was instrumental in burning Servetus fur denying 
the Trinity in 1553. A formal separation between the 
Calviuists and Lutherans first took place after the 
Conference of Poissy in 1501, where the former ex- 
pressly rejected the tenth and other articles of the Con- 
fession of Augsburg, and took the name oi Calviuists. 
In France (see IIiujui nuts) they took up arms again.st 
their persecutors. Ileiny IV., originally a Calvinist, 
on becoming iRng, secured their liberty by the Edict 
o/yaiitia in 159S {which sec). Calvinistic doctrines ap- 
pear in the Articles of the Church of England and in 
the Confession of the Church of Scotland, and are held 
by many Protestaut sects. 

CAJSIBIUM REGIS. See JRoi/al Exchange. 

CAMBRAY (N. France), an independent archbish- 
opric in lOuT, and lordship in 1070, gives name to cam- 
bric. It was taken by the Spaniards by surprise in 
1505, and has been taken and retaken several times. 
Fentilou was archbishop in 1095. 

It was invested by the Anstrians, Aug. 8, when the 
Republican General Declay replied to the impe- 
rial summons to surrender that "he knew not 
how to do (hat, but his soldiers knew how to 
fight." It was, however, taken by Clairfait, the 
Austrian general, on Sept. 10,1793 

The French were defeated at Caasar's camp, in the 
nei<;hborhood, by the allied army under the Duke 
of Vork April 24,1794 

Cambrav seized by the British, under Sir Charles 
ColviUe June 24,1815 

League of Cambray against the republic of Ven- 
ice, cSmprising Pope Julian II., the Emperor 
Maximilian, and Louis XII. of France, and Fer- 
dinand of Si>ain, entered into Dec. 10,1508 

Treaty between Francis I. of France and Charles 
V. of Germany (called Paix des Dames, because 
negotiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the 
French king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of 
the emperor) 1529 

Treaty betAveeu the Emperor Charles VI. and Phil- 
ip V. of Spain 1724-5 

CAMBiyCS were first worn in England, and ac- 
counted a great luxury, 15S0. — Stow. Their importa- 
tion was restricted in 1745, and prohibited in 175S ; re- 
admitted in 1786. 

CAMBRIDGE, England, the Roman Camhoricum 
and the Saxon Grarita, frequently mentioned by the 
earliest British historians, was burnt by the Danes in 
870 and 1010. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it 
with fire and sword to be revenged of King William 
Rufus. 

The University, said to have been commenced by 
Sigel)ert, kiiig of the East Angles, about A.D. 
C30 ; lay neglected during the Danish invasions, 
from which it sufl'ered inuch : was restored by 
Edward the Elder in 915, and bes;au to revive 

about r 1110 

Henry I. bestows many privileges " 

Henry III. granted a charter to the Universitv, 

1230 or 1231 

Incorporated by Elizabeth iu 1571 

In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the reb- 
els entered the town, seized the University rec- 
ords, and burned them in the market-place 1381 

University press was set up 1,534 

Letters-patent granted by Henry S'lII " 

The University refuses the degree of M. A. to Fa- 
ther Francis, a Benedictine monk, recommend- 
ed by the king ; and the presidency of Magdalen 
College to Fanner, a Roman Catholic, notwith- 

etaudiuL.' the kini^'s mandate 1687 

Cambridtre Philosujihical Society established in 

\'<V.\ and chartered in '. 18.32 

Railway to London opened June,1845 

Commissioners were appointed for the govern- 
ment and extension of this university and Eton 

Colleire by 10 & 20 Vict., c. 88 1856 

Kew statutes confirmed bv the queen 1858 

Briiisli Association met here, 183,3, 184,5, 1862. 
Fitzwilliam Museum, endowed 1816; founded 1837; 
completed 1S4T 



POirKTEEN OOr.LEGES. 

Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, bishop 

of Ely, founded i257 

Pembroke College, founded by the Countess' of " 

Pembroke 1347 

Gonville and Cains, by Edmund Gonville. '. . . . . . . 1; 4S 

Enlarged l)y Dr. John Caius in J553 

Corpus Christi, or Benet 1352 

King's College, by Henry VI ' ' ' ' ' 1441 

Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Mar- 
garet, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 

VI 1505 

Queen's College, by Margaret of Anj'oiu .....' 1448 

Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely 1496 

St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, count- 
ess of Richmond \t^\\ 

Magdalen College, by Thomas, baron Aiidiey'. '. '. '. '.1519 

Trinity College, by Henry VIII 1545 

Emmanuel College, by Sir Walter Mildmay. '.'..'. 1584 
Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances Sid- 
ney, countess of Sussex 1508 

Downing College, by Sir George Downing, by will, 
iu 1717; its charter isoo 

THKEE UALI.S. 

Clare Hall, or College, first by Dr. Richard Baden, 
in 1320; destroyed by fire and re-established 
• by Elizabeth de Burg, sister to Gilbert, earl of 

Clare, about 1342 

Trinity Hall, by Wm. Batenian, bp. of Norwich! ! !l350 

St. Catharine's College or Hall, founded 1473 

iCcmihridcje University Calendar.} 

Cn.\NCELI,0E8. 

Charles, duke of Somerset, elected 1688 

Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1743 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton 1T68 

H. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester. . .1811 

John, marquess Camden 1834 

Hugh, duke of Northumberland 1840 

The Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, 1801]. . .Feb. 28,1847 
Duke of Devonshire.... Dec. 31,1801 

PKOFESSOESHIPB FOUNDED. 

Divinity 1502 

Laws, Hebrew and Greek 1540 

Arabic 1632 

Mathematics 1663 

Music 1684 

Chemistry • if 02 

Astronomy 1T04, 1749 

Anatomy 1707 

Modern History, Botany 1724 

Natural and Experimental Philosophy 1783 

Mineralogy 1S08 

Political Economy iso3 

CAMBRIDGE (Mass.). The University of Harvard, 
situated here, the earliest college in the LTnited States, 
was founded 1036, and the first printing-press in the 
United States was established. 

CAMBUSKENNETH (Central Scotland). Here Wal- 
lace defeated the English in 1297. 

CAMDEN (S. C). A battle was fought here Aug. 16, 
1780, between General Gates and Lord Cornwallis, the 
former commanding the revolted Americans, who were 
defeated. At a second battle, between General Greene 
and Lord Rawdon, the Americans were again defeat- 
ed, April 2.5, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt 
by the British, May 13, 1781. 

CAMERA LUCIDA, invented by Dr. Hooke about 
1674 ; another, by Dr. Wollastou, in 1807. Cameea On- 
sccEA, or dark chamber, constructed, it is said, by 
Roger Bacon iu 1297 ; improved by Baptista Porta 
about 1500; and remodeled by Sir Isaac Newton. By 
the invention of M. Daguerre in 1839, the pictures of 
the camera are fixed. See Photography. 

CAMERONIANS, a name frequently given to the 
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scothmd, the de- 
scendants of the Covenanters of the 17th century, the 
Established Church, 1038-60.* Charles IL signed the 
League and Covenant iu 1650, in hopes of recovering 
his kingdoms, but renounced it in lOCl, and revived 
Episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1C06, Avhen many 
Covenanters were slain in battle (in the Pentland 
Hills, etc.), and many refusing to take the oaths re- 
quired, and declining to accept the king's indulgence, 
died on the scaffold, after undergoipg cruel tortures. 



» They were frequently called Hill-men or Mountain-men, and So- 
eiettf people (from the places and modes of worship to which thev were 
frequently reduced), and M'Millanites, from John M'Millan, the'ir first 
minister, after their secession from the Church of Scotland on account 
of its suliserviency to the English government, and its declining from 
ita original rigid principles. 



CAM 



The name Cameronian is derived from Richard Came- 
ron, one of their ministers, who was killed in a skir- 
mish in ICSO. In lOS'J they raised a body of soldiers 
to support William 111., who enrolled them under the 
command of Lord Angus as the 2Gth regiment, since 
so famous. lu 1712 they renewed the public cove- 
nants, and are described in one of their tracts as '• the 
sufferiu" anti-popish, and anti-prelatical, anti-Bras- 
tian true Presbyterian Church of Scotland." They 
have now between thirty and forty congregations m 
Scotland, aud about sixty in the United States, ihe 
79th reo-iment {Cameron Highlanders), raised in 17!I3 
by Allan Cameron, has no couuectiou with the Came- 
roniaus. 

CAMISARDS (from chemise, a shirt, which they fre- 
quently wore over their dress in night attacks), a 
name given to the more warlike French Protestants 
in the neighborhood of the Cevenues (mountain chains 
in S France), who defended themselves and attacked 
their enemies after the revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes in 10S5. They were suppressed m 1704. Iheir 
leader, Cavalier, is said to have been made governor 
of Jersey by William III. 

CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's hair, 
but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental camlet hrst 
came here from Portuguese India iu 16(J0.— Anderson. 
CAMP The Hebrew encampment was first laid 
out by divine direction, 1400 B.C. {Xtimbers ii.) The 
Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in open 
plains ; and vestiges of such exist to this day in En- 
gland and Scotland. A camp was formed at Hyde 
Park in 1745 and 1S14. 

CAMPANIA (S. Italy) was occupied by Hannibal 
and declared in his fovor 216 B.C., but regained by 
the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua {which see). 

CAMPBELL'S ACT, introduced by Lord Campbell, 
in order to compel railway companies to grant com- 
pensation for accidents, was passed in 1S4G ; amended 
in 1804. In accordance with it, the family of a gentle- 
man killed through the breaking of a rail obtained a 
verdict for X13,000 from the Great Northern Railway 
Company. On appeal, the sum was reduced. 



110 CAN 

appropriated for the maintenance of the Prot- 
estant clergy . 



CAMPEACHY BAY (Yucatan, Central America), 
discovered about 1520, and settled in 1540 ; was taken 
by the English in 10.50 ; by the buccaneers in 1078 ; 
and by the freebooters of St. Domingo in 1GS5. These 
last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The En- 
glish logwood -cutters made then- settlement here 
about 10'62. 

CAMPERDOAVN, south of the Texel, Holland, near 
which Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet, com- 
manded by Admiral De Winter ; the latter losing fif- 
teen ships, either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. 
The British admiral 'obtained a peerage. He died 
suddenly on his way to Ediuburg, Aug. 4, 1S04. 

CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty was 
concluded between France and Austria, the latter 
yielding the Low Countries aud the Ionian Islands to 
France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisal- 
pine Republic, Oct. 17, 1707. By a secret article the 
emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 

CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place at 
Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected by Archbishop 
Ubaldo, about 1300, which is celebrated for the fres- 
coes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memmi, and oth- 
ers. 

CANAAN (Palestine) is considered to have been 
settled by the Canaanites, 19G5 B.C. (Clinton, 20S8). 
The land was divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 
1445 (Hales, 1002). 

CANADA (N. America) was discovered by John and 
Sebastian Cabot in June, 1407 ; in 1535 Jacques Cartier 
(a Breton mariner) ascended the St. Lawrence as far 
as where Montreal now stands. See Montreal and 
Quebec. 

Quebec founded lOOS 

Canada taken by the English, 1028 ; restored 1032 

War begins in 1750 ; Canada conquered by the En- 
glish 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them by the 

peace 1703 

Legislative Council established ; the French laws 
confirmed, and religious liberty given to Roman 

Catholics 1774 

The Americans under Montgomery invade Cana- 
da, and surprise Montreal, Nov., 1775 ; expelled 

by Carleton March,177e 

Canada divided into Upper and Lower 1791 

The " clergy reserves" established by Parliament 
— one seventh of the waste lands of the colony 



^_.^^ 1791 • 

During thettebates on this bill the quarrel be- 
tween Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. Mr. Fox 
seemed anxious for a reconciliation, but Mr. 

Burke rejected it with disdain 

Canada made a bishopric •. • • .Ita^ 

The Americans invade Canada at different points 
with 30,000 men, but are forced to retire after 

several sanguinary battles J;:i .,? 

Beginning of opposition to the clergy reserves, lS17-oO 

Firet railway in Canada opened Ju!y,lS36 

The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal 

by a body called Fits de la Liberie 1837 

The rebels defeated at St. Eustace Dec. l^l, 

Repulsed at Toronto by Sir F. Head Jan. 5,1838 

Earl of Durham appointed gov. general. . .Jan. 10, 
Louut and Mathews (rebels) hanged. .*.. April 12, 

Lord Durham resigns his government Oct. 9, 

Rebellion appears'in Beauharnais Nov. 3 ; the in- 
surgents at Napierville, under Nelson, are rout- 
ed with great loss, Nov. ; the rebellion sup- 
pressed ^^^-V' " 

Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, 

passed in Feb., 1838, and ■ • Aug 1839 

Upper and Lower Canada reunited July 23,1840 

Lord Sydenham appointed governor Feb. 10,1841 

The Canada clergy reserves, after much discus- 
sion, abolished by the British Parliament, May 0,1853 
Lord El"-in gov. general (1840-54) concluded an 

important treaty with the United States, June 7,1854 
The Grand Trunk Railroad of Canada, 850 miles 

long, from Quebec to Toronto, opened.. Nov. 12,1856 
On reference having been made to the queen, 
Ottawa, formerly Bytown, appointed the cap- 
ital ; this decision was unpopular ; a federal un- 
ion of the N. American colonies has been since 

proposed August,1858 

Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of 

the line, and called the 100th) " 

The Prince of Wales presents the colors at fehorn- 

pliff Jan. 10,1859 

The Prince of Wales', the Duke of Newcastle^tc, 
arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, July 24; 
visit Halifax, July 30 ; Quebec, Aug. 18; Mont- 
real, Aug. 25; Ottawa, Sept. 1 ; leave Canada 
Sept. 20- after visiting the United States, em- 
bark at Portland Oct. 20, and arrive at Plymouth 

Nov. 15,1860 
LordMonck assumes oflice as gov. gen., Nov. 28,1861 
In consequence of the "Trent" affair (see Umted 
States, 1861), 3000 British troops were sent to 
Canada, and warlike preparations were made 

Dec, " 
Brit N. American Assoc, founded in London, Jan. ,1862 
Cartier's ministry defeated on the Militia Bill ; Mr. 
J. Sandfleld Macdonald becomes premier, 

May 20-23, " 
The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve toward the defense of the country: this ^_ 

causes discontent iu England ; .July, 

Political changes: Mr. J. S. Macdonald again pre- 
mier May 20,1863 

New Militia Bill passed c ^rNo;!.! 

Military measures iu progress Sept.,lb()4 

Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates from 
N American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on 
the formation of a Confederation, Oct. 10 ; agree ^^ 

on the bases -^ct. 20, 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Cana- 
da and enter the little town of St. Alban's, Ver- 
mont ; rob the banks, steal horses aud stores, 
fire, and kill -one man, and wound others, and 
return to Canada, Oct. 19 ; 13 are arrested, Oct. 
21, but are discharged on account of some legal ^^ 
difliculty by Judge Coursol . . . . ...... -Dec. 14, 

Great excitement in the United States ; General 
Dix proclaims reprisals; volunteers called out 
in Canada to defend the frontiers; President 
Lincoln rescinds Dix's proclamation . . ... .Dec., 

Lord Monck opens the last Canadian Parhament, 

Jan. 19,1865 
The Confederation scheme rejected by New Bruns- 

■^yicji March 7, 

The British Parliament grant £50,000 for defense 

of Canada • • • -March 23, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Justice 

Smith •. March 30, 

Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition, 

April, " 
Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advocate ^^ 

confederation • • • . . • - • • A-pril. 

Population in 1857 : Lower Canada, 1,220,^14 ; Up- 
per Canada, 1,350,923. 



CAN 



111 



CAN 



Confederation inaugurated under the style of the 
" Dominion of Canada" July 1,1867 

CANALS (artificial water-course.s). A canal in Chi- 
na, coninK'nci'd in the 10th century, is said to pass 
over 2U0U miles, and to 41 cities. 
The Canal of Languedoc, which joins the Mediter- 
ranean with the Atlantic Oceau, was completed 

iu 1681 

That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- 
menced in 1675 

That between the Baltic and North Sea, at Kiel, 

opened 1785 

That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 

commenced 1790 

That from the Cattegat to the Baltic 1794-1800 

The great American Eric Canal, 363 miles in 

leuirth, was commenced in 1817 

That of Amsterdam to the sea 1819-25 

(Sec (langcs Canal, the most stupendous modern 
one.) 

UKlTISir CANALS. 

The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was joined 
to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis ^Matliew iu 165G, and Andrew Yarranton in 
1677, iu vain strongly urged improvement in inter- 
nal uaviixation. 

In England there are 2800 miles of canals and 2500 
miles of rivers, taking the length of t^ose only that 
are uaviLrablc— total, 6300 miles. (Mr. Porter, iu 1851, 
says 40110 miles.) 

In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals, 150 of naviga- 
ble rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon navigable 
below Limerick ; in all, 510 mi\es.— Williams. 

The pi-osperity of canals, for a time largely checked by 
the formation of railways, is now greatly revived. 

BEMARKAIiI.E CANALS. 

New River Canal commenced 1008 

Brought to Loudon 1014 

Thames made navigable to Oxford 1624 

Kennet navigable to Reading 1715 

Lagan navigation commenced , 1755 

Caerinarthenshire Canal 1756 

Droitwich to the Severn " 

Duke of Bridgewater's navigation (first great ca- 
nal), commenced (see Bridgewater) 17.50 

Northampton navigation 1761 

Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand) 1765-17SS 

Stafford and Worcester, commenced " 

Grand Trunk commenced by Brindley 1766 

Forth to Clyde, commenced 170S 

Birmingham to Bilston " 

Oxford to Coventry, commenced 1769 

Lea made navigable from Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; 

to London 1770 

Leeds to Liverpool " 

Monkland (Scotland) commenced " 

Ellesmere and Chester 1772 

Basingstoke Canal begun " 

Liverpool to Wigan 1774 

Stroud to the Severn 1775 

Staffordshire Canal begun 1776 

Stourbridge Canal completed " 

Runcorn to Manchester " 

Trent and Mersey opened 1777 

Chesterlield to the Trent " 

Belfast to Lough Neagh 1783 

Severn to the Thames completed 1780 

Forth and Clyde completed 1700 

Bradford C()in|>leted " 

Grand Junction Canal " 

Birmingham and Coventry " 

Monastereven to Athy 1791 

Worcester and Birmingham " 

Manchester, Bolton, and Bury " 

Warwick and Birmiugham 1793 

Barnslev, cut 1704 

Roihdaie, act pas.^ed " 

Huddcrstield, act passed " 

Derby ciini]ilct('d " 

Hereford and Gloucester 1796 

Paddington Canal begun 1798 

Kennet and Avon opened 1799 

Peak-forest Canal completed 1800 

Thames to Fenny Stratford " 

Buckingham Canal 1801 

Grand Surrey, act passed " 

Brecknock Canal 1802 

Caledonian Canal begun 1803 

Ellesmere Aqueduct. T 1805 

Ashby-de-la-Zouch opened " 

Aberdeen completed 1S07 

Glasgow and Ardrossan opened 1811 



Leeds and Liverpool opened 1816 

Wye and Avon " 

Edinburg and Glasgow Union 1818 

Shetlichl completed 1819 

Regent's Canal 1820 

Caledonian Canal completed Oct. 30,1822 

The great Erie Canal ]825 

Birmingham and Liverpool begun 182G 

Gloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal completed. ..1827 
Norwich and Lowestoft navigation opened 1831 

The number of miles of canals (including slack-water 
navigation) in each state in 1854: 



States. 


Miles of 
Canals. 


S""-- S,"s!| 


Alabama 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 


51 
61 
14 

'2S' 
100 
367 

486' 
101 
50 
184 
100 


Missouri 

New Hampshire. 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina.. 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island.... 
South Carolina . . 

Tennessee 

Texas 


11 

147 
989 
13 
921 
936 

"'so 
'is9 


Illinois 


Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 


Maryland 

Massachusetts . . . 

Michigan 

Mississippi 




Wisconsin 

Total 


4798 



CANARY ISLANDS (N.W. Africa), known to the 
ancients as the Fortunate Isles. The first meridian 
was referred to the Canary Isles by Hipparchus, about 
140 B.C. They were rediscovered by a Norman named 
Bethencourt about 1400; his descendants sold them to 
the Spaniards, who became masters, 1483. The cana- 
ry-bird, a native of these islands, brought to England 
about 1500. Tenerifle is the largest island. 

CANCER HOSPITAL, West Brompton, near Lon- 
don, was founded by ;Miss Burdett Coutts, May 30, 
1859. A temporary hospital began iu 1851. 

CANDIA, the ancient Crete, an island in the Medi- 
terranean Sea, celebrated for its 100 cities, its centre 
Mount Ida ; and the laws of its king Minos, and its 
labyrinth to secure the Minotaur (about 1000 B.C.). It 
was conquered by the Romans OS B.C. It was seized 
by the Saracens A.D. 823, when they changed its name ; 
taken by the Greeks iu 960; sold to the Venetians, 
1204, and held by them until the Turks obtained it, 
after a twenty-four years' siege, during which more 
than 200,000 men perished, 1669. It was ceded to the 
Egyptian pacha in 1830, but was restored to Turkey iu 
1840. An insurrection which broke out here in May, 
1858, when a reduction of taxation was demanded, 
soon subsided on the adoption of conciliatory meas- 
ures. A persecution of the Christians took place July 
31, 1859. The people (April, 1866) again petitioned the 
sultan for the privileges granted them by the great 
powers. This was refused July 22. The Cretan Gen- 
eral Assembly (Aug. 1) addressed a manifesto to for- 
eigu powers and took up arms. A religious war was 
thus inaugurated, in which the Turks committed cruel 
outrages ujjon the Christians. A declaration of inde- 
pendence from Turkey and of annexation to Greece 
was made Sept. 2. A weekafterward fighting between 
the Caudians and the sultan's forces begaiT through- 
out the island, and continued with varying results 
throughout the year, at the close of which the sultan 
had nearly subjected the western portion— the strong- 
hold of the insurgents. An armistice was agreed upon 
in Aug., 1867, and toward the close of that year an ar- 
rangement was entered into by Turkey and the great 
powers for a settlement of the difficulties without the 
dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. 

CANDLEMAS DAY, Feb. 2, is kept in the Church 
in memory of the purification of the Virgin, who pre- 
sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. From the 
number of candles lit (it is said in memory of Simeon's 
song, Luke ii., 32, "a light to lighten the Gentiles," 
etc.), this festival was called Candlemas, as well as 
the Purification. Its origin is ascribed by Bede to 
Pope Gelasius in the 5th century. The practice of 
litrhtinir the churches was forbidden by order of coun- 
cil, 2 Edward VI., 1548, but it is still continued iu the 
Church of Rome. 

CANDLES.* The Roman candles were composed 



* The custom of eellinp at public nurtions Ay inch of cavcUc is said 
to have been borrowed from the Church of Rome, wliere there is an 
ication by inch of candle, and the sinner is allowed to 
le to repentance ttefore final excommunication while yet the candle 



CAN 



112 



CAN 



of string surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. 
Splinters of wood fatted were used fur light among 
the lower clai^ses in England about 13uO. At this time 
wax caudles were little used, and esteemed a luxury ; 
dipped candles were usually burned. The Wax-Chan- 
dlers' company was incorporated 1484. Mould candles 
are said to be the invention of the Sieur Le Brez, of 
Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufac- 
ture. The Chinese make candles from wax obtained 
from the berries of a tree, which wax is fragrant, and 
yields a bright light.* The duty upon candles made 
in England, imposed in 17U9, amounted to about 
£500,000 annually, when it was repealed in 1831. Very 
great improvements in the manufacture of candles 
are due to the researches on oils and fats, carried on 
by " the father of the fatty acids," Chevreul, since 1811, 
and published in 1823. At Price's manufactory at 
Lambeth, the principles involved iu many patents are 
carried into execution, including those of Gwynuc 
(1840), Jones and Price (184-2), and Wilson iu 1844, for 
candles which -require no snuffing (termed comjioMc). 
Palm and cocoa-nut oils are now extensively used. In 
1800, at the Belmont works in England, 900 persons 
were employed, and in winter 100 tons (£7000 worth) 
of candles are manufactured weekly. Caudles are 
manufactured at Belmont from the mineral oil or tar 
brought from Kangoou, iu the Burmese empire, and 
from Triuidad. 

CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with seven 
branches were regarded as emblematical of the priest's 
office, and were engraven on their seals, cups, and 
tombs. Bezaleel made "a candlestick of pure gold" 
for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxvii., 17). Can- 
dlesticks were used iu Britain in the days of King Ed- 
gar, 9.59 (silver candelabra and gilt candelabra well 
and honorably made") ; but in 1388 they were not 
common. 

CANDY (Cevlon) was taken by a British detach- 
ment, Feb. 20, 1803, who capitulated June 23 following, 
anxious to evacuate the place on account of its itu- 
healthiness : on the third day many were treacherous- 
ly massacred at Colurabo. The war was renewed in 
Oct., 1814; the king was made prisoner by General 
Brownrigg, Feb. 19, 1815, and the sovereignty vested 
iu Great Britain, March 2, 1815. 

CANN^ (Apulia). Here, on Aug. 2, 216 B.C., Han- 
nibal, with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, de- 
feated Paulus .^milius and Terentius Varro, with 
88,000 Romans, of whom 40,000 were slain. The vic- 
tor sent to Carthage three bushels of rings taken from 
the Roman knights. The place is now denominated 
by some " the held of blood." 

CANNIBALISM. See AnthroiMijlmgi. 

CANNING ADMINISTRATION.t The illness of 
Lord Liverpool led to the formation of this adminis- 
tration, April 24-30, 1827. See Goderich. 
George Canning, First Lord of the Treasury and Chan- 

cdlor of the lixchequer. 
Lord Harrowby, President of the Council. 
Duke of Portland, Lord Privy Seal. 
Lord Dudley, Viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 

Boitrne, Secretaries of State. 
W. W. Wynn, President of the India Board. 
\Vm. Huskisson, Board of Trade. 
Lord Palmerston, Secretary at War. 
Lord Bexley, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
Duke of Clarence, Loi-d High Admiral. 
Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Chancellor, etc. 
Marquess of Lansdowne, without office; afterward Home 

Secretary. 
On Mr. Canning's death the cabinet was reconstructed. 

CANNON. See Artillery. Gibbon described a can- 
non employed by Mohammed II. at the siege of Adri- 
anople in 1453 ; the bore was 12 palms wide, and the 
stone balls weighed each 600 lbs. 
At Ehreubreitstein Castle, one of the strongest 

forts in Germany, opposite Cobleutz, on the 

Rhine, is a prodigious cannon, eighteen and a 

half feet long, a foot and half in diame ter in the 

* The cnndlebury myrtle (Myrica cerifera), at Nankin, in Cbinii, 
flouriahes with be.iutiful blossoms and fruit. The latter, when ripe, 
is gathered and thrown into boiling water ; the white unctuous sub- 
stance which covers the kernels is thereby detached, and swims at the 
top ; it is skimmed off and purified by a second boiliiif;, when it be- 
comes transparent, of a consistence between tallow and wax, and is 
converted into candles. It is said that specimens of this tree were 
brought to England from America in 1699. Its cultivation in America 
in a commercial point of view has been recommended. 

t George Canning was born April 11, 1770 ; becameforeign secretary 
in the Pitt administration, 1807 ; fought a duel with Castlereagh and 
resigned in 1309; president of the council in 1820; disapproved of the 
queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor general of In- 
dia in 1822, but became soon after foreign secretary, and remained such 
till 1827, when he became premier. He died Aug. 8, same year. 



bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. 
The ball made for it weighs 180 lbs., and its 
charge of powder 94 lbs. The inscription on it 
shows that it was made by one Simon 1529 

In Dover Castle is a brass gtiu called Queen Eliza- 
beth's pocket pistol, which was presented to her 
by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 feet 
long, and is beautifully ornamented, having ou 
it tiie arms of the States, and a motto iu Dutch, 
importing thus: "Charge me well and sponge 
me clean, I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." _ 

Some tine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. 

A leathern cannon was tired three times in the 
King's Park, Edinhnrg.—Phillijis Oct. 23,1788 

The Turkish piece now in St. James's Park was 
taken by the French at Alexandria, but was re- 
taken, and placed iu the park March,1803 

Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-irou gun was 
completed iu May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length 
is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 cwt. 
1 qr. 14 lbs. Its cost was £3500. With a charge 
of 25 lbs. it struck a target 2000 yards' distance. 
It has been since presented to governmeut. 

Of late years very great improvements have been 
made in the construction of cannon by Messrs. 
Whitworth, Mallet, Armstrong, Dahlgren, and 
others. Mr. Wm. G. Armstrong knighted, 

Feb. 18,1859 

He had been working for four years on gun-mak- 
ing, and had succeeded in producing " a breech- 
loading rifled wroxtght-iron gitn of great dura- 
bility and of extreme lightness, combining a 
great extent of range and extraordinary accura- 
cy." The range of a 32-lb. gun, charged with' 
5 lbs. of powder, was a little more than 5 miles. 
The accuracy of the Armstrong gun is said at 
equal distances to be lifty-seven times more than 
that of our common artillery, which it greatly 
exceeded also in destructive eflects. The gov- 
ernmeut engaged the services of Sir W. Arm- 
strong for ten years (commencing with 1855) for 
£20,000, as consulting engineer of rifled ord- 
nance Feb. 22, " 

A Parliamentary committee on ordnance was ap- 
pointed Feb. 20, and reported on July 23,1860 

Sir W. Armstrong resigned the appointment, 

Feb. 5,1863 

The Armstrong gun was said to be very effective 
in the attack on the Chinese forts at Taku, 

Aug. 21,1860 

Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles have also heeu 
greatly commended. 

An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to 
be the largest in the world, cast in " 

Great endeavors made to improve the construction 
of cannon, to counterbalance the strength given 
to ships of war by iron plates, and trials at Shoe- 
buryness, Essex 1862 

Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of the 
Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wroughtiron bolt- 
ed together, were pierced three tinies by 150-lb. 
shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 300 
lbs., muzzle-loaded with charges of 40 lbs. of 
powder, twice, and once of50li)s April 8, " 

The Ilorsfall gnu mentioned above, with a charge 
of 75 lbs. of'powder and a shot of 270 lbs., total- 
ly smashed a Warrior target Sept. 10, " 

Mr. Whitworth's shells were sent through 5}^ inch 
iron plates and the wood-work behind it, 

Nov. 12, " 

Armstrong's gun "Big Will" was tried and pro- 
noituced to be a perfect specimen of workman- 
ship. It weighed 22 tons ; its length, 15 feet ; 
range with shot weighing 510 lbs., 748 to 4187 
yards Nov. 1(',1S63 

Clark's target was destroyed July 7, " 

Reed's target was tried successfully Dec. 8, " 

The compe'titive trial between the Armstrong and 
Whitworth guns began April 1,1864 

The iron-plate commission experiments closed on 

Aug. 4, " 

Capt. Palliser, byexperiment, has shown that iron 
shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of hot sand 
is much harder and equals steel ; he also suggest- 
ed the lining cast iron guns with wrought iron 
exits, which is stated to be successful " 

The competitive trials of Armstrong's and Whit- 
worth's cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at 
Portsmouth closed Nov. 15, " 

" Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, lt>^ inches of 
iron, resists 300-pounders June,1865 

CANON or SCRIPTURE. See Bible. 

CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as 



CAN 



113 CAN 



enints was institntcd by Pope Leo III.,SOO. — Tallcnt. 
Evory day in the caleiular is now a saiut's day. The 
tirst caiioui/.atiou was of St. Ldalricus, iu !I93. — Ile- 
luiiilt. On June 8, ISO'.', the pojjo canonized 27 Japan- 
ese, wlio had been put to death ou Feb. 5, 15'JT, near 
Nagasaki. 

CANONS, ArosTOLioAL, ascribed by Bellarmin and 
Baronius to the apostles ; by others to St. Clement, 
are certainly a fori;orv of much later date (since 3'25). 
The Greek "churcii allows s5, the Latin 50 of them. 
The tirst Ecclesiastical Canon was promulgated iJSO. — 
U.-<li('r. Canon law was introduced into Europe by Gra- 
tiau, the canon law author, about 1140, and into En- 
gland in 1 l.'i4. — Slow. See Dcnrtals. The present Can- 
ons and Constitutions of the Church of P2nL'land, col- 
lected from former ordinances, were estal)lished in 
lG(t:> by the clerg:y in Convocation, and ratified by King 
James L An intermediate class of religious, between 
priests and monks, in the Sth century, were termed 
canon.'i, as living by a rule. 

CANOSSA, a castle in Modena, celebrated on ac- 
cotmt of the degrading penance submitted to by the 
Emperor Uenry IV. of Germany, in deference to his 
greatest enemy. Pope Gregory VIL (Ilildebrand), then 
riving at the castle, the residence of the great Count- 
ess Matilda. Henry was exposed for several days to 
the inclemency of winter, Jan., 1077, till it pleased the 
pope to admit him. ULitilda greatly increased the 
temporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it her 
large estates, to the injury of her second husband, 
Guelph, duke of Bavaria. 

CANTERBURY (England), the Durovernnm of the 
Eomans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who 
reigned 560-616. lie was converted to'Christiauity by 
Augustin, S'.Mj, upon whom he bestowed many favors, 
giving him land for an abbey and cathedral, which was 
dedicated to Christ, CO'2.* St. Martin's church was the 
first Saxon Christian church in Britain. The riot at 
Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by a fanatic call- 
ed Tom or Thom, who assumed the name of Sir Wil- 
liam Courtenay, occurred May 31, 1S3S. See Thomiton. 
The railway to London was completed in 1S40. — The 
AKoniiisnop is primate and metropolitan of all En- 
gland, and the first peer in the realm, having prece- 
aency of all officers of state, and of all clukes not of the 
blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction 
over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patri- 
arch. This see has yielded to the Church of Rome IS 
saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of En- 
gland, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. The 
eee was made superior to York, 1073. See York. The 
revenue is valued iu the king's books at X2S1G ~iS. 9(Z. 
— Bcatson. Present income, £15,000. 

AROUBISnOPS OF CANTEEBUKT. 

A.D. 

602-605. St. Augiistine, or Austin, died May 2C. 

605-611). St. Lawrence. 

610-624. St. Mellitus. 

624-030. Justus. 

631-0.53. St. Honorius. 

6.5.'>-6C4. Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 

C0s-c,90. Theodore of Tarsus. 

693-731. Berhtuald. 

731-734. Taetwine. 

T3.'i-741. Nothelm. 

741-7.5S. Cuthbert. 

7.')9-762. Breogwine. 

763-790. Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 

790-S03. ^^thelhcard. 

S03-S29. Wulfred. 

82!). Fleogild. 

8.30_^T0. Ceolnoth. 

87(i-ss9. ^thelred. • 

891-923. Plci^emund. 

92.-! (?) yEthelm. 

'.12S-941. Wulfelm. 

941-95S. Odo. 

9.'->9-9S8. St. Dunstan, died May 19. 

9s^-9S9. yEthelgar. 

09(1-99.'). SiLTcric. 

99.')-lo(ir,. ^'Elfric. 

lOOCi-loii. St.^'Elphage, murdered by the Danes, Ap. 19. 

1013-1020. Lyting, or .iElfstun. 

• The rathedral wns sacked by the Danes, 1011, and tmrnt down 
inr,7 : reliv.ilt bv I.anfrano and Ansclm, and tin- rlu.ir r..n,i.l,ted by 
the I'rinr ('.inradinll.TO,and in which Becket w:n iiiunbT....!, 1170, was 
burnt n:i. It was rebuilt by William of Sens (IH-l-Ts) and bv " En- 
(rli«li William," mS-fti. A new nave was built and other parts, l.STS- 
1410. The (Treat central tower was erected by Prior Ooldstone about 
14'.t.'». The irorffcous shrine of Becket was stripped at the Reformation, 
und his bones burnt. Here were interred Edward the Black Prince, 
Henry IV., Cardinal Pole, and other distintfuished persons. Dnrins; 
the Civil War, Cromwell's dragoons used the catliedral as a stable. 

H 



1020-103S. /Ethelnoth. 

1038-1050. St.Eadsige. 

1050-1052. Robert ot' JumiC'ges. 

10.52-1070. Stigaud: deprived. 

1070-10S9. St. Lanfrauc, died May 24. 

1093-1109. Anselm. 

[See vacant 5 years.] 

1114-1122. Radulphus de Turbine. 

1123-1136. William de Curbellio. 

1139-1161. Theobald. 

1162-1170. Thomas Becket : murdered Dec. 29. 
[See vacant] 

1174-11S4. Richard. 

11S4-1190. Baldwin. 

1191. Reginald Fitz-Joceline, died Dec. 26. 

[See vacant.] 

1193-1205. Uubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, 
and John Grey, bishop of Norwich, were 
successively chosen, but set aside.] 

1206-1228. Stephen Laugton, died July 6. 

1229-1231. Richard Wea'thershed. 

1233-1240. Edmund de Abingdon. 

1240-1270. Boniface of Savoy. 

1272-1278. Robert Kilwarby (resigned). 

1279-1292. John Peckham. 

1293-181.1 Robert Winchelsey. 

1313-1327. Walter Reynolds. 

1327-1333. Simon de Mepham. 

1333-134S. John Stratford. 

1348-1349. John de Ufford. 

1349. Thomas Bradwardin. 

1349-1366. Simon Islip. 

1366-1308. Simon Langham (resigned). 

1368-1374. William Whittlesey. 

1375-1381. Simon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 
June 14. 

1381-1396. William Courtenay. 

1397-1398. Thoiiuis Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted). 

1.398. Roger Walden (expelled^. 

1399-1414. Thomas Arundel (restored). 

1414-1443. Henry Chicheley. 

1443-1452. John Stafl'ord. 

1452-1454. John Kemi). 

1454-1486. Thomas Bonchier. 

1486-1500. John Morton. 

1.501-1.503. Henry Deane or Denny. 

1503-1532. William Warham. 

1533-1556. Thomas Cranmer (burnt, March 21). 

1.5.56-15.58. Reginald Pole, died Nov. 17. 

15.59-1575. Matthew Parker, died May 17. 

1576-1.583. Edmund Grindal, died July 6. 

1.583-1604. John Whitgift, died Feb. 29. 

1604-1610. Richard Bancroft, died Nov. 2. 

1611-1633. George Abbot, died Aug. 4. 

1633-1645. William Laud (beheaded, Jan. 10). 
[See vacant 16 years.] 

1660-1663. William Juxon, died June 4. 

1663-1677. Gilbert Sheldon, died Nov. 9. 

1678-1691. William Saucroft (deprived Feb. 1), died 
Nov. 24, 1693. 

1601-1694. John Tillotson, died Nov. 22. 

1695-1715. Thomas Tenison, died Dec. 14. 

1715-1737. William Wake, died Jan. 24. 

1737-1747. John Potter, died Oct. 10. 

1747-1757. Thomas Herring, died March 13. 

1757-1758. Matthew Button, died March 19. 

1758-1768. Thomas Seeker, died Aug. 3. 

1768-1783. Frederick Cornwallis, died March 19. 

1783-1805. John Moore, died Jau. 18. 

1S05-1828. Charles Manners Sutton, died July 21. 

1S2S-1S48. William Ilowley, died Feb. 11. 

1848-1862. John Ijird Sumner, died Sept. 6. 

1S62. Charles Thomas Lougley, present arch- 

bishop. 

CANTERBLTRY TALES, by Geoffrey Chaucer, were 
written about 1364, and first printed about 1475 or 1476 
(by Caxton). 

CANTHARIDES, venomous ":reen beetles (called 
Spanish flies), are used to raise blisters. This use is 
ascribed to Aretajus of Cappadocia, about 50 B.C. 

bANTON, the only city in China with which Euro- 
peans were allowed to trade till the treaty of Aug. 29, 
1842. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, 
but that of England surpasses all others iu elegance 
and extent. jNIerchants arrived here in 1517. A fire 
destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An inundation swept 
away io,000 houses and 1000 persons, Oct., 1833. Can- 
ton was taken by the British in 1857 ; restored, 1861. 
See China, 1835, 1839, 1856, 1861. Population estimated 
at 1,000,000. 

CANITLEIAN LAW, permitting the patricians and 
plebeians to intermarry) was passed at Rome 445 B.C. 



CAO 



114 



CAP 



CAOUTCHOUC, OE iNDiA-RcnnEK, an elastic resin- 
ous substance that exudes by incisions from several 
trees that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, 
the Hrevia caoutchouc and Siithonia elastica (vulgarly 
called syringe-trees). It was first brought to Europe 
from South America about 1T30. 
In 1770, Dr. Priestley said that he had seen " a sub- 
stance excellently adapted to the purpose of wip- 
ing from paper the marks of a black-lead pen- 
cil." It was sold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half 
inch. 
India-rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal and 

patented 1791 

Vulcanized rubber formed by combining India- 
rubber with sulphur, which process removes the 
susceptibility of the rubber to change under at- 
mospheric temperatures, was patented in Amer- 
ica by Mr. C. Goodyear 1839 

Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of 

Mackintosh and Co.), and patented 1843 

Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (termed 
Ebonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- 
shell, for combs, paper-knives, veneer, walking- 
sticks, etc 1849 

A mode of retaining India-rubber in its natural 
fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) 
was patented by the inventor, Mr. Ileury Lee 

Norris, of New York 1S53 

Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 1856, 
28,76,5 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. 
In 1823, 500 pairs of shoes were imported into Bos- 
ton. At a later date gum-elastic became the subject of 
scientific investigation, and many persons commenced 
experimenting with it. In 1832, the considerable man- 
ufacture of it was commenced in Massachusetts by 
John Haskins and Edwin M. Chaflee, who, in connec- 
tion with others, started the celebrated Eoxbury In- 
dia-rubber Company, which was shortly after incor- 
porated with a capital of $400,000. For this company 
Mr. Chaffee invented the famous mammoth machine 
for spreading rubber without a solvent, the machine 
itself costing nearly $30,0U0. Similar machines are 
now required by all manufacturers of rubber goods. 
The apparent prosperity of this company induced the 
starting of factories in Boston, Chelsea, Woburn, and 
Framingham, Mass., New York citv, Stateu Island, 
and Troy, N. Y., with capitals of 'from $50,000 to 
$500,000. These companies made their goods by dis- 
solving the rubber in camphene or other solvents, then 
mixing lampblack with it, aud while in the form of 
paste spreading it on cloth from which coats, etc., are 
made. The goods were then dried in the sun or in a 
warm room until the solvent evaporated, leaving a 
coating of rubber. In 1856, the United States import- 
ed crude ludia-nibber to the amount of $97,796, and 
exported to the amount of $1,093,602 of rubber goods. 
CAP. The general use of caps and hats is referred 
to 1449. See Caps and Uats. 

CAPE BRETON, a large is]and,W. coast of N. Amer- 
ica, said to have been discovered by the English in 
1584 ; taken by the French in 1632, but was afterward 
restored; aud again taken in 1745, and retaken in 
1748. It was finally captured by the English in 1758, 
when the garrison of 5600 men were made prisoners, 
and eleven French ships were captured or destroyed. 
Ceded to England in 1763. 

CAPE COAST CASTLE (S.W.Africa). Settled by 
the Portuguese in 1610 ; but it soon fell to the Dutch. 
It was demolished by Admiral Holmes in 1661. All 
the British factories and shipping along the coast were 
destroyed by the Dutch admiral, De Iluyter, in 1605. 
It was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda 
in 1667. See Ashantces. 

CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. Atlantic Ocean) 
were known to the ancients as Gorgades, but not to the 
moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Geno- 
ese navigator in the service of Portug.al, 1440, 1450, or 
1400. The Portuguese possess them still. 

CAPEL COURT. See under STOCKS. 

CAPE LA HOGUE. See La Hogue. * 

CAPE OP GOOD HOPE, a promontory on the S. W- 
point of Africa, called "Cabo Tormentoso" (the stormy 
cape), the "Lion of the Sea," and the "Head of Africa," 
discovered by Bartholomew de Diaz in 1486. Its pres- 
ent name was given by John II. of Portugal, who au- 
gured favorably of future discoveries fromDiaz having 
reached the extremity of Africa. Population in 1850, 
267,096. 
The cape was doubled, and the passage to India 

discovered by Vasco de Gama Nov. 20,1497 

Cape Town, the capital, planted by the Dutch 1651 



Colony taken by the English under Admiral El- 

phiustone aud General Clarke Sept., 1795 

Restored at the peace in 1802 

Taken by Sir D. Baird and Sir H.Popham. .Jan.8,1806 

Finally ceded to England in 1814 

British emigrants arrive in March,1820 

The Katfres make irruptions on the British settle- 
ments, and ravage Graham's Town. See Kaf- 

fruria) Oct., 1834 

Bishopric of Cape Town founded 1847 

The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt to 

make the cape a penal colony May 19,1849 

The Constitution granted to the colony promul- 
gated and joyfully received on July 1,1853 

General Prsetorius, the chief of the Trans- Vaiil re- 
public, died in Aug., " 

The British having given up its jurisdiction over 
the Orange River territory, a free state was 

formed (see Orange liivcr) March 29,1854 

The first Parliament meets at Cape Town. .July 1, " 
The Kaifres were much excited by a prophet 
named Umhla-kaza. By the exertions of Sir 
George Grey, the governor, tranquillity was 

maintained Aug. ,1856 

The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 miles 
long, opened about Dec, 1860 

CAPE ST. VINCENT (S.W. Portugal). Sir George 
Rooke, with 23 ships of war, and the Turkey fleet, 
was attacked by Tourville, with 160 ships, off Cape 
St. Vincent, when 12 English and Dutch men of war, 
and 80 merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by 
the French, June 16, 1693. Sir John Jervis, with the 
Mediterranean fleet of 15 sail, defeated the Spanish 
fleet of 27 ships of the line off" this cape, taking four 
ships and destroying others, Feb. 14, 1797. F(')r this 
victory Sir John was raised to the peerage as Earl St. 
Vincent. Nelson was engaged in this battle. 

CAPET (or Capevigians), the third race of the kings 
of France, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris and 
Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of Louis 
v., called the Indolent, 987.— //<?««"«. The first line 
of the house of Capet expired with Charles IV. in 1328, 
wheu Philip VI. of Valois ascended the throne. See 
France. 

CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in small tithes, 
and the ascent of the sap in plants) is said to have been 
first observed by Niccolo Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. 
The theory has been examined by Newton, La Place, 
and others. Dr. T. Young's theory was ptit forth in 
1S05, and Mr.Wertheim's researches in 1857. ^ 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. See Death. 

CAPITATION TAX. See Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL, so called from a human head (caput) 
being found wheu digging the foundations of the 
principal fortress of Rome, on Mons Tarpeius, on 
which a temple was built to Jupiter, thence called Jm- 
piter Ca2ntolinus. The foundation was laid by Tar- 
quiuius Priscus, 616 B.C. The building was continued 
by Servius TuUius, and completed by Tarquinius Su- 
perbus, but was not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the Con- 
sul Horatius. It was burnt during the civil wars, 83 
B.C., rebuilt by Sylla, and dedicated again byLutatius 
Catulus, 69 B.C. The Roman consuls made large do- 
nations to this temple, and the Emperor Augustus be- 
stowed on it 2000 pounds' weight of gold, of which 
metal the roof was composed ; its thresholds were of 
brass, aud its interior was decorated with shields of 
solid silver. It was destroyed by lightning 188 B.C. ; 
by fire, A.D. 70, and rebuilt by Domitian. The Capi- 
toline games, instituted 387 B.C., were revived by Do- 
mitian, A.D. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces 
of the senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by 
Michael Angelo soon after 1546. 

CAPITULARIES, the laws of the Frankish kings, 
commencing with Charlemagne (801). Collections 
have been published by Baluze (1677) and others. 

CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history is in- 
volved in obscurity. 

Pharnaces said to have fotmded the kingdom .B.C. 744 
Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, cru- 
cified ^. 322 

Recovers its independence 315 

Conquered by Mithridates of Poutus 291 

Held by Seleucus Nicator 280 

Ariarathes V., Philopator, reigns, 162; dethroned 
by Holophernes, 130, but restored by the Ro- 
mans, 158 ; killed with Cassius in the war against 

Aristonicus 130 

His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; the 



CAP 



115 



CAR 



sixth (Ariarathcs VI.) is saved ; she is put to 

death 100 

Ariarathcs VI. inurdercil by ISIithridates Eupator, 
wlio sets up variuus pretenders. Tlie Koman 
senate declares the couutry free, aud appoints 

Ariobarzanes I. king 93 

He is several times expelled by Mithridates, etc., 

but restored by the Konians ; dies G4 

Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slaiu by 

Crassus 42 

Ariarathcs VII. deposed by Antony 30 

Archclaus is favored by Aui,aistus, 20 B.C. ; but ac- 
cused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome and dies 
there, oppressed with age aud infirmities. . A.D. 17 

Cappadocia becomes a Komau province 15 

Invaded by the Huns 51.5 

And by the Saracens 717 

Kecovered by the Emperor Basil 1 876 

Conquered by 8oliman 1074 

Annexed to theTurnish Empii'e 1360 

CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer Zuin- 
fflius was slain in a conllict between the Catholics and 
flie men uf Zurich, Oct. 11, 1531. 

CAPRI (Caprcie), an island near Naples, the sumptu- 
ous residence of Augustus, and particularly of Tibe- 
rius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed 
during the seven last years of his life, 27. It is now 
the residence of Garibaldi. Capri was taken by Sir 
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1S06. 

CAPS ANi> Hats.* About 1750 Sweden was much 
distracted by two factions thus named, the former in 
the interest of the Russians, and the latter in that of 
the French. They were broken up and the names 
prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1771, who desired to ex- 
clude foreign inlhieuce. His assassination by Aukar- 
struin, March 16, 1792, set aside all his plans for the 
improvement of Sweden. 

CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the part 
of Hannibal when his army wintered here after the 
battle of Cannff, 216 B.C., and, it is said, became ener- 
vated through luxury. In 211, when the Romans re- 
took the city, they scourged and beheaded all the sur- 
viving senators ; the others had poisoned themselves 
after a banquet previous to the surrender of the city. 
Only two persons escaped degradation, a woman who 
had prayed for the success of the Romans, and another 
who succored some prisoners. During the Middle 
Ages Capua was in turn subjugated by the Greeks, 
Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It was restored to 
Naples in A.D. 1424, and was taken Nov. 2, ISGO, by 
Garibaldi. 

CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, so named from 
■wearing a ca2>iichon, or cowl hanging down upon their 
backs. The Capuchins were founded by Matthew 
Baschi about 1525. 

CAR. The invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of 
Athens, about 14S0 B.C. Covered cars {currus arcuatt) 
were used by the Romans. The lectira (a soft-cush- 
ioned car), next invented, gave place to the cmycntttm. 
a tv,-o-wheeled car, with an arched covering, hung with 
costly cloth. Still later were the carrvcce, in which 
the officers of state rode. Triumphal cars, introduced 
by Tarquin the Elder, were formed like a throne. 

CzVRACCAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, discov- 
ered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by arms, and 
assigned as property to the Welsers, German mer- 
chants, by Charles V. ; but, from their tyraunj-, they 
were dispossessed in 1550, aud a crown governor ap- 
pointed. The province declared its independence of 
Spain, May 9, 1810. The city Leon de Caraccas, on 
]\Iarch 26, 1812, was visited by a violent earthquake, 
and nearly 12,000 persons perished. See Venezuela. 

CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here, on June 
15, 1567, Lord Hume and the confederate barons dis- 
licr-^ed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary 
(,!uceii of Scots prisoner. Bothwell fled. 

CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained by the 
distillation of i>it-coal, is a powerful antiseptic. It is 
largely manufactured for medical puri)nses, and has 
been advantageously used at Carlisle and Exeter in 
the deodorization of sewage (lSGO-1). 

CARBON was shown to he a distinct element by 

• Xone allowed to sell any lint for above 20</..nor cip for above 9s. 
8rf., 5 Henry VIT., 1489. It was enaoteil in l.i*I tlittt every person 
above seven years of npo should wear on Sundays and holidays a cap 
of wool, kniti made, thickened, and dressed in Knpland by some of the 
traile of cappers, under the forfeiture of three farthinu's for every day's 
neciect, 1.171. Excepted : maids, ladies, and pentlewonien, and every 
lord, kniehl. and pentlenian, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, 
and such as had borne office of worship iu any city, town, or place, and 
the wardenB of London companieB. 



Lavoisier iu 17SS. He proved the diamond to be its 
purest form, aud converted it into carbonic acid gas 
by combustion.— Gmch'/i. 

CARBONARI (colliers, or charcoal-burners), a pow- 
erful secret society in Italy, which derived its origin, 
according to some, from tlie Waldenses, and which be- 
came prominent early in the present century. It aim- 
ed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the 
establishment of civil and religious liberty. In March, 
1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the society, and an 
insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, General 
Pcpci taking the command. The king (Ferdinand) 
made political concessions, but the allied sovereigns 
at Laybach assisted Ferdinand to suppress the liberal 
party. The Carbonari were henceforth denounced as 
traitors. The society since ISIS spread in France, and 
doubtless hastened the fall of the Bourbons iu 1830 
aud 1848. It has been frequently but incorrectly con- 
founded with freemasonry. 

CARBONIC ACID GAS, a compound of carbon and 
oxysien, which occurs in the air, and is a product of 
combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grot- 
to del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal 
can breathe this gas. The briskness of Chamjjagne, 
beer, etc., is due to its presence. It was liquefied by 
atmospheric pressure by Faraday in 1823. On expos- 
ing the liquid to the air for a short time it becomes 
solid, in the form of snow. 

CARDIFF CASTLE (S.Wales). Here Robert, duke 
of Normandy, eldest son of William I., was imprison- 
ed from HOG till his death, 1135. 

CARDINALS, ecclesiastical princes in the Church 
of Rome, the council of the Pope, aud the conclave or 
sacred college, at first were the principal priests or in- 
cumbents of the parishes iu Rome, and were called 
cardinalcs in 853. They began to assume the exclu- 
sive power of electing the popes in llSl. They lirst 
wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to 
shed their blood for religion, if required, and were de- 
clared princes of the Church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 
1245. In 15SG Sixtus V. fixed their number at 70 ; but 
there are generally vacancies. In ISCO there were 69 
cardinals; in 1861,' 63; in 1S04, 59. Paul II. gave the 
scarlet habit, 1404 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Emi- 
nence in 1623 or 1630. — Ducamje. 

CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and Ro- 
mans) are said to have been invented iu France in 
1391, to amuse Charles IV. during the intervals of a 
melancholy disorder. Piquet aud all the early names 
are French. 

CARIA, Asia Minor, was conquered by Cyrus, 546 
B.C.; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedsemouian, 397; his suc- 
cessor Hecatomuus became king, 385 B.C. ; for his sou 
Mausolus the Mmmnlcum was erected (lohich see). Ca- 
ria was absorbed into the Turkish Empire. 

CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, 
about 1330, drew caricatures and put labels to the 
mouths of his figures with sentences. The modern 
caricatures of Gilray, Rowlaudsou, II. B. (John Doyle 

j" = HB), Richard Doyle, John Leech, John Tenniel, 

and Thomas Nast are justly celebrated. The well- 
known " Punch" was first published iu 1841. The most 
eminent writers of fiction of the day aud others (Doug- 
las Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, 
etc.) have contributed to this amusing periodical. 

CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, was annexed to 
Austria in 1303. 

CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), said to 
have been a British and Roman fortress, was taken 
530 by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West 
Saxons. Its Norman character has been ascribed to 
William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford, in William I.'s 
time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in 1647. Here 
died his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, too probably 
of a broken heart, Sept. 8, 1650. 

CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), taken by 
Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a contemporary 
poem published, with illustrations, by Sir Harris Nic- 
olas in 1S2S. 

CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of En- 
gland, wherein for mauy years a strong garrison was 
kept. Just below this to'wn the famous Picts' wall 
began, which crossed the whole island to Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman 
highvi'ay. The sjreat church, called St. Mary's, is a 
venerable old pile ; a great part of it was built by St. 
David, king of Scotland, who held Cumberland, West- 
moreland, and Northumberland in vassalage from the 



CAE 



116 



CAK 



crown of England. The castle, restored in 1092 by 
William n., was the prison of Mary Queen of Scots in 
1565. —Taken by the Parliamentary" forces in 1615, and 
by the yottns: Pretender, Xov. 15, 1745: retaken by the 
Duke of Cuinberland, Dec. Z(>, same year. The see was 
erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made stiffragan to 
York. The cathedral had been founded a short time 
previously by Walter, deputy in these parts for William 
Rnfus. it was almost ruined by Cromwell, and has 
never recovered its former great beauty, although re- 
paired after the Restoration. It has been lately~reno- 
vated at a cost of £15,im:i0, and was reopened in 1556. 
The see has given to the civil state one lord chancel- 
lor and two lord treastirers : it is valued in the kiog's 
books at £530 4*. lid. per annnm. Present income, 
X4500. 

KECEJTT BISHOPS OF CA2I.IS1.E. 

1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1S07. 
isle's. Samuel Goodenouirh, died Aug. 12, 1627. 
1S27. Hugh Percy, died Feb., 1556. 
1S56. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham, 

May, 1560. 
1550. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave (pezsest bishop). 

CARLISLE ADMLSTISTKATIOX. See Halifax. 

CARLOVINGIANS, the second dynasty of the 
French kings. See France. 

CARLOW (S.E. Ireland). The castle, erected by 
Kini: John, surrendered after a desperate siege to Sir 
Eory Oge O'Moore in 1577 ; again to the Parlfamenta- 
ry force's in 165»). Here the royal troops routed the in- 
surgents. May, 179S. 

CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath>, in Bohemia, the 
celebrated springs, discovered by the Emperor Charles 
IV. in 1355.— -On Aug. 1, 1S19, a congress was held here, 
when the great powers decreed measures to repress 
the liberal press, etc. 

CARMAGXOLE, a Piedmontese son^ and dance, 
popular in France during the Reign of Terror, 179S-4. 
The chorus was " Dansons la Carmagnole : vive le son 
du canon 1" 

CARMATHIAXS, a Mohammedan sect. Carmath, 
a Shiite, about S90, assumed the title of "the guide, 
the director," etc., including that of the represemative 
of Mohammed, Su John the Baptist, and the angel 
Gabriel. His followers subdued Bahrein in 900, and 
overran the East. Dissensions arose among them- 
selves, and their power soon passed away. 

CARMELITES, or Wnrrx Feiaes, of Mount Carmel, 
one of the four orders of mendicants with austere 
nUes, founded by Benhold about 1156, and settled in 
France in Vi5i.—Hinault. These rules were moderated 
about 1540. They claimed descent from Elijah. They 
had numerous monasteries in England, and a precinct 
in London without the Temple, west of Blackfriars, is 
called Whitefriars to this day, after a community of 
their order, founded there in "1245. 

CARXATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, ex- 
tending along the whole coast of CoromandeL Hyder 
All entered the Camatic with si'.CHX* troops in i75'>, 
and was defeated by the British tmder Sir Eyre Coote, 
July 1, and Aug. 27, 1751 ; and decisively overthrown, 
July 2, 1752. The Camatic was overrun by Tippoo in 
1790. The British have possessed entire authority over 
the Camatic since 1501. See India. 

CARXATIOX, so called from the original species 
being of a flesh color {carnU, of flesh). Several varie- 
ties "were first planted in England by the Flemings 
about 1567.— SYoir. 

CARXEIAX GAMES, observed in manv Grecian 
cities, particularly, at Spana (Instituted about 675 B.C. 
in honor of Apollo, stimamed Cameas), lasted nine 
days. 

CARNIFEX: FERRY (West Virginia), Battxe of, 
fought Sept. 10, 1561. M'Clellan having been assigned 
to the Army of the Potomac, the command in West 
Virginia devolved upon General Rosecrans. Floyd 
coinmanded the Confederate forces on the Gauley Riv- 
er. The latter was attacked by Rosecrans at Camifes 
Ferry. It w;u; rather a manoeuvre than a battle, and 
dtirinj the night Floyd retreated. 

CARNIVAL {Carni rale. Italian, t e. Fleshy fare- 
icell ."), a festival time in Italy, particularly at Venice, 
about Shrovetide, or beginning of Lent. 

CAROLINA, Nop.Tn an© South, said to have been 
discovered oy Sebastian Cabot in 1495, or by De Leon 
in 1512. A body of English, about S5<_' persons, landed 
and settled here abont~166<"> : and Carolina was grant- 
ed to Lord Berkeley and others a few years afterward. 
The cultivatiofi of' rice was introduced bv Grovemor 



Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. The province 
was divided into North and South in 1719. See Amer- 
tea. The Carolinas were slave states. Great excite- 
ment prevailed in them in Nov., 1^60, on account of 
Mr. Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of 
the United States, he being strongly opposed to slav- 
ery. South Carolina began the "secession from the 
United States, Dec. 20, 156i.i ; North Carolina followed, 
May 21, 1561. See United States, 1S61-5. 

CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by the Span- 
iards in the reign of Charles IL, 16?6. 

CARP, a fresh-water or pond lish, was, it is said, 
first brought to Great Britain about 1525. — Walton, 
It is mentioned by Lady Juliana Bemers in 1496. 

CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The 
manufacture of woolen carpets was introduced into 
France from Persia in the reign of Henry JV., between 
15S9 and 1610. Sjme artisans who had quitted Franco 
in disgust established the English carpet manufacture 
about"'l750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 
1S62. The production of carpets is carried on exten- 
sively in the United States, especially in Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York. New Jer- 
sey, and in Philadelphia. In Massachusetts alone, in 
It&J, the capital invested in this branch of business 
amotinted to $2,264.iX)<:i, and the annual product about 
§1,400,000, in which 1600 persons were employed. In 
the State of New York, in 1555, the number of carpet 
manufactories was 15, employing 1559 persons : cap- 
ital invested in real estate, $265,270 ; in tools and ma- 
chinery, $394,2Ch): value of raw materials used annu- 
ally, $934.7iX>; value of manufactured articles annu- 
ally, *2,079,70o. In Philadelphia the annual value of 
carpets produced is, in ingrains, $2,592, 0<Xi, and in rag 
carpeting $5«4,o00. (See" Cen-nts of Sew York, and 
Philadelphia and its Itanttfactures, 1555.) Our manu- 
facture of carpets is increasing, and will probably 
equal the demand when the production of wool shall 
supply the wants of our manufacturers. Of the im- 
ports'into this country, fully nine tenths come from 
Great Britain. — Homaiig's Diet. Commerce. 

CARRACK, or Karrack (Italian, Caraeea), a large 
ship in the Middle Atres. The Santa Anna, the prop- 
erty of the knights of St. John, of about 17iX) tons, 
sheathed with lead, was built at Nice about 15SiX It 
was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. 
in taking Tunis in 1.535. It contained a crew of 300 
men and 50 pieces of artillery. 

CARRIAGES. Erichthonins of Athens is said to 
have produced the first chariot about 1456 B.C. Rnde 
carriaires were known in France in the reisn of Henry 
U., A.1). 1547: in England in 1555: Henry IV. of France 
had one without straps or springs. They were made 
in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called 
whirlicotes. The Dtike of Bnckinghsim, in 1619. drove 
six horses; and the Duke of Northtunberland. in ri- 
valry, drove eight. Carriaees were let for hire in 
Pan's in 165'). at the Hotel ~Fiacre : hence the name 
I fiacre. See Car, Cabriolets, and Coaches. 

I CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim. Ireland^. Its castle is 
' supposed to have been built by Huirh de Lacy in 1173. 
• The town surrendered to the Duke of Schombers, 
, Aug. 2S, 165"^. The castle surrendered to the French 
I Admiral Thnrot, 176<j. See Thurot. 

CARRON IRON- WORKS, on the banks of the Car- 
I ron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. The works 

in iS62 employed about I61R1 men. Here, since 1770, 
i have been made the pieces of ordnance called earron- 

ades. 
j CARROTS and other edible roots were imported 
I from Holland and Flanders about 1540. 

CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated by Rene 
I Des Cartes, the French philosopher, in 1637. His met- 
' aphysical principle is, -'I think, therefore I am;" his 
' physical principle, "Nothing exists but substance." 

He' accounts for all physical phenomena on his theory 
j of vortices, motions excited by God. the source of all 
] motion. He was bom 1596, and died at Stockholm, 

the guest of Queen Christina, in 1650. 

CARTES DE "VTSITE. The small photograph por- 
traits thus termed are said to have been first taken at 
Nice by M. Ferrier in 15.')7. The Duke of Parma had 
his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his ex- 
ample was soon followed in Paris and London. 

CARTHAGE (Missouri's. Battt-e of, fought July 6, 
1561. Here Sisel attacked the Confederates under 
Price. Rains, and Jackson. The banle imtil 2 P.M. 
was an artillery duel, in which the Confederates were 
worsted. Bui Sigel was then obliged to retreat, a 



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Thcnard of the decomposition of peroxide of hydro- 
gen by pUitiuimi, and by Dubereiner in ISL'5 of its prop- 
erty to ignite a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, 
formed the groundwork of the doctrine of Catalytic 
Force, also termed " action of contact or presence," 
put forth by Berzelins and Mitscherlich. Their view 
has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists. 

CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machiues for de- 
stroying ships ; tried in vain by Sir Sidney Smith, 
Oct. 2, 1804, ou the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bona- 
parte to invade England. 

CATANIA, a town near Etna, Sicily, was founded 
by a colony from Chalcis about 753 B.C. Ceres had a 
temple here, open to none but women. Catania was 
almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna iu 
1669, and in 1603 was nearly swallowed up by an earth- 
quake ; iu a moment more than 18,000 persons were 
buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great dam- 
age, Feb. 22, 1817. In Aug.,lS62, the town was held 
by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the 
Italian government. He was captured on Aug. 29. 

CATAPIIRYGIANS, heretics in the 2d century, who 
followed the errors of Montanus. They are said to 
have baptized their dead, forbidden marriage, and 
mingled the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper with 
the blood of young children. 

CATAPULTS, military engines of the cross-bow 
kind, for throwing huge stones as well as darts and 
arrows ; invented'by Diouysius, the tyrant of Syra- 
cuse, 399 B.C. — Jowphus. 

CATEAU CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, on April 
2, 3, 1559, peace was concluded between Henry II. of 
France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. 
France ceded to Philip Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 
forts in Italy and the Low Countries. 

CATECHISMS. The catechism of the Church of 
England in the second book of Edward VI., 1552, con- 
tained merely the baptismal vow, the Creed, the Ten 
Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer, with an ex- 
planation ; but James I. ordered the bishops to en- 
large it by adding an explication of the sacraments, 
1612. It was increased subsequently by the doctrinal 
points of the established religion. The Catechism of 
the Council of Trent was published iu 1566 ; that of 
the Assembly of Divines at Westminster in 1648. 

CATHARINE. The order of knights of St. Catha- 
rine was instituted iu Palestine, 1063. The order of 
nuns called Catharines was founded in 1373. An order 
of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was founded 
by Catharine, empress of Peter the Great, 1714. They 
were to be distinguished, as the name implied (from 
katharo.% pure), for purity of life and manners. 

CATHOLIC MA.JESTY. This title was first given 
by Pope Gregory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, 736. — 
Liccnciado. The title was also given to Ferdinand V. 
and his queen iu 1474 by Innocent VIII. on account of 
their zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, and their 
establishment of the Inquisition in Spain. 

CATHOLICS. See Roman Catholics. 

CAT ISLE. See Salvador. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. L. Sergius Catiline, 
a Roman of noble family, having squandered away his 
fortune by debaucheries and extravagance, and having 
been refused the consulship (B.C. 65), meditated the 
ruin of his country, and conspired with many of the 
dissolute aristocracy to extirpate the senate, plunder 
the treasury, and set Rome on lire. This conspiracy 
was timely discovered and frustrated. A second plot 
(in 63) was detected by the Consul Cicero, whom he 
had resolved to murder. Catiline's daring appearance 
in the senate-house after his guilt was known drew 
forth Cicero's celebrated invective, " Quousque tan- 
dem, Catilina !" on Nov. 8. On seeing live of his ac- 
complices arrested, Catiline retired to Gaul, where his 
partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished 
the conspirators at home, and Petreius routed Cati- 
line's ill-disciplined forces ; the conspirator being kill- 
ed in the engagement, December, 62 B.C. 

CATO, SniciDE or, termed the "era destructive of 
the liberties of Rome." This Roman philosopher, con- 
sidering freedom as that which alone " sustains the 
name and dignity of man," and nnable to survive the 
independence of his conutrv, stabbed himself at Utica, 
46 B.C. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, a gang of desper- 
ate politicians, formed by Arthur i'histlewood, which 
asf-embled in Cato Street, Edgevs'are Road, proposed 
the assassination of the ministers of the crown, at a 
cabinet dinner, and the overthrow of the government. 



They were betrayed by one of their number, and ar-^ 
rested Feb. 23, 1S20, and the principals, Thistlevvood, ' 
Brunt, Davidson, lugs, and Tidd, were executed with 
the horrors adjudged to the punishment of traitors, on 
May 1 following. 

CATTLE. Of horned cattle only the buffalo or bi- 
son is native of this country, and this has never been 
tamed. Columbus in 1493 brought the lirst tame cat- 
tle to America, a bull and several cows. As the vari- 
ous parts of North and South America were settled 
by Europeans, cattle were introduced, and from these 
have descended all the vast herds which now roam 
over the pampas of Texas and South America. In 
1611 and 1624, cattle were imported into Virginia and 
Massachusetts. 

In Great Britain and in this country they have been 
vastly improved, both iu the weight of carcass, the 
quality of the beef, and the abundance of the milk, by 
the extraordinary attention that has been given to the 
selection and crossing of the best breeds, according to 
the objects in view. This sort of improvement began 
about the middle of last century, or rather later. 

Among the various races of cattle existing among 
us, where strict regard is paid to breeding with a defi- 
nite object in vievv, a preference is given to the Dur- 
hams or short-horns, the Herefords,the Ayrshires, and 
the Devons. The Durhams, from their rapid growth, 
early maturity, and capability of taking on fat, are 
adapted only for high keeping, or to the richest pas- 
tures of the Middle and Northern States, and those of 
Ohio, Kentucky, and other parts of the West. The 
males, when judiciously crossed with the other breeds, 
or with the common cows of the country, often beget 
the best of milkers, and for this purpose they have 
been especially recommended. The Herefords, on the 
contrary, from their peculiar organization, are better 
adapted for poor or indifferent pastures, and regions 
subject to continued drought ; and for this reason they 
are well suited for California, New Mexico, Texas, and 
other parts of the South. The oxen of this breed are 
good iu the yoke, and the cows, when properly fed, 
give an abundance of milk. The Ayrshires are best 
suited for a cool, mountainous region, or a cold, rigor- 
ous climate. They succeed well in Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, and Vermont, and are highly prized 
for their tameness, docile temi)ers, and rich milk. 
The Devons, from their hardihood, comparatively 
small size, and peculiar structure, appear to be adapt- 
ed to almost every climate, and to all kinds of pastur- 
age. From their stoutness, good tempers, honesty, 
and quickness of action, they make the best teams, 
and in this resjiect their chief excellency consists. 
The cows make fair milkers, and their flesh very good 
beef. They also possess great aptitude to take on fat. 
By tlie census of 1S.50, there were in the I^ited States 
and Territories, owned, 18,280,899 head of neat cattle. 
In 1860 the number of cattle iu the United States was 
20,935,062. 

The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and 
Scotland into England was prohibited by a law, 1663 ; 
but the export of cattle from Ireland became very ex- 
tensive. In 1S42 the importation of cattle into En- 
gland from foreign countries was subjected to a mod- 
erate duty, and in 1840 they were made duty free. — In 
1850, were imported of all sorts of cattle, 217,247 ; in 
1854, 397,430 ; in 1859, 347,341 ; in 1864, 727,977. In 1849, 
53,480 horned cattle were imported ; in 1863, 150,898 ; 
in 1864, 496,243 from all countries. In April, 1857, great 
disease arose among cattle abroad, but by great care 
it was almost excluded from this country. The cattle- 
plague now raging in England (Sept., iS65) apjjeared 
in June. The nature and origin of the disease caused 
much dispute. It is generally considered to be a ty- 
phoid fever, and of foreign origin. Active piJeventive 
and remedial measures have b'eeu adopted, under the 
authority of the Privy Council. The importation of 
cattle from England into Ireland was prohibited Aug. 
25, 1865. 

A severe cattle-plague raged in England, 1745-56. 
The Privy Council ordered diseased beasts to be shot, 

and their skins destroyed ; granting moderate com- , 

pensation, March 12, 1746. 
A royal commission to inquire into the causes of the 

cattle-plague and suggest remedies met first, Oct. 

10; report of majority consider the disease to have 

been imported, and recommend slaughter of ani- 
mals, and stringent prohibition of passage of cattle 

across public roads, etc., Oct. 81, 1805. 
27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; S09S 

slaughtered, up to Oct. 21, 1865. 
Orders in council for regulating the cattle trade (in 

conformity with the act of 1850), Nov. 23 and Dec. 

10, 1865 ; and Jan. 20, 1866. 



CAU 



119 



CEP 



Disease still racrinff ; official report : cattle attacked, 

l-2l>,T4ll: killed, lt;it-t'2; dit'(l,T:>,T50; recovered, 14,1 Ij'J; 

Uiiaccoiiuted for, lf.,OSfi, Feb. 1, ISOO. I'revailed iu 

ISCT, procccdiug from Texas over the whole couutrj'. 

CAUCASUS, a lofty ninuntaiii, a continuation of 

the ridi,'e of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and 

Caspian Seas, rroniclhcus was said to have been 

tied on the top ofCaucat^us by Jupiter and continually 

devoured by vultures (according to ancient author;?, 

1548 B.C.). "The passes near the'inountain were called 

Caitmm're Porta; and it is supposed that through them 

the Sarmatians or Iluns invaded the provinces of 

Rome, A.D. 44'. See Cir cassia. 

CAUCUS. An American term, applied to a private 
meeting of the leading politicians of a party to agree 
upon the plans to be pursued during an election or 
session of Congress. This institution is now a very 
powerful antagonist to public opinion. The word is 
said to be derived from "ship"-caulkers' meetings. A 
"caucus club" is mentioned by John Adams iu 1TC3. — 
Bartktt. 

CAUDINE FORKS, according to Livy, the Furculce 
Caudinm (in Samnium, S. Italy), were two narrow de- 
files or gorges, united by a range of mountains on 
each side. The Romans went through the first pass, 
but found the second blocked up; on returning, they 
found the first similarly obstructed. Being thus hem- 
med in by the Samnites, under the command of C. 
Pontius, they surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (after 
a fruitless contest, according to Cicero). The Roman 
senate broke the treaty. 

CAULIFLOWER, said to have been first planted in 
England about 1603 ; it came from Cyprus. 

CAUSTIC IN Painting, a method of burning colors 
into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias of "Sicyon. 
lie painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground 
making garlands with flowers ; the picture was hence 
named atcphanoplocon. It was bought by Lucullus 
for two talents, 335 B.C.— Pliny. 

CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the Briel, 
Flushing, Ramniekins, and Walcheren), were given to 
Queen Elizabeth in 15S5 as security for their i-epaying 
her for assistance in their struggle with Spain. They 
were restored to the Dutch republic by James I. in 
1616. 

CAVALIER. The appellation given to the support- 
ers of the kinir during the Civil War, from a number 
of gentlemen "forming themselves into a body-guard 
for the king iu 1(541. They were opposed to the Round- 
heads, or friends of the Parliament. — Hume. 

CAVALRY. The Romans were celebrated for the 
discipline and efticiency of their cavalry. Attached to 
each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, iu ten 
turnue; the commander always a veteran. The Per- 
sians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 400 B.C. ; and 
10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 
333 B.C. — Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. 
the British cavalry reached to 31,000 men. The En- 
glish cavalry force, iu 1S40, was, in household troops, 
1200; dragoons, hussars, and lancers, 9524; total,10,733. 
In 1S5C the total was stated to be 21,651 ; in 1881, 23,210. 
See Horse Guards, etc. 

CAVENDISH EXPERUMENT. In 1798 the Hon. 
Henry Cavendish described his experiment for deter- 
mining the mean density of the earth by comparing 
the foi-ce of terrestrial attraction with that of the at- 
traction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and 
density, by means of the torsion balance.— /jrawfk. 

CAWNPORE, a toAvn in India, on the Doab, a pen- 
insula l)etween the Ganges and Jumna. During the 
mutiny in ls-,T it was garrisoned by native troops 

Kk'r'Sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke out into re- 
volt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao, 
Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with 
the British, came apparently to their assistance, but 
joined the rebels. He took the place after three 
Aveeks' sieee, June 26 ; and, in spite of a treaty, mas- 
sacred great numbers of the British, without respect 
to aire or sex, in the most cruel manner. General 
Ilavelock defeated Nana Sahib, July 16, at Futteh- 
Iiore, and retook Cawnpore, July 17. A column was 
erected here in memory of the sufferers, by their rela- 
tives of the 32d re<:inient. In Dec, 1S60, Nana was 
said to be living at Thibet ; and iu Dec, 1861, was in- 
correctly said to have been captured at Kurrachee. 
See India, 1S57. 

C.VYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), settled by 
the French 1004-35. It afterward came successively 
into the hands of the English (16&4), French, and 



Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. 
Cayenne was taken bv the British, Jan. 12, 1S09, but was 
restored to the French in 1S14. Here is produced the 
C'ajisicum baccatinn, or Cayenne pepper. Many French 
political prisoners have been sent here since iS48. 

CECILIAN SOCIETY. See tinder Music. 

CEDAR-TREE. The red cedar (Jum2^crus Virgin- 
iana) came from North America before 1664 ; the Ber- 
mudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683 ; the cedar 
of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus) from the Levant before 
1CS3. In 1850 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 
feet high, remained on Lebanon. The cedar of Goa 
(Cu2>resstis Lu.iitanica) was brought to Europe by the 
Portuguese about 1683. See Cijiwesa. 

CELERY is said to have been introduced into En- 
gland by the French marshal, Talland, during his cap- 
tivity in England, after his defeat at Blenheim by 
Marlborough in 1704. 

CELIBACY (from coelehs, unmarried) was preached 
by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His early con- 
verts lived in caves, etc., till monasteries were found- 
ed. The doctrine was rejected in the Council of Nice, 
3i5. Celibacy was enjoined to bishops only in 682. 
The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow 
of celibacy by Pope Gregory VII. in 1073-85. The de- 
cree was opposed in England, 95S-97S. Its observance 
was finally established^by the Council of Placentia, 
held in 1095. The privilege of marriage was restored 
to the English clergy in 1547. The marriage of the 
clergy was" proposed, but negatived at the Council of 
Trent (1503). 

CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann in 1839) 
supposes that the ultimate particles of all animal and 
vegetable tissues are small cells. Some of the lowest 
forms of animal and vegetable life are said to be com- 
posed of merely a single cell, as the germinal vesicle 
in the egg and the red-snow plant. 

CELTIBERL See Numantine War. 

CELTS, a group of the Aryan family. See Gauls. 

CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the Greeks 
and Romans were at a distance from their towns ; and 
the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens and in fields 
{John xix., 41). In the United States the most remark- 
able cemeteries are Mt. Auburn, in Cambridge, Mass., 
consecrated in 1831 ; Laurel Hill, Philadelphia, Penn., 
1835; and Greenwood, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1839. 

CENIS, MotJNT. See under Al2)s. 

CENSORS, Roman magistrates, whose duty it was 
to survey, rate, and correct the manners of the people. 
The two first censors were appointed 443 B.C. Plebe- 
ian censors were first appointed 131 B.C. The office, 
abolished by the emperors, was revived by Decius, 251 
A.D. See Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by Moses, 
1490 B.C. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. ; and Demetrius 
Phalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 
B.C. In the Roman polity a general estimate of every 
man's estate and personal efi'ects, delivered to the 
government upon oath every five years ; established 
by Servius Tullus, 5C6 B.C. By section 111 of article 
I. of the Constitution of the LTnited States, it is pro- 
vided that a census of the whole Union shall be taken 
every ten years, and by the results of this census, the 
ratio of representation of the people in Congress shall 
be fixed. The first census was taken in 1790. In En- 
gland the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken 
at decennial periods, of wliich the latest were in 1801, 
1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851, and 1861 (April 7). For the 
latest census taken in other countries, see Table, p. 
viii., after the preface. 

CENTRAL AMERICA. See America. 

CENTURION, the captain, head, or commander of 
a subdivision of a Roman legion which consisted of 
100 men, and was called a centuria. By the Roman 
census each hundred of the people was called a cen- 
turia, 558 B.C. 

CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by the 
Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman Church 
by" Indictions, the first of which began Sept, 24, A.D. 
312. The method of computing time by centuries 
commenced from the incarnation o-f Christ, and was 
adopted in chronological histoid first in France.— 
IHipi7i. 

CEPHALONIA, one of the Ionian Islands, -was taken 
from the ^tolians by the Romans 189 B.C., and given 
to the Athenians by Hadrian, A.D. 135. See Ionian 
Isks. 



CER 



120 



CHA 



CERES, a planet, 1^0 miles in diameter, was discov- 
ered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, Jan. 1, ISOl ; he named 
it after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Si- 
cilians. 

CERESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Erancis de Bourbon, 
count d'Eughien, defeated the Imperialists under the 
Marquis de Guasto, April 14, 1544. 

CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great captain 
Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards defeated the 
Due de Nemours and the French, April 28, 1503. 

CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth 
and others in 1S03. 

CERRO GORDO, Battle op. With about S500 men, 
General Scott, after capturing Vera Cruz (which see), 
marched toward the Mexican capital. At Cerro Gor- 
do, a difficult mountain pass at the foot of the eastern 
chain of the Cordilleras, he found Santa Anna strong- 
ly posted and fortified, with 12,000 men. Scott attack- 
ed him on the ISth of April, drove him from his posi- 
tion, and dispersed his army. Santa Anna narrowly 
escaped ou the back of a mule. More than 1000 Mexi- 
cans were killed or wounded, and 3000 were made 
prisoners. The Americans lost in killed and wounded 
431. Scott pushed on toward the Mexican capital. 
See Contrcras, Cherubusco, El Molino del liey, Chapultc- 
pec. 

CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on the N. coast 
of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, the 
southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken from the 
Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534 ; hy the Goths, 
61S ; by the Moors (about 700), from whom it was taken 
by the Portuguese, 1415. With Portugal, it was annex- 
ed in 15S0 to'Spain, which power still retains it. 

CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island in the 
Indian Ocean, called by the natives the Seat of Para- 
dise. It was discovered by the Portuguese Almeyda, 
1505; but it was known to the Romans in the time of 
Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; 
they captured the capital, Colombo, in 1C03. Frequent 
conflicts ensued between the Candians and the Euro- 
peans, and peaceful commercial relations were estab- 
lished only in 1004. Intercourse with the British be- 
gan in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken 
by them in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch 
settlements were seized by the British ; Trincomalee, 
Aug. 26, 1795, and Jeffnapatam in Sept. same year. 
Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain l3y the peace of 
Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacher- 
ously massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Can- 
dy, at Colombo, June 20, 1803. The complete sover- 
eignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 
The governor, Lord Torrington, was absolved from a 
charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebellion, 
Mayri851. The prosperity of Ceylon greatly Increased 
under the administration of Sir H. Ward, 1855-00. Sir 
J. E. Tenneut's work, "Ceylon," appeared in 1859. 

CH^RONEA (Boeotia). Here Greece lost its liber- 
ty to Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 30,000 The- 
bans, Athenians, etc., Aug. or 7, 338 B.C. Here Ar- 
chelaus, the lieutenaut of Mithridates, was defeated by 
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 80 B.C. 
See Coronca. 

CHAIN BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain 
bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, in 
China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of 
one mountain to the top of another. Mr. Telford con- 
structed the first chain bridge on a grand scale in En- 
gland over the strait between Anglesey and the coast 
of Wales, 1818-25. See Mciiai Straits. 

CHAIN CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. Iron chain 
cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately 
connected with the Belgte of Britain in the time of 
Csesar, 55 B.C. These cables came into modern use, 
and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. 
An act for the proving and sale of chain cables and 
anchors was passed in 1864. — Chain Suot, to destroy 
the rigging of an enemy's ship, were invented by the 
Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 1666. — Cuain Pcmts were 
first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHAINS, Hanging in. By the 25th Geo. II., 1752, it 
was enacted that the judge should direct the bodies of 
pirates and murderers to be dissected and anatomized, 
or hung in chains. The custom of hanging in chains 
was abolished in 1834. 

CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, 
colonized by Megarians about 684 B.C. It was taken 
by Darius, B.C. 505 ; by the Romans, 74 ; plundered by 
the Goths, A.D. 2.59; taken by Chosroes, the Persian, 
609; by Orchan, the Turk, 1833. Here was held the 



" Synod of the Oak," 403 ; and the fourth general coun- 
cil, "which annulled the act of the '" Robber Synod,"' 
Oct. 8, 451. 

CHALCIS. See Euboea. 

CHALDJilA, the ancient name of Babylonia, but aft- 
erward restricted to the S.W. portion. The Chaldseaus 
were devoted to astronomy and astrology. See Dan, 
li., etc. — The Cuald/ean Registers of celestial obser- 
vations were commenced 2234 B.C., and were brought 
down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. 
(a period of 1903 years). These registers were sent by 
Callisthenes to Aristotle. — Chai.man Chakaotees: 
the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew 
into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, 
about 445 B.C. 

CHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here 
with Prince Rupert, Jane 18, 1643, John Hampden, of 
the Parliamentary party, was mortally wounded. A 
column was erected to his memory, June IS, 1843. 

CIIALONS-SUR MARNE (N.E. France). Here the 
Emperor Aureliau defeated Tetricus, the last of the 
pretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 
274 ; and here, in 451, Aetius defeated Attila the Ilun, 
compelling him to retire into Pannonia. 

CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL was first published in 
Feb., 1832. 

CHAMBRE ARDENTE (fiery chamber), an extra- 
ordinary French tribunal, so named from the punish- 
ment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. in 1535, 
and Henry II. in 1.549, employed it for the extirpation 
of heresy, which led to the civil war with the Hugue- 
nots in 1560 ; and in 1679, Louis XIV. appointed oiie to 
investigate the poisoning cases which arose after the 
execution of the Marchioness Brinvilliers. 

CHAMP DE MARS,* an open square in front of the 
Military School at Paris, with artificial embankments 
ou each side, extending nearly to the River Seine. 
Here was held, July 14, 1790, the "foduratiou," or so- 
lemnity of swearing fidelity to the " patriot king" and 
new Constitution : great rejoiciucs followed, public 
balls were given by'the municipality in the Cliinirps 
Ehjsees, and Paris was illuminated. On July 14, 1791, 
a second great meeting was held here, directed by the 
Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the 
country," praying fo'r the abdication of Louis XVI. A 
commemoration meeting took place July 14, 1792. An- 
other Constitution was sworn to here, under the eye 
of Napoleon I., May 1, 1815, at a ceremony called the 
Champ de Mai. Tlie prince president (now Napoleon 
III.) had a grand review in the Champ de Mars, and 
distributed eagles to the army, May 10, 1852. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N.E. France, 
formed part of the kingdom of Burgundy, and was 
governed by counts from the 10th century till it was 
united to Navarre, Count Thn:)aut becoming king, in 
1234. The Countess Joanna married Philip V. of 
France in 1284, and in 1361 Champagne was annexed 
by their descendant. King John. 

CHAMPION OP THE King op England, an ancient 
office, whicli since 1377 has been attached to the man- 
or of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. Their 
descendant. Sir Henry Dymoke, the seventeenth ofvhis 
family who has held the'oftice, died April 28, 1805, and 
was succeeded by his brother Johrh. At the coronation 
of the English kings, the champion used to challenge 
any one that should deny their title. 

CHAMPLAIN. See Lake ChamiMm. 

CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, Lokd High, ranks 
after the princes of the blood royal as the first lay sub- 
ject. Anciently the office was conferred upon some 
dignified ecclesiastic termed canccUarius, or door-keep- 
er, who admitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. 
Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain to the king (William 
the Conqueror) and bishop ofElmham, was lord chan- 
cellor in 1067. — Hardy. Thomas a Becket was made 
chancellor in 1154. The first person qualified by edu- 
cation to decide causes upon his own judgment was 
Sir Thomas More, appointed in 1529, before which time 
the office was more that of a high state functionary 
than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christo- 
pher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor in 1587, was 
very ignorant, ou which account the first reference was 
made to a master in 1588. In England, the great seal 
has been frequently put in commission; in''1813 the 
office of Vice-Chancellor was established. t See Keeper 
and Vice-Chaneellor. 



* The ancient assemblies of the Prankish people, the germ of Parlia- 
ments, held annually in iVIarch, received tiiis name. In 747, Pepin 
changed the month to May. 

t lu 1S63 was passed tlie Lord Chancellor'a Augmentation Act. It 



CIIA 



121 



CIIA 



i.onn iiinii ciiAN(;nLi.0KS of engi.ani>. 
1487. John ^loivton, urcli bishop of Ciiutcrbiiry. 
1504. \\'illi:iin Warhaiii, aft. archbishop of Canterbury. 
ISIT). Thomas Wolsuy, cardinal aud abp. of York. 
l.VJ'.». Sir Thomas ;\l(ire. 
l.'jIi'J. Sir 'i'homus Audlpy, keeper. 
If):;:;, sir Tliomas Audk'y, chancellor, aft. Ld. Audlcy. 
1.M4. Thomas, lord Wriothcsley. 
1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 

" Kicliard, lord Hich, lord chancellor. 
1.551. Tliomas Goodrich, bisho|) of Ely, keeper. 
15.')2. The same; now lord chancellor. 
!.'),'">:;. Stephen (Jardincr, bishop of Winchester. 
155ri. Nicholas llealh, archbishop of York. 
15,5s. Sir Nicholas liacon, keeper. 
157'.>. Sir Thomas r.romley, lord chancellor. 
lf>S7. Sir C'hristoi)her Ilattou. 
15H1. The i;reat sivd in commission. 
1.5'.I2. Sir John Puckeriusj:, lord keeper. 
1590. Sir Thomas ELierton, lord keeper. 
1003. Sir Thomas Egertou, now lord Ellesmere, lord 

chancellor. 
1G17. Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 
lOlS. Sir Francis Bacon, created Lord Verulam, lord 

chancellor. 
1G21. The f^reat seal in commission. 
1625. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 
" Sir Thomas Coventry, afterward Lord Coventry, 

lord keeper. 
1640. Sir John Finch, afterward Lord Pinch. 
1U41. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterward Lord Lyttelton, 

lord keeper. 
164n. The irreat seal in the hands of commissioners. 

1645. Sir Kichard Lane, royal keeper. 

1646. In the hands of commissioners. 

1649. In commission for the Commonwealth. 
165.). Sir Edward Herbert, kin;^'s lord keeper. 

1654. lu commission during the remainder of the Com- 

monwealth. 

1060. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterward cre- 
ated Lord Hyde aud Earl of Clarendon. 

1667. Sir Orlando Bridgmau, lord keeper. 

1072. Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord clian- 
cellor. 

1673. Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 

1675. Heneage, now Lord Finch, lord chancellor, aft- 
erward Earl of Nottingham. 

1682. Sir Francis North, cr. Lord Guilford, lord keeper. 

1655. Francis, lord Guilford; sixcceeded by 
" George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

1GS9. In commission. 

1600. Sir John Trevor, Knt, Sir William Rawlinsou, 
Knt., and Sir George Hntchins, Knt., commis- 
sioners or keepers. 

1603. Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

1697. Sir John Somers, cr. Lord Somers, chancellor. 

1700. Lord Chief Justice Holt, Sir George Treby, chief 
justice C. P., aud Chief Baron Sir Edward 
\\'ard, lord keepers. 
" Sir Nathan Wriirht, lord keeper. 

1705. Right Hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
ward Lord Cowper. 

1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

1710. In c(mimission. 
" Sir Simon Ilarcourt, cr. Lord Ilarcourt, keeper. 

1713. Simon, lord Uarcourt, lord chancellor. 

1714. William, lord Cowper, lord chaucellor. 

1715. In commission. 

" Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor, afterward 
Earl of Macclesfield. 
1725. In commission. 

" Sir Peter King, created Lord King, chancellor. 
17:'.3. Charles Talbot, created Lord Talbot, chaucellor. 
17:;7. Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
17.':i6. In commission. 
1757. Sir Robert Henley, afterward Lord Henley, last 

lord heftier. 
1761. Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterward Earl of 

Northingfon. 
1766. Ch;irU's, lord Camden, lord chaucellor. 

1770. lion. Charles Yorke, lord chaucellor. 
LCreated Lord Mordau ; died within three days, 

aud before the seals were put to his patent of 
peerage.] 
" Pn commission. 

1771. Hon. Henry Bathurst, lord Apslcy, succeeded as 

Earl Bathurst, 

177*^. Edward Thiulow, created Lord Thurlow. 

17S3. Alexander, lord Loughborough, aud others, com- 
missioners. 
" Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 

1792. In commission. 

eniibled him to sell the .iflvowsou of certain livings in his gift for the 
augmeutatlon of poor benefices. 



1793. Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborongh, 

lord chaucellor. 
ISOl. John Scott, lord Eldon. 

1806. Hon. Thomas Erskine, created Lord Erskiue. 

1807. John, lord Eldon, again. 

1S27. John Singleton Copley, created Lord Lyudhnrst. 

ls:!0. Henry Brougham, created Lord Brougham. 

ls:;4. Lord Lyndhurst, again. 

Ib35. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, Master of the 
Rolls, Vice-chancellor Shadwell, aud Mr. Jus- 
tice Bosanquet, C. P., commissioners. 

1S36. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created Lord Cot- 
tenhani, lord chancellor, Jan. 16. 

lS-11. Lord Lyndluirst, a third time, Sept. 3. 

1S46. Lord Cottenham, again lord chaucellor, July 6. 
LUis lordship, on signifying his intention to re- 
tire, June 19, 1850, was created Earl of Cotten- 
ham.] 

1S50. Lord Langdale, Master of the Rolls, Sir Laun- 
celot Shadwell, Vice-chancellor of England, 
aud Sir Robert Mousey Rolfe, B. E., Commis- 
si(mers of the Great Seal, June 19. 
Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro, July 15. 



ls,59. John, lord Campbell, June 18 ; died June 23, 1S61. 
1861. Richard Bethell, lord Westbury, June 26. Re- 
signed July 4, 186.^. 
1865. Thomas, lord Crauworth, again, July 6. 

CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord Higu. The 
earliest nomination was by Richard I., 1189, when Ste- 
phen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of 
vice-chancellor was known in Ireland in 1232, Geoflrey 
Turvillo, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named. 

CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Loet>. In the laws 
of Malcolm IL, who reigned 1004, this officer is thus 
mentioned: "The chaucellar sail at al tymes assist 
the king in giviug him couusall mair secretlv nor the 
rest of the nobility. . . . The chaucellar sall'be ludgit 
ueir unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, 
and the seill, aud that he maybe readie, baith day and 
nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. 
Evau was lord chaucellor to Malcolm III., suruamed 
Canmore, in 1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, after- 
ward Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scot- 
land, the office having been abolished in 170S, after the 
union. See Keeper, Lord. 

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. See Ex- 
chequer. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE (Virginia), a large brick ho- 
tel, once kept by a Mr. Chaucellor, was the site of se- 
vere sanguinary conflicts on May 2, 3, aud 4, 1863, be- 
tween the Army of the Potomac under General Hook- 
er (who had relieved Burnside, Jau. 26), and the Con- 
federates under General Lee. On April 29, the nation- 
al army crossed the Rapi)ahanuock; on Jlay 2, Gen- 
eral " Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and rout- 
ed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his 
own party tiring on him by mistake. General Stuart 
took his command, and, after a severe conflict on May 
3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, Hooker was 
compelled to retreat across the Rappahannock. The 
struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont 
during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. 
Hooker's defeat at Chancellorsville will always he an 
enigma to the historian. His army numbered 120,000, 
Lee's only 62,000. After crossing the river, aud hav- 
ing, by admirable strategy, succeeded in turning the 
Confederate position at "Fredericksburg, Hooker de- 
layed his advance, and failed to reap tlie fruits of his 
strategy. From the moment of crossing to that of re- 
crossing, there was no time when he could not, by a 
determined attack, have won success. SedL'wiek, who 
was assigned to attack the heights of Fredericksburg, 
and then advance upon Lee's'rear, was dilatory, and 
had no influence upon the battle. The entire action 
on the national side was mismanaged. Hooker was 
disabled on the 3d, but there ought to have been some 
one to take his place. Probably no battle ever occur- 
red in history where a better chance of victory was 
given to one "side, or where the opportunity was more 
idly thrown away. The national loss was 17,000, of 
which 5000 were unwounded prisoners ; the Confed- 
erate was about 13,000, of which 3000 were prisoners. 
Lee's victory throws no credit upon his generalship. 
His mistakes were sufficiently serious to have insured 
his ruin but for the faults of his antagonist. 

CHANCERY, Cofet of. In England, according to 
some, instituted as early as 605 ; to others, by Alfred, 
in 8S7 ; settled upon a better footing by William I. in 
1067 {Stow) or 1070. This court had its origin in the 



CHA 



122 



CHA 



desire to render justice complete, and to moderate tlie 
rigor ofottier courts that are bound to the strict letter 
ot the law. It gives relief to or against iufauts, not- 
withstanding their minority; and to or against mar- 
ried women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all 
frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for 
which there is no redress at common law, are reliev- 
able here. — Elackstonc. See Chancdhirs of England. 
The delays in Chancery proceedings having long given 
dissatisfaction, the subject was brought before Parlia- 
ment in 1S25, and frequently since, which led to the 
passing of important acts in 1852, 1853, and 1855, to 
amend the practice in the Court of Chancery. 

CHANDOS CLAUSE. See Counties. 

CHAPTER. Ancieutly the bishop and clergy lived 
in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former lu per- 
forming holy oiiices and governing the church, until 
the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now an as- 
sembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or cathe- 
dral. — Cou-cl. The chapter-house of Westminster Ab- 
bey was built in 1250. By consent of the abbot, the 
commoners of England held their Parliaments there 
from 137T until 154T, when Edward VI. granted them 
the chapel of St. Stephen. 

CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of. Chapnltepec is a 
lofty hill, strongly fortilied, and the seat of the Mili- 
tary School of Mexico. It was the last place to be de- 
fended outside the city of Mexico toward the middle 
of September, 1S-4T, the invading Americans, under 
Scott, having taken every other strong- hold from Vera 
Cruz to Chajjultepec. Scott brought four heavy bat- 
teries to bear upon it on the night of the llth of Sep- 
tember, and on the 12th commenced a heavy cannon- 
ade and bombardment upon it. On the 13th the Amer- 
icans made a furious assault, routed the Mexicans, and 
unfurled the stars and stripes over the shattered castle 
of Chapnltepec. On tl'.e following day Scott and his 
army entered the city of Mexico in triujnph. 

CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised by Dr. 
John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. About the end of 
the last century, Liiwitz, a German chemist, discov- 
ered that charcoal (carbon) possessed the property of 
deodorizing putrid substances by absorbing effluvia 
and gases. Air-tilters, based on this property, have 
been successfully applied to public buildings, etc. Dr. 
Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. 

CHARING CROSS, so called from one of the crosses 
which Edward I. erected to the memory of his queen 
Eleanor, who died in 1291 ; Charing being the name 
of the village in which it was built. Some contend 
that it derived its name from being the resting-place 
of the cMre retjne, dear queen. It was yet a small vil- 
lage in 1353, and the cross remained till the Civil Wars 
in the reign of Charles I., when it Avas destroyed as a 
monument of popish superstition. A new cross was 
erected by the Southeastern Railway Company in 1865. 
— Charing Cross was built about 1678, nearly as it ap- 
peared before the new buildings were commenced in 
1821). 

CHARLEROI, in Belgium. Great battles have been 
fought near this toA\'n in several wars ; the principal 
in 1690 and lT9-t. See Fleurus. Charleroi was be- 
sieged by the Prince of Orange in 1672, and was again 
invested by the same prince with 60,(i00 men in 1677 ; 
but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Lig- 
ny. Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it 
fall back upon Wavre, June 16, 1816. 

CHARLES ET GEORGES. Two French vessels of 
this name, professedly conveying free African emi- 
grants (but really slaves), were seized by the Portu- 
guese in Couducia Bay, Nov. 29, 1857, sent to Lisbon, 
and condemned as slavers. They were haughtily de- 
manded by the French government, which, on the hes- 
itation of the Portuguese, sent two ships of war to the 
Tagus. The captured vessels were then surrendered 
under protest. The conduct of the British government 
(that of Lord Derby), to whom the Portuguese had re- 
ferred the dispute, was considered more prudent than 
dignified. The Emperor of France, however, gave up 
the free emigration scheme. 

CHARLESTON (South Carolina). The English fleet 
here was repulsed with great loss, June 28," 1776. It 
was besieged by the British troops at the latter end of 
March, 1780, and surrendered May 13 following, with 
COOO prisoners ; it was evacuated April 14, 1783. Great 
commotion arose here in Nov., 1860, through the elec- 
tion of Mr. Lincoln to the presidency, he being op- 
posed to slavery. On April 12, 1861, the war began by 
the Confederates capturing Fort Sumter {which .see). 
lu Dec, 1S61, the Federals sunk a number of vessels 



laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance to 
Charleston Harbor. From the time of the capture of 
Fort Sumter to the occupation of Charleston by the 
national forces the city was subjected to a siege from 
the sea-side. The principal operations of a formida- 
ble nature against Charleston were those of General 
Gillmore and Admirals Dupont and Dahlgren, April 7 — 
September 7, 1863. Morris Island, with Forts Wagner 
and Gregg, was wholly occupied by the national forces 
at the ckise of this period. During this time General 
Beauregard commanded the defenses of the city. In 
July two assaults were made upon Fort Wagner, and 
repulsed with great loss. General Strong and Colonel 
Shaw were killed. On the 23d of August fire was 
opened upon the city from the " Swamp Angel." This 
fire was continued, and a large portion of the city was 
destroyed. The Confederates evacuated Forts Wag- 
ner and Gregg, Sept. 7, 1863. On Feb. 17, 1865, the Con- 
federates were compelled to retire from Charleston by 
Sherman's movements, and the national troops re- 
placed their standard on Fort Sumter, April 14, the 
day on which President Lincoln was assassinated. 

CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt by the 
British forces under General Gage, June 17, 1775. 

"CIIARTE," the French political Constitution ac- 
knowledged by Louis XVIII. in 1814. The infraction 
of this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The 
"Charte" was sworn to by Louis Philippe, Aug. 29, 
1830, but set aside by the revolution of 1848. 

CHARTERS granted to corporate towns to protect 
their manufactures by Henry II. in 1132 ; called in and 
modified by Charles II. in 1682 ; the ancient charters 
restored in 1698. Alterations were made by the Mti- 
nicipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Chartu and 
Boroughs. 

CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large bodies of 
the working people of Great Britain shortly after the 
passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demand- 
ing the people's Charter, the six points of which were 
Universal Suffrage, Vote hij Ballot, Annual Parliaments, 
Pagnient of the Members, the Abolition of the Proijertij 
Qualijicatiiin (which was enacted, June, 1858), and 
Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the Chartists assem- 
bled in various parts of the country, armed with guns, 
pikes, and other weapons, and carrying torches and 
flags. They conducted themselves so tumultuously 
that a proclamation was issued against them, Dec. 12. 
Their petition (agreed to at Birmingham, Aug. 6, 1838) 
was presented by Mr. T. Attwood, June 14, 1839. They 
committed great outrages at Birmingham, July 15, 
1839, and at Newport {which .tec), Nov. 4, 1839. They 
held for some time a sort of Parliament called the 
"National Convention," the leading men being Fear- 
gtis O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. Stephens, etc. On 
April 10, 1848, they proposed to hold a meeting of 
200,000 men on Kennington Common, London, to 
march thence in procession to Westminster, and pre- 
sent a petition to Parliament; but only about 20,000 
came. The bank and other establishments were forti- 
fied by military ; and the preventive measures adopt- 
ed by the government proved so completely successful, 
that the rioters dispersed after some slight encounters 
with the police. The monster petition, in detached 
rolls, was sent in cabs to the House of Commons, and 
not less than 150,000 persons of all ranks (including 
Louis Napoleon, now Emperor of Fr.ance) were volun- 
tarily sworn fo act as special constables. From this 
time the proceedings of the Chartists became insignif- 
icant. 

CHARTREUSE, L.v Grande, famous as the chief of 
the monasteries of the Carthusian order, is situated 
among the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France. 
It was founded by Bruno of Cologne about 1084. At 
the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to 
the monastery after the restoration in 1814. 

CHARTS AND MAPS. Anaximander of Miletus 
was the inventor of geographical and celestial charts, 
about 570 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to 
England by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his 
brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. 
The first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn 
by George Lilly, who died in 1.559. Gerard Mercator 
published an atlas of maps in 1595. See Mercator. 

CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide 
in defense of one's self or relatives ; and English laws 
justify a woman for killing a man in defense of her 
chastity ; and a husband or a father in taking the life 
of him who attempts to violate his wife or ctaughter. 
In 1000 years from the time of Numa, 710 B.C., to the 
reign of Theodosius the Great, A.D. 394, only eighteen 



CITA 



123 



Roman vestals hntl been condemned for incontinence. 
tine IV^^i^saud OAdiiKjIiam, 

CIIATHA:M (Eui^laud), a principal station of the 
niyaluavy. Itn dock-yard, comnieuced by Colleen Eliza- 
lielli, contains immense naval magazines. Tlie Chat- 
ham Oifst, for the relief of wonnded and decayed sea- 
men, on-mally established here bv the queen and Ad- 
nm-ajs Drake and Uawkins in loss, was removed to 
iiivcnwich in isoy. lu kjgt, on the 10th of June, the 
Dutch lleet, under Admiral De Ituyter, sailed up to 
t his town and burned several men-of-war ; but the en- 
trance into the Mcdway is now defended by Sheerness 
and other forts, and additional fortilicatious were 
made at Chatham. On Feb. 8, ISGl, a violent out- 
lireak of the convicts was suppressed' by the military, 
and many of the rioters severely flogged. About XIOOO 
worth of in-operty was destroyed, and many persons 
were seriously hurt. 

CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION.* Formed Auo- 
1706; terminated Dec, 17GT. " 

Eail of Cliatham, Fhat Minister and Lord Privy Seal 
Duke (if (irai'ton. First Lord of the Treasunj. 
l.nrd Camden, h,nl Cliancdlor. 
Charles Townsliend, CItaiicellor of the Exchequer. 
Karl of Xorthington, Liird President. 
Earl of .siiclburue and General Couway, Secretaries of 

Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by SirEdw'd Hawke), 
Aihniraitii. " 

Slarquess of Granby, Ordnance. 
Lord Hillsborough, First Lord of Trade. 
Lord Barringtou, Secrctarij at War. 
Lord North and Sir George Cooke, joint Paymasters 
\ iscount Howe, Treasurer of the Aavi/. 
Duke of Ancaster, Lord le Despenser, etc. 

C!HATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here a con- 
gress was held by the four great powers allied at^ainst 
iM'ance, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, 
f eb. 5, ISU ; the negotiations for peace were broken 
ofl on March 19 following. 

CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog twelve miles 
square, in most places so soft as to be incapable of 
supporting a man or horse, over which Geort^e Ste- 
phenson, the railway engineer, carried the Liverpool 
:i!id iManchester railway, after overcoming difficulties 
I ^'usulered invincible. The road (literally a tloatino- 
one) was completed by Jan. 1, 1830, when the first ex- 
perimental train, drawn by the Rocket locomotive, 
passed over it. 

CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Here Generals 
Niermau, Thomas, and Hooker (under Grant) defeated 
the Coiitederate General Bragg, capturing Lookout 
31(nintain (Nov. 24), and storming Missionary Rid,o-e, 
-Nov. 25, 1S03. Grant had engaged about 65,000 men \ 
i.ragg Irom 40,000 to 45,000. The national loss was 
•'"10; the Confederate about 10,000, of whom 6142 
yvere prisoners. The result was very injurious to the 
<- oufederates. 

CHAL^MONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty of 
entered into between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively, 
-March 1, 1814. This treaty was succeeded by the cel- 
•■oi-ated treaty of Paris, April 11 following, by which 
A apoleon renoimced his sovereignty over France. See 
J HI- is. 

1 *^/l?^??- J^ '® supposed by Camden and others 

mat tiie English learned cheese-making from the Ro- 

nians about the Christian era. Cheese in the United 

"states, except for local consumption, is manufactured 

prmciiially m New York and Ohio. The New York 

' 'range County cheese, when new, is equal to any of 

tn.' mild cheeses ; but it does not acquire by a^e that 

I ' hness of flavor that English cheese does. The Ohio 

' iieese IS produced at a very low price, and is taking 

a rank among the important products of that a"-ricul- 

:al state. The prairies of the West, aflfordiug wild 

asses of great nutriment and fine flavcn-, are exceed- 

-ly well adapted for the production of cheese of 

"•<! quality, and at a price that excludes foreign 

' hecse from tlie market except for epicurean tastes. 

I n tlic yearlsr.,',, 1,520,942 lbs. of cheese were imported 

iiilo the L nited States, valued at $146,209. In the same 

year we exported to Great Britain 3,419,6.^7 lbs., valued 

at .y354,1.54; to other countries, 1,426,637 lbs., valued 



CUE 



* William Pitt, earl of Chatham {called the great rommmer', wai 
,."Z ?h?; '-'.'''n' Z^""^ Parliament in 17:!5 ;Vcame secretary of 
Nnl <''"V'"'r"^' ."'" r«",""> i" "'« Devonshire administration, 
In^;'J K ' r ^'""'•■'".v '" "le Newcastle administration, Jan., 1757. 
which lorH rf "TVm"'"',';' ""l ^J'^y """'' """l ^•'""' <"' Chatham, 
I„^ f ^.. A^'"'-'""''1 *="."'''' ''■'^"" "/' "«"■'• "« opposed the taxa- 
Ir.^rfn ^ American colonies, hut protested against the recoRnitiou of 
their mdependeuce, April 7, 177s, and died .May 11 following. 



at $159 S80; making a total of 4,846,568 lbs., worth 
;,f. 1 pl^f ^'"^'•^^'""'^^'^''^■■' 'incl Cheshire (England) 
"lAo i::^^^''^^>>' the last alone, annually.libout 

popery, but converted by Charles II in i^-t:of°?* 

Cf,"/ r''?''' ''^''''' cLfea CWfei Z asy urn for 
wounded and superannuated British soldiers ™Thp 

by^wmiam nT'ir^V^o" '^Th^^^"^^^"•• -'^" - 
sLphen J™x ";.anrlffth; ^f'jf '^"' Projector was Sir 
oiepncn ii ox, giancUather of the orator C J Foy The 

S oo' ^S^f'o^^^"«'°Plle^■ Wren, and the coi 

SoT...iVh?t S'ofThTiAirofTeit"^' r r 

here in state, Nov. 10-17 i&4 "^i^^e "f ^ ^H'-ngton lay 
Sir Hans Sloane, at Ch"lsef.:;;;'^,VvcPn ^"thf i1^^^^ 
caries Company in 1T21. The'CM^ea Watenvor -s 
were inconjorated 1 722. The first stone of the Mi°a^ 

d ine 19, ih^oi.—lhe bridge, constructed by Mr T Php-p 
In S^'S^'^l'^r'^ ^^"^^^^^ Parkfwas^i^f^ 

siSSS^aS^r/^fr;,^^ si^ ^^^ 

E "vot'lhev'h?."'''' '■'"'^ ''''''' f'-""^ '1^^ Cptians 'Z 
^gypt they had, m very early ages, extracted salts 
from their bases, separated oils, ami prepaied vineoa? 

Process"' ^h^Chb,^''''"?^ V^ '-^ kind^f chZfcal 
process. I he Chinese also claim an early acquaint- 
ance wath chemistry. The first chemical Studen s in 
Europe were the Alchemists (^^ee Alchemy) ; but chen" 
istry could not be said to exist as a science till the nth 

wHfb.'Ji'^.f r"^ ''''''=^'*f '^""^y ''^^ promoted by he 
wutings of Bacon, and the researches of Hooke, May- 

Dr ' Zi^.°^'u 1 ^" }^-% ""f^y P""-' of the 18th ctntmi 
Di. Stephen Hales laid the foundation o{ P7ictimatic 
t^rKt'i^ri'^'n?^'"' coiitemporary Boerhaave comb ned 
the study of chemistry with medicine. These were 
succeeded by Black, Bergman, Stahl, etc In 1772 
Priestley published his researches on air, having digl 
cohered the gases oxygen, ammonia, etc., and thus 
commenced a new era in the history of chemistry. He 
was ably seconded by Lavoisier, Cavendish Scheele 
Chaptal, etc. The 19th century opened with he brul 
i;™^i'^'^°^-'^"es of Davy, continued by DalFon F ra- 
^vJ.;tT °?*''"' ''\''\ ^'■■'"""'''' C/««W6-ft-^ has been very 
greatly advanced by the labors of Berzelius, Liebi/ 
Bumas, Laurent, Hofmann, Cahours, Franklaud *etc 
since 1830 See Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. For 
(,,v±t2 f "'"t-P™,,'.'''!^® ^®™6'i "Spectrum Analysis," 
,?J'wil,M '^ Kirchhoflf and Bunsen (1861), and "Biaij- 
su (1801), and "Atmolysis" (1803), invented by Mr. T 
Graham see those articles. The publication of Watt's 
great "Dictionary of Chemistry" began in April, 1863. 
CHEMUNG, Battt.e of. General Sullivan marched 
from the Wyoming Valley into the Indian country of 
M estern New lork with 3000 men in the summer of 
1.(9 At Tioga Point he was joined by General James 
Clinton with 1600 more; and on the 20th of August 
they fell upon a body of Indian and Tory sava<re1 at 
Chemung (now Elmira), and, after a severe emTa'^e- 
m«nf, dispersed them. In the course of three montlis 
Sullivan penetrated to the Genesee Valley, and devas- 
tated the fairest portion of the Seneca country. This 
was m chastisement for their cruelties at Wyomino- 
the previous year. •' " 

CHEQUES. See Drafts. 

CHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and arsenal 
01 France, on the coast of Brittany, about 00 or 70 miles 
equidistant from Portsmouth and Plymouth. It was 
raptured by Henry V. in 1418, and lost in 1450. Under 
the direction of Louis XIV., some works were erected 
here by the great Vauban, which, with some shippino-, 
etc., were destroyed by the British, Aug. 6, 7, 1758. 
lhe_ works were resumed on a stupendous scale by 
Louis xyi., but their progress was interrupted by the 
Revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 1783, re- 
sumed by Napoleon L about 1803, and finally com- 
pleted m 1813, is a magnificent work, forming a se- 
cure harbor, capable of afibrding anchorage for nearly 
the whole navy of France, and protected by strong 
lortmcations, increased by the present emperor. On 
Aug. 4, 5, 1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon 
clocks were opened, the latter in the presence of the 
Qneen of England and court. The British fleet visit- 



I.-.I. . ? \\uhler succeeded in producinp; artificially vrea, a body 
hitherto known only as a product of the aniooal organism. Since then, 
acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, various essential oils, similar to those 
of the pineapple, pear, garlic, etc., have been formed by combinations 
ot the gases oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid. The barrier formed 
by chemists between organic and inorganic bodies is thus broken down 
1 though the names are still retained. "«»", 



CHE 



124 



cm 



ed fcherbourg Aug. 15-17, 1865, and the officers and men 
were treated with much hospitality. 

CIIERITON DOWN (Hants). Here Sir Wm. Waller 
defeated the Royalists under Lord Hopton, May 29, 
16.14. 

CHERRY, the Primus Cerasus (so called from Cera- 
Bus, a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
Luciillus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), was first plauted in 
Britain, it is said, about 100. Fine kinds were brought 
from Flanders iu 1540, and planted in Kent, with much 
success. 

CHERSON. See Kherson. 

CHERSONESUS. See Crimea. 

C H B R U B U S C O, Battle of. Cherubusco was a 
strongly fortified place near the city of Mexico. To- 
ward this the Americans advanced after the battle at 
Contreras. (See Contreras.) Sauta Anna, who com- 
manded 12,000 men near the walls of the city of Mex- 
ico, now advanced, and the whole region became a bat- 
tle-field. This was on the 21st of August, 18-47. Cher- 
ubusco was taken, and Sauta Anua abandoned the field 
and fled toward the cit}'. He immediately sent a flag 
asking for an armistice of three days, preparatory for 
negotiations for peace. It was granted, but the treach- 
erous Mexican violated the agreement, and hostilities 
were reopened. See M Molino del R&j and Chcqmltcpec. 

CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river a con- 
test took place between the British Admiral Greaves 
and the French Admiral De Grasse, iu the interest of 
the revolted states of America ; the former was obliged 
to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were 
blockaded by the British fleet in the American War of 

1812, and the bay was, at that period, the scene of 
great hostilities of various results. — The Chesapeake, 
American frigate, commanded by Capt. Lawrence (50 
guns, 376 men), struck to the Shannon, British frigate 
(49 guns, 330 men), commanded by Capt. Philip Vere 
Broke, after a severe action of eleven minutes, Junel, 

1813. Captain Lawrence, who had invited the contest, 
died of his wounds. 

CHESS, a game invented, according to some author- 
ities, by Palamedes, 680 B.C. ; and according to others, 
in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and 
Sir William Joues concur iu stating that the origin of 
chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess- 
player (a piece of machinery) was exhibited in En- 
gland iu 1769.* A chess Congress was held at New 
York iu 1857, and an international one iu London in 
June and July, 1862. 

CHEVALIER D'EON. See D'Eo7i. 

CHEVY CHASE. See Otterburne. 

CHICAGO, Action near. Here, early in this cen- 
tury. Fort Dearborn was built. Capt. Heald command- 
ed the garrison, when, on the 15th of Aug., 1812, it was 
attacked by 400 or 500 Indians. The Americans lost 
in killed 39 men, 2 women, and 12 children. Fifteen 
of the Indians were killed. The commander's wife 
was wouuded. 

CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa about 540. 
The cathedral was completed about 1088, burnt with 
the city in 1114, and rebuilt by Bishop Seft'rid about 
1187. The present cathedral was erected during the 
loth century. The spire fell Feb. 20, 1S61, and the 
foundation of a new one was laid May 2, 1805. The 
bishopric originated thus: Wilfrida, archbishop of 
York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northum- 
berlaud, preached the Gospel m this country, and built 
a church in the isle of Selsey, about 073. Iu 681 Selsey 
became a bishopric, and so continued until it was re- 
moved to Chichester, then called Cissan-Caester, from 
its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 1070. This see has yield- 
ed to the Church two saints, and to the nation three 
lord chancellors. It is valued iu the king's books at 
wC677 Is. 3d. per annum. Present income, X4200. 

C H I C K A II O M I N Y B ATTLES. See Peninsular 

Campaign. 

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK (Tennessee), Batti.k op, 
Sept. 19, 20, 1803. Eosecraus had moved from Mur- 
frcesborough on the 24th of June. Bragg, then posted 
in Middle Tennessee, on the Duck Rivel^ at Shelbyville 
and Tullahoma, with an army 46,000 stroncr, was by 
Rosecrans's brilliant movement forced to flsjht at dis- 
advantage or retreat to Chattanooga. The latter he 



* A chess club was formed at Slaughter's Coffee-house, St. Martin's 
Lane, m 1747. M. F. A. Danican, known as Phillitlor, plaveil three 
matches hlinrtfold at the Salopian; he died in 1795. The London 
Chess Club was founded in 1807, and St. George's in 1833. In Dec, 
IS^l; Herr Paulsen played ten games at once, of which he won five 
and lost one ; three were drawn, and one not played out. 



succeeded in doing early in July. Rosecrans crossed . 
the Tennessee below Chattanooga (Aug. 29-Sept. 4), 
seized the gaps of Lookout Mountain, and threatened 
Bragg's commuuications. Chattanooga was evacuated 
by Bragg (Sept. 7-8), and was then occupied by Crit- 
tenden's corps. Rosecrans supposed that Bragg was 
retreating upon Rome, when he was really concen- 
trating at Lafayette. By this mistake of Rosecrans 
the national forces were divided into three separate 
armies, with 57 miles iuterveniug between flank and 
flanlc (Sept. 12). An opportunity was aftbrded to Bragg 
to defeat his antagonist in detail, but he failed through 
the refractoriness of his subordinate generals. On the 
14th (learning of the afi'air at Dug Gap, Sept. 11), Rose- 
crans became aware of his position, and by the ISth 
succeeded in concentrating his army between Lee & 
Gordon's Mill and Crawfish Spring, on Chickamauga 
Creek. For five days it had beeu possible for Bragg 
to cross the Chickamauga farther northward and cut 
iu between Chattanooga and the main portion of Rose- 
crans's army. But he did not cross until late on the I 
ISth, and the next morning found his right confronted 
near Reed's Bridge by Thomas's Corps. The battle 
of the 19th, in which the forces became, on both sides, 
engaged as they came up by detachments, was fought 
for the possession of the road from Lafayette to Chat- 
tanooga. At night this road was still held by the na- 
tional army. On the 20th, Longstreet, with 7500 men, 
had come up on the left, and succeeded, with Hood's 
support, in breaking through the national right, caus- 
ing utter confusion on that part of the field,"in which 
Rosecrans, M'Cook, and Crittenden were swept off 
and retired to Chattanooga. Thomas still held his 
ground, and formed a new line a little after noon. 
Granger's corps came up from Rossville to Thomas's 
support, and the Confederate assaults against the new 
line were repulsed until dark, when the iield was aban- 
doned by the national forces, who retired to Rossville 
and (on the 21st) to Chattanooga. Bragg had 55,000 
men engaged in the battle, Rosecrans about 45,000. 
The national loss was 16,351, the Confederate 18,000. 

CHICORY, the wild endive, or Cichorium Intijhus 
of Linnajus, grows wild in calcareous soils. It has 
been raised to some extent in England as herbage, its 
excellence iu this respect having been much insisted 
upon by Arthur Young.* It Is now grown in some 
parts of the United States. 

CHILDERMAS DAY, Dec. 28, observed by the Ro- 
man Church in memory of the slaughter of the Holy 
Innocents. (Matt, ii.) 

CHILI (S. America), discovered by Dien;o de Alma- 
gro, one of the conquerors of Peru, 1535. When Alma- 
gro crossed the Cordilleras, the natives, regarding the 
Spaniards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, 
collected for them gold and silver amounting to 290,000 
ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties 
and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but 
not wholly, iu 1546. Population iu 1857, 1,558,319. 

The Chilians declare their independence of Spain, 

Sept. 18,1S10' 
Fight with varying success ; decisive victory gain- 
ed by San Martin over the royal forces, Feb. 12 ; 

the province was declared independent 181T 

Present constitution established in 1833 

Manuel Montt elected president Oct. 18,1856 

Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec, 1858, 

suppressed April, 1859 

Jose Perez, president Sept. 18,1861 

Conflagrati(m of the Jesuits' church at Santiago 
(see Santiago), more than 2000 persons perished, 

Dec. 8,1863 
Eupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the 

" Guano" isles March 11,864 

Dispute with Spain (see Spain) 1864-5 

Alliance with Peru againstSpain Jan.,lS60 

Admiral Nunez bombards Valparaiso. . .March 31, " 

CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, between 
the Sikh forces in considerable strensith, and the Brit- 
ish commanded bv Lord (afterward Viscoinit) Gough, 
fought Jan. 13, 1849. The Sikhs were completely rout- 
ed, but the loss of the British was very severe : 26 ofli- 
cers were killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file 
killed, and 144(> wounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 kill- 
ed and 4000 wounded.t On Feb. 21, Lord Gough at- 



* Chicory had been for many years so largely mixed with coffee in 
England tliat it became a matter of serious complaint, the loss of rev- 
enue being estimated at £100,000 a year. An excise order was issued, 
Aug. 3, 1852, interdictiijg the mixture of chicory with coffee. The ad- 
mixture, however, has since been permitted, provided the word " chic- 
ory" be plainly printed on each parcel sold. In 1860 a duty of 3^. per 
cw't. was put upon English-grown chicory until April, 1861 ; after that 
date to be 5.i. M. per cvvt. 

t The Duke of Wellington (commander in chief) did not think the 



CHI 



125 



CHI 



. tacked the Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its posi- 
tion alGoojcnit, with complete succe.ss, and the whole 
ot the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. 
CHILTERN IIUNDKEDS (viz., Burnham, Desbor- 
ough, and Stoke, England), an estate of the crown on 
the chain of chalk hills tluit pass from east to west 
through the middle of IJuckingluunshire, the steward- 
ship whereof is a nominal othce, with a salary of 2()s 
conferred on members of Parliament when they wish 
to vacate their seats, as, by acceptiuii an oliice under 
the crown, a member becomes disciualiiied, unless he 
be again returned by his constituents. The strict le- 
gality of the practice is questioned. 

CUBINEY-TAX. See Hearth. 

CIIBINEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous 
to the invention of chimneys, which were first intro- 
duced into these countries iti 1200, when they were 
confined to llie kitchen and large hall. The family sat 
round a stove, the funnel of which passed through the 
ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic 
architecture in 1310. Act to regulate chimney-sweep- 
ing, 2S Geo. III., 1789. The chnntmj-sioeexring machine 
was invented by Smart in 1805. A statute regulating 
the trade, the apprenticeship of children, the construc- 
tion of flues, preventing calling "sweep" in the streets, 
■etc., passed 1834. By 5 Vict., 1S40, it is not lawful for 
master sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
of age ; and since July 1, 1S42, no individual ijuder 
twenty-one may ascend a chimney. In 18B4, the en- 
forcement of this law was made more stringent, it hav- 
ing been neglected. At the chemical works, Glasgow, 
is a chimney (there termed a stalk) 420 feet in height • 
the height of the JMonument in London being 202 feet • 
of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 

CHINA, the "Celestial Empire," in Eastern Asia, 
for which the Chinese annals claim an antiquity of 
from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have 
commenced about 2500 B.C. ; by others to have been 
founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bi- 
ble, 2240 B.C. We are told that the Chinese were 
acute astronomers in the reign of \ao, 2357 B.C To- 
ward the close of the 7th century B.C., the history of 
China becomes more distinct. Twenty-two dynasties 
have reigned, including the present. In the battle 
between Phraates and the Scythians, 129 B.C., the 
Chinese aided the latter, and afterward ravaged the 
coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance 
mhistory — Lenrflet. The population ci China was es- 
timated at 190,348,228 in 1757, and at 414,007,000 in 18c6. 
The Chinese state their first cycle to have com- 

meiK-ed B.C. 2700 

The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma-tsien, 

-^egm. 651 

Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the Chi- 
nese philosopher 550 

Stupendous wall of China completed. "...'.'.".298"or 211 

The dynasty of Han 202 or 200 

Literature and the art of printing encouraged (?) 202 

Religion of Tao-tse commenced 15 

Religion of Fo commenced about A.D. 60 

Pretended embassy from Rome 100 

Nankin becomes the capital ' . 420 

The atheistical jihilosopher, San-Shin, flourishes'.'. 449 

The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach 635 

They are proscribed and extirpated 845 

China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to 11th centuries. 

Seat of trovernment transferred to Pekin 1260 

Marco Polo introduces missionaries 1275 

Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed about'l400 

Europeans first arrive at Canton 1517 

Macao is granted to the Portuguese I5.S6 

Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome 1575 

The country is conquered bv the Eastern orMant- 
cliou Tartars, who establish the present reign- 

incr house 1010^7 

Tea brouL'ht to England 1600 

An earthquake throughout China buries 300,000 

persons at Pekin alone 1662 

Commerce with East India Company begins! '. '. '. .' !l6Sn 

Jesuit missioiiiirips preach 1692 

Commercial relations with Russia ." .' .'i7i9-27 

The Jesuits exjielled 1724-32 

Another general earthqunke destroys 100,000 per- 
sons at Pekin, and sO,ooo in a suburb 1731 

In a salute by one of onr India ships in China, a 
loaded gun was inadvertently fired, which killed 
a native ; the government demanded the guuner 
to be given up; he was soon strangled.— S/r 
George Stauntmi July 2,1785 



/■li'""^? "^""'P'""'*^' ''""'^^ '^"^ superseded, nnd .Sir C. Napier sent out 
(Mnrrli, lP4tl), who did not arrive io India till Gough had redeemed 
U13 reputation. 



Eail Macartney's embassy* arrives at Pekin- his 

reception by the emperor seut 14 17oq 

He IS ordered to depart Oct 7 - 

And arrives in England .' Sent 170.1 

Edict against Christianity. . . . 
Lord Amherst's embassy;! ] 

Exclusive rights of the E. L Co. cease AM1^22 f ^'^ 
Opium dispute begins. • • -^P"^ ^2,1 

Free-trade ships sail for England.'.'.'. '.'.'.■. April 25 
"^isSl^ZS^!!!^ ^'^^^'^«' ^° -P-iutef Br| 
ot wai ; _several Chinese killed Rent h 



1807 

, , 1812 

he leaves England 
Feb. 8 
.April 22^1834 




r.- ♦• T.„. l5y the Chinese... Feb 23' 

captain Elliot becomes chief British commission- 

Admirai 'Ma'i'tiaii d k'r'ri ves 'at 'Macao .' .' .' .' .' .' ' j!fi v 1 o'j&ss 

Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, Marc'h 
18; British and other residents forbidden to 
leave Canton, March 19 ; the factories surround- 
ed, and outrages committed, March 24- Captain 
Elliot requires of British subjects their surren- 
der to him of all opium, promising them on the 
part of government the full value of it, March 
2T ;_ half of It IS given up as contraband to the 
Chinese, April 20 ; the remainder (20,283 chests) 
surrendered. May 21 ; Captain Elliot and the 
British merchants leave Canton, May 24- the 
opium destroyed by the Chinese Juiie 3,1839 

Aflair between the British and American seamen 
and the Chinese ; a native killed Julv 7 " 

Hong-Kong taken Aug 23' " 

The British boat alack Joke, attacked, and the crew 
murdered, Aug. 24; the British merchants retire 
from Macao Au" 26 " 

Affair at Kow-lung between British'b'oats^'and 
Chinese junks gppf 4 « 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British fngates 
Volage auA Hyacinth; several junks blown up, 

The British trade with China ceases, by an ed'ict 
of the emperor, and the last servant of the com- 
pany leaves this day Dec 6 " 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and iu- 
tercourse with EuLdand forever Jan 5 1840 

The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks. May 22- 
blockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders 
from Sir Gordon Bremer, June 28 ; the Blondr 
with a flag of truce, fired on at Amoy, July 2 • 
Img-hai, m Chusan, surrenders, July 5; block- 
ade established along the Chinese coast, July 10 • 
Mr. !?taunton carriedf off' to Canton Au'^ 6 " 

Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship ''en- 
ters the Peiho River, near Pekin Au"-. 11 " 

The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the°cap- 
tam's wife and a part of the crew are captured 
by the natives, and confined in cages . . . Sept. 15 " 

Lm finally degraded ; Keshin appotnted Imperial 
comniissioner, Sept. 16; Captain Elliot's truce 
with him j^oy 6 " 

British plenipotentiaries arrive offMacao.. " i'o' " 
Admiral Elliot's resignation announced. . . " 29' " 

Mr. Staunton released Dec. 12' " 

Negotiations cease, owing to breaches' of faith on 

the part of the Chinese emperor Jan. 6,1841 

Chuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some 

sent to England) captured Jan. 7, " 

Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 
$6,000,000 agreed to be paid within ten days to 

the British authorities Jan. 20, " 

Hong-Kong taken possession of " 20, " 

The emperor rejects Keshiu's treaty, Feb. 11 ; hos- 
tilities resumed, Feb. 23 ; Chusan evacuated, Feb. 
24 : rewards proclaimed at Canton for the bodies 
of Englishmen, dead or alive; $50,000 to be giv- 
en foi" ringleaders and chiefs Feb. 25, " 

Bogue forts taken by Sir G. Bremer ; Admiral 
Kwan killed ; 459 guns captured Feb. 26, " 



* This embassy threw some lipht on the political circumstances of 
the empire ; it appeared to be divided into 15 provinces, containing 4402 
walled cities : the population of the whole was given at 333,(100,000 : 
its annual revenues at £66,000,000 ; and the army, includinf; the Tar- 
tars, 1,(100,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry ; the religion pagan, 
and the government absi'dute. Learning, and the arts and sciences, 
were encouraged, and ethics studied. 

t His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to 
malte the prostration of the kou-tou, lest he should thereby compromise 
the majesty of England. 



CHI 



126 



CHI 



The British squadroB proceeds to Canton, March 
1 ; Sir H. Gouf;h talies command of the army, 
March 2 ; hostilities a^aiu suspended, March 3 ; 
and again resumed, JVlarch ; Keshiu degraded 

by the emperor March 1'2,1S41 

Flotilla of boats destroyed. Canton threatened, the 
foreign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by 

the British forces March 18, " 

Kew commissioners from Pekin arrive at Can- 
ton April 14, " 

Honff Kotvi Gazette tirst published May 1, 

Captain Elliot prepares to attack Canton. . . " IT, " 

Heights beliind Canton taken "25, " 

The city ransomed for $0,000,000 ; $5,000,000 paid 

down ; hostilities cease May 31, " 

British forces withdrawn, June 1; and British 

trade reopened July IG, " 

Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottinger, who, as 
plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his 
mission; Captain Elliot superseded — Aug. 10, " 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed " 27, " 

The Bogue forts destroyed Sept. 14 " 

Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan 
reoccupied by the British, Oct. 1 ; they take Chin- 
hae, Oct. 10 ; Ning-po, Oct. 13 ; Yu-yaon, Tsze- 

kee, and Foong-hua Dec. 28, " 

Chinese attack Ning-po and Chiu-hae, and are re- 
pulsed with great loss, March 10 ; 8000 Chinese 

are routed near Tsze-kee March 1.5,1842 

Cha-pou attacked ; its defenses destroyed. May IS, " 
The British squadron enters the River Kiaug, June 
13 ; capture of Woosung, and of 230 gniis and 
stores, June 16 ; Shaug-hae taken, June 10 ; the 
British armament an'chors near the "Golden 
Isle," July 20; Chin-Keaug taken; the Tartar 
general and many of the garrison commit siu- 
cide, July 21 ; the advanced ships reach Nankin, 
Aug. 4 ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
barkation commences, Aug. 9 ; Keying arrives 
at Nankin, with full powers to treat for peace, 

Aug. 12, " 
Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board 
tho'CunumUi.f, by Sir Henry Pottinger for En- 
gland, and Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien on the 
part of the Chinese emperor.— [Conditions : last- 
ing peace and friendship between the two em- 
pires ; China to pay $21,000,000 ; Canton, Amoy, 
Foochoofoo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be 
thrown open to the British, and consuls to re- 
side at these cities ; Hong-Kong to be ceded in 
perpetuity to England, etc. ; Chusan and Ku- 
laug-su to be held by the British until the pro- 
visions are fulfllledjt Aug. 29, " 

The ratitications signed by Queen Victoria and the 
empenu' formally exchanged, July 22 ; Canton 
opened to the British by imperial edict, July 27,1843 
Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of Sir 

Henry Pottinger Feb. 16,1844 

Bogue forts captured by the British April 5,1847 

Hong-Kong and the neighborhood visited by a 
violent typhoon ; immense damage done to the 
shipping ; upward of 1000 boat-dwellers on the 

Canton "River drowned Oct., 1848 

H. M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks 

in the Chinese Seas Marcli 4,18.50 

Rebellion breaks out in Qnang-si Aug., " 

Appearance of the Pretender Tien-teht March, 1851 

Defeat of Leu, the Imperial commissioner, and de- 
struction of half the army i. . June 19,1852 

Successful progress of the rebels; the emperor ap- 

* He took part (it was said without authority) in aiTiin^in* the treaty 
of Tien-sin in June, 1S58. He was, in consequence, condemned to death 
—by suicide. 

t The non-fulfillment of this treaty led graduaUy to the war of 
1856-7. 

X The Emperor Taou-Kwan»;, who died Feb. 25, 1850, during the lat- 
ter part of liis reign became liberal in bis views, and favored the intro- 
duction of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor, a rash and 
narrow-minded prince, quickly departed from his fatuer's wise policy, 
and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against English influ- 
ence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug., ISfiO, and quick- 
ly became of alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed 
only to expel the Tartars; but in March, 1851, a pretender was an- 
nounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teli (Celestial Virtue), 
but afterward assuming other names. He is stated to have been a n.i- 
tive of Quang-si, of obscure origin, but to have obtained some literary 
knowledge at Canton about 1835, and also to have become acquainted 
at that time with the principles of Christianity from a Chinese Chris- 
tian named Leang-afa, and also from the missionary Roberts in 1844. 
He announced himself as the restorer of the worship of the true God, 
Shang-ti, but has derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- 
clared himself to be the monarch of all beneath tlie skv, the true lord 
of China (and thus of all the world), the brother of Jes'us, and the sec- 
ond son of CTod, and demanded universal submission. He made over- 
tures for alliance to Lord Elgin in November, 1860. His followers are 
termed TaepingSj " princes of peace," a title utterly belied by their 
atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtually terminated July 18, 1864, 
by tlie capture of Nankin, the suicide of the Tien-wang, and the exe- 
cution of the military leaders. 



plies to the Europeans for help, without suc- 
cess March and April, 1S53 

The rebels take Nankin, March 19, 20 ; Amoy, May 
19: Shang-hae Sept. 7, " 

And besiege Canton without success. .Aug.-Nov., 1854 

The scanty accounts are unfavorable to "the reb- 
els, the imperialists having retaken Shang-hae, 
Amoy, and many important places 18.55 

Outrage on the British lorcha An-oic, in Canton 
River* Oct. S,1S5() 

After vain negotiations with Commissioner Yeh, 
Canton forts attacked and taken Oct. 23, " 

A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded 
by Sir M. Seymour Nov. 3, 4, " 

Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae Nov. 6, " 

The Americans revenge an attack by capturing 
three forts Nov. 21-23, " 

Rebels take Kurikiug Nov. 25, " 

Other forts taken by tlie British Dec, " 

The Chinese burn European factories Dec. 14, " 

And murder the crew of the Thistle Dec. 30, " 

A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 
poisoning the bread Feb. 2,1857 

Troops arrive from Madras and England, and Lord 
Elgin appointed envoy March, " 

No change on either side : Yeh said to be strait- 
ened for money ; the Imperialists seem to be 
gaining ground upon the rebels May, " 

Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by Commo- 
dore Elliot, May 25, 27, and Sir M. Seymour and 
Commodore Keppel June 1, " 

Blockade of Canton Aug., " 

Stagnation in the war— Lord Elgin departs to Cal- 
cutta, with assistance to the English against the 
Sepoys, July 10 ; returns to Hong-Kong, Sept. 25, " 

General Ashburnham departs for'^India, and Gen- 
eral Straubenzee assumes the ccmimand, Oct. 19, " 

Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, Dec. 28, 29, 1857 ; who enter it.. . .Jan. 5,1858 

Yeht sent a prisoner to Calcutta Jan., " 

The allies proceed toward Pekin, and take the Pei- 
ho-forts May 20, « 

The expedition arrives at Tien-Sin May 20, " 

Negotiations commence June 5 ; treaty of peace 
signed at Tien-sin by Lord Elgin, Baron Gros, 
and Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842)- 
[Ambassadors to be at both courts ; freedom of 
trade ; toleration of Christianity ; expenses of 
war to be paid by China; a revised tarifl'; term 
/ (barbarian) to be no longer applied to Euro- 
peans] June 20, 28, 29, " 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an impor- 
tant treaty with the emperor Aug. 28, " 

The British destroy about 130 piratical junks in 
the Chinese Seas Aug. and Sept., " 

Lord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. : returns to England May,1859 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekin, 
is stopped in the River Pei-ho (or Tien-sin) ; 
Admiral Hope, attempting to force a passage, is 
repulsed with the loss of 81 killed and about 390 
wounded June 25, " 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and, 
refusing to submit to degrading ceremonies, 
does not see the emperor, July 29; the commer- 
cial treat V with America is concluded. .Nov. 24, " 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
atrainst China Oct., " 

Lord Elgin and Baron Gros sail for China, April 
26; wrecked near Point de Galle, Ceylon, May 
23 ; arrive at Shang-hae June 29,1860 

The war begins: the British commanded by Sir 
Hope Grant, the French by General Montauban. 
The Chinese defeated In a skirmish near the 
Pei-ho Aug. 12, " 

The allies repulse the Tae-ping rebels attacking 
Shang-hae, Aus:. 18-20, and take the Taku forts, 
losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar Gen- 
eral San-ko-lin-sin retreats Aug. 21, " 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance toward 
Pekin; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia- 
wan and Pa-li-chiau Sept. IS and 21, " 

Consul Parkes, Captains Anderson and Brabazon, 
Mr. De Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times' corre- 
spondent), and 14 others (Europeans and Sikhs), 
advance to Tung-chow to arrange conditions for 

* It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of the crew of 
14 being carried off, and the national ensign taken down. Sir J. Bow- 
ring, governor of Hong-kong, being compelled to resort to hostilities, 
applied to India and Ceylon for troops. On March 3, 1857, the House 
of Commons, by a majority of 19, censured Sir John for the " violent 
measures" he had pursued. The ministry (who took his part) dis- 
solved tlie Parliament, but obtained a large majority in the new one. 

■f He died peacefully at Calcutta, April 9, 1859. He is said to have 
beheaded above 100,000 rebels. 



CPU 



127 



Clio 



a mcctiiiET of tlie ministers, and arc caphircd by 
SiUi-ko-lin-.sin ; Captain Brabazoii ami Abbe de 
Luc bcbeaded, and said to be tbrowu into the 

canal ; others carried into Pclvin Sept. 21,1860 

The allies mai'ch toward Pekiu ; the French rav- 
age the cniiieror's summer palace, Oct. 6; Mr. 
Parkes, Mr. Loch, and others, restored alive, Oct. 
8; Capt, Anderson, Mr. De Norman, and others 

die of ill usage Oct.S-11, " 

Pckin mve-stcd; surrenders, Oct. 12 ; severe proc- 
lamation ofSir Hope Grant Oct. 15, " 

The bodies of:\Ir. IJe Norman and Mr Bowlby bur- 
ied with great solemnity in the Kussiau ceme- 
tery in Pekiu, Oct. IT; the summer palace (Yuen- 
ming-yueu) burnt by the British, in memory of 

the outraged prisoners Oct. 18 " 

Convention signed in Pekiu by Lord Elgin and 
the Prince of Kung, by which the treaty of Tien- 
sin is ratified: apology made for the attack at 
Pei-ho (.Juno 25, 1S59) ; a large indemnity to be 
paid immediately, aud compensation iu money 
given to the families of the murdered prisouers, 
etc. ; Kow-loon ceded in exchange for Chusan, 
and the treaty aud couveution to be proclaimed 

throughout the empire Oct, 24 " 

Allies quit Pekiu ' .Nov s' " 

Treaty between Russia aud China— the former ob- 
taining free trade, territories, etc Nov. 14 " 

Mr. Loch arrives iu Euglaud with the treaty, ' ' 

Dec. 27 " 

First instalment of indemnity paid Nov! 3o' " 

Part of the allied troops comfortably settled at 

Tien-sin j.^,, g -jggj 

Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang,' etc!, Feh.] " 
English aud French embassies established at Pe 



revolted against Athens 412 B.C. It partook of the 

turns, A.D. 1124 ; by the Crusaders, 1204 ; by the Greek 
emperor and Romans, 1329 ; by the GenoeJe l.?29, au 1 
by the Turks in 1459. A dreadful massacre of the u 
habi ants by the Turks took place April 11, 1S22 d ir- 
lug the Greek insurrection.* ' 

de^^RTan^l"): ^^- America). Here the British, nu- 
clei Riall were defeated by the Americans under 
Browne July 5, 1S14. The Americans were defeated 
T.^ll 9. f'', ]*'■"'"''?'■ P^"'^'""'''^ Drummond and R all, 
fak-L'pr&ouer."^'' '"^ ^^^ '''^""- ^^'^ -™-'^<i ^-^ 

CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal system in the 
latter part of the Sth century {chevalier, or knight, e- 
ug derived from the cabaUarim, the equippetf fe idal 
enau on horseback). Prom the 12th to the 15th cen- 
tury It tended to retlne manners. The knif.-ht "wo « 
to accomplish the duties of his profession asihe cham! 
piou of God aud the ladies; to speak the truth ?o 
maintaiu the right, to protect the distressed, oprac° 
tice courtesy, to fulfill obligations, and to vindicate hi ' 
every perilous adventure his honor and cl.ar rioi 
Chiyalry, which owed its origin to the fcu,l;il s\«(r,n' 
expired with it. See TournavMits. By Id Ut-",' I,' I 
of James I., the earl-marshal of England had ''the 
iffiL-'^'^/^"^!*'??' ,'° ^^"^ '^o'"''* of chivalry, when the 
oftice of ord high constable was vacant, as this lat- 
Knifhthd ™'''^'®^^^ '^^^ jointly exercise," 1623. See 



kin. 



.March, 



The Emperor Ilienfiiug dies ! Au"- ''4' 

Oaiit(ni restored to the Chinese !.0c't!2l' 

Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to death '■ 

Kung appointed resreut Dec. I3' " 

Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate 

Ning-po aud Hang-chow Dec " 

They advance ou Sliang-hae, which is placed un- 
der protection of the English aud Freuch, and 

fortified j,^j, 13(32 

Rebels defeated in two engagements. .!!!!! April' " 
English aud Freuch assist the government against 

the reliels— Niug-po retaken May 10 " 

French Admiral Protet killed iu au attack on reb- 
els Jjjiy 1^ <l 

Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the Brit- 
ish government to organize a small fleet of o-uu- 
boats to aid the Imperialists to establish or- 
der., j„] „ 

Imperialists gaimug groimd, take Kah-siug, etc., 

r. . , . . Oct., " 

Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified. ..Jau. 14,1863 
Ihe Imperialists, under Gfordou, defeat the Tae- 

pings under Burgeviue, etc Oct " 

Gordon commanding the Imperialists',' capture's 
Sow-chow (after a severe attack on Nov "7 28) • 
the rebel chiefs treacherously butchered bv the 

Chinese Dec.4 5 " 

Captain Osborne came to China, but! retired iu'cou- 
.';equencc of the Chiuese goverumeut departinn- 

Irom its engageineuts Dec sf " 

Gordon's successes coutiuue Ja'ii.'to ApriUSG4 

After a severe repulse he takes Chaug-chow-fooi 

TT„ * 1 ^T , . , , March 23, " 

He takes Naukiu (a heap of ruins) ; the Tien- 

waug, the rebel emperor, commits suicide by 

eating gold leaf. Chang-waug aud Kau-wang, 

the rebel geuerals, are "cut' into a thousand 

pieces" July 18 

The Taepiugs hold Ming-chow ;" tlie' M'o'hamme- 

dau rebellion progressing in Houan March 1805 

lae))in>:s evacuate jMing-Chow May 2-i " 

A rcbcllicm iu the north, headed by iNien-fei'- Pe- 
kiu in danger Juue-Julv " 

The Chinese Geueral San-ko-lin-sin defeated aiid 

slam ; his son more successful July " 

Sir Rutherford Alcock ambassador at Peki'n, 

Nov. 26, " 

CHINESE EJIPEROTtS. 



1C2T. Chwaug-lei. 

1644. Shun-chc (first of the 

Tsiug dynasty). 
1669. Kaiig-he. 
1693. Yung-ching. 
1T3,5. Keen-luug. 



1T9.5. Kea-king. 
1820. Taou-Kwan<r. 
IS'iO. Hicng-funtr, Feb. 25. 
1861. Ki-tsian£r7 Aug. 22; 
born April 5, 1855. ' 



CHINA PORCELAIN introduced into England 
about 1531. Sec I'ulteru. "' 

CHIOS (uow Scio), an isle iu the Greek Archipelago, 



CHLORINE (Greek cJdoros, pale o-reeul a iraa fii-sf 
obtained by Scheele in 1TT4, by treating man^e 
mtli muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. Davy, iu 
1810, proved thisgas to be an element, aud named it 
^iif/'V?- .Combined with sodium it forms common 
salt (chloride of sodium), and combined wiili lime the 
bleaching powder and disinfectant— chloride of lime 
1 he bleaching powers of chloriue were made known 
by Berthollet in 1TS5. In 1823 chlorine was condensed 
into a liquid by Faraday. 

1 C^HLOROFORM, an anresthetic discovered iu 1831 
by Mr Samuel Guthrie, of SacketfsHabor.New York 

CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, iutroduced 
luto Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) about 1520. 
was sold m the London coffee-houses soon after their 
establishment, 1650. 

CHOLERA MORBUS, known iu its more malignant 
torm as the Indian cholera, made great ravages in the 
north, east, and south of Europe, and in Asia, where 
alone it carried off more than 900,000 persons iu 18''9- 
30. In Euglaud and Wales iu 1848-9, 53,293 perso'ns 
died of cholera, and in 1854, 20,097. ' ' ^ 

Cholera appears at Sunderland Oct 26 18^1 

And at Edinburg -p^i, 6 1832 

First death by cholera in N. America', 'Jun'e's, 1832 
m Quebec. In New York, June 22, 1832 Cin- 
cinnati to New Orleans, Oct., 183-2. Again in the 
United States iu 1834, and slightly in 1849, and 
again slightly iu 1806-67. 
First observed at Rotherhithe aud Limehousa, 

London, Feb. 13 ; and in Dublin Maixh 3 " 

The mortality very great, but more so on the Con- 

tmeut ; 18,000 deaths at Paris between 
„, , March and August, " 

Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 

Berlin, etc._, in July and August,lS37 

Another visitation of cholera in Euglaud: the 
number of deaths iu London, for the week end- 
ing Sept. 15, 1849, was 3183 ; the ordinarv aver- 
age 1008 ; and the number of deaths by cholera 
from June 17 to Oct. 2, iu London aloiie, 13,161. 
The mortality lessened and the distemper dis- 
appeared Oct, 13,1849 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tyuemouth, aud 
other northern towns, suffer much from cholera, 

Sept., 1853 
It rages m Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are said 
to have died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to 

the allied troops at Varna autumn, 1854 

Cholera very severe for a short time iu the south- 
ern parts of London, and in Soho and St. James's, 

Westminster Aug. and Sept., " 

Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated July,lS65 

* The slaughter hasted 10 days ; 40,000 of both sexes follinff victims 
to the sword, or to the fire, nhirh raged until ever.y iiouse, save those 
ot the fnreisrn consuls, was burned to the ground. ' 7000 Greelis, who 
had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of 
mnest.y, guaranteed by theconsuls of England, France, and Austria ■ 
The only exception made d ' 



th 



ooys 



they were all" butche 
nasncre was in favor of tlie young and niore be'autiful womeu and 
30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. 



CHO 



128 



CHU 



Prevailin? in Ancona (S43 deaths), Aug., subsiding 

Sept., " 
Very severe in Constantinople — nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. ; subsides after the gerat lire, 

Sept. 6, " 

Cases at Toulon and Southampton Sept., " 

Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and 

Naples July-Oct., " 

An international meeting at Coustautmople, to 
consider preventive measures, proposed. . .Oct., ' 
CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons during the 
war of La Vendee in lt92, from their chief, Jean Cot- 
tereau, using the cry of the Chat-haunt, or screech- 
owl, as a sio-nal. He was killed in 1794. Georges 
Cadoudal, their last chief, was connected with Piche- 
gru in a conspiracy against Napoleon when first con- 
sul, and was executed in 1S04. 

CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the cer- 
emonies of the Roman and Greek churches. Musk, 
saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense are men- 
tioned as used with the oil in 1541. It was ordained 
that chrism should consist of oil and balsam only ; the 
one representing the human nature of Christ, and the 
other his divine nature, 15SG. 
CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. 
CHRISTIAN Era. See Anno Domini. 
CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built in 
1624 by Christian IV. of Denmark, to replace Opslo 
(the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 
105S), which had been destroyed by fire. On April 13, 
1858, Christiauia sufiered by fire, the loss being about 
X250,000. The university was established in 1811. 
New Storthing (Parliament House) built, lSGl-2. 

CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was first 
given to the believers and followers of Christ's doc- 
trines at Antioch, in Syria,43 {Acts xi., 20 : 1 Pet£r iv., G). 
The first Christians were divided into episcopoi (bish- 
ops or overseers), ineshyteroi (elders), diaconoi (minis- 
ters or deacons), and pistoi (believers) ; afterward 
were added catechumens, or learners, and energumens, 
who were to be exorcised. See Persecutions. 
Christianity said to be taught in Britain about 64 ; 

and propagated with some success (Bcde) 150 

Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in 

the reign of Donald I., about 213 

Constantiue the Great professes the Christian re- 

ligion ■Ji-' 

Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia about 340 

Introduced among the Goths by Ulfllas 3T0 

Into Ireland in the 2d century, but with more suc- 
cess after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432 

Christianity established in France by Clovis 496 

Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin 597 

Introduced into Helvetia by Irish missionaries. . . 643 
Into Flanders in the 7th century. 

Into Saxony by Charlemagne 785 

Into Denmark, under Harold 827 

Into Bohemia, under Borzivoi 894 

Into Russia by Swiatoslaf 940 

Into Poland, under Meicislatis 1 992 

Into Hungary, under Geisa 994 

Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf 1 998 

Into Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries. 
Into Prussia by the Teutonic knights, when they 

were returning from the holy wars 1227 

Into Lithuania; paganism was abolished about.. 1386 
Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th cen- 
tury. 
Into China, where it made some progress (Ijut was 
afterward extirpated, and thousands of Chinese 

Christians were put to death) 1575 

Into India and America in the 16th century. 
Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549 ; but 

the Christians were exterminated in 1C3S 

Christianity re-established in Greece — 1628 

CHRISTMAS DAY, Dec. 25 (from Christ and the 
Saxon mcesse, signifying the viass and a /cast), a festi- 
val in commemoration of the nativity of our Savior, 
said to have been first kept 98 ; and ordered to be held 
as a solemn feast by Pope Telesphorus, about 137. t 



» It is traditionally said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his 
elevation to the papal chair, chanced one day to pass throufih the 
slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty 
who were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and findin;; 
they were English pagans, he is said to have cried out in the Latin 
language, ''JVonAngli scd Angeli faretU, si esaent Christiani ;" that is, 
"They would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." 
From that time he was struck with an ardent desire to convert that 
unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, 
and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain 
In the year 696. 

t Diocletian, the Romnn emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, 
being informed that the Christians were assembled on this day in great 



In the Eastern Church, Christmas and the Epiphany 
{which see) are deemed but one and the same feast. 
The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said to 
be the remains of the religious observances of the 
Druids. See Anno homini. 

CHRISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, so 
named by Captain Cook, who landed here on Christ- 
mas day, 1777. He had passed Christmas day at Christ- 
mas Sound, 1774. On the shore of Christmas Harbor, 
visited by him in 1776, one of his men found a piece 
of parchment with this inscription: " Ludovicu XV. 
Galliarum rege, et d. Boyncs regi a secretis, ad res mari- 
timas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other side of it 
Captain Cook wrote : " JVai'cs Resolution et Discovery de 
rege Magnce Britannice, Dec, 1776, and placed it in a 
bottle safely. 

CHRISTOPHER'S, St., (or St. Kitt's), a West India 
island, discovered in 1493 by Columbus, who gave it his 
own name. Settled by the English and French 1623 
or 1626. Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 
1713. Taken by the Fxench in 1782, but restored the 
nest year. The town of Basseterre suffered from a 
fire, Sept. 3, 1776. 

CHROMIUM (Greek chrome color), a rare metal, 
discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found com- 
bined with iron and lead, and forms the coloring mat- 
ter of the emerald. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in Colors. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the Jews, 
Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there are two 
" Books of Chronicles." Collections of the British 
chroniclers have been published by Camden, Gale, etc., 
since 1602 ; in the present century by the English His- 
torical Society, etc. In 1868, the publication of "Chron- 
icles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland dnr- 
inf the Middle Ages" commenced under the direction 
of^the Master of the Rolls. Macray's "Manual of 
British Historians" was published in 1845. 

CHRONOLOGY (the science of time) has for its ob- 
ject the arrangement and exhibition of the various 
events of the history of the world in the order of their 
succession, and the ascertaining the intervals between 
them. See Eras and Epochs. Valuable works on the 
subject are VArt de Verifier les Dates, compiled by the 
Benedictines (1783-1820). Playfair's Chronology, 1784 ; 
Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by Sir H. Ellis 
in 1844, and bv Mr. Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chron- 
ological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronolo- 
gy of History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales's Chro- 
nology, 2d edition, 1830 ; Mr. H. Fynes-Clinton's Fasti 
Helleuici and Fasti Roman! (1824-50). 

CHRONOMETER. See Clocks and Harrison. 

CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by Profess- 
or Wheatstone in 1840 to measure small intervals of 
time. It has been applied to the velocity of project- 
iles and of the electric current. Chronoscopes were 
invented by Pouillet and others in 1844. 

CHRYSLER'S FIELD, on the Canada side of the 
St. Lawrence, below Ogdensburg, was a place of con- 
fiict on the 11th of Nov., 1813, between 1600 Americans 
under General Boyd, and 1.500 British troops under 
Colonel Morrison. The Americans lost 102 killed and 
236 wounded. 

CHUNAR, Tkeaty or, concluded between the Na- 
bob of Oude and Governor Hastings, by which the 
nabob was relieved of all his debts to the East India 
Company on condition of his seizing the property of 
the begums, his mother and grandmother, and deliver- 
ing it^ip to the English, Sept. 19, 1781. This treaty 
enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, 
a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under 
guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to 
Mr. Hastings £100,000. 

CHURCH (probably derived from the Greek hiria- 
kos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios) signifies a collect- 
ive body of Christians, and also the place where they 
meet. In the New Testament it signifies " congrega- 
tion," in the original ekklesia. Christian architecture 
commenced with Constantiue, who, after he was set- 
tled in his government, erected, at Rome, churches 
(called basilicas, from the Greek basileus, a king) ; St. 
Peter's being erected about 330. His successors erect- 
ed others, and adopted the heathen temples as places 
of worship. Several very ancient churches exist in 
Britain and Ireland. See Architecture; Choir and 
Chanting; Eomc, Modern; and Popes. 

multitudes to celebrate Christ's nativitv, ordered the doors to be shut 
and the church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning pile. 
This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten 
years, 303. 



CHU 



129 



CHURCH OF England.* The following are import- 
ant hicts HI lier liistory: for detail.^, refer to separate 
articles, feee Vlcnvi. 



CID 



tury 



Britain converted to Christianity ("Christo snb- 

aita, Tertullian) 2d cen 

Invasion of the Saxons, 477 ; converted by Auoiis- 

tine and his companions " 590 

Dunstan establishes the supremacy of tlie monas- 
tic orders about qqq 

The a','^i-:uidiziiii; policy of the Chiirch,' fostered 
by hduard the Confessor, was checked by Wil- 

ham I and his successors 106G et sea. 

Contest between Heury II. and Becket respectino- 

the "Constitutions of Clarendon" 1164-1170 

John surrenders his crown to the papal legate 1213 
Kise of the Lollards — Wicklifte publishes tracts 
against the errors of the Church of Rome, 1350 • 

and a version of the Bible, about 'l3S3 

The clergy regulated by Parliament, 1529 ;' Vhe'v 

lose the tirst-fruits I534 

The royal supremacy imposed on the" c'lei-o-y by 
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refus- 
ing to acknowledge it I535 

Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded 

to be read in churches u 

"Six Articles of Keligion" promulgated! !.'!'.'.'"' "1539 

First Book of Common Prayer issued 1548 

The clergy permitted to marry ' ' 1,549 

" Forty-two Articles of Religion" issued ...'.' 1552 

Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce perse- 
cution of the Protestants by Marv 1553-S 

Tlie Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth • the 

Puritan dissensions begin 155S-1603 

" Thirty-nine" Articles published ' 1503 

Hamptcm Court Conference with the Puritans' 1004 

^ew translation of the Bible published 1611 

Book of Oonimon Prayer suppressed and Direc- 
tory established by Parliament IG44 

Presbyterians established by the Commonwealth,1649 
Act of l^niformity (14 Chas. II., c. 4) passed— 200U 

nonconiorming ministers resign their livinn-s loc 
x\ttempts of James II. to revive Romanism • "Dec- 
laration of Indulgence" published 1687 

Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charo-e oif "se- 
ditious libel" iggg 

The non-juring bishops and others deprived' (Vhey • 

formed a separate communion) Feb. 1 . . . ig91 

" Queen Anne's Bounty" for the augmentatio'ii'of 

poor livings 'YIM 

Act for building 50 new churches 'passed'.'.'.'. 1710 

Fierce disputes between the Low -Church and 

Iligh-Church ; trial of Sacheverell " 

The Dangoriau controversy begins 1717 

John Wesley and George Whitefield comm'e'nce 

preaching l^og 

Rise of the'^Evangelical partv 'iu't'he'chu'rc'h,' under 
Newton. Romame, and others, in the latter part 
of the ISth century. 
Church of England united with that of Ireland at 

the L nion Igoo 

Clergy Incapacitation Act passed isoi 

Acts for building and enlarging churches . . .'isis,' 1S38 
^00 new churches erected in the diocese of Lon- 
.>Al'^" cluringthe episcopate of C. J. Blomlield, 1828-56 
Tracts lorthe Times" (No. 1-90) published (much 

controversy ensued) 1833-41 

Ecclesiastical Commission established .... 1834 

New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict., c. 86) . . . !l841 
"Essays and Reviews" published, ISGO ; numerous 

Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews) 18C1-2 

[The Church of England is now said to be divided 
iiito High, Low (or Evangelical), and Broad 
Church : the last including persons who hold the 
opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. F. D. 
Jlaurice, and others.] 
Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on "The Pentateuch" about Oct., 1862; great cry 
a-ainst it; the bishops, in convocation, declare 
that It ctmtauis "errors of the gravest and most 

dangerous character" May 20,1863 

A Church Congress at Manchester. . .Oct. 13, 14 15 " 



( v^^ h,° f ""' deposed by his metropolitan. Dr. 

Oiay, bishop of Capetown ^ .Anril Ifi 18(U 

Bishop Coleuso's appeal came before the Privv 
CoiincU which declared Bishop Gray's proceed^ 

Chli^-J^Si^at^^llS^.^^^^^^ 

"Oxford Declaration" (authoi'-ship' 'ascribed t'o 
Archdeacon Denison and Dr. PuLy) r™tin° 
belief in eternal punishment, drawn up and 4 r/ 
ed on Feb. 25, and sent by j^ost tithe cler 'y^at 
ZZ f°''.fg"ature ; about 3000 are said tolfave 
Sel-iuW"" '""'^^''^ '' '"^^ Archbisho;;)7 

£100.450 received; £72,003 pro'mised'.'.' "Dec 3l' " 
The queen engages to give £15,000 in 10 years! 

New form of clerical subscription propose^by''k^^°^ 
commission m 1864 ; adopted by Parliament, 

Meeting in London of three English bishops''^ Dr' " 
Pusey, juid nearly SO of the cle?gy and laitv with 
Counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Rus.siau d ap- 
Jaiu, to consider on the practicability of unitin<r 
the English and Russian Churches . .. . .Nov 15" " 
Church Congress met at Norwich.. Oct ^ 7' « 

Congress atl'ork in ; '. ;;;_ _ 'igcG 

CHURCH OF IRELAND is now in connection with 
hat of Enr,ia„d_the United Church of En" and and 

of Wnf 'lV^[ri8 ".'V;'° ''"' '^';'^* Tempor.^liUes Act 
ot Will. IV in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and 
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which two irchbish- 
oprics and eight bishoprics have ceased ; that act pro- 
viding for the union or abolition of certain sees Ic- 
cen Iv fisp^\''h P^^^^-n^^? °f Vl^'" 'I'^^d. A bill h1^^ ?e- 
^1? i7 r .^' '^^''° introduced into Pariiament for the 
disestablishment of the Irish Church. See Bishoi^s 

CHURCH OP Scotland. See Bishops in Scotland 
On the abolition of Episcopacy in Scotland in 1038 
Piesbyterianism became the established religion Its 
ciistinguishuig tenets were first embodied iS the for- 
mulary of faith, said to have been compile 1 by John 
wl v«Hfil^^^" "" V',';^ ^ya■^ approved by the Parliamen" 
and ratified in l.'iO., finally settled by an act of the 
Scottish seiiate in 16;:6, and secured by the treaty of 

rrn,T;{is^,"^^'r ^' '° "'"• '^^^ ^htJch of scotLid 

IS regulated by four courts-the General Assembly,* 
the Syuod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Sessions See 
{"refjjtenans A large body seceded from this Church 

Sr-nn, !.'/"' r"",^ ^^'^ "'''"^^ °^ the "Free Church of 
Scotland, ivhich see. 



* The Church ofEnprland consists of three orders of chraJj-KaMow 
pnests,and deacons: viz., two archbishops and twVntv-five bishops 
exclusive of the see of Sodor and Man. fhe otl,er diK.iities are chanl 
cellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), arcWeacons pre- 
bendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest-vicars : these and the in 
cumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapelri^s, inalte the number of 
Fo", /,""'!!-? °f H'e Established Church) according to official returns, 
l^,-iJ7. The number of benfficea in England and Wales, according to 
Parliamentary returns, m 1844, was Il,I27,and the number of glebe- 
houses 5657. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and 
chapels about 14,100. The number of benefices in Ireland wa^ 1495 
to which there were not more than about 900 glebe-housee attached' 
the rest having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in ISCO for the 
union of contiguous benefices. S^e Church of England. 



CHURCH OP THE United States. The Episcopal 
Church was established in Nov., 1784, when BiZp 
beabury chosen by the churches in Connecticut, was 

he?f '.f Ph-;"/i'">!?™-^^- 7^^ «''^f Convention' wal 
held at Philadelphia m 1785. On Feb. 4, 1787 two 

?!','Te..'?''?!.''''"^"° bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. 
In 1851 there were 37 bishops. 

CHURCH SERVICES were ordered by Pope Vitel- 
;f?r.\'° 'f '"'^'''^\ i" Latin, 603; by Queen Elizabeth, 
m 155S, to be read m English. 

CriURCH-WARDENS, officers of the Church, ap- 
pointed by the first canon of the Synod of London I'u 
112. Overseers m every parish were also appointed 
by the same body, and they continue now nearly as 
then constituted.— JoAnsoH'jj Canons. 

CHLTSAN, a Chinese isle. See China, 1S40, 1841,1800. 

CIDER (ZAder, German), when first made in En- 
gland, was called wine, about 1284. The Earl of Man- 
chester, when ambassador in France, is said to have 
frequently passed off cider for a delicious wine. It was 
subjected to the excise in 1703, et seq. A powei-ful spir- 
it IS drawn from cider bv distillation.— Many orchards 
were planted in Herefordshire by Lord Scudamore, am- 
bassador from Charies I. to France. John Philips pub- 
lished his poem "Cider" in 1706. The "Newark Ci- 
der, manufactured at Newark, New Jersev, is consid- 
ered superior to any other made in the United States. 
J^rom It a great deal of wiue calUd "Champagne" is 
manufactured and sold in the United States. 



* The first General Assembly of the Church was held Dec "0 1560 
The General Assembly constitutes the highest ecclesiastical court in 
tbe kingdom ; it meets annually in Edinburg in May, and sits about 
ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the sov- 
ereign, and delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and' universi 
ties some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior 
ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision is final. 



CIL 



130 



cm 



CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes of 
that country. It became a Roman province 0. B.C., 
and was conquered by the Turlis, A.D. 13&T. 

CIMBRI, a Teutonic race who came fi-om Jutland 
and invaded the Roman Empire about 120 B.C. 1 tiey 
delued the Romans under Cn.Papmus Carbo,^^^^^^ 
•RT • undertheConsulMarcusSilanus,l(9B.C. , ana 
under Muius, on the banks of the Rhme where 
80 000 Romans were slain, 10.5 B.C. .Their allies, the 
Te tmies, were defeated by Marius m two battles a 
AnuTsestiie (Aix) in Gaul; 200,000 were killed, and 
70^0^ imfde prisoners, 102 B.C. The Cimbri were de- 
fea ed by Marius and Catulus as they were again en- 
deavoriu- to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, an 
00,000 taken prisoners, 101 B.C. Thev were afterward 
absorbed into the Teutones or feaxoi.4. 

CTMENTO (Italian, exwrnmcwO- The "Accadernia 
del Cimento,'- at Florence, held its A'^t ?neeting for 
making scientilic experiments, June IS, 1657. it was 
patronized by Ferdinand, grand-duke ot Tuscany. Its 
Istab shment was followed by the foundation of the 
Royal Society of London in 1000, and the Academy of 
Sciences at Paris in 1666. 

PTNCINNATI. A society established in the Amer- 
ican army soon after the peace of 1783,'/ to perpetuate 
friendship," and " to raise a fund for relieving the w;id- 
oTand orphans of those who had l^illen dimng the 
war." On the badge was a figure of Cmc^nnatus. The 
people dreading military influence, the officers gave up 
the society. 

CINNAMON, a species of laurel in Ceylon, is men- 
tioned among the perfumes of the sanctuary. Exodus 
XXX 23 It was Tound in the American forests by 
Don Ulloa in 1736, and was cultivated in Jamaica and 
Dominica in 1TS8. 

riNTRA (Portugal). The convention of Cintra was 
cone uded between the British army under Sir Hew 
Dalrymple, and the French under Marshal Junot By 
this compact, on Aug. 30, ISOS, shortly after the battle 
of Vimie a (Aug. 22),'the defeated French army was.al- 
lowed to evacuate Portugal in British ships, carrying 
with them all their spoil. The convention was pu - 
licly condemned, and, in consequence, a com't ol n- 
ciuirv was held at Chelsea, which exonerated the Brit- 
ish commanders, who, however, were never again em- 
isncommaiiacK^^^^ 'and Napoleon both justitied Sir 



ployed 

Hew Dalrymple 

CIRCASSIA (Asia, on the N. side of the Caucasus). 
The Circassians are said to be descended from the Al- 
banians. They were unsubdued, even oy 1 imour. In 
the lOth century the greater part of them acknowl- 
edged the authority of the czar, Ivan II. ot Russia and 
abSutlTlS the princes of Kabarda took oaths of feaUy. 
Many Circassians became Mohammedans in the 18th 
century. 

Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the 
treaty of Adriauople (but the Circassians, under 
Schamyl, long resisted). ...... .^ ........ ■ • • . ■ • -Ifl^ 

Victories of Orbelliani over them, June, Nov.,Dec.,lS5i 
He subdues much of the country, and expels the 

inhabitants •••••• .. April,l8&8 

Schamyl, their great leader, captured, and treated 

with much respect •/ • ^; ' • • I P. ' ' 

About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constantino- 
ple and suffer much distress, and are relieved .1860 
The last of the Circassian strong-holds captured, 
and the Grand-duke Michael declares the war at 

fiu end J*^"*^ '''^^''"* 

Above a million Circassians emigrate into Tur- 
key and sufl'er many privations, partially re- 
lieved by the sultan's government. .June, et scq. 
CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in the Roman 
circus (at first in honor of Consus, the god of councils, 
but afterward ofJupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Minerva), 
instituted by Evauder, and established at Rome 732 
B C bv Romulus, at the time of the rape ot the ba- 
bines They were an imitation of the Olympian games 
amou'o- the Greeks, and, by way of eminence, were 
called^the Great games, but Tarquin named them Cir- 
censiau ; their celebration continued from Sept. 4 to 12. 
CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter 
of the circle to its circumference, has exercised the in- 
genuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archimedes, 
f bo t 2-n B C, gave it as Y to 22; Abraham Sharp 
an") as 1 to 3 aid 72 decimals, and Lagny (1719) as 1 
to 3 and 122 decimals. 

CIRCLES OF Germaky (formed about 1.500, to dis- 
tin-'uish the members of the Diet of the Empire) were, 
in 1512, Franconia, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Rhine, 
Westphalia, and Saxony ; in 1789, Austria, Burgundy, 



Westphalia, Palatinate, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Bavaria, 
Franconia and Upper and Lower Saxony. In IbiJO . 
these divisions were annulled by the establishment ol 
the'^Confederation of the Rhine (whwh sec). 

CIRCUITS IN England were divided into three, 
and three justices were appointed to each, 1 176. 1 hey 
were afterward divided into four, with nve justices to 
each division, nsO.-Hainn. They have been frequent- 
fv altered. England and Wales are at present divided 
into eight-eacli traveled in spring and summer for 
the trial of civil and criminal cases; the arger towns 
are visited in winter for trials of criminals only ; this 
s called " going the circuit." There are montlily ses- 
sions for the city of London and county ofMiddlesex. 
CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers lent books 
on hire in the Middle Ages. The public circulating 
library in England, opened by S'™"^ Fancourt a dis- 
senting miuiSter of Salisbury, about 1.40, failed ; but 
simila? institutions at Bath and m London succeeded, 
and others were established throughout the kingdom. 
There was a circulating library at Crane Court, Lou- 
don, in 174S, of which a catalogue in two vols, was piib- 
ished. No books can be taken from the British Mu- 
seum except for judicial purposes, but the libraries of 
he Royal Society and the principal sxientihc socie les, 
except that of the Royal Institution, London, are cncti- 
hUino- --The London Library (circulating) vyas found- 
ed in'"l841, under the highest auspices, and is of great 
vnlne to literary men.-Of the subscription libraries 
be oiMng to Vn^lividuals, that of Mr. (5. E M„die m 
New Oxford Street, is the most remarkable for the 
lar-e quantity and good quality of the books ; seveiul 
humlreds, soLetimIs thousands, of comes °t a i^w 
work being in circulation. It was founded inj^42, 
and grew fnto celebrity in Dec, 1848 when the hist 
two volumes of Macaulay's History of Eng and were 
published, for which there was an ->i"P;pecedented de- 
mand, which this library supplied. The hall, bav- 
in <- the walls covered with shelves filled with new 
books, was opened in Dec, 1860. The " Circulating 
T ibrii'v Company" was founded m Jan., 1802. 1 he cit- 
ies and mos J of t^ie considerable to^Vns of the United 
fortes have circulating libraries, many oj them free, 
ind especially for the use of mechanics, clerks, ap- 
prent'?es"etc The public library of Boston, Mass 
which is absolutely free (persons taking home books 
to read being only required to show that they a e les- 
idents of the city), has 110,563 volumes, not including 
pamphlets. 
CIRCULATION of thk Blood. See Blood. 
CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.C.) was the seal 
of the covenant made by God ^ylth Abraham. It was 
practiced by the ancient Egyptians, and is still by the 
K and iome Oriental nations. „Thf Festival of the 
Circumcision (of Christ), originally "the Octave ot 
ChSias," i.s mentioned about 487. It was intro- 
duced into the Liturgy in 1560. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most daring 
human enterprises at the period when it was first at- 
tempted was the circumnavigation of the earth in 

Mao-ellan first entered the Pacific Ocean 1519 

Groalva, Spaniard ^"^?' 

Avalradi, Spaniard ^gg.. 

Mendana, Spaniard.. ........■■■ 

Sir Francis Drake, first English '»'' 

Cavendish, first voyage |^^°° 

Le Maire, Dutch f"J^ 

Quiros, Spaniard ^^.,t, 

Tasman, Dutch ^ ,.„, 

Cowley, British ^=^ 

Dampier, English \°ll 

Cooke, English :^i.„ 

Clipperton, British 1' . 

Roggewein, Dutch ' ' „ 

Anson (afterward lord) \' 

Byron, English i ' „g 

Wallis, Britsh ''T 

Carteret, English ^.-gg 

James Cook •. — i'lU'-TJ-'iln'r^ "i770 

On his death the voyage was continued by King. .17- J 

Boutrainville, French \i.L 

Portlocke, British i ioR op, 

^-'- an* Fitzroy, British 1836^2 



Belcher, British ie'js_42 

Wilkes, American ■ • v ^^■"'-^^ 

(See Northwest Passage.) 



* The first ship that^Si^IT;^;.^5A7;^rS:^d t^°/« ^f f ™1«^ 
its beinir trlobulnr, was Masellan's, or Magelhaen's ; he was a native 
ot- Ponu'jl fn the service Sf \pain, and by keeprng a westerW cur e 

Ij^e^rrol^/p^etdL^yfirratSd^dafsrbutXgSlintasluW^ 
his homeward passage, at the Philippines, m loSl. 



CIR 



131 



CLA 



_ CIRCrs. There were eight (some say ten) buikl- 
lUgs of this kmd at Rome ; the hvrgest, the Circus Max- 
tmus, Wiis built by the elder Tarquiu, 605 B.C. It was 
au oval figure ; length three stadia and a half, or more 
than three English furlongs ; breadth 900 Roman feet. 
It was enlarged by Julius Cwsar so as to seat 150,000 
persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius Ctesar 
introduced iu it large canals of water, which could be 
quickly covered with vessels, and represent a sea- 
tight.— Pi/jM/. See AuipliHh,-atre.% In tlie 5tli and 6th 
centiiries after Christ, Constantinople was greatly dis- 
turbed by the white, red, green, aud blue foctions of 
the circus. In 501, about aOoo persons were killed. In 
Jan., 53:.', a fierce conflict between the blue and green 
actions lasted five days, aud was only suppressed by 
the efforts of Beiisarius after a frightful slaughter 
The watchword was "Nika!" (conquer). 



Ai^r, , '^ civillist of the sovereign was fixed at 
i;510,000, and m Dec, 18.ST, the civil list of the 
queen was fixed at £385,000. 

Fnnce Albert obtained an exclusive sum from Par- 
luiinent of i;30,000pc^ an. on Feb T 1840 

'^if.^- Parnell's motion for inquiry into the civil 
iist led to the resignation of the Wellington ad- 
ministration %(,^ J5 JOOQ 

A select committee was appointed by theHouse of " 
Commons for the purpose Feb 2 1S60 



CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), razed to the 
ground in the Sacred War, 5S6 B.C., for sacrilege. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC (N. Italy) was formed by 
the French in May, 1T97, out of the CUpadane and 
Trampadane republics, acknowledged by the Emperor 
of Germany to be independent by'the treaty of Cam- 
po Formio (u^hich see), Oct. 17 following. It received 
a new Constitution in Sept., 1T9S, but merged iuto the 
kingdom of Italy in March, 1805. See Italij. 

CITATE. The Russian Geueral Gortschakoff, in- 
tending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts a-t Citate 
close to the Danube, which were stormed by the 
Turks under Omer Pacha, Jan. 0, 18.54. The fio-htino- 
continued on the Tth, Sth, and 0th, when the Russians 
were compelled to retire to their former position at 
Krajowa, having lost 1500 killed and 2000 wounded 
The loss of the Turks was estimated at 338 killed and 
(00 wounded. 

CITY. (French cite, Italian cittd, Latin civitas) The 
word has been used in England only since the Con- 
quest, when London was called Londo7iburnh. Cities 
were first incorporated 1079. A town corporate is 
called a city when made the seat of a bishop and hav- 
ing a cathedral church Camden. 



CITIZEN. It is not lawful to scourge a citizen of 
Rome — Liirij. In the United States a citizen was one 
who is either by birth or naturalization entitled to the 
privileges and powers which the Constitution of the 
United States confers on all free white males over the 
age of 21 ; now (1807) color and race make uo differ- 
ence: all males over 21 are citizens. In England a 
citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth 
carry on a trade therein.— Cawtdm. Various privileges 
have been conferred on citizens as freemeu in seve1-al 
reigns.— The wives of citizens of Loudon (not being 
a dermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were 
obliged to wear minever caps, being white woolen 
knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three 
or four inches beyond their foreheads ; aldermen's 

wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz., 1558 Stow. On 

Oct. 10, 1792, the Convention decreed that "citoyen" 
aud "citoyenne" should be the only titles iu France. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortress of Spain, in- 
vested by the French, June 11, 1810, aud surrendered 
to them July 10. It remnined iu their possessiou un- 
til It was stormed by the British, under Wellington, 
Jan. 19, 1812. " 

CIVIL LAW. A body of Roman laws, founded upon 
the laws of nature aud of nations, was first collected 
by Alfreuus Varus, the civilian, who flourished about 
66 B.C. ; and a digest of them was made by Servius 
Sulpicius, the civilian, 53 B.C. The Gregorian Code 
was issued A.D. 290 : the Theodosian in 438. Many 
of the former laws having grown out of use, the Emper- 
or Justinian ordered a revision of them (in 529-534), 
which was called the Justinian Code, and constitutes 
a larire part of the present civil law. Civil law was 
restored iu Italy. Germauy, etc., 'im.—Blnir. It was 
introduced into England by Theobald, a Norman ab- 
bot, afterward Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It 
is now used in the spiritual courts onlv, and in mari- 
time affairs. See Doctors' Commons and Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. In England this now comprehends 
the revenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu 
of their ancient hereditary income. The entire reve- 
nue of Elizabeth was not more than £600,000, and that 
of Charles I. was about X800,000. After the Revolu- 
tion a civil list revenue was settled on the new kin<r 
and queen of £700,000, the Parliament taking into it!s 
own hands the support of the forces both maritime 
and military. The civil list of George IL was increased 



CIVIL SERVICE. In England, nearly 17,000 ner- 

orthf tl.pTP^"-^'*''^ V'l^'l '"■^''^^' ""der '^^ direction 
of the treasury and the home, foreign, colonial, post 
and revenue oftices, etc. In 1855 a commission re- 
ported most unfovorably on the existing system of ap- 
pointments, and on May 21 commissioners were ap- 
poiu ed to examine into the qualifications of the can- 
didates, who report annually. The civil service super- 
annuation act passed in April, 1859. Civil service for 
ilO,20'5!4il"'^'"^ ^'"'■'^ ^^^ ^^^^ '°'' ^7,735,515,1865' 

Cl.VIL WARS. See England, France, U. States, etc. 

CLANSHIPS were tribes of the same race, and com- 
rnonly of the same name, and originated in feudal 
times. See Feudal Laws. They are said to have arisen 
lu Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm IL, about 1008 
the legal power of the chiefs of clans and other re- 
mains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- 
land, aud the liberty of the English was granted to 
clansmen in 1747, in consequence of the rebellion of 
1745. The following is a list of all the known claus of 
Scotland, with the badge of distiuction anciently worn 
by each. The chief of each respective clan was, and 
IS, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers iu his bonnet 
in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan — 
Chambers. A history of the clans by Wm. Buchanan 
was published iu 1775. 

„ , Name. Badge. 

Buchanan Birch. 

Cameron Oak. ' 

Campbell Myrtle. 

Ohisholm Aider. 

Colquhoun Hazel. 

Cumming Common sallow. 

Drummond Holly. 

Farquharson Purple foxglove. 

Ferguson Poplar. 

Forbes Broom. 

Frazer Yew. 

Gordon lyy. 

Graham Laurel. 

^raut Cranberry heath. 

GrUD Rosewort. 

L«mont Crab-apple-tree. 

M'Alister Five-leaved heath. 

M'Donald Bell-heath. 

M 'Donnell Mountain heath. 

M'Dougall Cypress. 

M'Farlaue Cloud-berry bush. 

M'Gregor Pine. 

M'Into'sh Box-wood. 

M'Kay Bulrush. 

M'Keuzie Deer-grass. 

M'Kmnon St. John's wort. 

M'La^hlan Mountain ash. 

M'Lean Blackberry heath. 

M'Leod Red whortleberries. 

M'Nab Rose blackberries. 

M'Neil Sea-ware. 

M'Pherson Variegated box-wood. 

M'Quarrie Blackthorn. 

M'Rae Fir-club moss. 

Menzies Ash. 

Muuro Eagle's feathers. 

Murray Juniper. 

Ogilvie Hawthorn. 

Oliphant Great maple. 

Robertson Fern, or brechans. 

Rose Brier rose. 

Koss Bear-berries. 

Sinclair Clover. 

Stewart , Thistle. 

Sutherland Cat's tail grass. 

CLARE AND Clarence (Suffolk). Richard de Clare, 
earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated here a mon- 
astery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of this 
kind of mendicants who came to England, 1248.— r«)!- 
wr. Lionel, third son of Edward ill., becoming pos- 
sessed of the honor of Clare by marriage, was created 
Duke of Clarence. The title has ever since belonged 



to £800,000 ; and that of George IIL, in the 65th year to a branch of the royal fiimily.*— Clare was the first 

of bis reign, was Xl,03O,000. | * i,,.,,,^ „^ CLAKKNCETT362,IIonel7b^^^i7^I^369.' 



CLA 



132 



CLI 



place in Ireland for 140 years that elected a B^man 
Catholic member of Parliament. See Romai'^atlio- 
lics. At the election held at Enuis, the county town, 
Mr. Daniel O'Couuell was returned July 5, 182S. He 
did not sit till after the Catholic Emancipation Act in 
1S29, being re-elected July 30, 1829. 

CLARE, Nuns of St., a sisterhood called Minoress- 
es, founded in Italy about 1212. This order settled in 
England, in the Minories without Aldgate, London, 
about 1293, by Blanche, queen of Navarre, wife of Ed- 
mund, earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I. At 
the suppression, the site was granted to the bishopric 
of Bath and Wells, 1539.— J'cMWicn 

CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the Prin- 
cess Charlotte (daughter of the prince regent, after- 
ward George IV.), and the scene of her death, Nov. 6, 
1817. The house was originally built by Sir John Van- 
brugh, and was the seat successively of the Earl of 
Clare, afterward Duke of Newcastle, of Lord Clive, 
Lord Gallowa}', and the Earl of Tyrcouuel. It was 
purchased of Mr. Ellis by government for i;G5,000 for 
the Prince and Princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the for- 
mer, now King of Belgium, assigned it to Prince Al- 
bert in 1840. The exiled royal family of France took 
up their residence at Claremout, March 4, 1S4S ; and 
the king, Louis Philippe, died there, Aug. 29, 1850. 

CLARENDON, Constitutions of, were enacted at 
a council held Jan. 25, 11G4, at Clarendon, in Wiltshire, 
the object of which was to retrench the then enormous 
power of the clergy. They were the ground of Beck- 
et's quarrel with Henry II., and were at first condemn- 
ed by the Pope, but afterward agreed to in 11T3. 

I. All suits concerning advowsous to be determined 
iu civil courts. 

II. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by 
civil judges. 

III. No person of any rank whatever to be permit- 
ted to leave the realm without the royal license. 

IV. Laics not to be accused In spiritual courts, ex- 
cept by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. 

V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommuni- 
cated, or his lands put under interdict. 

VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 

VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be protect- 
ed in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villains not to be ordained clerks with- 
out the consent of their lord. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
jected to the burdens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be 
granted in perpetuity against his will. 

XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to 
give security for continuing in their abode. 

XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommuni- 
cated for non-appearance iu a spiritual court. 

XIII. If any tenant in capitc should refuse submis- 
sion to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the 
king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right 
of enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to be 
determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, 
and no farther without his consent. 

CLARION, it is said by Spanish writers, invented 
by the Moors in Spain, about SCO, was at tirst a trum- 
pet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding tenor 
and bass. — At^he. Its tube is narrower and its tone 
shriller than the common trumpet.— ParrZon. 

CLARIONET, a wind instrument of the reed kind, 
invented by Joseph Denuer,in Nuremberg, about 1690. 

CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius Ser- 
vius (the sixth king of ancient Rome) in making di- 
visions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. The tirst ol'the 
six classes were called classici, by way of eminence, 
and hence authors of the first rank (especially Greek 
and Latin) came to be called classics. 

CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attributed to 
Clemens Itomanus, a contemporary of St, Paul, and 
said to have succeeded St. Peter as Bishop of Rome. 
He died 102. — Niceron. Also the decretals of Pope 
Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. 
— Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom hav- 
ing been a superior nine years, then merged into a 
common monk. — ClejMentines were the adherents of 
Robert, son of the Count of Geneva, who took the title 
of Clement VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and 



York, diiiea of.—l-in, Thomas (second son of Henrv IV.), born 1389, 
kiUed at Bauje 1421.— 1461, George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered 
1478.-1789, William (third son of George 111.), afterward William IV. 



Ubeanists, those of Pope Urban VI. All Christen- 
dom was divided by the claims of these two pontifi's : 
France, Castile, Scotland, etc., adhering to Clement; 
Rome, Italy, and England declaring for Urban. The 
schism ended in 1409, when Alexamler V. was elected 
pope, and his rivals resigned. Hee Anti-Po2)es. 

CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock. See Clocks. 

CLERGY (from the Greek Mens, a lot or inherit- 
ance) in the 1st century were termed presbyters, eld- 
ers, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops {epiKco2}oi 
or overseers), elected from the presbyters, iu the 2d cen- 
tury assumed higher functions (about 330), and, under 
Constautine, obtained the recognition and protection 
of the secular power. LTnder the Lombard and Nor- 
man kings in the 7th and Stli centuries, the clergy be- 
gan to possess temporal power as owners of lands ; 
and after the establishment of monachism, a distinc- 
tion was made between the regular clergy, who lived 
apart from the world, iu accordance with a regula or 
rule, and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. See 
Church of Eiuiktad.* 

CLERKENWELL, a parish near London, so called 
from a well (/o«.s- clericoruvi) in Ray Street, where the 
parish clerks occasionally acted mystery plays ; once 
before Richard II. in 1390. Hunt's political meetings 
in 1817 were held in Spa-fields in this parish. In St. 
John's parish are the remains of the priory of the 
knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell Prison 
was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the 
Cage, which was taken down in 1614, the then Bride- 
well having been found insufficient. The prison called 
the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was rebuilt in 
1818 ; again 1844. At Clerkenwell Close formerly stood 
the house of Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose 
the death-warrant of Charles I. was signed, Jan., 1649. 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the council 
under Pope Urban II. in 1095, in which the first cru- 
sade against the infidels was determined upon, and 
Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to command it. In 
this council the name of pope was first given to the 
head of .the Roman Catholic Church, exclusively of 
the bishops who used previously to assume the title. 
Philip 1. of Prance was (a second time) excommuni- 
cated by this assembly. — Henault. 

CLEVES (N. E. Germany). Rutger, count of Cleves, 
lived at the beginning of the 11th century. Adolphus, 
count of Mark, was made Duke of Cleves by the Em- 
peror Sigismund, 1417. John William,duke of Cleves, 
Berg, Ju'liers, etc., died without issue, March 25, 1009, 
which led to a war of succession. Eventually Cleves 
was assigned to the Elector of Brandenburg in 1066 ; 
seized by the French in 1757; restored at the peace iu 
1703, and now forms part of the Pruss.ian dominions. 

CLIFTON SUSPENSION BRIDGE, over the Avon, 
connecting Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, con- 
structed of the removed Hungerford bridge, was com- 
pleted in Oct., 1864; opened Dec. 8, 18C4. It is said to 
have the largest span (702 feet) of any chain bridge iu 
the world.t 

CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain periods 
of time in a man's life (multiples of 7 or 9), in which it 
is afiirmed notable alterations in the health and con- 
stitution of a i)erson happen, and expose him to im- 
minent dangers. Cotgrove says, "Every 7th, or 9th, 
or 63d year of a man's life, all very dangerous, but the 
last most." The grand climacteric is 63. Hippocrates 



* The clergcy were first styled clerks, owing; to the judfres being 
chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred order, and the officers 
being clergy: this gave them that denomination, which they keep to 
this day. — BIaclsfo7it^s Comm. *' As the Druids," says Pasquier,*' kept 
tlie keys of their religion and of letters, so did the priests keep both 
tliese to themselves ; they alone made profession of letters, and a man 
of letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by the name of 
clerkship." The English clergy add " clerk" to their name in legal 
documents. — In 99'J the distinction began in France. — HtnauH. The 
Benefit of Clergy, Privilcijium Chrivah, arose in the regard paid by 
Cliristian princes to the Church, and consisted of, 1st, an exemption of 
places consecrated to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was 
tile foundation of sanctuaries ; 2d, exemption of tlie persons of clergy- 
men from criminal process before the secular ^udge, in particular cases, 
wliich was the original meaning of the privilegtum ciericale. In the 
course of time, however, tlie henefit of chrgy extended to every one who 
could read, which was tliought a great proof of learning ; and it was 
enacted that there should be a prerogative allowed to the clergy ,~that 
if any man who could read were to be condemned to death, the bislio^ 
of tlie diocese miglit, if he would, claim him as a clerk, and dispose ot 
him in some places of the clergy as he might deem meet. The ordi- 
nary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic char- 
acter, iVom which to read a verse or two ; and if the ordinary said, 
"Legit lit Clericiis" (" He reads like a clerk"), the offender was only 
burnt in the hand ; otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). This 
privilege was restricted by Henry V'll. in 1489, and abolislied, with re- 
spect to murderers and other great criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. — 
Slow. The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). Benefit 
of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV., c. 28 (1S27). 

t The Niagara suspension bridge has a span of 821 feet. 



CLI 



133 



is said to have referred to these periods in 383 B C. 
Much misemployed erudition has been expended on 
this subject. 

CLINTON ANT> MONTGOMERY FORTS, CArTUHE 
OF. These lorts were on the Hudson Hi^^'hlauds, situ- 
ated on opposite sides of a small streain, and on the 
west bank of the river. They were under the com- 
mand of Generals George and James Clinton. Sir 
Henry Clinton, commander of the British in New 
i. ork, in order to make a diversion in favor of Bur- 
goyne, attacked them with a competent force on the 
6th of October, 177T, and captured them. The loss of 
the Americans in killed, wounded, and prisoners was 
about 300 ; that of the British about 140. 

CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the celebrated sew- 
ers at Rome, the construction of which is attributed to 
King Tarquinius Priscus (5SS B.C.) and his successors. 
CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was in- 
trodiiced at Rome about 158 B.C. by Scipio Nasica. 
I oothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibins, 
about 1-10 B.C. Said to have been found by Cresar oii 
invading Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock supposed to 
be then in the world was sent by Pope Paul I to Pe- 
pin king of France, A.D. 7U0. Paciticus, archdeacon 
of Genoa, invented one in the 9th century. Ori>Tinal- 
ly the wheels were three feet in diameter. Thelarli- 
est complete clock of which there is any certain record 
was made by a Saracen mechanic in the 13th century 
Alfred is said to have measured time by wax taperV 
and to have mvented lanterns to defend them from 
the %yiud about SST. The brass and wooden clocks of 
the L nited States have become famous for their chean- 
uess and good quality all over the world, and are ex- 
I'°r|ecl iiot only to civilized nations, but even to the 
half-ciyihzed people of the Indian Islands and other 
countries. Clocks imported into the United States 
pay a duty of 30 per cent. ; watches, 10 per cent. Of 
clocks the value imported in the fiscal year 1S54-55 
was $(i9,258; watches, $3,681,187. ^^o-t-oo 

The scapement ascribed to Gerbert .... iqoo 

A great clock put up at Canterbury CathedraY, 

cost £30 'j292 

A clock constructed by RichaVd,'abbot'of StAl- 

bau Sj-about -jgog 

John Visconte sets up a clock atGenoa.'.'.' ". 1353 

A striking clock in Westminster 'iSGS 

A perfect one made at Paris by Vick .'.".'." 1370 

The first portable one made '.'.,', X530 

In England no clock went accurately before'tliat 

set up at Hampton Court (maker's initials N. O.),1540 
Richard Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul's 
Covent Garden) and the younger Galileo con- 
structed the pendulum 1641 

Christian Huyghens contested this discovery ,"anci 
made his pendulum clock some time previously 

to , 1658 

Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pend'uiiim 

about Iggg 

Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow 

about ^ Ig'j-g 

The dead beat and horizontal escapements! by 

Graham, about 1700 

The spiral balance spring suggested,' aud 'the 'du- 
plex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot 
holes jeweled by Facio; the detached scapement 
invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, 
Arnold, Earnsha'w, and others in the ISth cen- 
tury. 
Harrison's time-piece (wJiMi. see) constructed 1735 
Clocks aud watches taxed, 17!)7 ; tax repealed ' 'l70S 

1 he Horolocrical Institute established 18,58 

The great Westminster clock set up May 301859 

266,750 clocks and 88,021 watches imported into 
Great Britain in 1857; the duty came off in 1S61. 

(See Electric Clock, under Electricitij.) 
CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle 
fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, between the 
Irish and Danes, the former headed by Brian Bo- 
roihme, monarch of Ireland, who signally defeated 
the invaders after a long and bloody enga'^ement but 
was wounded, and soon afterward dlecf His 'son 
Murchard also fell, with many of the nobility; 11,000 
of the Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 

CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover), Convention of was 
entered into Sept. 8, 17.57, between the Duke of Cum- 
berland, third son of George IL, and the Duke of 
Riche.ieu, commander of the French armies. By its 
humiliating .stipulations, RS.ono Hanoverians laid down 
their arms, and wcic (lis|MTM'd. The duke immedi- 
ately afterward ruM-iu'd all his military commands 
ihe convention was touu broken by both parties. 



CLOTH. 



CLU 

See Woole7i Cloth and Calico. 



Clod(?,ki nr T'.'i 'V^'"f ",*'^" P''^"*' "amed from Prince 
off .1 ""^ <-,'o"il, who became a monk there in vn 
after the murder of his brothers, and d ed in 560 ■r'hp 
palace was built in the 16th cei u" y, and Ltt He^rv 
II. was assassinated bv fMp„,„„f ,■„ -.io^^ '" " iieniy 



ssassinated by Clement in 1589, 



11 i-"--'>-"^u uio uiiibBincaiioi: 
generally adopted, consisting of three nrimarv forms 
SesrSrms""a^;.^A th^^ ^^"1"^= ^^'-^^^ompollro! 
(ramiilo-c"?ro s^rltn N "'a'''"" or black rain -clouds 
^r;'o°nThrca\^tpetre"d fn it^" °^ ""''"''''' 
. CLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was held ■m 
important council of nobility and cte conceruinff 
the governmeut and discipline of the Church Sep"^ 
(47 ; and others were held here 800, 803, 822, 824. ^' 

CLUBMEN, associations formed in the southern and 
western coiinties of England, to restrain the excesses 
of the armies during the Civil Wars, 1649-^q Thtv 
professed neutrality, but inclined toward the kin/ 
and were considered enemies by his opponents. "' 

CLUBS originally consisted of a small number of 
persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who me to- 
getlier at stated times for social intercourse The 
club at the Mermaid Tavern, established about the 
end of the IGth century, consisted of Raleigh? Shak! 

KT™*^*A'''t-r^'"i°'^f°° ''^ "P a club at he 
y V T? P.™-, Ail'I'son, Steele, and others frequently 
met at Button's Coffee-house, as described in the ,W 
Ron"'"- ,J^^ ^'"^''^"^■' ^""^^"" clubs, some compridn. 
300, others about 1500 members, possess luxuriously 
furnished edifices, several of great architectm4l pre^ 
tensions, in or near Pall Mall. The members ob 
tain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate 
charges. Many of the clubs possess excellent libra- 
ries particularly the Atheujeum (which see). The an 
nual payment varies from £6 to £11 lis. ; the entrance 

pTclubs :'• '° ^'' "'• '''"' '°"°"'^"^ ^"^ ^ScU 

Kit-cat (ichich see) -, -„o 

Beef-steak ji"'^ 

White's (Toru), establishe'd .'.'.'.'.'..'.'. Afi 

Boodle's ii^^ 

Literary Club (lohich see), "terme'd also'''' ''The c'lii'b "'"• ' 
and Johnson's Club ' ir/.Q 

?S::!!"^^^ ::::::::::::::::::::l{g 



ilSs'.'.'.-;.'.''.' -M^yM^jo 



1803 
ISIO 
1811 



Roxburghe, London 1 o ji 

United Service }fA 

Travelers' V'J.l 

Union ::;:::; ]f^ 

United University jc^i 

Banuatyue, £f7m6Mj-,7 imq 

Athenreum {which see) ico^ 

Oriental .. ^'jf 

United Service (Junior)'.'.'.'.".'.'.'. 1 097 

Wyndham ! ]^l 

Maitland, Glasgow ■.■.'.■.; ,r 

Oxford and Camhrido-e icgn 

Carlton (Conservative) ]%Z?, 

Abbotsford, Edinhnra. ... 7 oo^ 

Reform (Liberal) ....... \%fi 

Parthenon ;.■.■.';; ^Ti 

Army and Navy -1007 

Etching, London '. '.".'.'. j qas 

Spalding, A bcrdecn 1S39 

Conservative "..!'..".". IS40 

Whittington (founded by Dou'g'l'a's jcrroid'and oth- "^ 

"■^) Vc---,;.--;-- 184S 

(See Working-men's Clubs.) 
The oldest club in the United States is the Wistar 
Club in Philadelphia. The chief clubs of New York 
are the Union, Century, New York, Travelers, Athe- 
nfeum, and Manhattan. In almost all the Northern 
cities of any size there have been since the war Union 
clubs or branches of the Union clubs in the nearest 
great cities. 

-.-Sf'^^,'^' Fi^^Ncir. The first of these arose about 
1 (82. They were essentially political, and were "-reat- 
ly concerned in the Revolution. The Club Bretun be- 
came the celebrated Club cles Jacobins, and the Club 
des Cordeliers comprised among its members Dan ton 
and Camille Desmoulius. From these two clubs came 
the Mountain party, which overthrew the Girondists 
m 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs disan- 
peared with the Directory in 1799. They were revived 
m 1S4S in considerable numbers, but did not attain to 



CLU 



lU 



COA 



their former emiuence, and were suppressed by de- 
crees iu Juue 22, 1S49, and June G, 1S60. — Bouillet. 

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity produced by the shorten- 
ing of one or more of the muscles, although attempt- 
ed to be cured by Lorenz in 1784 by cutting the tendo 
Achillis, was not efl'ectually cured till 1S31, when Stro- 
meyer of Erlaugeu cured Dr. Little by dividing the 
tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin 
kuife. Judicious after-treatment is required. 

CLUGNY, OR Cluny, Abhet of, in France, formerly 
most magnihcent, founded by Benedictines, under the 
Abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterward by 
William, duke of Berry and Aquitaine. English foun- 
dations for Cluniac monks were instituted soon after. 

CLYDE ANP FOETH Wall was built by Agricola, 
84. The Forth and Clyde Canal was commenced by 
Mr. Smeaton, July 10, 1768, and was opened July 28, 
1790. It forms a 'communication between the seas on 
the eastern and western coasts of Scotland. 

CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor ; near here Conon 
the Athenian defeated the Lacedemonian fleet, under 
Peisander, 394 B.C. 

COACH (from couclier, to lie). Beckmann states 
that Charles of Aujou's queen entered Naples iu a 
can'tta (about 1282). Under Francis 1. there were but 
two in Paris, one belonging to the queeu, the other to 
Diana, the natural daughter of Henry IL There were 
but three in Paris iu 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one 
without straps or springs. John de Laval de Bois- 
Dauphin set up a coach on account of his enormous 
bulk. The first coach seen in England was about 
1553. Coaches were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of 
Arundel, in 1580. — Stow. A bill was brought iuto Par- 
liament to prevent the eft'emiuacy of men riding iu 
coaches, 43 Eliz., 16{)\.*— Carte. Repealed 1625. The 
coach-tax commenced in 1747. Horace Walpole says 
that the present royal state coach (first used Nov. 16, 
1762) cost .£7528. See Car, Carriages, Chariots, Hackney- 
coaches, Marl-coaches, etc. 

COAL.t It is contended, with much seeming truth, 
that coal, although not mentioned by the Romans in 
tlieir notices of Britain, was yet iu use by the ancient 
Britons. — Brandt. Henry 111. is said to have granted 
a license to dig coals near Newcastle-upou-'Tyne in 
1234 ; some say earlier, and others in 1239. Sea-coal 
was prohibited from being used in and near London, 
as being " prejudicial to human health ;" and even 
smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273.^,S'^om). Iu 
1306 the gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was 
first made an article of trade from Newcastle to Lon- 
don, 4 Richard II., 1381. — Ri/mer's Foedera. Notwith- 
standing the many previous complaints against coal 
as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned 
in Loudon in 1400; but it was not in common use in 
England until the reign of Charles I., 1625. 

AKEAS OF COAL-BEDS IN THE WORLD, AND A COMPARI- 
SON OF TUEIK EXTENT. 



Great Britain 

Spain (Asturias region) 

France (area of fijced cuncos- ) 

sion) in 1845 J 

Belgium conceded lands 

Pennsylvania, U. S 

British ProvinceB, N. A 

Persian dominions 

Austrian provinces contain- ) 

ing coal or lignite ) 

United States 

Twelve principal coal-pro- ) 

ducing states ) 

Total 



W i 



Square 

Miles. 

!2n,290 

m,781 

203,736 

11,312 

43,960 

81,113 

107,937 

150,000 

2,280,000 

665,283 



Square 

Miles. 

11,869 

3,408 

1,719 

518 



1-118 

1-22 
1-3 
1-lJ 



I luuo 



The whole coal region of Europe ts by Mr. Taylor 
shown to be only 50,941 square miles, being somewhat 
less than that of the Western States of Illinois and Indi- 
ana; while England has only 8139 miles, and Ireland 



* In the beginning of the year 1619, the Earl of Northumberland, 
ivhn had been imprisoned ever since the Gunpowder Plot, obtaine(l 
his liberation. Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six 
horses in his coach (being the first that was so), the earl put on eight 
to his, and in that manner passed from the Tower through the city, — 
Bai'ln. 

t There are five kinds of fossil fuel : anthracite, coal, lignite, bitu- 
minous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory definition of coal has yet 
been given. The composition of ivood is 49*1 carbon, 6"3 hydrogen, 
44-6 oxygen ; of coal, S2'6 carbon, 6-6 hydrogen, U-S oxygen. 



3720 miles, the aggregate being somewhat less than 
that of the State of Ohio. But Great Britain produces 
annually upward of 34,000,000 tons of coal, while that 
of Pennsylvania is about 10,000,000 tons. 

COilPAElBON OF THE COAL TRADE OF TUE UNITED STATES 
AND EUROPE. 

The consumption of coal in Europe and the United 
States was estimated as follows in 1845, showing also 
the square miles of coal formation, the relative pro- 
portions, and the value in dollars: 



Great Britain 

Belgium 

United States . . . . 

France 

Prussian States. . . 

Austrian States... 

Total 



11,859 

518 

133,132 

1,719 

undefined. 

undefined. 



Tons. 
31,500,000 
4,960,000 
4,400,000 
4,141,000 
3,500,000 
659,000 



49,160,000 



Propor- 




1:112,662,000 



COAL, Anthracite. It is reported that anthracite 
coal was used by a few blacksmiths as early as 1770. 
Dr. C. T. James used it to warm a private house, 1804, 
and Judge Fell, of Wilkesbarre, 1808. In 1814, White 
and Hazard, iron-masters of Carbon County, intro- 
duced it into their rolling-mill, and that year 20 tons 
were carried to Philadelphia. ' Its use increased slow- 
ly. The first coal railroad in the United States was 
built iu 1827, OX miles long, and by 1857, 758 miles of 
canal, and over 1000 miles of railroad had been built 
to carry coal. Anthracite was introduced into loco- 
motives in 1836. The quantity of coal mined iu 1856 
was 6,751,542 tons, and iu 1860, 9,398,332. 

COAL CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 



1830 1,588,360 chald. 

1835 2^99,816 tons. 

1840 2,638,256 ditto. 

1S50 3,638,883 ditto. 



1700 317,000 chald. 

1750 510,000 ditto. 

1800 814,000 ditto. 

1810 980,372 ditto. 

1820 1,171,178 ditto. 

1860. — Coal brought to Loudon, 3,573,377 tons coast- 
ways ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. 

1861.— Coal brought to London, 5,232,082 tons ; in 
1862, 4,973,823 tons. 

The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 
5400 square miles; of Durham and Northumber- 
land, 723 square miles. — Bakewcll. In 185T about 
(iT>y, millions of tons were extracted (value about 
i;l6,348,67G) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 mil- 
lions are consumed annually iu Great Britain. 

Coal obtained iu Great Britain and Ireland: In 
1861, 86,417,941 tons; iu 1862, 81, G38,.338 tons ; in 
1863, 86,292,215 tons (valued at £51,000,000) ; iu 
1864 (from 3268 collieries), 92,787,873 ton.s. 

Mr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual prod- 
uct of the coal-mines of Durham and Northum- 
berland at 14 million tons: 6 millions for Lon- 
don, 1)4 millions exported, 2y< millions for coke, 
1 million for colliery engines, etc., and 2 millions 
for local consumption. 

By a stipulation in the commercial treaty of 1860, 
in consequence of the French government great- 
ly reducing the duty on imported coal, the Brit- 
ish government (it is thought by many ijnpru- 
dently) engaged to lay no duty on exported coal 
for ten years. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of 
British coals were exported, of which 1,391,009 
tons went to France. 

The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dub- 
lin from Newry 1742 

Sale of Coal Regulation Act 1831 

The duties on "the exportation of British coal, 
which had existed since the 16th century, were 
practically repealed 1834 

Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 
caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed 1845 

Women were prohibited from working in English 
collieries in 1842 

The consumption of coal in France iu 1780 only 
400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. 

The United States produced between 8 and 9 mil- 
lions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and France, 
4,500,000, in 1855 

An act for the regulation and inspection of mines 
was passed in 1860 

Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur, a long and 

severe one arose in Stafi"ordshire in 1864 

Accidents.— About 1000 lives are lost annually by 

accidents in coal-mines. 

In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, .'i2 persons per- 
ished at Bardsley ; 20 at DuftVyu, near Newport ; 62 at 

Tyldesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 iu diflereut parts 

of the country. 



COA 



135 



COC 



On April 5, ISSO, 2G lives were lost at the chain col- 
liery, near Ncatli, throu<:;h the irruption of water. 

hi isdo, VO li\cs were lost ou Miircli 2, at Burradon, 
near Killiiijxworth ; 145 at the Eisca mine, near New- 
port, Dec. 1 ; and 22 at the Ilettou mine, Northumber- 
land, Dec. 20. 

On June 11,1SG1, 21 lives were lost through an in- 
undation in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 

In 1S02, 47 lives were lost at Geiliiu "mine, Merthyr 
Tydvill, S. Wales, Feb. 19 ; at Walker, near Newcastle- 
on-Tync, If) lives lost, Nov. 22 ; Edmund's Main, near 
Barnsley, (ii) lives lost, Dec. 8. 

In 1803, i:! lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 
March 6 ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, Oct. 17 ; 14 
lives lost at iMocstig, S. Wales, Dec. 26. 

In 180.5, G lives lost at Claycross, May 3 ; 24 at New 
Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, June Ki. 

(For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and 
ILo-tUi/.) 

S.") lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in 
Oct., 1861. 

Explosion at Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvill ; 30 lives 
lost, Dec. 20, 1S65. 

Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, Lan- 
cashire ; about 30 lives lost, Jan. 23, 1806. 
CovL Exchange, London, established by 47 Geo. 
III., c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most 
interesting structure) was erected by" Mr. J. B. 
Bunning, and oiiened by Prince Albert. .Oct. 30,1849 
CoAT.-wnieeKKs' Boakii, to protect the men em- 
ployed in unloading coal-vessels from publi- 
cans, formed by an act of Parliament in 1843, 
lasted till 1856, when the coal-owners themselves 
established a whipping-ollice. 

COALITIONS AGAINST France generally arose 
through England subsidizing the great powers of the 
Contiiieut. They were entered into as follows : 

Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain 1793 

Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, 

and Turkey, signed June 22,1799 

Great Britaiia, Russia, Austria, and Naples, Aug. 5,1S05 
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, Oct. 6,1806 

England and Austria April 6,1809 

Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch, 

March 17,1813 
(See Treaties.) 

COALITION MINISTRY. See Portland. 

COAST GUARD op England. In 1856, the raising 
and governing this body was transferred to the Ad- 
niiralt}'. A coast brigade of artillery was established 
in Nov., 1850. 

COAST SLTIVEY of thr United States. The 
project of a complete survey, conducted upon a uni- 
form system and extending over the whole coast, was 
first proposed by the late Professor Patterson in 1806. 
It combined three objects, the astronomical determ- 
ination of prominent points, a triangulation to con- 
nect those points, and a hydrographic survey based 
upon this triangulation. Mr. Gallatin, then Secretary 
of the Treasury, encouraged the project, and obtained 
in writing the'opinions of learned men as to the best 
mode of executing it. He selected the plan of opera- 
tions recommended by Mr. Hassler, the first superin- 
tendent of the Coast Survey. It is only, however, 
since the year 1832 that the survey of the coast has 
been in steady and active operation. During this 
long interval of neglect on the part of the govern- 
ment, the coasting trade and foreign commerce of the 
country have been chiefly indebted to the indefatiga- 
ble labors of those distinguished hydrographers, the 
Messrs. Blunt, of New York (1)oth father and son), for 
the means of safe navigation. In 1844, the first year 
of Dr. Baehe's superintendence, nine states on the 
Atlantic sea-board shared in the benefits conferred by 
the coast survey; in 184.5, thirteen states; in 1846, fif- 
teen ; and in 1847, eighteen states. The estimates for 
the present year include all the states on the Atlantic 
and the Gulf of Mexico, and it may be inferred at 
once from this statement that, if sufficient appropria- 
tions are supplied by Congress, a definite and not dis- 
tant |)eriod can be assigned for the completion of the 
wlKilc work. It is now understood that the aim of 
I lie roast survey is to furnish with the utmost attain- 
able accuracy, and in a connected and uniform man- 
ner, all the 'geographical, topographical, and hydro- 
graphical data tliat can be made in any way usei'nl to 
the navigatiim and defense of the coast. And it is 
also sni)i)(>sed that, in collecting these data, informa- 
tion will be accumulated that may become serviceable 
in suggesting and directing local and general improve- 
ments, such'as the placing and constructing of light- 
houses, beacons, buoys, etc., the means of improving 



channels, the effect of contemplated constructions 
u])on harbors and tidal deposits, the suitableness of a 
submerged soil for building, etc. And, lastly, it is 
presumed that those states through which the survey 
passes will sooner or later avail themselves of the 
base it is able to supply to form a correct geograph- 
ical map of their own territory under circumstances 
very favorable to economy and accuracy. These are 
the practical benefits, either direct or incidental, con- 
ferred by the coast survey. 

COAST VOLUNTEERS. See under Aavy of En- 
gland. 

COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of 
ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, in 
the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call it 
mmdic— Hill. It was distinguished as a metal by 
Brandt in 1733. 

COBURG. See Saxe-Cohurg. 

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503 ; by 
the Dutch, 1063 ; taken by the British, 1735; ceded to 
them, 1814. 

COCHIN CHINA or ANAM, ivhich see. 

COCHINEAL INSECT {Coccus cacti), an insect 
found in Mexico, Georgia, South Carolina, and some 
of the West India Islands. Formerly it was in Mexi- 
co only that it was reared with care, and formed a val- 
uable article of commerce ; but its culture is now more 
or less attended to in various parts of the West Indies 
and of the United States. It is a small insect, seldom 
exceeding the size of a grain of barley, and was gen- 
erally believed, for a considerable time after it began 
to be imported into Europe, to be a sort of vegetable 
grain or seed. It derives fts color from feeding on 
the cactus, and became known to the Spaniards soon 
after their conquest of Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was 
brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in 
Italy in 154S, although the art of dyeing then flourish- 
ed there. In 1S5S it was cultivated successfully in 
Teneriffe, the vines having failed through disease. 
200,000 lbs. of cochineal were imported into England 
in 1S30; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; 
and 3,034,970 lbs. in 1S59. The United States import- 
ed in 1S57, 547,707 lbs., valued at $440,707. 

COCK-FIGHTING, practiced by the Greeks. It was 
introduced at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 
476 B.C. ; and was brought by the Romans into En- 
gland. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry 
II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys 
on Shrove-Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward 
IIL, 1365; by Henry VIII.; and by Cromwell, 1653. 
Part of the site of Drury Lane Theatre was a cock-pit 
in the reign of James I. ; and the Cock-pit at White- 
hall was erected by Charles II. Till within these few 
years there was a Cock-pit Royal in St. James's Park ; 
but the governors of Christ's Hospital would not re- 
new the lease for a building devoted to cruelty.* Cock- 
fighting is now forbidden by law. 

COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practiced by 
William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, by means of 
a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and itci, carried 
on at No. 33 Cock Lane, Loudon, was at leugth de- 
tected, and the parents were condemned to the^piUory 
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 

COCOA, OK Cacao, the kernel or seed of the tree 
Thcohroma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into Great 
Britain shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where it 
forms an important article of diet. From cocoa is 
produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the 
tjnited Kingdom, chiefly from the British West In- 
dies and Guiana, was, in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs. ; in 1851, 
4,349,051 lbs. ; in 1855, 7,343,458 lbs. ; in 1859, 6,006,759 
lbs. ; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ; in 1864, 7,920,912 lbs., 
about half for home consumption. 

COCOA-NUT-TREE {Cocos nucifera, Linn.), supplies 
the Indians with almost all they need, as bread, water, 
wine, vinegar, brand)', milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, 
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, 
masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering for their 
houses, etc.— Ray. In Sept., 1829, Mr. Soames patent- 
ed his mode of procuring stearine and elaine from co- 
coa-nut oil. It is said "that 32 tons of candles have 
been made in a month from these materials at the Bel- 
mont works, Lambeth. 



* Mr. Ardtsoif, a frentleman of large fortune and preat hospitality, 
who was almost unrivaled in the splendor of his equip.iges, had a fa- 
vorite cock, upon which he had won many profitable mutches. The 
last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him that, 
in a fit of passion, he thrust the bird into the fire. A delirious fever, 
the result of his rage and inebriety, in three days put an end to his 
life. He died at Tottenham, near London, April 4, 17S8.— On April 
22, 1865, 34 persons were fined at Marlborough Street Police-office for 
being preseut at a cock-fight. 



COD 



136 



COI 



CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first 
collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C. ; and Servius 
Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. 
The Gregorian and Hermoginian Codes were publish- 
ed A.D. 290 ; the Theodosian Code in 438 ; the cele- 
brated code of the Emperor Justinian in 529 — a digest 
from this last was made in 533. Alfred's code of laws 
is the foundation of the common law of England, 887. 
The Code Napoleon, the Civil Code of France, was 
promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor consid- 
ered it his most enduring monument. It was prepared 
under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from 
the 400 systems previously existing. It has been adopt- 
ed by other countries. 

CODFISH. See Holland, 134T. 

COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy 
for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 1T»2, and 
for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's treat- 
ise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin in 1844 ; in 
English in 1849. 

CCEUR i>E LION, OR THE Liom-Heaktei), a surname 
given to Richard I. of England, on account of his cour- 
age, about 1192 ; and also to Louis VIII. of France, 
who signalized liimself in the crusades, and in his wars 
against England, about 1223. 

COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in 
Arabia to Holland about 1616, and carried to the West 
Indies in 1T26. First cultivated in Surinam by the 
Dutch, 1718. The culture was encourao;ed in the plant- 
ations about 1732, and the British and French colonies 
now grow the coffee abundantly. Its use as a beverage 
is traced to the Persians. It came into great repute 
in Arabia Felix about 1454, and passed thence into 
Egypt and Syria, and thence (in 1511) to Constantino- 
ple, where a coflee-house was opened in 1551. M. 
Theveuot, the traveler, was the first who brought it 
into France, to which country he returned after au ab- 
sence of seven years, in 1662. — Chanibe-rs. 
Coff"ee was brought into England by Mr. Nathan- 
iel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his com- 
mon beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. 
— A nderson. 
The quantity of coffee imported into Great Britain 
and entered for home consumption in 1843 was 
29,979,404 lbs. ; in 1850, 31,160,358 lbs. ; in 1857, 
34,367,484 lbs. ; in 1859, 34,492,947 lbs. ; in 1860, 
35,674,381 lbs. (duty 3d. per lb. raw cofiee; 4d. 
roasted). Total imported in 1861, 83,532,525 lbs. ; 
in 1863, 117,354,217 lbs. ; in 1864, 109,370,213 lbs. 
The first coftee-house in England was kept by a 

Jew named Jacobs, in Oxford 1G50 

Mr. Edwards, au English Turkey merchant, 
brought home with him a Greek servant, named 
Pasquet, who opened the first coffee-house in 

Loudon, in George Yard, Lombard Street 1652 

Pasquet afterward went to Holland, and opened 

the first house in that country. — Anderson. 
The Rainbow Coffee-house, near Temple Bar, was 

represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657 
Cotfee-hoHses were suppressed by proclamation in 
1G75 ; but the order was revoked in 1676, on the 
petition of the traders in tea and coffee. 
In the vear 1856 the importation of coffee into the 
United States was 240,676,277 lbs., valued at 
$22,500,000. 

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in coffins 
of cedar, owin<^ to its aromatic and incorruptible qual- 
ities. — Thunjdidcs. Coffins of marble and stone were 
used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been 
buried in one of gold ; and glass coffins have been 
found in England. — Gough. The earliest record of 
wooden coffins in Great Britain is that of the burial 
of King Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, 
A.D. 542. — Asscr. Patent coffins were invented in 
1796. Air-tight metallic coffins were advertised at Bir- 
mingham in 1851. 

COHORT. A division of the Roman army consist- 
ing of about COO men. It was the sixth part of a le- 
gion, and its number, consequentl)', was under the 
same fluctuation as that of the legions, being some- 
times more and sometimes less. The cohort'was di- 
vided into centuries. In the time of the Empire the 
cohort often amounted to a thousand men. 

COIF. The sergeant's coif was originally an iron 
skull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets. The 
coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide 
the tonsure of such renegade clergymen as chose to 
remain advocates in the secular courts, notwithstand- 
ing their prohibition by canon. — Blackstone. The coif 
was at first a thin linen cover gathered together in the 
form of a skull or helmet, the material being after- 



ward changed into white silk, and the form eventual- 
ly into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, 
which is now the distinguishing mark of the degree 
of sergeant-at-law in British courts. — Foss'n Lives of 
the Jildges. 

COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal by Al- 
fonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portuguese uni- 
versity was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 
1308 ; but only and finally settled in 1527. In a con- 
vent here, Alfonso IV. caused Inez de Castro, at first 
mistress and afterward wife of his son Pedro, to be 
cruelly murdered in 1355. 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 
1184 B.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the 
Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money 
was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Pheidon, 
tyrant of Argos, 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome 
under Servius Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most an- 
cient known coins are Macedonian of the 5th century 
B.C. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. 
Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 
269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a i)roof 
that little correspondence was then held with the East, 
where gold and silver was in use long before. Gold 
was coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, 
and iron and tin in Britain.— I»«/cesnoy. Julius Cae- 
sar was the first who obtained the express permission 
of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the 
example was soon followed. In the earlier days of 
Rome the heads were those of deities, or of those who 
had received divine honors. The gold and silver coin- 
age in the world is about i;250,000,000 silver, and 
£150,000,000 gold.— rimes, June 25, 1852. See Oold, Sil- 
ver, and Copper. 

OOIN OF ENGI-ANl). 

The first coinage in England was under the Ro- 
mans at Camaloduuum, or Colchester. English 
coin was of diflerent shapes, as square, oblong, 
and round, until the Middle Ages, when round 
coin only was used. 
Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time 
rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was 
found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stmv. 
Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recall- 
ed and genuine issued in 1560. During the reigns 
of the Stuarts the coinage was greatly debased 
by clipping, etc. 
A commission (Lord Somers, Sir Isaac Newton, 
and John Locke) was appointed by William III. 
to reform the coinajie, an act was passed with- 
drawing the debased coin from circulation, and 
XI, 200,000 was raised by a house duty to defray 

the expense 1698 

English and Irish money were assimilated, Jan. 1,1826 
The coin of the realm valued at about £12,000,000 
in -mi.—Daverutnt. At £16,000,000 in 1762.— 
Anderson. It was £20,000,000 in 1786. — Chal- 
mers. £37,000,000 in 1800.— P/i?'H7>s. The gold 
is £28,000,000, and the rest of the metallic cur- 
rency is £13,000,000, while paper largely sup- 
plies the place of coin. — Duke of Wellington, 1830. 
The metallic currency calculated as reaching 
£45,000,000, 1840; and was estimated as ap- 
proaching in gold and silver £60,000,000 18E3 

Napier's coin-weighing machine at the Bank of 

England was constructed in 1844' 

The law respecting coinage oflfeuses was consoli- 
dated in 1S61 

The first gold coins on certain record struck 42 

Henry III 125T 

Gold florin first struck, Edward III. (Camden) 1337 

He introduced gold G.s. pieces, and nobles of 6.s. 8d. 
(hence the lawyer's fee), afterward half and quar- 
ter nobles. 

Old sovereigns first minted 1494 

Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) 1503 

Edward IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael 
and the dragon, the original of George and the 
dragon. 
Henry VIII. coined sovereigns and half sovereigns 
of the modern value. 

Crowns and half crowns coined 1553 

Irish shilling struck 1500 

Milled shilling of Elizabeth 1562 

First large copper coinage, putting an end to the 

circulation of private leaden pieces, etc 1620 

Modern milling introduced 1631 

Halfpence and farthings coined 1665 

By the government, 23 Car. II 1672 

Guineas first coined, 25 Car. II 1673 

Double guineas " 

Five guineas " 

Half guineas " 



COI 



137 



COL 



Quarter truincas coined, 3 George 1 171G 

bt'vcii-sliilliii^' jiieces coiued 1797 

Twopenny cupper pieces " 

Gold T^-i)ieces authorized Nov. 2".», " 

Sovereiuns, new coiuage 1S17 

Iliilf fonhiiigs 1843 

Silver florin 1S49 

Bronze coinage issued Dec. 1,1SG0 

AMOUNT OP MONEY COINED IN TUB FOLLOWING KEI(4N8: 



Elizabetli i?5,8;!2,(in() 

James 1 2,5(I0,(I00 

Cliarles 1 10,500,000 

Cromwell 1,000,000 

Charles II 7,524,100 

James II 3,740,000 

AVilliam IV, 



William III. .. .£10,511,900 

Anne 2,691,fl2G 

Gcorse 1 8,725,920 

George II 11,9(56,576 

George III 74,501,586 

George IV 41,782,815 

10,827,603 



Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, i:29,88C,457 ; silver. 

£2,440,614; copper, £43,743 ; 1S4S-1S52, gold, silver, 

and copper, £19,838,377. 
Coined in lS59,l,547,6ua sovereigns, and 2,203,813 half 

sovereiL'ns. 
Value of ten years' (1S49-59) gold coinage. £54,490,205. 
Coined from Julv 1, 18.54, to Decembei'ol, 1860, gold, 

£27,602,039; silver, £2,432,116. 
Coined in 18C1, gold, £8,053,069; silver, £209,484; 

bnmze, £273,578 13s. 4d. (No crowns, half crowns, 

or fourpenny pieces coined.) 
Coined in 1862, gold pieces, 7,836,413 ; silver pieces, 

4,035,412 ; bronze pieces, 4,125,977,600. 

COINAGE IN THE United States. The earliest coin- 
age for America "was made in 1612 for the Virginia 
Company. Massachusetts made the tirst colonial coin- 
age in 1652. In 1785 Vermont and Connecticut coined 
copper coins. In 1786 New Jersey and ISIassachusetts 
followed. In 1785 Congress adopted a plan for a na- 
tional decimal coinage, drawn up by Jefierson. In 
1786 the following coins were decided on : Eagle ($10), 
half eagle, dollar, half dollar, quarter dollar, dime, 
half dime, and cent. The tirst United States Mint was 
established in Philadelphia in 1792. Gold dollars and 
double eagles were tirst coined in 1849. In 1853 a gold 
three dollar piece was made. In California fifty dollar 
gold pieces are quite common, and have been in use 
since 1S5S. In 1851 the silver three-cent piece was in- 
troduced. In 1S57 the copper cent was superseded by 
a new composition cent. In 1805 a new composition 
five-cent piece was issued to take the place of the frac- 
tional currency. It is partly silver, and really worth 
about three cents. During the year ending June 30, 
1858, the mint and its branches coined 2,085,755 gold 
pieces, worth $52,889,800; 31,005,900 silver pieces, 
worth $8,233,287; and 23,400 cents. The entire coin- 
age of the United States Mint and its branches from 
1793 to 1858, was 680,132,154 pieces, estimated at 
$050,969,907 84. Of this amount $534,311,878 99 was in 
gold ; $11.5,861,205 30 in silver ; and $1,896,823 55 in 
copper. The machinery now used in the mints of 
France, England, and the United States is of a very 
costly nature, and very perfect in its operations. It 
was mostly invented in France. 

SUMMARY OP THE COINAGE OF VAKIOU8 MINTS THEOUGn- 
OUT TUE WOKLD IN THE YEAK 1853. 



Countries. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Total. 


Great Britain.. 
France 


.£n,952,.391 
13,218,536 

3V,292 

1,028,100 

11,042,781 

123,000 


i:701,544 

803,588 

350,724 

96,014 

1,557,485 

1,815,514 

4,240,000 


jtn.o-s 

78,996 

'i3,412 
63,600 


£12,663,008 
14,101.120 
350,724 
131,306 
2,586,185 
12,871,707 
4,426,600 


Prussia •.. 

Austria 

fnited States . 
luilia 


Totals 


£37,400,^00 


.£9,594,869 


i:]66,0sl 


i:4,7],30,650 



COINING. Originally performed by the metal be- 
ing placed between two steel dies, struck by a ham- 
mer. In 1.553, a mill, invented by Antouie Brucher, 
was introduced into England, 15(i2. An engine was 
invented by Balancier, 1617. Great improvements 
were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. 
The erection of the Mint machinery, Loudon, began 

isn. 

COLCHESTER (Es?ex^, Camalodunum, a Roman 
station, supposed to be the birthplace of Constantine 
the Great : obtained its first charter from Richard I. 
in 11S9. Its sixteen churches and all its buildings 
sustained great damage at the ten weeks' siege, 1648. 

COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found 
to produce the same percc))tions on the skin, and 
when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, 
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. 
Duiiii;,' the bard frost in 1740, a pnlare of ice was built 
at St. retersburg. — Greiij. Quicksilver was frozen hard 
at Moscow, Jan. 13, 1810. Perhaps the coldest day 



ever kno-(vn in London was Dec. 25, 1790, when the 
thermometer was 16° below zero. On Jan. 3, 1854, 
the thermometer marked 4° below zero ; and on Dec. 
25, 1860, it fell in some places to 18°, and in others to 
15° below zero; at Torquay, Devon, 20° below zero 
I< rom Dec. 23 to 30 the cold was excessive. See Frosts, 
Ice, Conijidatian, and liajdatiun. 

COLDIXGIIAM, near Berwick, is celebrated for the 
heroism ot us uuus, who, on the attack of the Danes, 
m order to preserve their chastity, cut oft- their noses 
and hps. The Danes burnt the whole sisterhood, 
with the Abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 875. 

COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, before 
marchmo; from Scotland into England to restore 
Charles II., raised this regiment in the town of Cold- 
stream, 1660. The town is situated at the confluence 
of the Leet with the Tweed. 

COLENSO CONTROVERSY. See Church of En- 

COLISEUM, OE Colosseum, at Rome, an elliptical 
amphitheatre, of which the external diameter is 1641 
Italian feet, is supposed to have been able to contain 
80,000 spectators of the fights with wild beasts, and 
other sports in the arena. It was erected between 75 
(some say 77) and 80, by the Emperors Vespasian and 
Titus, at an expense sufficient to have built a metrop- 
olis. Its remains are still very imposing. 

COLLAR, generally a gold enameled chain with ci- 
phers and other devices, having the badge of some 
order suspended at the bottom. The collar of the Or- 
der of the Garter consists of SS., with roses enameled 
red, within a garter enameled blue, 1349-50. The 
fashion of wearing the collar of SS., in honor of 
St. Simplicius, becan about 1407. One was given to 
the mayor of Dublin, Robert Deey, by Charles II., 
1660. A second was presented as a" royal donation to 
the chief magistrate of Dublin, the former one having 
been lost. 

COLLECTS are short prayers introduced into the 
Roman mass by Pope Gelasius about 493, and into the 
Episcopal Liturgy in 1548. The King of England com- 
ing into Normandy, appointed a collect for the relief 
of the Holy Land, 1166.— /topm. 

COLLEGES in the United States. The first es- 
tablished was at Cambridge, Mass., in 1638, endowed 
by John Howard, and bearing his name. It is now 
the most liberally endowed institution of learning in 
the United States. The second was Willmm and Mary, 
at Williamsbui-L', in Virginia, in 1693. The third was 
Yale, at New Haven, in''1700. Fourth, College of New 
Jersey, at Princeton, N. J., in 1746. Fifth, King's (now 
Columbia), New York, 1754. Sixth, University of 
Pennsylvania, Phil*., 17S5. Seventh, Brown LTniver- 
sity, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hano- 
ver, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rutger's, New Brunswick, 
N. J., 1770. The first medical school was established 
at Philadelphia in 1704. These institutions were all 
founded previous to the Revolution in 1775. There 
are now (1S6S) in the ITnited States 124 colleges and 
professional schools. There are 51 theological scliools, 
19 law schools, and 40 medical schools. 

COLLEGES. University education preceded the 
erection of colleges, which were munificent founda- 
tions to relieve the students from the expense of liv- 
ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or aca- 
demic degrees are said to have been first conferred at 
the LTniversity of Paris, 1140 ; but some authorities say 
not before 12i5. In England, it is contended that tlie 
date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtain- 
ed a decree formerly at Cambridge, and John de Bev- 
erley at Oxford; that they were" the first doctors of 
these universities. See Canibridfie, Oxford, Aberdeen, 
Queen's Colleges, Working-men's Colleges, etc. 

Addiscombe Military College, founded A.D.1809 

Birmingham, Queen's College 1853 

Clieshuiit College 1792 

Doctors' Commons, civil law 1670 

Dulwich College 1619 

Durham University 1837 

Ediubure LTniversity 1580 

Eton College 1441 

Glasgow University 1451 

Gresham College 15S1 

Harrow .' 1585 

Ilaleybury, or East India College. . . .1806; closed,lS58 

Highbury College 1820 

Hi-rhcate 1564 

KiuEr's Collesre, London 1829 

Mavnooth College 1795 

Military College, Sandhurst 1799 



COL 



138 



COL 



Naval College, Portgmonth 1722 

New College, Sc. John's Wood 1S50 

Physicians^ London 1523 

Physicians, Dublin 1667 

Physicians, Ediuburg 1681 

St. Andrew's, Scotland 1410 

Sion College, incorporated 1030 

Surgeons, London 1715 

Surgeons, reincorporated ISOO 

Surgeons, Dublin 17S6 

Surgeons, Edinburg (new) 1S03 

Trinity College, Dublin 1591 

University, Loudon 1S26 

Winchester College 1387 

COLLIERY ACCIDENTS. See under Coal. 

COLLODION, a film oljtained from the solution of 
gun-cotton in ether. The iodized collodion extensive- 
ly employed in photography was discovered by Mr. F. 
Scott Archer, and announced in the "Chemist" in 
March, 185L 

COLOGNE {Colonia Agnpinna), on the Rhine, the 
site of a colony founded by the Empress Agrippina, 
about 50 ; became a member of the Hanseatic League, 
1200. The Jews were esiielled from it in 1485, and the 
Protestants in 1018, and it then fell into decay. Co- 
logne was taken by tlie French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 
17[)4. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the 
three Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the 
tomb of that saint, and bones said to be those of 11,000 
virgins put to death with her. The archbishopric was 
secularized in 1801, and Cologne was made over to 
Prussia in 1814. The building of the cathedral, begun 
in 1248, and suspended in consequence of the Relbr- 
mation, was vigorously continued by King Frederick 
William IV. since 1842. An international industrial 
exhibition was opened at Cologne by the crown prince, 
June 2, 1805. 

COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, foi-raed of 
states which declared their independence of the crown 
of Spain, Dec, 1819, but its several chiefs afterward 
conVending against each other, the states became a 
prey to civil war, and the union was dissolved. 

Union of New Granada and Venezuela Dec. 17,1819 

The Royalists defeated at Carabobo June 24,1821 

Bolivar named dictator Feb. 10,1824 

Alliance between Colombia and Mexico, June 30, " 

Alliance with Guatemala March, 1825 

Congress at Lima names Bolivar president of the 

republic Aug., 1826 

Bolivar's return to Bogota Nov., " 

He assumes the dictatorship Nov. 23, " 

Padilla's insurrection April 9,1828 

Conspiracy of Santauder against the life of Boli- 
var ^ Sept. 25, " 

Venezuela separates from Granada Nov., 1829 

Bolivar resigns the office of president, April 4, and 

dies Dec. 17,18.^0 

Santander dies May 26,1840 

(See A'cw Grcmada and Venezuela.) 
COLOMBO (Ceylon) was built in 1638 by the Portu- 
guese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1660; the 
latter surrendered it to the British, Feb. 15, 1796. The 
British troops were murdered here in cold blood by 
the Adigiir of Candy, June 6, 1803. See Ceylon. 

COLON (:), a point known to the ancients, but not 
expressed. The colon and period were adopted and 
explained by Thrasymachus about 373 'B.C.—Suidas. 
It was known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon 
(;) were both first used in British literature in the 16th 
century. 

COLONEL (from Italian, cnlonna, a column), the 
highest regimental military officer. The term had be- 
come common in England in the 10th century. 

COLONIAL NAVAL DEFENSE. Act to enable 
the British colonies to take efl'ectual measures for 
their defense against attacks by sea was passed in 
1865. 

COLONIES. The Phojuician and Greek colonies, 
being frequently founded by political exiles, soon be- 
came independent of the mother country. The Ro- 
man colonies, on the contrary, continued in close con- 
nection with Rome itself, being governed almost en- 
tirely by military law.— The Colonies of Great Brit- 
ain partake of" both these characters. The North 
American colonies revolted in consequence of the at- 
tempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. The 
loyal condition of the present colonies now is due to 
the gradual relaxation of the pressure of the home 
government. The population of the British colonies 
in all parts of the world was estimated, in 1861, at 



142,952,243 (of which 135,442,911 belong to the East In- 
dies). The revenue of the colonies was estimated in 
1805 to be i:51, 492,000 ; the expenditure, £59,353,000. 
The act for the abolition of slavery in the British col- 
onies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves 
(£20,000,000 sterling), was passed in 1833. All the 
slaves throughout the British colonies were emanci- 
pated on Aug. 1, 1834. See HciJarate A rticles. 

Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, etr. 

African Forts about 1618 

Anguilla Settlement 1666 

Antigua Settlement 1632 

Australia, South Settlement 1834 

Australia, West Settlement 1829 

Bahama Island Settlement 1629, et seq. 

Barbadoes Settlement 1605 

Bengal See India. 

Berbice Capitulation. . . . Sept., 1803 

Bermudas Settlements 1609, et seq. 

Bombay See India. 

British Burmah See Pegu 1862 

Canada, Lower Capitulation Sept. ,1759 

Canada, Upper Capitulation Sept., 1700 

Cape Breton Settlement, in 1584 

Cape Coast Castle By cession 1672 

Cape of Good Hope Capitulatioii .Jan., 1806 

Ceylon Capitulation Sept., 1795 

Demerara andEssequibo. .Capitulation Sept., 1803 

Dominica Ceded by France 1703 

Falkland Islands See Falkland Islands... 18S3 

Gambia Settlement, in 1631 

Gibraltar Capitulation Aug., 1704 

Gold Coast Settlement * * 

Goza Capitulation Sept., 1800 

Granada Ceded by France 1763 

Guiana, British Capitulation 1803 

Heligoland Capitulation 1807 

Honduras By treaty, in 1670 

Hong-Kong (Victoria) Purchased 1841 

Ionian Islands (under British Protection) 1815 

Jamaica Capitulation 1665 

Lagos Ceded 1801 

Labuan See Borneo 1S4G 

Madras See India. 

Malacca (under Bengal). 

Malta Capitulation Sept.,1800 

Mauritius Capitulation Dec, 1810 

Montserrat Settlement, in 1032 

Natal Settlement 1823 

Nevis Settlement, in 1628 

New Brunswick Settlement, in 1022 

British Columbia Settlement 1858 

Newfoundland Settlement, about 1500 

New South Wales Settlement, in 1787 

Nova Scotia Settlement, in 1623 

New Zealand Settlement 1840 

Pegu Conquered 1852 

Port Phillip See Victoria. 

Prince Edward's Island Capitulated, in 1745 

Prince of Wales's Island. ..Settlement, in 1786 

Queensland, N. S. Wales. . .Settlement, in 1800 

Sierra Leone Settlement, in 1787 

Singapore Purchased, in 1819 

St. Christopher's Settlement, in 1023 

St Helena Capitulated, in 1000 

St. Lucia Capitulation June,1803 

St. Vincent Ceded by France. . . . . .1703 

Swan River See West A ustralia. 

Tobago Ceded by France 1763 

Tortola Settlement, in 1606 

Trinidad Capitulation Feb.,1797 

Van Diemen's Laud Settlement, in 1803 

Vancouver's Island Settlement, in 1848 

Victoria (Port Phillip) Settlement, in 1850 

Victoria See Hong-Kung. 

Virgin Isles 1666 

COLOR is to light what pitch is to sound, according 
to the undulatory theory of Huyghens (about 1678), 
established by Dr. T. Young and others. The shade 
varies according to the number of vibrations. The 
number of millions of millions of vibrations in a sec- 
ond attributed to the red end of the spectrum is 458 ; 
to the violet, 727. See Spectrum.* 

COLORADO, a territory of the United States of 
North America, was organized March 2, 1861. Capi- 
tal, Golden City. 

COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. This building, in Re- 
gent's Park, London, was planned by Mr. Hornor, a 



* Some persons (about 65 out of 1154) can not distinguish hetween 
colors, and are termed Culor blind. In 1859, Professor J. ClBrk Max- 
well invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also called 
" Daltonism," after John Dalton, the chemist, to whom scarlet ap- 
peared drab-colored. 



COL 



139 



¥ 



land purveyor and commnnced in 182-1 by Pe(o and 
(rnssell, from designs by Decinnis Burton. Tlic chief 
portion IS a polyjiou of 10 faces, 120 feet in diameter 
externaJy; the walls are three feet thick at the 
jfiouurt ; the height to the glazed dome 112 feet. On 
the canvas walls of the dome is painted the panoramic 
view ol Loudon, completed in 1S29 from sketches by 
Mr Ilorum- taken from the summit of St. Paul's Cathe- 
mai lu 1^21-2. 1 he picture covers above 40,000 square 
leet, more than an acre of canvas. The difterent parts 
were combined by Mr. E. T. Parris, who in 1845 re- 
painted the whole. In 1848 a panorama of Paris was 
exhibited ; succeeded, in 1850, by the Lake of Thorn in 
bwi zerland: in 1851 the panorama of London was re- 
produced. In 1843 the theatre with the panorama of 
Lu-bou was added. In 1831, when Mr. Hornor failed, 
the establishment was sold for i;40,000 to Messrs Bra- 
liam ami Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Mon- 
tague for 23,000 guineas.— Timbs. After having been 
closed for some time, the building was opened to the 
public at Christmas, 1S5U, all the several charges beiuo- 
rcducc^l to one shilling. Under the superiulendence 
ol 13r. Bachhoflner it continued open till the sprints of 
1804, when it was again closed. ° 

COLOSSUS OF Rhodes, a brass statue of Apollo 
seventy cubits high, esteemed one of the wonders of 
the world, was erected at the port of Rhodes in honor 
oni ®1'"' l^y Chares of Lindus, disciple of Lysippus, 
290 or 2*3 B.C. It was thrown down by an earth- 
quake about 2-24 B.C. The figure is said to have stood 
upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of 
the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter be- 
tween. A winding staircase led to the top, from which 
could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships 
that sailed ou the coast of Egypt. The statue was m 
ruins tor nearly nine centuries, and had never been 
repaired ; when the Saracens, taking Rhodes, pulled 
It to pieces, aud sold the metal, weisrhing 720,900 lbs 
to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in 
transporting it to Alexandria about 653.— Dufresmi/. 
COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city of 
\\ashington in Maryland and Virginia: established 
IbOO. In lSb2 slavery was abolished therein. 

COMBAT, Single. Trial by this commenced by 
trie Lombards, 659.— fiaronms. It was introduced into 
England for accusations of treason, if neither the ac- 
^IJ^M^'r'i"'' *''® accused could produce good evidence, 9 
^\ ill. II., 1096. The first battle by single combat wks 
that fought before the king and the peers between 
Geofirey Baynard and William, eari of Eu, who was 
accused by Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard hav- 
ing conquered, Eu was deemed convicted. The List 
combat proposed was between Lord Reay and Davi'd 
Ramsay m 1631, but the king prevented it. See mr,h 
Con.,t„b[c and Appeal of Battle. The same method hf 
trial had also existed in Ireland. A trial was appoint- 
ed between the Prior of Kilmainham and the Earl of 
Ormond, the former having impeached the latter of 
high treason ; but the quarrel having been taken up 
by the king, was decided without fighting, 1446. Re^- 
markable combat in Dublin Castle, before the lords 
justices and council, between Connor MacCormack 

Connor and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor in which 
the former had his head cut off, and presented to the 
lords justices, 1553. 

C'OMBINA'TION. Laws were enacted from the time 

01 Edward L downward, regulating the price of labor 
and the relations between masters and workmen and 
prohibiting the latter from comhining for their 'own 
protection. All these laws were repealed in 1825 due 
protection being given to both parties. The act' was 
amended in 1859, when the subject was much dis- 
cussed, in consequence of the strike in the buildina- 
trades. ° 

CO.MEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric 
poetry. Susari(m and Dolon, the inventors of theat- 
rical exliibitions, .502 B.C., performed the first comedy 
at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four 
wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket 
ot figs and a cask of wine.— .4r?u!,rfc/?a/i Marbles. Ari'?- 
tophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 
B.C., and Menauder that of the new, 320 B C Of 
Plautus, 20, comedies are extant; he flourished 2'>0 
B.C. Statins Crecilius wrote upward of 30 comedies ; 
he flourished at Rome ISO B.C. The comedies of La- 
lius and Terence were first acted 154 B.C. The first 
regular comedy was performed in England about A D 
1551. It was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best 
comedy (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the 
£>l(enna), and the best afterpiece (the Critic) in the En- 
glish language (1T75-17T9). See Drama. 
COMETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recorded that 



COM 



more than COO have been seen. Mr. Hind, in his little 
The fi!:"". S"™^'"' ^'•y^-'^ ^ chronological li^t of come s 
I he hrst discovered and describee! accurately wis Iw 
N.cephorus At the birth of the greatXtSte 'two 
w}f?i '^''T'' appeared, which ^yeve seen for sevenTy" 
tvvo days together, whose splendor eclipsed th?t of the 
enfalfout 135 bV?''?'^.'^ "^^^""''''^ P-^-'ofVe lify. 
iXu \}!f^u--~'^-tf!\ ^ e'"""d comet was seen 
m 1204. Its tail IS said to have extended 100° It is 
fXd s,';?'K°o.^''^r/^'''PP^^>-<^d in 1556, with dimli! 
.ho, t An^^^i ^''^^ '^''*'' expected to appear again 
about Aug., li,58, or Aug., lS60.—IJind. A remarkable 
one was seeuin England, June, 1337 -.Sfew- Come ! 
were first rationally expl'ained by T xl^o Bi'ahe who 
about isa, demonstrated that comets are extraneoul 
to our atmosphere. A comet, which terrified the peo- 
ple fi-om Its near approach to the earth was yls^We 

e s°l?r ^' ^^'^^' '° ^T''*'"'=t^' ^*'^0- The orbi s of com- 
ets were proved to be ellipses by Newton, 1704. A 
most brilliant comet appeared in 1709, which passed 
within two millions of miles of the earth.* One still 
more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov 1811 
v^si^ole all the autumn to the naked eye. Another ill 

II.u.LET's Comet, 16S2. Named after one of the o-reat- 
est astronomers of England. He first proved" that 
many of the appearances of comets were but the pe- 
riodical returns of the same bodies, and he demon- 
strated that the comet of 1862 was the same with the 
comet of 1456, 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from 
a minute observation of the first-mentioned comet 
and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to 
the comets described as having appeared in those 
years: Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of 
comets, and predicted their periodical returns — 
V ince sAstronom/i. The revolution of Halley's com- 
fLjf Pe'-f^)nned in about 75 years ; it appeared in 
1 159, and came to its perihelion on March 13 ; its last 
appearance was 1S35. 
Enoke's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 
26, ISIS, but justly named by astronomers after Prol 
lessor Encke, for his success in detecting its orbit 
motions, aud perturbations ; it is, like the precedino- 
one of the three comets which have appeared ac- 
cording to prediction, and its revolutions are made 
m 3 years and 15 weeks. 
Biela'b Comet has been an object of fear to many 
on account of the nearness with which it has ap- 
proached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's 
path ; It was first discovered by M. Biela, an Aus- 
trian oflicer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three 
comets whose reappearance was predicted, it« revo- 
lutions being performed in 6 years aud 38 weeks 
Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time 
pt Its perihelion passage was Nov. 27 ; its third was 
in 1839 ; Us fourth in 1845 ; and its fifth in 1852. 
DoNATi's Comet, so called from its having been first 
observed by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1S5S 
being then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from 
our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the 
end of September and October following, when the 
tail was said to be 40,000,000 miles lono-. On the 
10th of October it was nearest to the earth; on the 
ISth It was near coming into collision with Venus 
Opinions varied as to this comet's brilliancy com- 
pared with that of 1811. 
The Geeat Comet of 18C1 was first seen by Mr. Teb- 
butt, at Sydney, in Australia, May 13 ; by M. Gold- 
schmidt and others in France and England on June 
29, 30. The nucleus was about 400 miles in diame- 
ter, with a long bush-like tail, traveling at the rate 
of 10,000,000 miles in 24 hours. Ou June 30 it was 
suggested that we were in the tail— there being "a 
phosphorescent auroral glare, "t 
A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation 
Cassiopoeia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on July 2, and 
by M. Tempel, at Marseilles, July 2 and 3, 1862. 
M. Rosa (at Rome) discovered a comet on July 25, 
1862. It was visible by the naked eye in August 
and September. 
Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and sev- 
eral in 1S64. 
A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 
and was visible in South America and Australia, in 
Ja nuary, February, 1865. 

* This beautiful comet, moving witli immense swiftness, was seen in 
London ; its tail stretched across the heavens, like a prodigious lumi- 
nous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. The computed length of that 
which appeared in 18II, and which was so remarkably conspicuous, 
was, on October 15, according to the late Dr. Herschel, upward of 
100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at the same time 
16,000,000 mnea.—r/iilos. Trans. Royal. Soc. tot ISIS. 

t M. Bnbinet, on May 4,1657, considered that comets had so little 
density that the earth might pass through the tail of one without our 
being aware of it. 



COM 



140 



COM 



COMMAKDEE-IN-CIIIEF. In the United States 
the Prc.-^ident is by a chiuse iu the Constitution " cora- 
mander-iu-chief of the army and navy of the United 
States, and of the militia of the several states when 
called into the service of the United States." It is not 
held, however, that he must actually and in person 
command ; he may delegate his authority. The office 
of general is now the highest rank in the United States 
army. It was created for General Grant in 1865. Pre- 
viously the grade of lieutenant general had been the 
highest. This grade was created for Washington, 
179S. Winfield Scott was made lieutenant general bi/ 
brevet in IS-tS. The fall grade was re^'ived for General 
Grant in 1SG4. This otlice iu the British army has 
been very frequently vacant, and sometimes for sev- 
eral years consecutively. When the Duke of Welling- 
ton resigned the otflce on becoming minister in 1828, 
his grace's successor, Lord Hill, assumed the rank of 
commander of the forces, or general commanding iu 
chief. 

CAPTAINS GF.NF.KAL. 

Duke of Albemarle 1000 

Duke of Monmouth 1078 

Duke of Marlborough 1T(I2 

Duke of Ormond ITll 

Duke of Marlborough again 1714 

Duke of Cumberland 1744 

Duke of York 1793 

COMMANI)EES-IN-CIIIEF. 

Duke of Monmouth 1674 

Duke of Marlborough 1090 

Duke of Schomberg 1091 

Duke of Ormond 1711 

EarlofStair 1744 

Field-marshal Wade 1745 

Lord Ligonier 1757 

Marquess of Granby 1706 

Lord Amherst, general on the staff 1778 

Gen. Seymour Conway 1782 

Lord Amherst again 1793 

Frederick, duke of York 1795 

Sir David Dundas March 25,1809 

Frederick, duke of York, again May 29,1811 

Duke of Wellington Jan. 22,1827 

Lord Hill, general commanding iu chief. ..Feb. 25,1828 

Duke of Wellington again Dec. 28,1842 

Viscount Hardinge (died Sept. 24, 1856), general 

commanding iu chief Sept. 28,1852 

Duke of Canibridge, commander-in-chief (the 

PRESENT, 1805) July 15,1856 

COMMERCE flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and 
amonji; the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. Iu later 
times it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of 
maritime cities, 1241. See Ilanse Tmons. The discov- 
eries of Columbus, and the enterprises of the Dutch 
and Portuguese, enlarged the sphere of commerce, and 
led other nations, particularly England, to engage ex- 
tensively iu its pursuit.* See ike various articles con- 
tiected u'ith this subject through the volume. 

COMMISSION. See High Court of Commission. 

COMMON COUNCIL of London. Its organization 
began about 1208. The charter of Henry I. menfious 
the folk-mofe,^ this being a Saxon appellation, and 
which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly 
of the people. The general place of meeting of the 
folk-mote was in the open air at St. Paul's Cross, St. 
Paul's Church-yard. It was not discontinued till after 
Henry III.'s reign, when certain representatives were 
chosen out of each ward, who, being added to the lord 
mayor and aldermen, constituted the court of Cimi- 
mon Council. At first only two were returned for 
each ward ; but the number was enlarged in 1347, and 
since. This council became the parent of similar in- 
stitutions throughout the realm. It is elected annu- 
ally on Dec. 21, St. Thomas's day. A Commo7i Hall is 
held occasionally. The Common Council supported 
the Prince of Orange iu 1688, and Queeu Caroline in 
1820. 

COMMON LAW or Engi-anb, an ancient collection 
of unwritten maxims and customs {Leges non scriptce), 
of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, which has sub- 
sisted immemorially in Great Britain, and, although 
somewhat impaired by the rude shock of the Norman 



* Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in the 14th century, 
nnd similar chambers were instituted in all the chief cities in France 
about 1700. These chambers were suppressed in 1791, but afterward 
restored, and their great utility was recognized by a decree of Sept. 3, 
1851. The Chamber of Commerce at Glasgow was established 1783; 
at Edinburg, 1786 ; Manchester, 1820 ; Hull^l837 ; and at other impor- 
t.int places. On Feb. 21,1865,27 of these Chambers of Commerce (not 
including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glasgow) met at Westminster for 
interchange of opinions on various questions. 



Conquest, has weathered the violence of the times. 
This endeared it to the people in general, as well be- 
cause its decisions were universally known, as be- 
cause it was found to be excellently adapted to the 
genius of the English nation ; and accordingly, at the 
famous Parliameiit of Merton, 1236, "all the earls and 
barons," says the Parliament roll, "with one voice an- 
swered that they would not change the laws of En- 
gland, which have hitherto been used and approved ;" 
eminently the law of the land. See Bastard. The 
process, practice, and mode of pleading iu the superior 
courts of common law were amended iu 1852 and 1854. 

COMMON PLEAS, Court op, in England. This 
court in ancient times followed the kiug's person, and 
is distinct from that of the Kiug's Bench ; but on the 
confirmation of Magna Charta by King John in 1215, 
it was fixed at Westminster, where it still continues. 
In 1833 the mode of procedure iu all the superior 
courts was made uniform. In England, no barrister 
under the degree of a sergeant could plead in the 
court of Common Pleas ; but in 1846 the privilege 
was extended to barristers practicing in the superior 
courts at Westminster. 

COMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered by Par- 
liament to be printed iu the English language in April 
1, 1548. It was voted out of doors by_ Parliament, and 
the Directory {which see) set up in its room in 1044, 
and a proclamation was issued against it iu 1647. 
With a few changes, the English Common Prayer- 
book is used by the Episcopal churches iu Scotland 
and North America. 

The king's primer published 1545 

First book of Edward VI. printed 1549 

Second book of Edward VI 1552 

First book of Elizabeth 15.59 

King James's book 1604 

Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 

Charles II. 's book {Savoy Conference) 1602 

(The one, with alterations, now in use.) 

The State services (which had never formed part of 
the Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the begin- 
ning of every reign) for November 5 (Gunpowder trea- 
son), January 30'(Charles I.'s execution), and May 29 
(Charles II. 's restoration), were ordered to be discon- 
tinued on January 17, 1859. 

COMMONS, House of, the great representative as- 
sembly of the people of Great Britain, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who, by the Pro- 
visions of Oxford, ordered returns to be made of two 
knights from every shire, and deputies from certain 
boroughs, to meet such of the barons and clergy as 
were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen 
his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign, 
Henry III., 12.58. — Stow. See Parliament. The follow- 
ing is the constitution of the House of Commons since 
the passing of the Reform Bill in 1S32 : 

English.— County members 144 

LTui versifies 4 

Cities and boroughs 325 — 473 

Welsh. — County members 15 

Cities and boroughs 14 — 29 

English andWelsh 502 

ScOTon. — County members 30 

Cities and boroughs 23— 53 

Irish. — County members 64 

University 2 

Cities and boroughs 39 — 105 

Total (see Parliament) COO* 

OONSTlTrUNCY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1S51. 

[Population, 27,452,252.] 

Electors. 

England. — County 401.463 

Borough 378,384-839,847 

Wales.— County 30,984 

Borough 11,035— 48.019 

Eugland and Wales 887,800 

Scotland. — Count}' 48,4.56 

Borough 41,849- 90,305 

Ireland.— County 31,832 

Borough 40,234 — 72,066 

Constituency 1,050,237 

In 1859, Mr. Newmarch estimated the constituency 
of England and Wales at 904,000. 



* In 1848, Sudbury, and in 1852, St. Alban's, were disfranchised for 
bribery and corruption, each having prwiously returned two mem- 
bers ; the aggregate number of the liouse then became 656. In 1861, 
the forfeited seats were thus distributed by act of Parliament — two ad- 
ditional to the West Riding of York, one additional to South Lanca- 
shire, and one to a newly-created borough, Birkenhead. 



COM 



141 



CON 



COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. Tlic term is 
npplied to the iiuerreirmim betwotn the dciitli of 
Chiirk's L anil the rcstoralion of Charles IL The 
form of the ijovenimoiit was chauLced to a republic ou 
the execution of Charles L,.Taii.iJo, 104'.) — a new oath, 
called the " Kn;;:a;j;emciit," was framed, which the peo- 
ple were obliLTed to take.* — Sidiiioii. Oliver Cromwell 
was made I'rotcctor Dec. 10, IC"):!. Richard Cromwell 
was made Protector Sept. 3, lO.'iS. Monarchy was re- 
stored in the person of Charles II., who entered Lon- 
dou May 2'J, 1000. See Rome. 

COMMUNION, one of the names aiven to the ordi- 
nance of the Lord's Supper in the primitive Church. 
Communicating; uuder the form of bread alone is said 
to have had its rise in the \\"est, uuder Pope Urban II., 
Id'.Ki. The fourth Lateral) Council, I'.il.'j, decreed that 
every l)elicver should receive tlie connnunion ut least 
at Klister. The cup was first denied to the laity by 
the Council of Constance, 1-114-lS. The communion 
service, as now performed in the Church of Euglaud, 
was instituted in 154S. 

COMMUNISTS. See Socialists. 

COJlPANIES.t Among the earliest commercial 
companies in England maybe named the Steel-yard 
Society, established 12.32. The second comjiany was 
the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, in 12-tS.— Stow. 
The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorpo- 
rated by Elizabeth, t.'iOi 

COMPASS, MARINER'S, is said to have been 
known to the Chinese 1115 B.C., and is ascribed to 
Marco Polo, a Venetian, A.D. 1200, and to Flavio Gio- 
ja, of Amalti, a navigator of Naples.t Until this time 
the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, 
or small split sticks, in a ves.sel of water; Gioja intro- 
duced the suspension of the needle, 1302. It is also 
said to have lieen known to the Swedes in the time of 
King Jarl I'.irger, 12.^0. Its variation was discovered 
first by Columbus, 14'.)2 ; afterward by Sebastian Cal)ot, 
1540. The ccmipass-box and hanging compass used 
by navigators were invented by ^^'illiam Barlowe, an 
Englisirdiviue and natural philosopher, in 1608. See 
Mwjnetism. The mcasurinri compass was invented by 
Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1002. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, the resi- 
dence of the Carlovingian kings. During the siege, 
Joan of Arc was captured by the English, May 24, 1430. 
The Emperor Napoleon HI. and the King of Prussia 
met here on Oct. 0, ISOl. 

COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE. See Polijrjot. 

COMTE PHILOSOPHY. See Positive Philosophy. 

CONCEPTION, Immaodi.ate. A festival (on Dec. 
8) appointed in 13^9 is observed with great devoti(m 
in the Roman Catholic Church in honor of the Virgiu 
Mary's having been conceived and born immaculate, 
or without original siu. Pope Paul V. in 1017 forbade 
any one to staiid up against the opinion of the immac- 
ulate conception ; this order was confirmed by Gregory 
XV. and by Alexander Wl.—Uhmult. On IDecember 
8, 1S54, the pope, Pius IX., promulgated a bull with 
great solemnity, declaring this dogma to be an article 
of faith, and charging with heresy those who should 
doubt it or speak against it. — The Concfptionists 
were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488. 
See Santiago. 

CONCERTINA, a musical instrument invented by 
Prof. Wiieatstone atiout 1S25, and improved by Mr. G. 
Case. The sounds are produced by free vibrating 
metal springs. 

CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts at Vi- 
cenza in the 10th century. The first public sul)scrip- 
tion concert was performed at Oxford (England) in 
106.''>. 'I'lie first concert in London is said to have been 
in 1072. The Academy of Ancient Music began in 1710 ; 
the Concerts of Ancieiit Music in 1770 ; and the present 
Philharmonic Society in 1813. See Music and IJandd. 

* By tliis oatli ttiey swore to be true flntl faithful to tlie Common- 
wenlth, without king or House of Lords. The Bt.-itues of Cb.irles were 
nest (lav demolished, particularly tiiat at the Royal Exchanjie, and 
one at t"iie west end of St. Paul's, and in tlieir room the followioK in- 
Bcrijition was conspicuously set up: " i'x(7 Ti/ravnns Regnm uUimun, 
Atimi lilierlalis Aitglia: Ktsliliila Prima, Anno l)om. 1S4S, Jan. 30." 

+ Buhtde companies have been formed, commonly by desifrning per- 
sons. Law's bubble, in 1750-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of 
its kind, and the South Sf^a BtttihU, in the same year, was scarcely less 
memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were 
established in these countries in 1824 and 1825, and turned out to be 
hubbtei. Immense losses were incurred bv individuals, and the fami- 
lies of thousands of s])eculators were totally ruined. Many railway 
enterprises (1844-5) may be termed hiibhles. See Law^s Bubble; South 
Sea ; Raifwav» ; Joint-stock Companies. 

X The statement that the/cKr-rfc./is was made the ornament of the 
nortlicrn point of the compass in complintent to Charles, tlie king of 
Kuplea, lit the time of the discovery, has been coutraditted. 



CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is mentioned 
by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first reduced to a sys- 
tem by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, wki) published his 
classification of the Testacea in 1075. Lister's system 
was published in 1085, and that ofLargius in 1722. 
Jolinston's Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual 
of Coiicliology (1S42) are useful. Forbes and Hanlev's 
" British jSIollusca and their Shells" (1848-53) is a ma<'- 
mrtceut work. '^ 

CONCLAVE. This term is derived from the con- 
clave, a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, 
or pa ace of the Pope of Rome, where the cardinals 
usually meet; to elect a pope, and is also used for the 
assembly of the cardinals shut up for the purpose. 
The conclave had its rise in 1271. Clement IV. havin"- 
died at Viterbo in 1208, the cardinals were nearly three 
years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and 
were on the point of breaking uj), when the mao-is- 
trates, by the advice of St.Bonaventure, then at Viter- 
bo, shut the gates of their city, and locked up the car- 
dinals m the pontifical palace till thev agreed. Hence 
the custom of shutting up the cardinals w^hile they 
elect a pope. 

CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical cata- 
logue of all the words and also a chronolosrical ac- 
count of all the transactions in the Bible. The first 
concordance was made under the direction of Hugo 
de St. Charo, who employed as many as .'^00 monks 
upon it, \ii1. — Ahhe Lenglct. Crudcn's well-known 
Concordance was published in London in 1737. The 
Index to the Bible, published by the queen's printers, 
was prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this volume, and 
completed in May, 1848.* 

CONCORDAT. The name is given to an instrument 
of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually 
concernini; benefices. The concordat between the 
Emperor Henry V. of Germany and Pope Calixtus IL, 
in 1122, has been regarded as the fundamental law of 
the Church in Germany. The concordat between Na- 
poleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed at Paris, July 
15, 1801, re-established the Catholic Church and the 
papal authority in France. Napoleon was made, in 
eft'ect, the head of the Galilean Church, as bisho))s 
were to have their appointments from him and their 
investiture from the pope. Another concordat be- 
tween the same persons was signed at Fontainebleau, 
Jan. 25, 1813. These were almost nullified in 1S17 and 
1819. A concordat, signed Aug. 18, 1S55, between Aus- 
tria and Rome, by which a great deal of the liberty of 
the Austrian Church was given up to the Papacy, 
caused much dissatisfaction. 

CONCUBINES were tolerated among the Jews, 
Greeks, and Romans, but strictly forbidden by Christ 
{Mark x. ; 1 Cor. vii., 2). They are mentioned as having 
been allowed to the priests, 1132. See MorganUic Mar- 
riages. 

CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of merce- 
naries and their bauds, became so troublesome in Ita- 
ly in the Middle Ages that the various cities formed 
a league to suppress them in 1342. 

CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, among a 
number of others in London, existed early in Cheap- 
side. The Great Couduit was the first cistern of lead 
erected in the city, and was built in 1285. At the pro- 
cession of Anna Boleyn on the occasion other mar- 
riage, it ran with white and claret wine all the after- 
noon, June 1, 1533. — Stow. 

CONFEDERATE STATES op America. The ef- 
forts of the Southern States for the extension of slav- 
ery, and the zeal of the Northern Slates for its aboli- 
tion, with the consequent political dissensions, led to 
the great secession of lSCO-1. On Nov. 4, 1800, Abra- 
ham" Lmcoln, the Republican or Aliolitionist candi- 
date, was elected President of theUnited States. Hith- 
erto a president in the interest of the South had been 
elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the 
Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Ar- 
kansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also tereded 
early in 1801. Jefi'erson Davis was inaugurated Pres- 
ident of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery, iu 
Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. For the events of the war 
which ensued, and the restoration of the Southern 
States to the Union, see United States, 1S61-5. 

CONFEDERATION, Articles or, adopted by the 
Congress of the United States on the 151h of Nov., 1771. 



* Verbal indexes accompany e'^od editions of the ancient classics. 
An Index to Shakspeare, by A'vscou^h, appeared in 1790 ; another, by 
Twiss, in 1805 , and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's (late Marv Nove'lo) Com- 
plete Concordance to Shakspeare (on which she spent 16 years' labor) 
lu 1S47. Todd's Verbal Index to MiHon WRfl published iu'l809. 



CON 



U2 



CON 



There were 13 in number, and formed the organic laws 
of the United States (then struggling for Independ- 
ence), and aftetward, until the adoption of the federal 
Constitution in 1TS9. These were chiefly the work of 
Dr. Benjamin Franklin. 

CONFEDERATION at Paris, July 14, 1790. See 
Chcmq)s de Mars and Bastile. 

CONFEDERATION op the Rhine. The League 
of the Germanic Slates, formed by Napoleon Bona- 
parte, July 12, 1S06, when he abolished the Holy Ro- 
man Empire, and the Emperor of Germany became 
Emperor of Austria. It consisted of the kingdoms of 
Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Westptialia, seven 
grand duchies, six duchies, and twenty principalities. 
The German princes collectively engaged to raise 
258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and established 
a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. This league termi- 
nated with the career of Bonaparte in 1814, and was re- 
placed by the Germanic Confederation {ivhich see). 

CONFERENCES. One was held at Hampton Court 
Palace, between the prelates of the Church of England 
and the dissenting ministers, in order to eftect aT gen- 
eral union, at the instance of the king, James I., Jan. 
14-lC, 1604. It led to a new translation of the Bible, 
that nowiu general use in England ; executed in 160T- 
11. Some alterations in the Church Liturgy were 
agreed upon ; but these not satisfying the Dissenters, 
nothing more was done. — Another conference of the 
bishops and Presbyterian ministers, with the same 
view, was held in the Savoij, April 25 to July 25, 1661. 
The Dissenters' objections Vere generally disallowed, 
but some alterations were recommended in the Pray- 
er-book. See Wesleiicms. 

CONFESSIONAL. See Auricular Confession. 

CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds. See Apostles', 

Xicene (325), and Athanasian (about 434) Creeds. 

The Confession of Faith of the Greek Church was 
presented to Mohammed II. in 1453. This gave 
way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- 
politan of Kiev, which is the preseiit standard 
of the Russo-Greek Church. 

The creed of Pius VI., composed of the Nicene 
Creed, with additional articles which embody all 
the peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic 
Church, pul)lished by the Council of Tfent. . . . .1504 

The Church of England retains the Apostles', Ni- 
cene, and Athanasian Creeds, with Articles — 42 
in 1552 : reduced to 39 1563 

The Confession of Augsburg (that of the Luther- 
ans) was drawn up principally by Melancthon in 
1530, and has since undergone moditicatious, the 
last ofwhicli is called the "Form of Concord". .1579 

The Westminster Confession was agreed to in 1G4.3, 
and adiiiited by the Presbyterian Church of Scot- 
land (see Wcistminster) 1647 

The Congregational Dissenters published a decla- 
ration of faith 1833 

CONFIRMATION, ou Laying on of Hanhs, was 
practiced by the apostles in 34 and 56 {Acts viii., 17; 
xix., 6), and was general, according to some Church 
authorities, in 190. In the Church of England it is the 
public profession of the Christian religion by au adult 
person, who has been baptized in infancy. It is made 
a sacrament by the Church of Rome. 

CONFLANS (near Paris), Treaty of, between Louis 
XI. of France and the dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and 
Burgundy, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was 
ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put to the 
" War of the Public Good." It was confirmed by that 
of Peronne in 146S. 

CONGE D'ELIRE (permission to elect), th^icense 
of the sovereign, as head of the Church, to Sapters 
and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bish- 
ops, asserted by Henry VIII., 1535. After the interdict 
of the Pope upon England had been removed in 1214, 
King John made an arrangement with the clergy for 
the election of bishops. 

CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice was pro- 
duced in summer by means of cliemical mixtures, by 
Mr. Walker, in 17S3. The congelation of quicksilver 
was efl'ected without snow or ice in 17S7. In 1810 Les- 
lie froze water in an air-pump by placing a vessel of 
sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freezing mixtures 
have been discovered since. Intense cold is produced 
by the aerification of liquefied carbonic acid gas. In 
1857 Mr. Harrison patented a machine for manufactur- 
ing ice for commercial purposes by means of ether 
and salt water, and made large blocks. In 1860, M. 
Carre devised a method of freezing to 60° below zero 
by making water in a close vessel absorb and give off 



the gas ammonia. Siebe's ice-making machine, ex- 
hibited at the International Exhibition of 1SG2, excited 
much admiration. 

CONGREGATION of the Lord. A name taken by 
the Scotch Reformers, headed by John Knox, about 
1546. Their leaders (the Duke of Argyle, etc.) were 
called Lords of the Congregation about 1557. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS. See Independents. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers 
for the settlement of the afi"airs of nations or of a peo- 
ple.* The following are the most remarkable con- 
gresses of Europe: 

Munster 1648 

Nimegueu 167S 

Rysw'ick 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

Soissons 1728 

Antwerp April 8,1793 

Rastadt Dec. 9,1797 

Chatillon Feb. 5,1814 

Vienna Nov. 3, " 

Aix-la-Chapelle Oct. 9,1818 

Carlsbad Aug. 1, 1819 

Troppau Oct. 20,1820 

Laybach May 6,1821 

Verona Autr. 2.5,1822 

Paris Jan. IG-April 22,1856 

Frankfort (see Germany) Aug. 16-31,1803 

(See Alliances, Conventio7is, etc.) 
There was a Colonial Congress at Albany, N.Y., in 
the summer of 1754, when an attempt was made to 
confederate the British American colonies. Another 
was held at New York in 1760, to consider the adop- 
tion of measures in opposition to the Stamp Act. The 
Congress of the United States held their sessions at 
the following places : 

In Philadelphia, from Sept. 5, 1774, until Dec, 177C. 
In Baltimore, from Dec. 20, 1776, until March, 1777. 
In Philadelphia, from March 4, 1777, mitil Sept., 1777. 
In Lancaster, Pa., from the 27th till 30th of Sept., 1777. 
In York, Pa., from Sept. 30, 1777, until July, 1778. 
In Philadelphia, from July 2, 1778, until June 30, 1T83. 
In Princeton, N. J., June 30, 1783. 
In Annapolis, Md., Nov. 20, 17S3. 
In Trenton, N. J., Nov. 30, 1784. 

In New York, Jan. 11, 1785. The Congress met there 
until 1790, when Philadelphia was made the Federal 
capital for 10 years. Washington City, D. C, has 
been the capital since the sessi'bn of 1800. 
The first general Congress of the United States 
of America, preparatory to their declaration of 
independence, when strong resolutions were 
passed, also a petition to the king, and an ad- 
dress to the people of England, was held Sept. 
5, 1774. The second was held May 10, 1775 ; the 
third, when the independence was declared, 

July 4,1770 
The first federal American Congress under the 
Constitution was held at New York ; George 

Washington, President March, 1789 

The first Congress of the seceding Southern States 
was held at Montgomery, Alabama, Feb. 4 ; it 
elected Jefferson Davis President of the Confed- 
erate States on Feb. 9. For political reasons, it 
adjourned on May 24, to meet at Richmond, in 

Virginia, on July 20,1801 

CONGRESS OP THE UNITED STATES consists of 
a Senate and House of Representatives. It must as- 
semble at lea-^t once every year. The Senate is com- 
posed of two members from each state, chosen by the 
Legislatures of the states for a term of six year.s, one 
third l)eing elected triennially. The Vice-President of 
the United States is President of the Senate. The 
members of the House of Representatives are elected 
by the people of the states, and hold their place for 
two years. They are apportioned among the difl'erent 
states according to the population, a new apportion- 
ment being made after each census. In 186.5, if all the 
states were represented, there ought to have been 241 
representatives. 

CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by General Sir 
William Congreve in 1803. They were used with great 
effect in the attack upon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, when 
they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for 
two days ; they were employed in various operations 
in the French war with much success by a corps called 
rocket-men. 
CONIC SECTIONS. Their more remarkable prop- 

* In 18G:J tlie Emperor Napoleon invited the sovereipms of Europe to 
a roiitrress, vvliich was declined by England Nov. 55, and only condi- 
tionally acceded to by other powers. 



CON 



143 



CON 



erties were probably knowi to the Greeks four or five 
ccutunes belbre tlie Chrisliau era. The study of them 
was cuUiv.itcd m tlie time of Plato, S'M B C The 

^il .ft.,V'?i^i'''° I'" f,'^^'" "'-'« writteu by Arista;us, 
about 3.A) B.C Apollouius's eis?ht books were writ- 
ten about L'40 R.C. The parabola was applied to pro- 
jectiles by Galileo, who died 1008 ; the ellipse to the 
orbit of planets by Kepler, about 1009. 

CONNECTICUT. Que of the New England states, 
ir ,V , ,^^""^ ^'T^ settled in IGSfi at Windsor, near 
iiarttord, by a colony from Massachusetts. Couuecti- 
cut was thoroughly Kepublican when the Revolution 
broke out. The coast suflered much from British 
marauders during the War for Independence and the 
War of 1S12. She was one of the original 13 states 
aud the tilth to adopt the federal Constitution of iTSs! 

CONQUEST The memorable era in British his- 
tory, when William duke of Normandy, overcame 
Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066, aud 
obtained the crown which bad been most unfairly be- 
queathed to him by Edward the Confessor (for Edn-ar 
was the rightful heir). William has been erroueoully 
styled the Co7iqueror, lor he succeeded to the crown of 
±-ngIaiul by corn-pact. He defeated Harold, \Vho was 
himsell a usurper, but a large portion of the kingdom 
afterward held out against him ; aud he, unlike a con- 
queror, took an oath to observe the laws aud customs 
01 the realm, in order to induce the submission of the 
people. Formerly our judges were accustomed to rep- 
rehend any gentleman at the bar who said casually 
William the Conqueror instead of William l.—Selden 
Machse exhibited 42 drawings on the events of the 
Norman Conquest in May, 1S5T. 

CONSCIENCE, CocETs of, ok Requests, first con- 
st] tucd by a statute of Henry VII., 1493, and reorgan- 
ized by statute 9 Hen. VIII., 1.51T. 'These courts lere 
improved and amended by various acts ; their jurisdic- 
tion in London reached to .£5, aud (until superseded 
by County Courts) to 4s. in other towns. The practice 
onn„^^ ^^f"""^^""*' ?"tl if the party did not appear, the 
Spp r«f,^ J'"!^"' ^f'^ ^r"-^"' to apprehend and commit, 
bee Countu_ Courts.— James II. proclaimed liberty of 
conscience m 16ST. Conscience Clause, see Education. 

hnn^,^hf ^P^ FATHERS (imtres conscripts, was the 
honorable designation given to the Roman senators 
the'seir t ' "^'""^'^ ^'''^^^ writteu in the registers of 

CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the Ro- 
mans) aciopted for recruiting the French aud other 
armies. On Sept. 5, 179S, a military conscription was 
fi-^nV'Jn'}^" ?''''""'' comprehending all the youug men 
fioni 20 to 25 years of age: from these selections^were 
made. 1 he present law of ISIS (modified in 1S24 and 
Ibii) requires a certain annual contingent from each 
department— for all the country, 80,000 men— which 
may be increased. The duration of service is seven 
years. _ Substitutes and exemptions are permitted A 
conscription for 350,000 men took place in Jan.,lS13 
after the disastrous Russian campaign, aud in Dec' 
same year, another for 300,000 after the battle of Leip- 
81C. In the American Civil War (1S61-5) conscription 
was resorted to by both the national and Confederate 
governments. The national armies, however, were 
only indirectly aflected by the measure, as a suflicient 
number of volunteers were induced by large bounties 
to enlist for long terms of service. The first conscrip- 
tion law of the Confederacy was passed April 16, 186'' 
It annulled all contracts made with volunteers for 
short terms, holding them for two additional years 

^ ."i'v , ,^^'^''y "''"*'' '"^'e in the South between 18 
and o5 liable to be brought into service at a moment's 
notice On the 27th of September the law was ex- 
tended to include those between 35 and 45 years of 
age. In July, 1S(!3, all between IS and 45 were called 
into active service. In February, 1804, the law was 
extended to include all between IT aud 00. See Riots 
m jNcio 1 ork City. 

CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sous were con- 
secrated priests, 1490 B.C. (Levit. viii.). The Jewish 
Tal)crnacle was dedicated 1490 B.C., and Solomon's 
Temi)ie, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings, viii.). The consecration 
of chnrcncs was instituted in the 2d century, the tem- 



the aufiv^t^otT.?'"'''^"' ^ °'1'"'' Siven to schools for 
i^,.^t 1 V. "°" of music on the Continent. The cele- 
bi-ated Conservatoire de Musique at Paris iegun fn 

ciSPn^SS^ for regulating ecclesiastical dis- 
up ne aud divine worship in thelutherau Chu'-ch in 

^T^lm^X^^"^ ^'''^'^ Keformation-the 
estabbshPfl nftp, L 1542; other consistories were 
estaoiished after th^ peace of Augsburg in 1555. 



kincfinn/i''T^ ™°'* ancient 'consistory 

CONSOLS. SeeStocyfcs. 

CONSPIRACIES AND iNSTiEEECTioxs. Amou- thP 
"^^^^^^S^ - -pposecCth^SJ^ffi 

Bishop Odo, etc., against Wiliiam' li: ." .' .' j o! 

Against Henry IL by his queen and children i 73 

Of th^ Earl of Cambridge and othei^- against H^n- 

^™Sr °'"''"' ^°'''^°'' apprenUces(s;;'i^i:ii 

Of Lopez, a Jew, and others. ...■.;;: \°Ta 

Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-masteV, hired by 

the Spaniards to kill the queeS ' ^ » 

Of Walpole, a Jesuit and squire 1 rjc,, 

Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland. " 

1 he Gunpowder Plot {which sec) -irm 

lyroue s conspiracy to surprise the castle of Diib- 

° Pvl'i'^®'"'',?™'^' '^"^^ °"^'*'"''^' to assassinate Oliver^*^" 
Insurrection of the Puritans'. '.'.'. \T^ 

CbaHesIL.".^ ^^^ ^ifth-Monarchy men against 

OfBlood\audhUassociates,'who'seizedVheD;^ 
of Oimond, wounded him, and would have hauo-. 
ed hnu : and who afterward attempted to steal 

tllG 1 G^tlllO, , , -( /»*-| 

The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, ' 
and Iiugish Jesuits to assassinate Charles IL 
amf oth I ^"famous Titus Gates, Dr.Tongue, 

The Meal-tub Plot' (Vo/iVc/i's^y. '.'.'.'. \l-l 

The R3'e-house Plot to assassinate the king on his 
r.eV^ to Newmarket (see Rye-house Plot).?. 1CS3 

r^s°tn.P^f ''""VJ'^'^ ^'^^°P °f ^iy> '1"^^ others, o 
restore James II 1 r 91 

° w/i'r''''" •''' -^, ^'■'V""^ chevaiieiV to'murderkiug 

William in Flanders -in'} 

The Assassination Plot {ivhich see). '.'.'.'.'. icnfi 

^ (st"rJS'.'.°':^.^°^^*' ^"--^^ Queen Anne 

Of the Marquess Guiscard 1710 

Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to"assissiuatP. 
George I. 



Of Counselor Layer aiid others to bringin the Pre-^ ' ^^ 
tender 17"9 

Of the Corresponding Society, etc. (ivhich 'sie). '. '.me-s 

Of Colonel Despard -^^^^ 

Of Robert Emmet, in Dubliu, when Lord KihvaV- 
den was killed. 



pie ol worship being dedicated with pious solemnity 
to God and a patron saint. Anciently the consecra- 
tion ot i)opes was deferred until the emperor had "-iven 
his assent to their election. Gregory IV. desired to 
have his election confirmed by the Emperor Louis in 
^-^■~fJciM"lt. The consecration of churches, places 
ol Ijunal, etc., is ad)nitted in the reformed reli-^ion 
ihe I'oiiKviatiou of bishops was ordained in the 
Church ol England in 1549 Utow. 



r^f mu- ,^ 1 ,-- JuIy23,lS03 

Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the 
king s ministers (see Cato Street) .... 1S20 

Of the Sepoys in India (see India) May io',lS5T 

01 Ijooth, the Surra tts, etc., resulting in the assas- 
sination of President Lincoln April 14 1805 

(See Rebellions, Chartists, etc.) ' 

CONSTABULARY FORCE. See Police. The Con- 
stabulary of Ireland Act passed in 1823, when this spe- 
cies of force was embodied throutrhout the country 
Several subsequent acts were consolidated in 1S3C. 

CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany) Here 
was held the seventeenth general council, 1414, which 
condemned John Huss; aud here he was burnt Julv 
0, 1415. See Hussites. •' 

CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of Nnmidia 
'i\-as taken by the French Oct. 13, 1837. Durino- the 
assault ou Oct, 1:', the French General Damremout was 



CON 



144 



CON 



killed. Aclimet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the 
victors entered Coustantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly Byzantium {which 
see), derives its name from Constantiue the Great, who 
removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here in 330. 
It was continually convulsed by factions and religious 
dissensions. General ecclesiastical councils were held 
here iu 3S1, 553, GSO, and SC9. See Eastern Empire and 
Turkeii. — The Era of Constantinople has the creation 
placed 5508 years B.C. It was used by the Kussians 
until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used iu 
the Greek Church. The civil year begins Sept. 1, and 
the ecclesiastical year toward the end of March ; the 
day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our 
era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 
5509 from Sept. to the end. — Nicolas. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturns, Orion, the Pleiades, 
and Mazzaroth, are mentioned in the book of Job, 
ix., 9, and xxxviii., 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and 
Hesiod notice constellations ; but, though some mode 
of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very ear- 
ly ages, our tirst direct knowledge was derived from 
Claudius Ptolemteus, about A.l). 140. Hipparchus 
(about 14T B.C.) made a catalogue of forty-eight con- 
stellations. Others were added by Tycho Brahe, Ileve- 
lius, Halley, and others. Tlie number at present ac- 
knowledged is 29 northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodi- 
acal. 

CONSTITUTION of England. It comprehends 
the whole body of laws by which the British people 
are governed, aud to which it is presumptively held 
that every individual has assented. — Lord Soiners. 
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the 
term government in this respect, that the Constitution 
is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at 
all times, aiid government is that by which he does 
govern at any particular time. — Lord Bolinghroke. The 
King of England is not seated on a solitary eminence 
of power ; on the contrary, he sees his cqiutls An the 
coexisting branches of the Legislature, and he recog- 
nizes his sttperior in the law. — Sheridan. Hallain's 
"Constitutional History of England" was first pub- 
lished in 1827. 

CONSTITUTION of thk United Statks was form- 
ed by representatives of ihepeojtle of the different 
states, who met in Convention at Philadelphhi, in 
May, 1TS7, and chose Washington to preside over their 
deliberations. They closed their labors in September 
following, and, by a resolution of the general Congress, 
the instrument they had framed was submitted to the 
consideration of the people of the several states for re- 
jection or ratification. The several states ratified the 
Constitution in the following order: 

Delaware Dec. 7,1787 

Pennsylvania, Dec. 12,1787 
New Jersey. ..Dec. 18,1787 

Georgia Jan. 2,1788 

Connecticut Jan. 9,1788 

Massachusetts, Feb. 6,1788 



S. Carolina May 23,1788 

N.H'mpshire, June 21, 1788 

Virginia June 2G,17SS 

New York.... July 26,1788 
N. Carolina . .Nov. 21,1788 
Rhode Island, May 29,1790 



Maryland April 28,1788 

CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 
509 B.C., when the Tarquins were expelled. They 
possessed regal authority for the sjiace of a year ; 
Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Colla- 
tinus, the latter the iujured husband of Lucretia, were 
the first consuls. A consular government was estab- 
lished in Prance in 1799, wlieu the Directory was abol- 
ished : on Nov. 10, Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Roger Du- 
ces were made jn-ovisioual consular commissioners ; 
and on Dec. 13, Bonaparte, CambacerOs, and Lebrun 
were made consuls. Bonaparte was made first con- 
sul for life. May 6, 1802. Commercial agents were first 
distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy in 1485, 
being appointed by Richard III. A British cimsul was 
first appointed in Portugal iu 1633. See Ambassadors. 

CONTINENTAL MONEY. This was the title given 
to the bills of credit issued by the Ccmgress of the 
United Colonies of America during the war for inde- 
pendence. When that war broke out Spanish coin 
was the principal metallic currency in the colonies. 
Its quantity was entirely inadequate for the emergen- 
cy; and when the war was fairly commenced, after 
the battle of Bunker's Hill, the" Congress imitated 
some of the colonial governments, andissued bills of 
credit. During 1775, bills to the amount of $3,000,000 
were issued. Other issues were made, until, at the 
beginning of 1780, their bills of credit had been put 
forth to the amount of $200,000,000, with promises to 
be redeemed "in Spanish milled dollars." After the 
second year of their emission (1777), these hills began 
to depreciate rapidly, for the prospect of their redemp- 



tion appeared very remote and problematical. Vari- 
ous measures were adopted to sustain their credit, but 
iu vain. They depreciated more aud more rapidly. 
In 1780, forty paper dollars were worth only one in 
specie, and in 1781 they were utterly valueless. They 
had aflbrded temporary relief, but were finally pro- 
ductive of much public evil and individual sufleriug. 
These bills are now rare objects iu the collections of 
the curious. See Money. 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Na- 
poleon's plan to exclude the British merchandise from 
the entire continent. It began with his Berlin decree 
in 1S06, and was occasioned by the Orders in Council 
{which see). 

CONTRABAND of War, a term said to have been 
first employed iu the treaty of Southampton between 
England and Spain iu 1625. During the struggle be- 
tween Spain and Holland both powers acted with 
much rigor toward ships of neutrals conveying goods 
to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of 
England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty 
of Pyrenees, 1C50, and by the declaration of Paris, 
April 26, 18.50. The subject has been much discussed, 
during the American Civil War, 1S61-5. 

CONTRERAS, Battle of. From Cerro Gordo 
Gen. Scott moved forward. He entered Jalapa victo- 
rious on the 19th of April, and on the 22d the United 
States flag was unfurled from the castle of Perote, the 
strongest fortress in Mexico except that of Vera Cruz. 
The LTnited States troops first encountered Gen. Valen- 
cia, with 6000 men, iu a fortified camp at Contreras. 
They attacked the camp on the night of Aug. 20, 1847, 
and'were completely victorious. '80 officers and 3000 
soldiers, with 35 pieces of artillery, were taken. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntaev, to a vast amount 
have been several tim.es made by the British people in 
aid of the government. The most remarkable of 
these, in 1798, to support the war against France, 
amounted to two millions and a half sterling. Several 
men of wealth, among others Sir Robert Peel, of Bury, 
Lancashire, subscrilied each .£10,000; and i;200,000 
were transmitted from India in 1799. See Patriotic 
Fund. 

CONTROL, Board of. Mr. Pitt's bill, establishing 
this board for the purpose of aiding and controlling 
the executive government of India, aud of superin- 
tending the territorial concerns of the company, was 
passed'May 18, 1784. Act amended and the board re- 
modeled, 1793. The president of the board was a chief 
minister of the crown, and necessarily one of the mem- 
bers of the cabinet. This board was abolished iu 1858, 
when the government of India was transferred from 
the company to the crown. See India. 

CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for religions 
worship, held by dissenters from the Established 
Church, but first applied to the schools of Wickliffe. 
They were strictly forbidden by Elizabeth iu 1593, and 
by Charles II., 1664; and persons attending them 
were liable to severe punishment. The statutes were 
repealed by William III. in 1689. 

CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS. Two memora- 
ble Parliaments (especially distinguished by this term), 
assembled without the kiiig's writ upon extraordinary 
occasions. The first, held on April 2.5, 1660, voted the 
restoration of Charles II. ; the second, held Jan., 1CS9, 
by a majority of two voices, declared for a new sover- 
eign, Williarn III. (and Mary), in preference to a re- 
gent, which had been proposed. See National Conven- 
tion. 

CONVENTIONS. The following are the principal 
conventions between Great Britain and foreign pow- 
ers,' aud by foreign powers with each other. They 
are more "fully described in their respective places 
through the volume : 

Of Closterseven Sept. 8,1757 

Of Armed Neutrality Jul v 9,1780 

Of Pilnitz July'20,1791 

Of Paris (French National) instituted... .Sept. 17,1792 

Of Cintra Aug. 30,1803 

Of Berlin Nov. 5, " 

Of Peterswaldeu July 8,181:? 

Of Paris April 23,1814 

Of the Dutch with Eugland Aug. 13, " 

Of Vienna; Saxony placed under the control of 

Prussia Sept. 28, " 

Of Zurich, signed May 20,1815 

Of Capua with Murat May 20, " 

Of St. Cloud, between Davoust, and Wellington, 

and Blucher Julv 5, " 

Of Paris with the Allies April 25,1818 

Of Aix-la-Chapelle Oct. 9, " 



CON 



14: 



Of Austria with England : the latter a^Tees to ac- 

ccpt i;-2,5(i(),( as a con.posiiinn foP chuins on 

Austria auKiuiitiiio; to al;u,oiio,(HKJ sterliu" 1S''4 

Ol Jiutclaiid with Russia Feb 2s'lS25 

Of En-Uiud aud United States ■.■.■.■.■.■.'Nov.' 2G,'iS26 

Vt Spam, for satistyiug the chiima of British mer^ 

nf f'l!!^ ?/• ; V, June 26,1828 

Of the Viceroy of Egypt aud Sir E. Codrington 

tor restoring Greek captives, etc Aii" C " 

Of h rauce with Brazil Auir''i4' " 

Conveutiou betweeu Holland aud Belgium, si'^u- 

ed in London Aprillo 1339 

Of England with Austria, Russia, 'Prussia, aud 

turkey, for the settlement of the Eastern ques- 

lioil Julv 15 1910 

Of France and Eugland respecting the slave-trade^ 

Of England with the Argentine Republic. .Oct TAltd 
Ofh rauce and Italy respecting the occupation of 

n/\''l"f .•:;• • • Vo • • • •. .• Sept. 15,1864 

or Austria and Prussia respecting Holstein, Schles- 

wig, and Lauenbur^ (see Oastein) Aug. 14 1S65 

(bee Treaties.) 
CONVENTS were first founded, according to some 
authorities 270 The first in England waslrected at 
Folkstone, by Eadbald, an &d{X— Camden. The first in 
Scotland was at Coldingham, where Ethelreda took 
he veil m 6.0. They were founded earlier than this 
last date m Ireland. They were suppressed in En- 
ghind in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry 
\ J II., and few existed in Great Britain till latelv * A 
very great number have been suppressed in Eurolse in 
the present ceutury. The Emperor of Russia abolish- 
?^J r^u'^'r?-"* of monks by a ukase dated July 31, 
If, Tbe I^'"»,°* Prussia followed his example, and 
secularized all the convents in the duchy of pAsen 
Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal in 1834 • 
and Spain has abolished 1800 convents. Many were 

rSL" ^J^%^' «^="^ - '''' -^ i««^. -d - 

CONVICTS. See Trans2Mrtation. 
CONVOCATION. A general assembly of the cler- 
gy in the nation, convened by the soverei<^n's writ to 

^hp'^row \^^ ^^^'"^ f *''<' ^^'^"'■c^' aud directed to 
the archbishop of each province, requiring him to 
suminon all the bishops, deacons, archdeacons, etc. 
the Convocation is divided into two houses, called 
^^^H^ ''P^^\?°"*,'''""» °'"^'^^ bishops, and Lower, con- 
«sting of the deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and 
members elected from the lower clergy. The c er^^v 
10?,-^ summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I , 
l-'lio. The power of the Convocation was limited bv 
a statute of Henry VIIL, in whose reign the Convoca^ 
tiou was reorganized. The two liouses of Convoca- 
tion were deprived of various privileges in 1716 
I'ormal meetings of the clergy have beeii held annu- 
a y since 1S54, and attempts have been made to ob- 
n' ,ff,l^T'? o.f dealing summarily with ecclesiasti- 
cal affiiirs, but without effect. 



COP 



im"a^t WtiPn'^T'?-! ^irciimnaviVated the globe, arriv- 

k lied b'v" the'"',"''- I^hisVird'exp^e'dltio.'ihew^s 
sh n« fV^? 'lavages ol Owhyhee, Feb. 14, 1779 His 

&ne'sl,tSri78a' ''''""''''' '^^^'^'^ ^™- ^' 

for^pr^fe^v'in^fvin? ScLpeW/''*'''r ^"^^^^^-^^^ 
corporated in 1501 coopeis ol London were iu- 

CO- OPERATIVE SOCIFTTT^'tj o,„ ^ „ 

ness done amounted to £152 orf-i ihl 'J}"",^'^^^^- 
i:i5,906. These societies (in 1862 332f a?e°, i'; 'f '"f 
pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict., i 115 (isjf):^ legistereS 
COORG, a province (S. India). War broke ont hA 
tween the rajah and the East India Comnanv 18^1" 
u;'e''r' iah' Ap'?fl ?oS^.?/^^^ defeating'^anc^TeSI 

COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Waldemar I 
115T, and made the capital 1443; universi y fminded 
14.9. In 1.28, more than seventy of its streets and 
3.8.5 houses were burnt. Its palace, valued at four 
millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb 1704 Vheu 
100 persons lost their lives. In a fire which lo\tP^ 
forty-eight hours, the Arsenal, A^lm raUv anc fit?? 
streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom^ 

ral Pa*e^ ancf hflf • ""^^'^ ^"^''^ NelsSn\nd AdZ- 
fleet 0/2^ ihin^ nf J,heir engagement with the Danish 
neet 01 ds ships of the line, 18 were taken or destrnv 
ed by the I^ritish, April 2, 1801. Again? af?er a boT 
bare meiit of three days, the city and Danish fle^tsT" 
SeptTlloV Vh"e'n'^ GambieJ and Cd Catta [ 
Hno 7^ ?■ * ^^^ capture consisted of IS sail of the 
hne, 15 frigates, 6 brigs, and 25 gun-boats and im! 
mense naval stores. §ee DenmarK ' 



,.}^^f^^9^^^'^'y^^^.- '^he Canary Convolvulus {Con- 
■V l"lp'*i?Qn""rrl''''-^ came to England from the Cana- 
i> Isles, 1090. The mauy-flowered convolvulus in 1779. 
COOKERY, an art connected with civilized life 
Animals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 B C the 
?f icfoHl"^'.'^ '^'^'','? expressly forbidden {Gen. is., 3, 4). 
m 1S98 B.C. a call was cooked by Abraham to enter- 
tain his guests (Gen. sviii., 7, 8). "The Forme of 
t-ury (? e., cookery) is dated 1390. An English cook- 
ery-book was printed 1498. t See note under Cottage. 

<?,v?°^^'? i'°'^i^*3ES. James Cook, accompanied by 
Su Joseph Banks, sailed from England in the Endeal 
or on his first voyage, July 30, 1768,t and r eturned 

* In 1597 Lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels which 

Fn"la„d Th" "" '"'- ^>"'. ^'"S'T ^"' compelled to remove to 
hns and. They were received by Bishop Milner, and placed at Win 

houln'lum.^k'n'.^risJ',*'^ '-?r-°^^'' 4 "-''^ re-vaf to East ^ s: 
nolt, in buffolk, June, 1S57. This was the first Enslish conventual ek 

?i',''H\"r?'.,'''""''"' "? ""^ Continent after the Reformat"" - ts" 
189 in 1865 "'"'' convents in England in 1841, 53 in 1S61, and 

camn^t'Il-'l ?it'-"r"?''V ^^T\ 'I*'"'""' « 'y^'*"" of cooking for the 
camp at Aldersliot, Enfflnnd, which has continued in successful onera- 
t.on for the service of between 15,000 and 14,000 men. From April to 

for 92,000 men, who marched in and out of the encampment durinS 
W if '„ r iT'" consumption of fuel requisite for this system of cook^ 
iy,ftJ, fh„ i , r"."'' of coal per man per day, and the official report 
fh K. ni 1 Vlf^* one httltpennv per man per week for the tfiree 
daily nieals.-Self-supportmg Conking Dci.ots for the workine classes 
were set up at Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas 6orbetl), Sept. 21, IMO and 
proved successful in Manchester, London, and other places ^oon after. 
,,1/ niemorial was presented to the king by the Roval Societv in 
176S, selline n.rth the advantages which woulibe derived oscienc^e f 
an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over 
the sun were taken iu the South Sea. The ship Endeavor wis, in coii- 



Wio^inf P^^^"^-^ SYSTEM, SO called from its author 
Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, Feb 19 1473 Xrl 
Kf hffbno^ few days before his death,'the ^ £ 
mg of his book on the "Revolution of the Celestial 
Bodies" was c_mipleted. The system, which re4m 
bles that attributed to Pythagoras, Was condemMd 
l^y a decree of Pope Paul V. in 1616, which was nS re 
voked 111 1821 by Pius VIL The kui is supposed to" 
be ,n the centre and immovable, and tie ear°h and 
the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical 
rl^^^- ^^,1^ ']?^''*^"^ ^"f^ ^^'^'■s are imagined to 'be a 
rest, and the diurnal motion which they'seem to h^we 

read m he Scriptures of two vessels of fine coZer^r 
brass), "precious as gold," 457 B.C. (^^/"^of)'^ 
The mines_ of Fahlun, in Sweden, are the mo"t' .^ r 
prising artificial excavations in the workl In Enl 
£r ni^F''"^' ""°^' '^^'■^ discovered in 1561, and cop- 
per now forms an immense branch of trade -there are 
upward of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mi nl his 
85T75"83f fn".? 'T^ '^^ ^"^'S" of William iTf In 
9^ oil ?' ^T^ .°{ ^''''P^'' o'e were imported, and 
25,241 tons extracted. The copper mines of the uLited 
States produced in 1856 about 5000 tons of ore equa 

The°"valurof*tr'^ °^ '''1 T^^'^ world's demand 

Wpil •, *'i® ^"PP^'" ^a'^en out has been very 

I hA nU l"*""'?"^ ''^^{■y y^''*'' ^^'"'^e, and the mines of 

rne Lake Superior region prove very rich in the metal 

?h?''Ri"iJ?o''p° ''"'^ '"""S^'y f«"»d in Lower California: 
Xhe Burra-Burra copper mines, in S. Australia were 
discovered in 1842. They have brough "reat'nros 
fu "'^r !;° '^''^* '=«'«'^3^- Tl^e first ship tof^'lic■h a ih^arh- 
\twl 1 P-^K ' .^^as applied was the British ship A larm, 
soiEr;,!?'' "} ^'^K '° P'"«^'"-^-«= l^er from worms in 
i??n „H Y'""'''''S= VJ* S^^'^ g'-S'-'t satisfaction, and in 

ed About''iV.V/;'.^i"'?'' f'^^'y '''''' ^m^^^-^omm- 
ecu— Abou t 1850 the electroty pe process M-as first em- 

Ti^^;!^!"^' P^Pa'-^'J fof,"!--'* purpose, and the command of her give^ ■ 
and Rio^H/r" ^"S^; ,T ™''''' '° •'"'y' "«S, touched It Madeira 
and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and, after a prosperous vov 
age, reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April, T7firB?a 
comparison of the observations made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from 
the various parts of the globe on which it was viewed by men of bcU 
Za' ^ 7'\T S""" ""'''■"^'^ '■"^ '° 8ome particulars; been better 
understood; the distance of the sun'from the earth, as calculated bv 
this and the transit in 1761, was settled at 108,000,000 miles instead oJ 
the commonly received computation of 95,000,000 -£«</er.' It is now 
computed to be 96,598,260 miles (IS65). 



COP 



146 



COR 



ployed to face printing types and casts from wood- 
cnts with copper. . , ,, 

Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign 
of Serving Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for 
money. See Coin. In England, copper money 
•was made at the instance of Sir Robert Cotton 
in 1609, but was first really coined (when Miss 

Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665 

Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was large- 
ly issued in • .- -1689 

In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; m 

Scotland, in 1406 ; in France, in .1580 

Wood's coinage [loMch see) in Ireland commenced 

in 1T23 

The copper coinage was largely manufactured at 

Birmingham by Boulton and Watt in .1792 

Penny and twopenny pieces were extensively is- 
sued, 1797. The half farthing was coined in, but 

disused (see Farthing) .1843 

£10,000 voted toward replacing the copper coin- 
age July,lS55 

(See Bronze.) 
CopPBE-PLATE Feinting was first invented in Ger- 
many about 1450 ; and rolling-presses for work- 
ing the plates about 1545 

Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode 
of engraving on soft steel, which, when harden- 
ed, win multiply copper-plates and fine impres- 
sions indefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 

COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or iron 
combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found in copper 
mines, commonly of a green or blue color ; first pro- 
duced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, 
in 15S7. 

COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 to such 
members of the Democratic party in the United States 
as were in favor of peace with the South on any terms. 
COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of the 
ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and Persians. 
Their religion is a form of Christianity derived from 
the Eutychians. 

COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a copy of 
the rolls of a manor made by a steward of the lord's 
court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict., c. 35, 1841. 
By the Reform Act in 1832, copyholders to the amount 
of XIO became entitled to a vote for the county. The 
copyhold acts were amended by 21 & 22 Vict., c. 94 
(1858). 

COPYRIGHT IN England. Decree of the Star 
Chamber regarding it, 1556. Every book and publi- 
ation ordered to be licensed, 15S5. 
Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work 

without the consent of the owner 1649 

The first copvright act (for 14 years, and for the 

author's life if then living) was that of 8 Anne,*1709 
Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 

17 Geo. Ill 1^77 

Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- 
mainder of the author's life if then living), 54 

Geo. Ill 1814 

Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV., c. 15,1833 
Act for preventing the publication of lectures with- 
out consent, 6 Will. IV., c. 65 1835 

International copyright bill, 1 Vict 1838 

5 & 6 Vict., c. 45 (Talfourd's or Lord Mahon's Act),t 

to amend the copyright act passed 1842 

The colonies' copyi'ight act, 10 & 11 Vict., c. 95, 
passed tl847 

COPYEIGHT FOE DESIGNS. 

Protection granting security for two months to 
new designs applied by printing to linens, call- ^ 
coes, and muslins 1T87 

Extended to three months 1794 

* This act was confirmed by a memorable decision at the bar of the 
House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright was overruled, 
Feb. 2'2, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive 
right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, the 
right to return to him again for the same term of years. Later acts 
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that 
time.then to the remainder of his life. 

+ By this act, the right is to endure for the life ol the author, and tor 
seven years after his death ; but if that time_ expireearl'"- »1"— ■i" 
years, the right is still to endure for 42 y 
work published after the author's death i 
the owners of the manuscript. . . 

1 The important question of a foreigner possessmg a copyright m 
this country was finally decided in the negative by the House of Lords 
in August, 1854, which reversed the decision of the Court of Exchequer, 
on an appeal by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 
1831, IVIr. Boosey purchased the copyright of Bellini's opera, Za Son- 
nambula, from which Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the 
judges were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven of a contrary 
opinion.) 



A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 

1798 and 1814 



, for which term also any 
3 to continue the property of 



The designs act of George III. made to embrace 
printed designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 12 
months' copyright granted to designs applied 
to all tissues except lace and those already pro- 
vided for ; for the modeling, embossing, and en- 
graving of any manufacture not being a tissue ; 
and for the shape or configuration of any article,lS39 

By 5 & 6 Vict., c. 100, the existing designs acts all 
repealed (except that for sculpture), and provis- 
ion made for including all ornamental designs 
under 13 classes, and conferring upon them 
terms of protection varying from nine months 
to three years. ; 

[B^ees on registration vary from Is. to XI.] 

The " non-ornamental designs act," securing the 
configuration of articles of utility (fee £10), 
passed in 1843 

By the " designs act," the Board of Trade is em- 
powered to extend the copyright for an ad- 
ditional term of three years 1850 

Copyright of photographs secured by the act pro- 
tecting works of art, passed in July,1862 

INTEENATIONAL OOPYEIGnT. 

In 1838 and 1852 acts were passed to secure to au- 
thors, in certain cases, the benefits of interna- 
tional copyright (1 & 2 Vict., c. 59, and 15 Vict., 
c. 12), and conventions have, in consequence, 
been entered into with France, Prussia, etc. 
COPYRIGHT IN THE United States. The right 
of passing laws relating to copyrights belongs to Con- 
gress. The law of 1881 gives to the author an exclu- 
sive right to publish for 28 years, and a right of re- 
newal to himself, his wife, and heirs resident in the 
United States 14 more. Here copyright can be taken 
on books, maps, charts, prints, musical compositions, 
cuts, and engravings. A printed copy of the title of 
the work must be deposited in the clerk's oftice of the 
district where the authors or proprietors reside, for 
which a fee of 50 cents is paid, and 50 cents for a cer- 
tified copy of the filing. A copy must be delivered to 
the district clerk, and copies must also be sent to the 
Congressional Library and the Smithsonian Institute. 
The penalty for infringement is 50 cents for every 
sheet printed, and a forfeiture of the articles. The 
copyright law of 1856 secures to the authors of dra- 
matic compositions who have secured copyrights the 
exclusive privilege of performing or representing the 
same on the stage. 

CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). Here, on 
April 27, 1650, the gallant Marquess of Montrose was 
defeated by the Covenanters. He was taken soon 
after, treated with great contumely, and hanged at Ed- 
iiiburg on May 21. 

CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian Isles), a 
colony founded by the Corinthians about 734 B.C. 
It had frequent wars with the mother country ; one 
about the possession of Epidamnus (431 B.C.) led to 
the Peloponnesian War. It was subdued by the Spar- 
tans in 3T3, and by the Romans, 230. At the decline 
of the Eastern Einpire it fell into the hands of the Ve- 
netians about A.D. 1149. The Turks attacked Corfu 
in 1716, but were gallantly repulsed. It was subdued 
by the Russian arid Turkish fleets in 1799, and formed 
(with the other isles) into the Ionian republic. See 
Ionian Isles. 

CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. Francis 
d'Assisi (the Minorites), instituted about 1223. They 
are clothed in coarse gray cloth, with a small cowl and 
cloak of the same material, having a girdle of cord or 
rope, tied with three knots, and hence the name, which 
was first given to them by St. Louis of France about 
1227. Several members of the French Revolutiona- 
ry party, termed " Cordeliers," established at Paris in 
1790, Herbert Cloots, etc., were executed March 24, 
1794. 

CORDOVA, the ancient Corduba, a Roman city in 
Spain, taken by the Goths in 572, and made the capital 
of an Arab kingdom by Abderahman in 757. It be- 
came eminent for its learned men, and was the birth- 
place of Seneca and Lucan under the Romans, and of 
the great Arabian physician Averrhoes. It was res- 
cued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III., of Castile, in 
1236, and was taken by the French in 1809, but aban- 
doned by them in 1813. 
CORFU. See Corcyra. 

CORINTH, Miss., Battle or. Fought Oct. 3, 1862. 
Van Dorn, commanding the Confederate army in Mis- 
sissippi, attacked Rosecrans at Corinth, and was re- 



COE 



147 



pulsed and driven for miles. The Confederate force 
eugased M'as about 40,000, tlie national 20,000. Of the 
Confederates 2208 were captured. 

Ti^O^R f^'^o^, (Greece), a city, said to have been built 
1520 B.C., on tlie rums of Ephyra. It was defended 
wiZ? "^'"'^ ^r"^"^ '^'^""^ ^^'•"^"""th ™.™ 
Jhnf r f.2?^ '''""'-I .Its '^'tuation was so advantageous 
Ihnl „f ^?"'"?*'^ "i"''' ^^^ "f ^'''"''- aid declared 
that, of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth 
^'?^.r''yr-"^^T"'".'^'^i"8">e seat of a great empfre 
-I'^oi Connth m North America, see United States, 1862, 

The Isthmian games instituted, it is stated, by 
Sisyphus, who founded a kingdom . B C nic. 

Return of the Heraclidie II07 

Their dynasty established by Aletes! .' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'." '1074 
Ihe Corinthians invent ships called triremes, with 

three benches of oars T86 or 758 

Reigu ofBacchis,925; oligarchy of the Bacchidffi, 

Thelestes deposed, and the government of t^he'*^^^ 
Prytaues instituted : Automenes is the first on 
-Whom this dignity is conferred, about 741^ 

A CT)lony goes to Sicily, and founds the'coionies 
of Syracuse and Corcyra, about 754 

Revolt of the Corcyrasans: they defeat 'the Corin- 
thians at sea «(,, 

Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes' '. 655 

■Hi|^^sou^Periauder rules, and favors genius and 

PsanimetTchus d^poVeci; and a 'republic formed.!!^"5S0 

The Corinthians engaged in the Persian War 480 

War with the Corcyrseans 40!: 

The Corinthian War {which see) ..'.'. qn^ 

rJpl'^i'i'^HJ"!'"?®') taken by Aratus," and 'an- 
nexed to the Achaean League. . . 940 

The Koinan ambassadors first appearat Corinth ' 228 

^'tn mi^^'^^'T^Vi^ ^"'^^"^ Mummius, who sends 
to Italy the first fine paintings there seen, thev 
being part of the spoil {Livy)1 ' ^ ,4^ 

Rebuilt by Julius Cssar. . . . •';« 

Visited by St. Paul {Acts xviii.);;;;;:;:;:" "■■ AD Z 

His two epistles to the Corinthians .' " 59 ^ 

Ravaged by Alaric %q . 



COR 



and with great speed ' ''''' ^'"^ '''' ^"'^ accurate!^ 



COKN-LAWS. 

^ hi 'p^!'in!!H°' ""^ ^"^^ importation of com are felt 
Ji?„„.^f -.'^.*-^° consequence of the increase of 



Plun dered by Normans "from Sicily. ■.'.■..■ 1 14,; 

&«^^7^"''f'' ^^-"1= ^^ Venetians, i687Vby ^' 
fh'e'feelks in'T. .^!''"" '' '''' *^"'^"^ '""^'^ ^,„ 

Connth nearly destroye'd hj an earthquake, 

Feb. 21,1858 
CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the orders 
of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi the vir- 
ginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 540 B C 
ii^e Abacus. 

CORINTHIAN WAR, which began 395 B C re- 

f,S in'thi'''""? ;!'k'","''' ,t^^ ''-''"les were mostly 
fought in the neighborhood of Corinth by a confed- 
eracy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and 
Argives against the Lacedemonians. It was closed 
by the peace of Antalcldas, 387 B.C. The most fe 
mous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra {loMchsee). 
CORK S. Ireland, built in the Gth century The 
principality of the M'Cartys was converted into a 

ttn'of^h'^'"^'^"^" '''?,'^'-'^ °f I'-^'-''"^^- T^^^^^^^ 
tion of the SEE IS ascribed to St. Ban-, or Finbarr. ear- 
ly ui the ith century. About 1431, this see and that 
nfS "?'"'' 5'"'' canonically united ; but on the death 
of Bishop Synge m 167S, they were separated, the see 
befo,^''l^4Y"'^'^''^'^, '*'''jl«''.t° Cork about a'ceutury 
befoie, 1.5t,2 No valuation is returned of this see in 
the king's books; but in a MS. in Marsh's library i 
IS axed .31 Eliz., at i:40 sterling ; and in a MS in the 
College Library at X25. The sees of Cork and Clovne 
were again united in 1833. A chapter was granted to 

SnTe\^,5^SLT- ^" ^^^^ '''^'■^^' ^^^^ 



M. Robinson's acrprs.sVd,"pemYttIn7tsm^rtV^^^ 
tion when wheat should te SOs. per quai tel 1 

blPrt^in L H™''*°°i' ™ *^'« ^'"' mobs assem- 
bled in London, and many of the houses of its 

W^^n^; n'r"''" ^i?m«ged,^Jan.28; and a r°ot fa 
\\ e.vtminster continued several days, and occa- 
sioned much mischief, March 21 et la. 
The com bil, after passing in the Commons, is' de- 
feated m the House of Lords by a clause uro- 
posed by the Duke of Wpiimo-f^,, r.,i;!„u .? ?l? 

1 by a majority o 

let (called the sh 

dutlof'^ir^c^s^v'''' imported on payment of a 
auty ot £\ 5s 8rf. per quarter, whenever the av- 
6 "^o^fi-iT S 4" England was under 626.. ; from 
0A9. to 63s., £\ 4s. Sd. ; and so gradually reduced 
w.-d n^"l^' ^''^'''^^ price^was 73s^lnd up- 

WaiCl, passed Tnlirlr: 10,1Q 

The act 5 Vict, c. 14, passed 29th April,' i842 the 
second "sliding scale act," regulated the duty 
on wheat as follows, with sliding duties! also 
on other articles of com : ""ties, aiso, 



by the Duke of Wellington, which is car- 
..^v^ uy a majority of 4 .Tiipp 1 ibot 

w.s'nM'''"'^"''^, "^^^'^ ''^^''^ whei'eby wheat 
was allowed to be imnorted on nnvmpnt ^f „ 



Average per quarter, 
sun. Shill. 



Duty. 



under 51 1 

51 and under 52 19 

52 and under 55 18 

55 and under 56 17 

56 and under 57 16 

57 and under 58 15 

58 and under 59 14 

59 and under 60 13 

60 and under 61 12 

61 and under 62 11 



Shill. £ 



Duty. 



62 and under 63 

63 and under 64 

64 and under 65 

65 and under 66 

66 and under 69 6 

69 and under 70 

70 and under 71 

71 and under 72 

72 and under 73 

73 and upward . 



10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 



A large part of the town was consumed by an aw- 
ful fire in •' IfiQI 

Taken by Cnmiwell in. ..'.'..■! ! jfifn 

The Earl of Marlborough besieged and 'took Cork 
li-om King James's army, when the Duke of 
TW- h"' '? T'"""'"^' son of Charles II., was slain.. 1690 
The C athedral was rebuilt by the produce of a coal 

duty between the years 17.75 and 1735 

Explosion of gunpowder here Nov 10 1810 

One of the three colleges, endowed by 'Tovernnient 
pursuant to acts & 9 Vict., c.OO, passed July 31, 
184.5, was inaugurated in this city (see Qwen's 

t inu'ric.s) Nov 7 1 1540 

Railway to Dublin finished in 'issn 

Cork industrial exhibition opened June io' and ' 
'^^''^e'l Sept. 11,1852 



The Corn Impoktation Bill (introduced by Sir 
Robert Peel , 9 & 10 Vict., c. 22 (by which thP 
duty on wheat was reduceci to 4s. ^when import! 
ed at or above 53s., until 1st Feb., 1849, after 
which day the duty became Is. per quarter only 
on all kinds of gram imported into the United 
Kingdom at any prices), received the royal as- 

**'"* Vo"""'rV--A----V June26,lS4C 

(bee Anti-Corn-Law League.) 

1,,^*^!??^^^^' ^- ^- extremity of England, original- 
ly called Kernoii, a term connected with the Latin cor- 
nu, a horn, m allusion to its numerous promontories 
or projecting points. On the retreat of the ancient 
Britons, Cornwall is said to have been formed into a 
kingdom, and to have existed many years under dif- 
lerent princes, among whom were Ambrosius Aurelius 
and the celebrated Arthur. It was erected into a kiu"-- 
dom by Edwird III., March 17, 1337, and the heir fo 
the crown of England, if a prince, is born Duke of 
Cornwall, but IS immediately afterward created Prince 
of Wales The Cornish insurgents, under Thomas 
Hammock, were defeated at Blackheath, June "2 1497 
A pow'erful insurrection on account of the establi«hin<^ 
the Protestant Liturgy in place of the Mass be^an in 
Cornwall and Devon in June, and was suppressed 
after much bloodshed, in December, 1549 The last 



COR 



148 



COR 



person who spoke the Cornish dialect is said to have 
been Dolly Peutreath, who died, aged 102, at Penzance 
iu 177S. The Prince and Princess of Wales visited 
Cornwall in July, 1865. See Stannary Courts. 

CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop 
was that of Majocianus, at Constantinople, 457. Char- 
lemagne was crowned Emperor of the West by Pope 
Leo 111., December 25, 800. The ceremony of anoint- 
ing at coronations was introduced in England in ST2, 
and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry 
III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, 
at Gloucester, Oct. 28, 1216. A plain circle was used 
ou this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been 
lost with the other jewels and baggage of King John, 
in passing the marshes of Lynn" or the Wash, near 
Wisbeach. At the coronation of William and Mary, 
the Bishop of London put the crown on the king's 
head, as Dr. Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, would 
not take the oaths to their majesties. George IV. was 
ci'owned July 19, 1821. William IV. crownecl, with his 
queen, Sept. 8, 1831 ; and Victoria, June 28, 183S. 
Coronation Chaik. — In the Cathedral of Cashel, for- 
merly the metropolis of the kings of Munster, was 
deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they 
were crowned. In 513, Fergus, a prince of the royal 
line, having obtained the Scottish throne, procured 
this stone for his coronation at Dunstaftuage, where 
it continued until the time of Kenneth II., who re- 
moved it to Scone ; and in 1296 it was removed by 
Edward I. from Scone to Westminster. 
The Coronation Oath was first administered to the 
kings of England by Duustan (Archbishop of Can- 
terbury) to Ethelred 11. in 978. An oath, nearly cor- 
responding with that now in use, was administered 
in 1377, arid was altered in 1CS9. 
CORONEA, Battles of. 1. (or Chaeronea). The 
Athenians were defeated and their General Tolmides 
slain iu a battle with the Boeotians at Coronea, near 
ChEeronea, 447 B.C. 2. The Athenians, Thebans, Ar- 
gives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, 
offensive and defensive, again'st Sparta, Agesilaus, aft- 
er diffusing the terror of his arms from his many vic- 
tories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Co- 
ronea, a town of Bceotia, and achieved a great victory 
over them, 394 B.C. 

CORONERS, officers of the English realm in 925. 
Coroners for every county in England were first ap- 
pointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edw. I., 1276. — 
Stow. They are chosen for life by the freeholders, and 
their duty is to inquire into the cause of violent or un- 
natural death, upon view of the body. Coroners were 
instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II., 
about 1004. By an act passed in 1S43, coroners are 
enabled to appoint deputies to act for them in case of 
illness. — 20,531 coroners' inquests were held in En- 
gland and Wales in 1859; 21,178 in 1860; 21,038 in 
1861; 50,591 in 1862 ; 22,757 in 1868 ; and 24,787 in 18C4. 
In the United States the office of coroner is elective. 

CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns, of various 
forms, that distinguish the rank of the nobility. The 
coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for 
viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and f<n- barons by Charles 
11.— Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, 
earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who 
wore a coronet, 1604. It is uncertain 'when the coro- 
nets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Beatnon. 

CORPORATIONS are stated by Livy to have been 
of very high antiquity among the Romans, by whom 
they were introduced into other countries. They were 
first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of 
the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by in- 
stituting separate societies of every manual trade and 
profession. — Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS, MrrNioiPAL, in England. Bod- 
ies politic, authorized by the king's charter to have a 
common s«al, one head officer or more, and members, 
who are able, by their common consent, to grant or 
receive in law any matter within the compass of their 
charter. — Cotvel. Corporations were formed by char- 
ters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- 
ous towns, first by Edward the 'Confessor. Henry -I. 
granted charters, 1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave 
corporate powers, and extended them to numerous 
large communities throughout the realm, sul)ject to 
tests, oaths, and conditions. — Blacksto7ie. The Corpo- 
ration and Test Act, passed in 1661, was repealed in 
May, 1828. The Corporation Reform Act, for the reg- 
ulation of municipal corporations in Engl.and and 
Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV., c. 70 (1835). The Irish Munici- 
pal Corporation Act, 4 Vict, c. 108, passed in 1840, was 
amended iu 1861. 



CORPULENCE. In Germany some fat monks have 
weighed eighteen stone. — Remlcr. Of modern in- 
stances known iu this country was Mr. Bright, a tal- 
low-chandler and grocer, of Maldon, in Essex, who 
died in the 29th year of his age. Seven persons of the 
common size were with ease inclosed in his waistcoat. 
He was buried at All Saints, Maldon, Nov. 12, 1750. 
Daniel Lambert, supjiosed to have been the heaviest 
man that ever lived, died iu his 40tli year, at Stamford, 
in Lincolnshire, weighing ten stone more than Mr. 
Bright, June 21, 1809. He is said to have weighed 52 
stone, 11 pounds. James Mansfield died at Debden, 
Nov. 9, 1860, aged 82, weighing 34 stone.* 

CORPUS CHRISTI, a festival in the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, in honor of the doctrine of transubstan- 
tiation, kept ou the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. 
It was instituted by Pope Urban IV. between 1202 and 
12G4, and confirmed by the Council of Vienne in 1311. 

"CORRELATION op tue PHYSICAL FORCES" 
is the title of a book by Mr. W. R. Grove, P.R.S., who 
in 1842 enunciated the theory of the correlation or mu- 
tual dependence and convertibility into each other of 
all the forces of nature (viz., heat, light, electricity, 
magnetism, chemical affluity, and motion). 

CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of LONDON was 
formed about 1791, to spread liberal opinions and 
check the tyranny of the British government, then 
much alarmed by the French Revolution. Home 
Tooke and other members were tried and acquitted, 
Oct., 1794. See Trials, 1794. The meetings of the so- 
ciety at Copenhagen Fields and elsewhere, in Oct. and 
Nov., 1796, were termed treasonable. — On April 21, 
1798, Messrs. O'Connor, O'Coigley, and others were 
tried for corresponding with the French Directory; 
and James O'Coigley was executed as a traitor (pro- 
testing his innocence) on June 7th. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. See Mercury. 

CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, call- 
ed by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants 
were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, 
and atheists, according to Seneca when he lived among 
them. Corsica was colonized by Phocseans 564 B.C., 
and afterward held by the Carthaginians, from whom 
it was taken by the Romans, 231 B.C. In modern 
times it was nominally dependent ui)on Genoa until 
1768, when it was ceded to France. During a revolt 
it was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its 
first and only king, in 1736. t The celebrated Pascal 
Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicaus in 
1753. He was defeated Ijy the Coimt de Vaux, and 
fled to Eugland, 1769. The people acknowledged 
George HI. of Eugland for their king, June 17, 1794, 
when Sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, who open- 
ed a Parliament in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in 
June, 1796, and the island was relinquished by the 
British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared 
for the French, who still retain it. Napoleon I. was 
born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, on Aug. 15, 1769. A stat- 
ue to his memory v\;as inaugurated by Prince Napo- 
leon Jerome, May 15i 1S05. 

CORTES, the Spanish Parliament, originating in 
the old Gothic councils. The Cortes were assembled 
after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810, and set- 
tled the new Constitution, March IC, 1812. This Con- 
stitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who ban- 
ished many members of the Assembly iu May, 1814. 
The Cortes were opened by him in 1820, and dissolved 
in 1823 ; again assembled in 1834, and have since been 
regularly convened. The Cortes of Portugal assem- 
bled by virtue of Don Pedro's charter, Oct. 30, 1826 ; 
they were suppressed by Don Miguel in 1828, and re- 
stored iu 1833. 

CORUNNA (N.W. Spain). The British army, a\)out 
15,000 men, under the command of Sir John Moore, 
had just accomplished a safe retreat, when they were 
attacked \>y the French, whose force exceeded 20,000 : 
the enemy were completely repulsed, but the loss of 



* In 1863, Mr. Wm. Banting published a letter on corpulence, recom- 
mendinfr, IVom his own experience, as a remedy, p-ent moderation in 
the use of sugar and starch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were 
speedily sold or given away. 

t He came to' England, where he was imprisoned in the King's 
Bench Prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the benevolence 
of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency in 
1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of'Corsici as an estate to his 
creditors, and died the same year at his lodgings in .Soho. The Earl 
of Oxford wrote the following epitaph on a tablet near his grave iu St, 
Anne's Church, Dean Street : 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 

Heroes and beggars, gallev-slaves and kings. 

But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 

Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 

Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 



COR 



149 



COT 



the British in the battle was immcnpo, .Taii.lfi, 1809. 
Sir John was strucli by a cannon-ball, which carried 
away his left slumkler and part of the collar-bone, 
leaving: the arm luuiLcin^' by the llesh ; he died univer- 
sally lamented. 'I'lie remains of the army hastily em- 
barlced at C'oruuna, Jan. IT, under Sir David Baird. 

CORUS (or Corupedion), a plain in Phrygia, Asia 
Minor, where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by 
Seleucus, and slain, 2S1 B.C. These two were the 
only sm-vivors of the warlike compauious of Alex- 
ander the Great. 

COKYPII.ErS, the principal person of the chorus 
in the ancient trai^edy. Tin? nanu^ was Ljiveu to Tys- 
ias, afterward named" Stesichorus, who lirst instruct- 
ed the chorus to dance to the lyre, 550 B.C. 

COSSACKS, the warlike people inhabiting the con- 
fines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and Turliiay. They 
at lirst lived by ijlunderintr the Turkish galleys and 
the people of Natolia ; but were formed into a regular 
army by Stephen Bathori in 157G, to defend the fron- 
tiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. 
They .joined the Russians in 1654, and in the great 
war of Europe against France (1S13-15) they formed a 
valuable portion of the Russian army. 

COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, es- 
tablished in 1S4S. It has been much disturbed by the 
American tilibusters. See Xicararjiia and America, 
Central. On Aug. 14, 1859, the president Juan Mora 
was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made 
president. Population in ISGl, 131,000. 

C0STER:M0NGERS, itinerant dealers in fruit, veg- 
etables, tish, etc., deriving their name, it is said, from 
costard, a favorite apple. The Loudon costermongers 
are useful frequently in relieving the markets when 
glutted ; and it was said, in 1800, that X3,000,000 pass- 
ed through their hands annually. Previous to fasting 
and thanksgiving days, they sell the appointed forms 
of prayers in great numbers. On Nov. 22, 1800, they 
held a meeting in order to represent to the city au- 
thorities the hardships they felt by the police restrict- 
ing their means of livelihood. 

COTTAGE. The term was originally applied to a 
small house without land, 4 Edw. I., 12T5. "No man 
may build a cottage, except in towns, unless he lay 
four acres of laud thereto," etc., 31 Eliz., 1.589. This 
statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III., 17T5. By returns 
to the tax ofiice in 1T8G, the number of cottages was 
284,459. The number in 1800 was 428,214 ; th'e num- 
ber in 1840 was about 770,000. In 1800 the public at- 
tention was much drawn to the deplorable state of 
cottages in many parts of the country, and the law of 
eettlement was altered in 1865.* 

COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the <?o.s- 
nypimn, a shrub indigenous in the troi)ical regions of 
India and America. Indian cotton cloth is mention- 
ed by Herodotus, was known in Arabia in the time of 
Mohammed, 027, and was brought into Europe by his 
followers. It does not appear to have been in use 
among the Chinese till the 13th century; to them we 
are indebted for the cotton fabric termed nankeen. 
Cotton was the material of the principal articles of 
clothing among the Americans when visited by Co- 
lumbus. It was grown and manufactured in Spain in 
the loth century, and iu the 14th century was intro- 
duced into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cot- 
tons were so largely imported into England in the 17th 
century, that in 1700 an act of Parliament was passed 
l)rohil)iting their introduction. Cotton became the 
staple commodity of England in the ])resent century. 
About 1841 the "cotton" or "Manchester" interest be- 
gan to obtain political influence, which led to the re- 
peal of the corn laws in 1S46. See Calico, Muslin, etc. 

PROGRESS OP TnE COTTON MANCFAOTURE IN ENGLAND. 

Fiuitian and Velveteen made of cotton about 1641. 

Calico, Sheeting, etc.— The fly-shuttle was invented by 
John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop-box by Robert 
Kay, 1700 ; spinning by rollers (also attributed to 
John Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738 ; the 
spinning -jenny, by Ilargreaves, 1767 ; the water- 
frame, by Arkwright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by Rev. 
Dr. Edmund Cartwright, 17S5 ; the dressing ma- 
chine, by Johnson and Radcliffe, 1802-4; aijother 
power-loom, by llorrocks, 1803-13. A combing ma- 
chine was patented by Joshua Heilmaun in 1845. 



* TIte t\>Uag€r^H Slave was desiprned by Cnptain .Inhn Grant, regis- 
tered Dec, 1849, and presented by him to ttie Metronolitan Association 
for Improving the Dwellincs of the Industrious Classes. It requires 
no fixinfr, is extremely simple in its eonstniction, and all the opera- 
tions of cookinf; may be carried on with any description of fuel. 100 
lbs. of nieat and lir> lbs. of vegetables have been cooked iu one of these 
Btovea with lesa than 2U lbs. of coal. See Cvtiktry, 



British Muslin (totally superseding that of India) is 
due mainly to the invention of the Mule {ivhich see) 
by Samuel Crompton, 1774-9 ; and to the self-acting 
mule of Mv. Roberts, 1825. 

Calico J'riiitiiHj commenced 1704. 

The Steavi-ei„iine lirst ajjplied to the cotton manufac- 
ture (l)y Boulton and Watt), 1785. 

Blenchiiiij liy means of chhn-ide of lime introduced by 
Mr. Tenuant, of Glasgow, 1798. 

Stuckin<is.~The stockiiig-lVame was invented by Wil- 
liam Lee in l,'i89. Cottmi. stockinqs were first made 
by hand about 1730 ; Jedidiah Str'utt obtained a pat- 
ent for Derby ribbed stockings in 1759 ; and Mor- 
ton patented his knotter frame in 1776; Crompton's 
mule was employed in making thread for the stock- 
ing manufacture about 1770. 

Cotton Lace— Bobbin-net.— The. stocking-frame of Lee 
was applied to lace-making by Hammond about 1708; 
the process perfected by John Heathcoat, 1809. 

COTTON FIBRE IMl'ORTEn INTO TUE TJNITED KINGHOM. 



1697 lbs. 1,976,3.59 

1710 715,008 

17.30 1,545,472 

1764 3,870,392 

1782 11,828,039 

1790 81,500,000 

1800 56,000,000 

1810 132,500,000 



1820 lbs. 151,500,000 

1830 264,000,000 

1840 592,500,000 

1860 1,390,938,7.52 

1861 1,256,984,736 

1862 523,973,296 

1863 669,.583,264 

1S64 893,304,720 



American Co»o!i.— Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
came from the East and West Indies, the Levant, 
and a little from the Uuited States. About 1786, the 
growth of cotton began iu Georgia. In 1793, Eli 
Whitney, an American, invented the saw-gin, a ma- 
chine by which cotton wool is separated" from the 
pod and cleaned with great ease and expedition. 
This led to such increased cultivation that the United 
States soon exported 1,500,000 lbs. of cotton ; in 
1795, 5,250,000 lbs. ; in 1820, 89,999,174 lbs. ; in 1830, 
210,885,358 lbs. ; iu 1840, 487,856,504 lbs. ; in 1847, 
364,599,291 lbs. ; in 1859, 961,707,264 lbs. ; in ISOO, 
1,115,890,608 lbs. ; in 1801, 819,500,528 lbs. 

Cotton imported from other countries : In 1847, 
110,208,324 lbs.; in 18.59, 264,281,808 lbs.; iu 1860, 
215,048,144 lbs. ; iu 1861, 437,481,208 lbs. 

Australian Cotton is said by Manchester manufactur- 
ers to be superior to the best American cotton, Jan., 
IS'Ol. A company was formed at Manchester iu 
Sept., 1800, to endeavor to obtain cotton from In- 
dia, Africa, and other places. It arose out of tlie 
Cotton Supply Association, formed in 1857. Since 
1801, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egj'pt, Italj-, 
etc., has greatly increased. 

Cotton Factories were regulated by acts of Parliament 
passed in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of 
labor were limited, and the employment of children 
under nine years of age prohibited. In 1840, 1724 
cotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In 1802, the 
persons employed were stated to be 451,000 : 315,000 
in Lancashire. 

FROM THE 

Official Value. 

1847 £23.333,225 

1859 48,202,225 

1860 52,012,430 

1801 40,872,489 

1802 , 36,7.50,971 

1803 47,587,188 

1804 54,850,289 

In 1800, 12,419,090 cwt. of raw cotton was imported, of 
which 9,903,309 cwt. came from the Uuited States, 
and 1,822,689 cwt. from India. 
The supply of cotton from the United States nearly 
ceased in consequence of the secession of the South- 
ern States from the Union in 1800-01. In 1S62, Mr. T. 
Bazley warned the country on the danger of trust- 
ing to this source. In May, 1862, he" stated that 
through its failure the loss of the laboring classes 
was i;i2,0UO,0O0 sterling a year, and that the loss, 
including the employing classes, might be estimated 
at nearly X40, 000,000 a year. 
At a meeting of the noblemen and gentlemen con- 
nected with the cotton manufacturing districts at 
I'.ridgewater House, St. James's, on July 19, 1862, the 
Eai-l\)f Derby in the chair, £10,000 were subscribed 
to the Cottoii District Relief Fund. The Viceroy of 
Egypt, in London at the time, gave XIOOO and the 
queen gave £2000 on July 24. Liberal subscriptions 
flowed in from all parts. On Aug. 28 the lord mayor 
had received £41,902. 
In the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 
there were receiving parish relief, Sept., ISOl, 43,500 



EXPORTS OF COTTON GOOPS, YARN, ETC. 
TTNITED K1NGD0.M. 
Official Value. 

£5,915 

23,253 

45,986 

3.55,000 

1790 1,662,369 

1800 .5,406,501 

1820 20,509,926 



1697 . 
1701 , 
1751 . 

1780. 



COT 



150 



cou 



persons ; in Sept., 1862, 103,498.— JEarZ o/Derbij, Dec. 
'2, 1S62. 
In July, 1863, about the value of £700,000 remained of 
the donations which had been received in money and 
goods, amounting to about Xl,900,000. 
On Feb. 9, 1S63, the " George Griswold" arrived, con- 
taining contributions of provisions, etc., from North 
America, for the relief of the sufferers in Lancashire. 
The Union Relief Act (passed in 1862, and continued 
in 1803) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
borrow money to be expended in public works to 
be executed by the unemployed workmen. 
In Oct., 1804, much distress still existed, and fears were 
entertained for the approaching winter— 90,000 more 
paupers than ordinary in cotton districts. — Times, 
Jan. 18, 1805. 
In June, 1805, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner, 
was recalled by the poor-law board, and the famine 
was declared to be ended. i;i,000,000 had been ex- 
pended in two years. 
The executive of the Central Relief Fund held their 
last meeting Dec. 4, 1865. 

COTTONIAN LIBRARY, formed with great labor 
and judgment by Sir Robert Cotton, 1600, et seq. It 
was with difficulty rescued from the fury of the Re- 
publicans during the Protectorate, and was secured 
to the public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to 
Essex House in 1712, and in 1730 to Dean's Yard, West- 
minster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books 
sustained damage by tire. The library was removed 
to the British Museum in 1757. 

COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is said to 
have so arranged the business of the nation that all 
resolutions passed through three councils. The ttrst 
was a select council, to which those only high in the 
king's contidence were admitted ; here were debated 
all affairs that were to be laid before the second coun- 
cil — bishops and nobles appointed by the king like 
the present Privy Council. The third was a general 
assembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, Wittenage- 
mot, to which quality and offices gave a right to sit, 
independent of the king. In these three councils we 
behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils 
and the antiquity of Parliaments. See Cabinet, Com- 
mon, and Priey Councils, etc. 

COUNCILS OF THE CauKcn. The following are 
among the most memorable. Those numbered are the 
General Councils. Sir Harris Nicolas, in his "Chro- 
nolot^y of History," enumerates 1004 councils, and gives 
an alphabetical list. 

Of the Church at Jerusalem (,Acts xv.) 50 

Of the Western bishops at Aries, in France, to sup- 
press the Donatists ; three fathers of the English 
Church attended 314 

I. First Ecumenical or General, at Nice (Constan- 
tine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- 
tiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, 
and composed the Nicene Creed 325 

At Tyre, against Athausius 335 

The first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy 

gained ground 337 

At Rome, in favor of Athanasius 342 

At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
demned 347 

At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new Confession 359 

II. Constantinople : 350 bishops attended, and 
Pope Damasus presided May to July, 381 

III. Ephesus, when Pope Celestine presided ; Pe- 
lagius censured June 22 to July 31, 431 

IV. Chalcedon : Marcian and his empress attend- 
ed ; Eutychianism censured Oct. 8, 451 

V. Constantinople, when Pope Vigilius presided ; 
against errors of Origeu May 4 to June 2, 553 

VI. Constantinople, when Pope Agatho presided ; 
against Mouothelites Nov. 7, 080, to Sept. 10, 681 

Authority of the six general councils re-established 
by Theodosius 715 

VII. Second Nicene Council ; 350 bishops attend- 
ed ; against Iconoclasts Sept. 24 to Oct. 23, 787 

VIII. Constantinople : the Emperor Basil attend- 
ed ; against Iconoclasts and various heresies, 

Oct. 5, 809, to Feb. 28, 870 
At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to authorize 
the crusades : 310 bishops attended 1095 

IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled by 
treaty between Pope Calixtus II. and the Emper- 
or Henry V March 18 to April 5,1123 

X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; pres- 
ervation of temporalities of ecclesiastics the 
principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the Church at- 
tended April 20,1139 

XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics, Mar. 5-19,1179 



XIL Fottrth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 abbots 
attended ; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- 
geuses, etc Nov. 11-30,1215 

XIII. Lyons; under Pope Innocent IV. : Emperor 
Frederick II. deposed June 28 to July 17,1245 

XIV. Lyons; under Gregory X. : temporary union 

of Greek and Latin churches. May 7 to June 17,1274 

XV. Vienue in Dauphine : Clement V. presided, 
and the kings of France and Aragon attended; 
the order of the Knights Templars suppressed, 

Oct. 10, 1311 ; April 3 and May 0,1312 

XVI. Pisa : Gregory XII. and Benedict XIIL de- 
posed, and Alexander elected, Mar. 5 to Aug. 7,1409 

XVII. Constance : Martin V. is elected pope ; and 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to 

be burnt 1414-1418 

XVIII. Basil 1431-1443 

XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II 1512 

Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the 

Pragmatic Sanction of France against the Coun- 
cil of Pisa, etc., till 151T 

XX. Trent ; the last styled (Ecumenical ; was held 
to condemn the doctrines of the reformers, Lu- 
ther, Zuinglius, and Calvin (see Trent), 

Dec. 13, 1545, to Dec. 3,1563 

COUNCILS, Feench Republican. The Council of 
Ancients was an assembly of revolutionary France, 
consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris Nov. 1, 
1795, together with the Council of Five Hundkej): the 
executive was a directory of Five. Bonaparte dis- 
persed the Council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov. 
9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and SioyCscon- 
suls 2)rovisoires. See France. 

COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the curia 
regis. Advocates are referred to the time of Edward I., 
but earlier mention is made of them. Counsel who 
were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by 
the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I., 1284. Counsel 
were allowed to persons charged with treason by act 
8 Will. III., 1690. The act to enable persons Indicted 
for felony to make their defense by counsel passed 
Aug., 1830. See Barristers. 

COUNT, from the Latin comes, a companion, and 
French comte; somewhat equivalent to the English 
earl, whose wife is still termed a countess. Count 
corresponds to the German graf. See Champagne and 
To^tlou.•ie. 

COUNTERPOINT (in music), writing the chords to 
a melody. The earliest specimen of contrapuntal 
writing extant is by Adam de la Halle in the 12th cen- 
tury. 

COUNTIES OP. SniEES. The division of England 
into counties began, it is said, with King Alfred ; but 
some counties bore their present names above a cen- 
tury before. The division of Ireland into counties 
took place in 1502. Lord lieutenants were appointed 
in 1549 in England and in 1831 in Ireland. Counties 
first sent members to Parliament, before which period 
knights met in their own counties, 1285. Cuandos 
Clause, Sect. 20 of the Reform Act, 2 Will. IV., c. 45 
(1832), inserted by the motion of the Marquis of Chau- 
dos. By it occupiers as tenants of land paying an an- 
nual rental of £60 became entitled to a vote for the 
knight of the shire. It had the effect of increasing 
the number of Tory voters, and, in consequence, sever- 
al vain attempts have been made to repeal the clause. 

COUNTRY PARTY. See Coiirt Party. 

COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers 
to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were com- 
mon among the Persians. The Greeks or Romans 
had no regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when 
they traveled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts 
are said to have been instituted in France by Charle- 
magne about A.D. 800. The couriers for letters were 
employed in the early part of the reign of Louis XL 
of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary ea- 
gerness for news. They were the first institution of 
the kind in Europe, liGS.—Hmanlt. See Post-Offlce. 

COURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, subjected to Po- 
land in 1582, conqueredby Charles XII. of Sweden in 
1701 ; afterward restored" to Sweden, but annexed to 
Russia in 1795. 

COURT PARTY-COUNTRY PARTY, classes of 
politicians of fluctuating numbers and varying power 
in the Parliaments of England, beginning about 1620. 
At the end of the 17th century the latter embodied 
Toryism and High-Church principles with a strenuous 
maintenance of the assumed rights of "the land," as 
opposed to the innovations of Whiggism and the cor- 
ruptions of the trading interests. Its most distin- 



cou 



151 



CRA 



gtiisherl statesman was Sir Thomas Hanmer (the Mon- 
iulto of Pope's Sa(ires), who died iu 1740. — Ashe. 

COUKTRAI (lUli^ium). Here Kobert, count of Ar- 
tois, who had ddcattd the Flemings iu 1297, was de- 
feated and slain by them, July 11, 130'.'. The conflict 
was named the " tattle of Spurs," from the number 
of gilt spurs collected. 

Ct»rUT OF HONOR. In England, the court of 
chivalry, of which the lord higli constable was a judge, 
was called Ciin'd Militan's in the lime of Henry IV., 
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In Bavaria, to 
prevent dueling, a court of honor was instituted In 
April, 1819. Mi-. Joseph Hamilton for many] years ar- 
dently labored to establish a similar institution iu 
Britain. 

COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at Athens, 
1.^07 B.C. (see AreiojMgm) ; by Moses, 1491 B.C. {Exod. 
xviii., 25). They existed under various denominations 
iu Rome. For Great Britain, see Chancery, Common 
Pleas, Excheqiier, King's Bench, etc. The citizens of 
London were privileged to plead their own cause in 
the courts of judicature, without employing lawyers, 
except iu pleas of the crown, 41 Heu. III., 1257. — Stmv. 
The rights of the Irish courts were established by the 
British Parliament iu April, 17S3. 

COURTS-MARTIAL are regulated by the Mutiny 
Act, first passed in 1690. 

COUTRAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of Navarre 
totally defeated the Due de Joyeuse and the Royalists, 
Oct. 20, 15S7. 

COVENANTERS, a name particularly applied to 
those persons who in the reign of Charles I. took tlie 
solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engag- 
ing to stand by each other in opposition to the proj- 
ects of the king ; it was entered into in 1038. The 
COVENANT or league between England and Scotland 
(the preceding one modified) was adopted and solemn- 
ly received by the Parliament, Sept. 25, 1403,* and was 
accepted by Charles II. Aug. 16, 1650, but repudiated 
by him on his restoration iu 1661, when it was declared 
to be illegal by Parliament, and copies of it ordered to 
be burnt all over England. See Cameronians. 

COVENT GARDEN (London), so called from hav- 
ing been the garden of St. Peter's con veut. The square 
was built about 1033, and the piazza on the north side 
and the church were designed by Inigo Jones. The 
fruit and vegetable markets were rehuilt in 1829-30, 
from designs by Mr. Fowler (on about three acres of 
ground belonging to the Duke of Bedford). 

COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang out of one 
in Lincoln's Inn Fields, through a patent granted 14 
Chas. II., 1662, to Sir William Daveuant, whose com- 
pany was denominated the " duke's servants," as a 
compliment to the Duke of York, afterward James II. 
See under Theatres. — The present theatre by Barry was 
opened May 15, 1858. The Flaral Hall adjoining it was 
opened iu March 17, 1800, with the Volunteers' Ball. 

COVENTRY ACT. Sir John Coventry, K.B , M.P., 
was maimed and had his nose slit in the streets of 
London by Sir Thomas Sandys and others, the adher- 
ents of the Duke of Monmouth, Dec. 21, 1670. This 
outrage caused the Coventry Act to be passed, to pre- 
vent malicious maimiug and wounding, March 0, 1671 ; 
repealed in 1S2S. 

COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl of Mer- 
cia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved it from 
heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on 
condition of her riding naked through the streets, 
about 1057. Processions iu her memory took place in 
1851, and ou June 23, 1862. A Parliament was held 
here in the reign of Henry IV., called I'arlknnrntum 
indoetum, or the unlearned Parliament, because law- 
yers were excluded; and in the reiL'ii of Henry VI. 
another met here afterward called ParUainentmn dia- 
bolieum, from the acts of attainder passed against tiie 
Duke ofYork and others. The town was surrounded 
with strong walls, three miles in circumference, and 
twenty-sixtowers, which were demolished by order 
of Charles II. in 1062. The ribbon-makers here sutfer- 
edmucli from want of work in the winter of 1860-1. — 
The BisuorRic was funiuled by Oswy, king of Mercia, 
050, and had the double name of ("ovcntry and Lich- 
field, which was reversed by later liishops. It was so 



* It consisted of six nrticles : 1, the preservation of the Reformed 
Church in Scotland, and the reformation of relipion in England and 
Ireland ; 2, the extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, etc. ; 3, the pres- 
ervation of the liherties of Parliament and the kintx's person and au- 
thority ; 4, the discovery and punishment of all maliffnants, etc. ; 5, the 
preservation of*' a l.lessed peace between these kingdoms ;" 6, the as- 
sisting all who enter into the covenant : " T/ii3 will we do aa in the sight 
of God." 



wealthy that King Offa, by the favor of Pope Adrian, 
made it archiepiscopal ; but this title was laid aside on 
the death of that king. In 1075 the see was removed 
to Chester ; in 1102 to Coventry ; and afterward to its 
original foundation, Lichfield, but with great opposi- 
tion from the monks of Coventry. Coveutry has late- 
ly merged iuto the bishopric of Lichfield. — iJea^son. 
See Lichfield. 

COWPENS, Battle at the. This battle-ground is 
in Spartanburg District, South Carolina, amono- the 
Thicketty Mountains. There, ou the 17th of Jan. 
1781, a very severe battle was fought between the Amer- 
icans under Geueral Daniel Morgan, and the British 
under Colonel Tarleton. The combat continued more 
thau two hours, with mutual skill and bravery The 
British were defeated, with a loss of almost 300 men 
killed and wounded, 500 men made prisoners and a 
large quantity of ammunition, stores, and ba'^-n-atre 
The Americans lost 70 men, only 12 of whoni were 
killed. Congress gave Morgan a gold medal iu com- 
memoration of his brilliant victory. 

CRACOW (a city in Austrian Poland). The Poles 
elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cracow with 
the spoils taken from the Franks, 700 ct scq. Cracow 
was taken by Charles XII. iu 1702. Taken and re- 
taken several times by the Russians and other confed- 
erates. The sovereign was cro^vned at Cracow until 
1704. Kosciusko expelled the Russians from the city, 
March 24,1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians, 
Juue 1.5, same year, aud in 1795 was awarded to Aus- 
tria. Cracow was formed into a republic in 1815. Oc- 
cupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed here the de- 
feated Poles, Sept, 1831. Its independence was ex- 
tinguished ; and it was seized by the Emperor of Aus- 
tria, and incorporated with his empire, Nov. 16, 1846, 
which was protested against by England, France, Swe- 
den, and Turkey. See Poland. A dreadful fire laid 
the greater part of the city iu ashes, July IS, 1S50. 

CRANES are of very early date, for the engines of 
Archimedes may be so called. In 1857 a crane had 
been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 tons. 

CRANEY ISLAND, Defense of. This island is 
about five miles below Norfolk. It was fortified by 
Americans, uuder the general command of Col. Beatly 
(the artillery under Major Faulkner). They gallantly 
defended it from attack by about 2500 British troops 
on the 22d June, 1813. The British lost about 200 meu; 
the Americans none. 

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), names given to 
the study of the external form of the human skull, as 
indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. 
Gall, the first propounder, was a German physician, 
born March, 1758. His first observatious were among 
his school-fellows. Afterward he studied the heads of 
criminals and others, and eventually reduced his ideas 
to a system, marking out the skull like a map. His 
first lecture was given at Vieuna in 1796; but iu 1802 
the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. In 
ISOO he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 
they published at Paris their great work on the "Anat- 
omy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of 
the Brain in particular." Gall died in 1828. What- 
ever opinion may be entertaiued of phrenology, there 
is no doubt that the researches of Gall and Spiirzheim 
have contributed greatly to physiological science, ani- 
mal and mental. Combe's "Phrenology," first pub- 
lished in 1819, is the popular English work on this 
subject. Phrenological societies were formed early in 
London and Edinburg. 

CRANMER, Latimer, and Eipley, martjrdom of, 
see Persecutions, note. 

CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. The Macedonians 
uuder Autipater and Craterus defeated the confeder- 
ated Greeks twice by sea, and once by land, near Cra- 
non. The Athenians demanded peace, and Autipater 
put their orators to death, among whom was Hyperi- 
des, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his 
country when under torture, cut out his tongue, 322 
B.C. Demosthenes is said to have taken poison short- 
ly after.— Du/resnoy. 

CRAONNE (N. France>. Here Victor and Ney de- 
feated the Prussians under Blucher, after a severe 
contest, March 7, 1814. 

CRAPE, a light kind of stuff like gauze, made of 
raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manu- 
facture is of very early date, and it is said some crape 
was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about 
680. It was" first made at Bologna. 

CRAYONS, colored substances made into paste and 



CKE 



152 



cm 



dried into pencils, were known in France about 1422, 
and were improved by L'Oriot, 174S. 

CREASOTE, or Kkeasote (discovered by Reichen- 
bach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and coagula- 
tor of albuminous tissue, is obtained from the de- 
structive distillation of wood and other organic mat- 
ters. It is successfully applied to the preservation of 
meat, timber, etc. 

CREATINE (from the Greek hreas, flesh), the chem- 
ical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 by E. 
Chevreul, and has been fully investigated by Liebig 
and Gregory. 

CREATION OF THE WoKLD. The date given by the 
English Bible, and by Usher, Blair, and others, is 4004 
B.C. There are about 140 diff"erent dates assigned to 
the Creation, varying from 3616 years to 6984. Dr. 
Hales fixes it at 5411. 

CRECy, or Cressy (N. France), where Edward III. 
and his son, Edward the Black Prince, and an army 
of about 36,000, obtained a great victory over Philip, 
king of France, with about 130,000, Aug. 26, 1340. 
John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; James, king 
of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign 
princes), and a number of French nobles, together 
with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of 
the English was very small. The crest of the King 
of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with the motto Icli 
Dien — in English, "I serve") has since been adopted 
by Princes of Wales. 

CREDIT FONCIER. A plan of providing loans to 
landowners was introduced by Frederick the Great of 
Prussia in 1703, in some of the Prussian provinces, as 
the best method of alleviating the distresses of the 
landed interest caused by his wars. The system con- 
sists of lending money to landowners on the security 
of their estates, and providing the loan capital by the 
issue of debentures charged upon the aggregate mort- 
gaged estates. There are two modes of carrying out 
this scheme: (1.) by means of an association of land- 
owners ; (2.) by means of a proprietary public com- 
pany. The former obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the 
latter is exclusively found in Western Europe. Credit 
Fancier companies have been founded in Hamburg 
(1TS2), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France 
(1852), England (18G.3). Similar companies are now 
formed, or in course of formation, in all the states of 
Europe, in the United States, and England, her colo- 
nies and dependencies. — Henriqucs. 

CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-stock company with 
this name was established at Paris, Nov. IS, 1852, by 
Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It takes up or 
originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying 
to them the principle oi covimandite, or limited liabil- 
ities ; and is authorized to supersede or buy in any 
other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in 
its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary busi- 
ness of banking. The funds were to be obtained by 
a paid-up capital of '2."i millions sterling, the issue of 
obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and 
the receipt of money on deposit or current account. 
The society apparently prospered ; but is, neverthe- 
less, considered by experienced persons as a near ap- 
proach to Law's bank of 1716. In Sept., 1857, several 
of the directors failed ; and in May, 1858, no dividend 
was paid. The system still exists, and many com- 

Eanies based on its principles were established in 
ondon in 1863. 

CREEDS. See Confessions of Faith. 

CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the Ro- 
mans, 221 B.C. It became an independent republic 
in 1107, but was frequently subjugated by its neigh- 
bors, Milan and Venice, and partook of their fortunes. 
In 1859 it became part of the kingdom of Italy. 

CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among the 
Greeks and Roma- B, and the device of Byzantium, 
now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it. 
The crescent has given name to three orders of knight- 
hood : founded by Charles I. of Naples, 1268 ; by Rene 
of Anjou, in 1448 ; by the Sultan Selim, in 1801 : the 
last is still in existence. 

CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. There are 
several representations of Richard I. (1180), with a 
crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers. 
The English kings had generally crowns above their 
helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by 
a lion on a cap of dignity. See Creqi. Alexander III. 
of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers ; and the 
helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; 
and that of James I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and 
16th centuries, the crest was described to be a figure 



placed npon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance. 

— Gwillim. 

CRETE, now Candia {which see). 

CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N.France). John Stu- 
art, earl of Buchan, with a French army, was besieg- 
ing this place in July, 1423, when it was relieved by 
the Earl of Salisbury with an army of English and 
Burgundians ; after a severe contest, the French were 
totally defeated. 

CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here, on 
June 23, 1758, Prince Frederick of Brunswick defeated 
the French under the Count of Clermont. 

CRICKET, an ancient English national game, said 
to be identical with " club ball" played in the 14th 
century. The present rules of the game were laid 
down in 1774 by a committee of noblemen and gentle- 
men, including the Duke of Dorset and Sir Horace 
Mann. In IsSl the All England Eleven gained and 
lost games in Australia. 

CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a fif- 
teenth part of the population of Great Britain lived 
by crime. The increase in education and manufac- 
tures is gradually reducing this proportion. From 
1848 to 1865 there has been no commitment for politi- 
cal offenses, such as treason or sedition. See Execu- 
tions and Trials. 

CRIMEA, OR Ckiji Tart art, a peninsula in the 
Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Chersonesus, 
colonized by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians 
founded the kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which 
about 108 B.C. formed part of the dominions of Mith- 
ridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued 
to rule the country under Roman protection till the 
irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., about A.D. 258. 
About 1237 it fell into the hands of the Mongols under 
Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians established 
commercial stations, witli a lucrative trade, but were 
supplanted by the Genoese, who were permitted to re- 
build and fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Moham- 
med 11. expelled the Genoese, and subjected the pen- 
insula to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the govern- 
ment to remain in the hands of the native khans, but 
closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, 
by the' intervention of the Empress Catharine II., the 
Crimea recovered its independence ; but on the abdi- 
cation of the khan in 1783, the Russians took posses- 
sion of the country, after a war with Turkey, and re- 
tained it by a treaty of peace in 1792. The Crimea 
(now Taurida) was divided into eight governments in 
1802. War having been declared'against Russia by 
England and France, March 28, 1854, large masses of 
troops were sent to the East, which, after remaining 
some time at Gallipoli and other place*, sailed for 
Varna, where they disembarked May 29th. An expe- 
dition against the Crimea having been determined on, 
the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amount- 
ing to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord 
Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna 
Sept. 3d, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, with- 
out opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 
miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked 
the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong (under 
Prince Menschikofl'), intrenched on the heights of 
Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After :i sharp 
contest the Russians were totally routed. See Alma 
and Rnmo - I'lirkiah War. Peace was proclaimed in 
April, 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea July 12 
following. 

CRIMESUS, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleou 
defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. 

CRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their great se- 
verity, pointed out by Sir Samuel Romilly, Sir James 
Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was considerably 
mitigated by Sir R. Peel's acts, passed 1826-28. The 
criminal law was consolidated in six acts passed in 
1S61. 

CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap persons 
into the army ; hence the name of "crimp sergeant." 
In a riot in Loudon, some of these receptacles M-ere 
destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young 
man who had been enticed into one being killed in 
endeavoring to escape, September 16, 1794. 

CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made 
of cn'ft, hair) is the modern name of the "fardingale" 
of the time of Queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats 
made of whalebone, etc., revived in France and En- 
gland since 1855. They have frequently occasioned 
loss of life by coming "in contact with fire and ma- 
chinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published Jan. 5, 
1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in 
fashion. 



CRI 



153 



CRIPPLEGATE (London) was so-called from the 
lame bouyai's who s;,t there so early as the year lOlo. 
1 e i;ul(j was new built by the brewers of London in 
b-f.f' ""\' ""s pulled down and sold for £d\ in July, 

1% Ivembir'liS" ''"'' '""^'^ '" '''' ^^^^'^^ '^'^'^ 

rn?ufl^u^^. and C'RispiANns are said to have been two 
Galnt^ born at Rome, from whence they traveled to 
boissons in f rauce, to propagate the Christian relig- 
ion, jvjot to be chargeable to others, they worked as 
shoemakers; but the. governor of the town, discover- 
ng them to be Christians, ordered them to be be- 
headed about 2SS On this account the shoemakers 
c^ose Uiem tor their tutelar saints. Their day is Oc- 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 
u.i^.—ljltui: Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Apollo- 
mus, and many distinguished men. In modern times, 
the Jounial dcs i,ravans was the earliest work of the 
system of periodical criticism, as it is now known It 
was originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical coun- 
selor in the Parliament of .Prance, and was first pub- 
lished at Pans, May 30, 1G55, and is still continued 

^f,M- T^*''!,??/*''?,*''™ ''^'"S invented by himself), 
published m Feb., 1703. The Wares of Literature was 
commeuced m 1714, and was discontinued in 1722 



CRU 



CROATIA was conquered by Coloman, kino- of Hun- 

fr17in''l «'■ ThVr "^l^ 'r <="""*''y """^^^ ToA^- 
vember 1861. C^'°^"au Diet was abolished in No- 

CROCKERY-WARE. See Eartlien-ioare. 

CROCODILES were fed well and reverenced ts ri; 
vin ties by the Epptians. The Empeiw Au|us?nst 
said to have collected twenty-five at one time in h s 
amphitheatre where they were killed by gladiators 
fhiS'lSOe? ^'^^ '^ ^^ Doddridge, Gloucester! 

*K^5°^^', ^'^-vl T^®^* ^^^^^ island, purchased from 
the French by Christian VI., king of Denmark, in 1733 • 
taken by Sir Alexander Cochrane, December 22 1807 • 
restored in 1814. ' ' 

CROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Oxfordshire 
Here the Royalists defeated Sir William Waller and 
the army of the Parliament, June 29, 1644. 

CROQUETTE. A' new game for out of door u=^e 
played with wickets, mallets, and balls. It has be- 
come fashionable, and much used since 1863. 

CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne be- 
.% an archbishop. The pastoral staff or bishop's 
staff, with which it is often confounded, was in the 
lorm of a shepherd's crook, intended to admonish the 
prelate to be a true spiritual shepherd. The bearing 
"/^'•'^i'^r 'before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life 
ot St.Cassarea of Aries, about 500. 

CRO.SS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on 
Mount Calvary was said to have been found at Jerusa- 
I'r™' r£R"^^!^^."'"°""'' with two others, by St.Helena, 
May o,.32b ; Christ's being distinguished from those of 
the thieves by a sick woman being cured by touching 
It. It w^as carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia 
on the plundering of Jerusalem, but was recovered bv 
the Emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) 
tept 14, 615, and that day has since been commemo- 
rated as the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross " 
established in 642.— It is asserted by Church writers 
tnat a shining cross, two miles in length, was seen in 
the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him to 
adopt It on his standards, with the inscription "In 
h"c Jivmo vinces;" "in this sign thou shalt conquer." 
VVith these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquish- 
ed iAlaxentiu.?, October 27, 312.— Lenglet. 
Si^jniiir, with the Cross was first practiced bv Chris- 
tians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans 
aI)out 110; and in the time of Tertullian, 260 it 
was deemed efHcacious against poison, witch- 
crait, etc. 
Crosiies in churchm and chambers were introduced 

about 431, and set up on steeples about. . . 568 

J\Unds of the Cross were a community of youno- 
women \yho made vows of poverty, chastity"! 

and obedience, instituted in 1265 

Crosses in honor of Queen Eleanor were set li Id' in 
the places where her hearse rested, between 1296 
_(w hen she died) and ISq-j- 

in Vfh %'-.74'wL"„^ ''"''■ ";.""™ 7"^ estabIislK.Thrth^„^lisi7WKs 
in „n,h ■ • f "''''°" ,""'' "^"^^^ P-eat attention, brouglit bv 

m. nnthor agamst a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work w^ 

altwable hl^r;.!,' "' .''/'•''f ""'• ™ '>"' F'-ipl^ that criticism 1^ 
aiiowaoic, However 8bar]i,If just, and not malicious. 



^ c°hufclfe°'^ nnd ''i'"''' P'?*"^'^^ ^'^'-^ ^-^"^oved from 
jTi^lP^^SZ^:^' ^''-'« demolished 
s?it"uted bv h"'''^' "-^ ''" ^ta;of{heC;ossy;^; Yn}^^^ 
queenlf'Ze^o'^folf riT.^"^°"°- ''' '''^^'^\,,, 

Gr^eKZuTo B^c'Si^'^T^^'^^ '^y ^i^^" Achaean 
520 B.C. ■ ^^'■'^ Pythagoras taught about 

D^vW^S ic.ti^^f) '"Tlfe'^^.'f i;^ "•"-'^ t« 
wore a crown wai Tar'quin'the'Elder'eierc'' Th2 

ft ra^ ?^^^^fof^«!^v1s"a1d'■K'^^^^^^^^ 

adorned with jeweK See S' '' ^"^ ^''° °^ ''"^^ 

'' it' rsaklfo^'hav,^^ bf^ *r ''"'^ '^^"« '-attached (872) ; 

^ Y"^^'^-e^^i^S-Si^tKSl ■ 
mentary inventory taken in 1649. '^''''^" 

W m 'm VwnvpV'"'"™'^'"'^ ""^ ^^'-l'^ coronet, 929. 

pS,lb6r ' ^'' "■°'™ °^ ^ ^«P adorned with 
Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483 
Henry VIL introduced the arches, 1485 
The crown of Charles IL, made in 1660, is the oldest 

existing in our day. See Blood's Consinracv 
The crown and regalia of England were p ed^ed to 

Zl n^y- ^,«°f^"n.by Richard IL for £2000 if 13S6 

See th« king's receipt on redeeming them._iV,/w?,- 
Ihe Imperial Stat^ Crown of Engla^^ was made by 

Riindell and Bridges in 1838, principally wih jewels 
aken from old crowns. It contains 1 large rbv 
';?J-§,e sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies' 

1303 brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table ria- 

mond.s^4 drop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls.-P t 
fessor Tennant. i"=aiio. x-io 

CROWN LANDS. The revenue arising from those 
m England is now nearly all subject to Parliament 
which annually provides for the support of the s"verl 
e ign and government.. The annua/revenue now ads- 
ing from crown lands is about .£284,500. The revenues 
o the duch.es of Cornwall andLancaster belong to 
he Prince of Wales, and accumulate durinn- his minor 
ity. Henry .VII(14S5) resumed those VbVch had been 
given to their follo^^•ers by the sovereigns of the house 
of -iork The hereditary estates of the crown were 

gS^liwaJd^-^r^-,^^^,!;:.^ 

culation '^ "''" g^'^'l^^Uy ^^ withdrawn iVom di- 

^u^PT^l^ J^"^ """^ P^^^^^ fo"" their destruction in En- 
g and (which breeds more of them, it is said, than fny 
other country m Europe), 24 Hen. VIIL, 1532. CWs 
were anciently employed as letter-bearers, as can^er- 
pigeous are now. o, ao 1,0.1111^1. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common 
f. f ^vpl'f ^^'''fil' ^gyP«'">^S Persians, Carth^igin- 
lans, Greeks, and Romans, esteemed the most dread- 
ful oil account of the shame attached to it • it was 
usually accompanied by other tortures. Ariarkthes of 
Cappadocia, a^ed 80, when vanquished by Perdiccas 
was discovered among the prisoners, and by the coi> 
queror;s orders was flayed alive and nailed to a cross, 
with his principal officers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was 
crucined April 3, A.D. 33, BibU (April 15, A D 2') Clin- 
ton; March 28, A.D. 31, Hales). Crucifixion wa.s or- 
dered to be discontinued by Constantine, 330.-imr/- 
let. See Death, Pimishme7it of, •' 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, (London) Royal Soote- 
TY FOR THE PREVENTION OP, was instituted in 1824' 
ihrough Its exertion hundreds of cases of cruelty are 
annually prosecuted. Acts for the protection of ani- 
mals were passed in 1S.'J5 and 18.39. A similar society 
exists in Paris and in many of the cities of the United 
Mates. In lS60*both societies endeavored to repress 
vivisection (physiological experiments on living ani- 

CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars undertaken 
by the Christian powers to drive the infidels from Je- 
rusalem and the adjacent countries, called the Holy 
Land. They were projected bv Peter Gautier, or Peter 
the Hermit, an enthusiastic French oflicer of Amiens 
who turned pilgrim. Having traveled in the Holy 
Land, on his return he deplored to Pope Urban II 
that infidels should be in possession of the city where 
Christ had tanght. Urban convened a council of 310 
bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambas- 
sadors of the chief Christian potentates assisted and 
gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe 



CRY 



154 



CUI 



to a general war, 1094. The first crnsacle was publish- 
ed ; an army of 300,000 men was raised ; Peter had the 
direction of it, and Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 
1095. — Voltaire. The warriors wore a red cross upon 
the right shoulder, with the name of Croises, Crossed, 
or Crusaders ; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's 
will." — The French government are publishing the 
"Western Historians of the Crusades in a maguificent 
form (1844-60). 

I. Crusade (109G) ended by Jerusalem being taken by 
assault, July 15, 1099, and in establishing Godfrey de 
Bouillon as" kiug. 

II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1140, headed by the 
Emperor Conrad 11. and Louis VII. of France. Cru- 
saders defeated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. 

III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, etc., in 1183, join- 
ed by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England, 
in 1190. Ghjrious, but fruitless. 

IV. 1195, by Emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his 
death in 119T. 

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constan- 
tinople in 1202. His companions returned. 

VI. In 1228, by Emperor Frederick II., who obtained 
possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 
1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, 
but soon departed. 

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), who was defeated and 
taken prisoner at Mausourah, April 5, 1250 ; released 
by ransom ; truce of teu years. • 

VIII. And last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died 
on his way of a contagious disease, at Carthage, in 
Africa. Other princes followed him, among otliers 
Prince Edward, afterward Edward I. In 1291 the 
soklan took Acre, and the Christians were driven 
out of Syria. 

CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by 
Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate the relation 
between evaporation at low temperatures and the pro- 
duction of cold. 

CRYPTOGRAPHIC MACHINE for carrying on se- 
cret correspondence, patented 1S60. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science relating to 
the symmetrical forms assumed by substances passing 
from the liquid to the solid state. Rome de Lisle pub- 
lished his " Essai de Cristallographie" in 1772 ; but 
Roue-Just Haiiy is justly regarded as the founder of 
the modern school of crystallography (1801).— Wkeio- 
ell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller are eminent modern 
writers on this subject. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, New York. This building 
was opened July 14, 185.3, by President Pierce, for a 
universal industrial exhibition. It stood in Reservoir 
Square. Its main buildings and galleries covered an 
area of 17.3,000 square feet. After'the close of the ex- 
hibition it was used by tlie American Institute for its 
fairs and for meetings of various kinds. On Oct. 5, 
1858, it was destroyed by fire, together with a great 
number of articles sent for exhibition at the American 
Institute. The Crystal Palace was owned by a stock 
company, was designed by Messrs. Carstensen and 
Gildemeister, of New York, and was considered a beau- 
tiful piece of architecture. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The exhibition 
building of 1851 having been surrendered to Messrs. 
Fox and Henderson on Dec. 1, 1S51, the materials were 
sold for £70,000 to a company (formed by Mr. Leach), 
who soon after commenced erecting the present Crys- 
tal Palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent 
(300 acres having been purchased for the purpose), un- 
der the direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, Messrs. Owen 
Jones, Digby Wyatt, and other gentlemen engaged in 
the erection of the precedint; structure. The proposed 
capital of £500,000 (in loo.uuo ■■shares of £5 each) was 
increased in Jan., 1853, to a million pounds. In addi- 
tion to the permanent exhibition, there are extensive 
gardens, with magnificent fountains, etc., illustrations 
of zoology, geology, botanj', ethnology, etc. 

First column raised by S. Laing, M.P Aug. 5,1852 

During the progress of the works as many as 0400 
men were ensaged at one time. By the fall of 

scaffolding, 12 men killed ' Aug. 15,1853 

Dinner given to Professor Owen and a party of 
savans in the interior of the model of the igua- 
nodon,constructedby Mr. Waterhouse Hawlcins, 

Dec. 31, " 

The palace opened by the queen June 10,1854 

Grand musical/e^e on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, 

Oct. '28, " 
The palace visited by the Emperor and Empress 
of the French, etc April 20,1855 



First grand display of the great fountains, in pres- 
ence of the queen and 20,000 spectators, June 18,1856 

The receipts were £115,627; the expenditure, 
£87,872 ; not including payments for preference 
shares, etc., in the year ending April 30,1S5T 

The preliminary Handel festivals, June 15, 17, 19, 
1857 ; and July 2, 18.58 (sec Handel) ; the Handel 
festival itself took place on. .June 20, 22, and 24,1859 

On the fast day (for the Indian mutiny) Rev. C. 
Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons ; £476 
were collected, to which the C. P. company add- 
ed £200 Oct. 7,1857 

Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated: 
the directors awarded £50 to a prize poem on 
the subject, which was obtained by Miss Isa 
Craig Jan. 25,1859 

Festival kept in honor of Schiller, Nov. 10, 1859 ; 
of Mendelssohn May 4,1860 

London charity children sing here June 6, " 

3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) per- 
form choral music, June 25; the Imperial Band 
of Guides perform, June 20 ; both dine in the 
palace June 30, " 

About 100 English brass bands perform. . .July 10, " 

North wing injured by a gale of wind Feb. 21,1861 

Haydn's " Creation" performed (Costa, conductor). 

May 1, " 

Blondin's performances on an elevated rope begin 
here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates fall- 
ing, etc.) June 1, " 

Another successful Handel festival; a new arched 
roof constructed for the orchestra ; about 4000 
vocal and instrumental performers, 

June 23, 25, 27,1862 

Successful Handel festival June 26, 28, 30,1865 

CRYSTAL PALACES. Since the clo.sing of the 
London Crystal Palace, similar buildings have been 
constructed in Paris (opened May 1, 1855) and in Mu- 
nich (opened in 18&4). 

CUBA, an island (W. Indies) discovered by Colum- 
bus on his first voyage, Oct. 28, 1492, conquered by Ve- 
lasquez, 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. 
The buccaneer Morgan took Havana (see Bucca- 
neers) 1669 

The fort of Havana erected by Admiral Vernon, 1741 
Havana taken by Admiral Pococke and Lord Al- 
bemarle in 1765, but restored at the peace 1763 

"Lone Star" Society (which see) for the acquisition 

of Cuba, etc., formed 1848 

Expedition under General Lopez and a large body 
of Americans, with the view of wresting this isl- 
and from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba 

(defeated) Mav 17,1850 

The President of the United States (Taylor) had 
previously published a strong proclamation de- 
nouncing the object of the invaders. . . .Aug. 11,1849 
Cuba again invaded by Lopez and his followers, 

Aug. 13,1851 
They were defeated and taken ; 50 were shot, and 

Lopez garroted atllavana {t-ee Lone Star), Sept. 1, " 
The President of the United States again issued a 
proclamation against an intended expedition 

against Cuba May 31,1854 

Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule,United States 
envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba, 

Oct., " 
The Spanish minister in Cortes declared that the 
sale of Cuba would be " the sale of Spanish hon- 
or itself" Dec. 19, " 

CUBIT, a measure of the ancients, by which the ark 
of Noah was measured (B.C. 2US).—Holden. The He- 
brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great 
cubit eleven English feet. Originally it was the dis- 
tance from the elbow, bending inward, to the extrem- 
ity of the middle fiuger. —Calmet. 

CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other ancient 
poets, were brought to England from the Netherlands 
about 1538. 

CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of'the Carnatic, 
was acquired by the English in 1681. It w^as reduced 
by the French in 17.58, but was recaptured in 1760 by 
Sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a de- 
structive siege by the British under General Stuart in 
17S3, which was continued until peace was signed, 
when it reverted to them, 1784. 

CUIRASS, a part of armor much in use by the Greeks 
and Homans.— Tacitus. The skins of beasts, and aft- 
erward tanned leather, formed the cuirass of the Brit- 
ons until the Anglo-Saxon era. It was afterward 
made of iron and brass, and covered the warrior from 



CUL 1 

neck to waist before and behind. The cnirass was 
worn by the heavy cavah-y in the reiun of Henry III., 
ILlb ct neq.* Napoleon had several regiments of cav- 
alry wearing cuirasses. 

CULLEN'S WOOD (Ireland) : a horrible slaughter 
of the English by the Irish took place at a village near 
Dublin, on Easter or fifa(•^• Monday, so called from this 
massacre, March 30, 1209. The English were a colony 
Irom Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence thev went to 
divert themselves at Cullen'sWood, when the'O'Bymes 
and O'Tooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, 
besides women and children. 

CITLLODEN, near Inverness, where the English, un- 
der ^\ illiain, duke of Cumberland, defeated the Scot- 
tish rebels headed by the younir Pretender, the last of 
the Stuarts, April 16, 174G. The Scots lost '2500 men in 
Killed upon the tield, or in the slaughter which occur- 
red in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did 
not far exceed 200. After the battle the duke's armv 
practiced great cruelties upon the vanquished and the 
defenseless country people.— ,S'»io??r'«. Prince Charles 
fled, and wandered among the wilds of Scotland for 
SIX months, while X30,000 were offered fortakincr him 
and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in 
search. He at length escaped from Uist to Morlais, 
and died at Rome in 17S8. 

CULVEEINS, ordnance so called from the French 
co^demne, introduced into England from a French 
model m 1534. It was originally five inches and a quar- 
te^ diameter in the bore, and carried a ball of eighteen 
pounds.— £«!?(■_(/■ 

CUMBERLAND, a N. W. county of England, was 
granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland "in 945 bv Kin^ Ed- 
mund "on condition that he should be his fellow- 
worker. It was seized by William I., but restored to 
JWalcolm III., who became his man," 1072. William 
the Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigned Cum- 
En'^laud^hi mT'*' "■' ^^^ " ""^^ ^"'^"^ annexed to 

CXmrn (S. Italy), an old Greek colony, 1050 B C 
said to have been the residence of the ancient Sibvi' 
was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and annexed and 
enfranchised by the Romans, 338 B.C. 

CUMBERLAND, The. See Naval Battles, 1811. 



'5 CYC 

il! Ihp ?h'"'^^* Church, and are mentioned in England 
^ef of \t .'^?"/"''-y- Among the acts passed for the re- 
Jiet of this laborious class of the clergy are the mh 

i°-^i,^Vl^' T'^ ^^^^^ S'^'l- a°d 5Sth gIo.IIL, and es- 
pecial ly the beneficent act 2 Will. IV., Oct., 1831 It an- 

eitues'^th^t^h'; '""'""''^•'■y r"°''f '^ «" 'eccle'siastical rl?- 
« Hvv,^ lo ^^^'^ "'f-'"'' '" 1«^1.5230 curates in England 
ad Wales, whose stipends amounted to i:424,6!)5 The 
greatest number of curates in one dioce<e wa'? T in 
coin, 629, and the smallest that of St.Asaph^S 

CURFEW BELL (from the French couvreMi) was 
,fjnf "Jf '^ '°^? ^"Sland by Will. I., 1068. On the rin- 
ing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the even in "all 
tires and caudles were t"o be extingu shed under I' se 

Hen T^tl-^''n■ T"^?, '''''^ was abo ished 1 
Hen I 1100 A curfew bell was rung at West Ham 
so lately as Nov., 1859. =" ^™ 

CURRANTS from Corf^?;*, whence probably the 
tree was first brought to England about 1533 Thl 
name IS also given to a small kind of dried graol 
brought froni the Levant and Zante. The dufv ?n 

aucea to is. The hawthorn currant (Ribes Oxvaeav. 
thoides) came from Canada in 1705. uxijaca^i- 

CURTATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here the 
^S^ls'ir^,?^ f ^"l^fi^^^'' ?.™^^sed the MinciofMay 
flict defeated the Italians after a severe con- 



CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, 
where Cyrus the lounger was defeated and slain bv 
his brother Artaxerxes IL, against whom he had con- 
spire^l (B.C. 401), narrated in Xenophon's Anabasis 
His Greek auxiliaries in the battle were successful. 
See Retreat of the Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from cuneus, Latin 
lor a wedge), m characters resembling arrow-heads 
lound at Babylon, Behistun, etc., have lately been de- 
ciphered by English and foreign scholars, who date 
some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. This is im- 
pugned by other scholars. See Assyria, Babylon, Be- 

CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia), Battle op. The 
King of Pnissia, with 50,000 men, attacked the Aus- 
trian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp and 
at first gained considerable advantages ; but, pursuino- 
them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, ancl 
gained a complete victorv. The Prussians lost 200 
pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in killed and wound- 

CUPOLA SHIPS. See Navy of England . 

CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin is 
scarified by lancets, and a glass cup, in which the air 
has been rarefied by flame, is immediately applied to 
It, when the blood usually flows into the cup This 
operation was well known to the ancients, and is de- 
scribed by Hipp()crates (B.C. 413) and Celsus (B.C. 20) 
who hiL'hly commend it. It was common in Ent^land 
about 1820, but IS not much employed in the present 
day. 

CURACOA, an island in the Caribbean Sea, settled 
^V}''^ Sl'.^iiiai-ds about 1.527, was seized by Holland in 
1k,4. In IsiiO, the French, having settled on part of 
this island, quarreled with the Dutch, who surrender- 
ed It to a sincle British frigate. It was restored to 
tlie_Diitch in 1802; taken from them by the British in 
iSOi, and again restored in 1814. 

__CU RATES were of early appointment a s coad.iutors 

nrrnl!"" "vi''l''f k'""'1'"'m •'?'■"''»«. "« "ell as the use of hows and 
nf F^ot'. K been hardly known under the first race of the kin™ 

ofFrance berame a military law under the second nce.~(ranH^ 
Ciar/em.) Chivalry at this time began to be introduced ; the knight 
who was called Miles, held a rank in the army independentlv of hk 
military rank. Reign of Louis V., year SSl.-lhnZlt ^ " 



CUSTOM is a law, not written (lex non scripta), es- 
tablished by long usage and consent, and it is distin- 
guished from lex seripta, or the written law. It is the 
rule of law when it is derived from 1189 downward 
hixty years custom is binding in the civil law, and 
forty years' in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOM-HOUSE. An office established by law in 
maritime cities or sea-ports for the receipt and man- 
agement of the customs and duties imposed on goods 
imported or exported. "" guuus 

CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in En- 
gland, under Ethelred IL, in 979. The king's claim to 
iS-1^^ uypant of Parliament was established 3 Edw. I , 
12<4. The customs were farmed to Sir Thomas Smith 
tor annual sums varying from i;i4,000 to £50,000 in the 
reign of Elizabeth. - «o«.. They were fkrmed by 
Charles II. for £390,000 in 1666. -Davenant. In 1671 
commissioner were appointed. The customs were 
consolidated by Mr. Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 
1880 so many reductions and consolidations were made 
in the customs department that above a quarter of a 
million was saved in salaries, thoush the work has 
enormoiisly increased.— Acts consolidating the cus- 
toms duties were passed in 1853, 1854, and 1860, where- 
by the number of articles in the tariff and the amount 
of the customs were greatly reduced. See Revcnu" 
Custom-house oflicers and officers of excise were dis- 
qualified from voting for the election of members of 
Parliament m 1782. The custom dues collected in the 
first year of the United States government amounted 
to only the small sum of $8,740,700. In 1866 the total 
of import duties amounted to $179,046,651. 
CUTLERY. Bee Steel. 

CLTTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing apparel 
was first cut out by machinery in England in the fac- 
tory of Messrs Hyams in 1853. The machine, invent- 
ed by Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a reciprocat- 
ing vertical knife working through a slot in the table 
that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The cloth 
being pressed up to the edge of the knife by the at- 
tendant, the knife will sever it in the direction of the 
lines marked on the upper laver. This s.ystem of cut- 
ting out is now generally adopted in the slop-work 
trade, and, with the aid of the sewing-machine {which 
sec), has tended greatly to improve the condition of 
the persons employed in the manufacture of wearing 
apparel for the home and foreign markets. 

CYANOGEN, a colorless gas (composed of nitrogen 
and carbon), irritating to the nose and eves, derived 
from Prussian blue, was discovered by Gay-Lussac in 
1814. 

CYCLE of the sun is the twentv-eight years before 
the days of the week return to the same davs of the 
month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years 
and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. 
The Cycle of Jupiter is sixty vears, or sexagenary" 
The Paschal Cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was 
first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorias 
i&Z.— Blair. See Mctonic Cycle, Cali%>pic Period. ' 

CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds or hurricanes com- 
mon in the East and West Indian and Chinese Seas, 



CYC 



156 



DAM 



varying from 200 to 500 miles in diameter. Many de- 
tails respecting them will be found in Raid's " Law of 
Storms," first published in 1S38. By the great cyclone 
of Oct. 5, 1S64, immense damage was done on sea and 
land. About 100 ships are said to have been lost, and 
about 00,000 persons perished, and whole towns were 
nearly destroyed. See Calcutta. Captain Watson, of 
the "Clarence," observing the barometer falling, and 
foretelling the approach of the cyclone, saved his ship 
by steering out of its range. 

CYCLOPEDIA. See Encyclopcedia. 

CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given to very 
ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor, 
probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 1000 B.C. 

CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instrument, 
was made of brass, like a kettle-drum. Xenophon 
mentions the cymbal as invented by Cybele, who, we 
are told, used it in her feasts, about 15S0 B.C. 

CYMRI or KvMKi (hence Cambria), the name of the 
ancient Britons who belonged to the great Celtic fam- 
ily, which came from Asia and occupied a large part 
of Europe about 1500 B.C. About A.D. 040 Dyvnwal 
Moelmud reigned "King of the Ci/mry." See iVales. 

CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by Antis- 
thenes (about 300 B.C., Diog. Laert., Clinton), who pro- 
fessed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, 
except morality ; were very free in reprehending vice ; 
lived in public, and practiced great obscenities with- 
out blushing. Diogenes was one (died 323 B.C.). 

CYNOSCEPHALE {dogs' heads, so named from the 
shape of the heights), in Thessaly, where Pelopidas 
and the Thebans defeated Alexander, tyrant of Pherre, 
and the Thessalians, 304 B.C. (Pelopidas being slain) ; 
and where the Consul Flaminius totally defeated 
Philip V. of Macedon, 197 B.C., and€uded the war. 

CYPRESS, Cti2)ressus Sem2>ervirens, a tree originally 
found in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried 
their herpes in coffins made of this wood, of which 
many of the Egyptian mummy-chests were also fiibri- 
cated. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The 
cypress was brought to England about 1441. The de- 
ciduous cypress, or Cuprcisus disticha, is indigenous 



in North America, and was brought to England before 
the year 1040. 

CYPRUS, an island iu the Mediterranean, was di- 
vided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus 
of Persia, -who subdued them. It was taken by the 
Greeks 47T B.C., and ranked among the proconsular 
provinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by 
the Saracei}s, A.D. 04S, but recovered by the Greeks 
iu 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of Engl md 
in 1191. He gave it to Guy de Lusiguan, who became 
king in 1192, and whose descendants reigned till the 
last, Catharine de Oornano, sold it to the Venetians, 
14S9, from whom it was taken by the Turks, 1571. 
They still retain it. 

CYR, St., near Versailles, where a conventual col- 
lege for ladies was founded by Madame De Mainteuon 
iu lOSG. It is now a military college. 

CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus the El- 
der, 365 B.C. They maintained the doctrine that the 
supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, particu- 
larly that of the senses ; and said that even virtue 
ought to be commended only because it gave pleasure. 

CYRENE (N.W.Africa), a Greek colony, founded 
by Battus about 030 B.C. Aristajus, who was chief of 
the colonists here, gave the city hie mother's name. 
It was also called Pentapolis on account of its five 
towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollo- 
nia, and Arsinoe. It was conquered by Ptolemy So- 
ter I., who placed many Jews here (2S0 B.C.). Cyrene 
was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B.C. " It 
is now a desert. Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed 
iu the British Museum in July, 1801. 

€ YZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Pelopounesian War, 
the Lacedemonian fleet, under the command of Min- 
darus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, was en- 
countered by the Athenians under Alcibiades, and de- 
feated ^vith great slaughter, near Cyzicus. Miudarus 
was slain 410 B.C., Plutarch; 408 B.C., Lenglet. 

CZAR. Ivan Basilowitz, having severely defeated 
the Tartars, took the title of Tzar or Czar about 1482. 
The eldest sou is called Czarowitz, and the empress 
Czarina. 



D. 



DACIA, a Roman province, part of Hungary, and 
the adjoining provinces, after many contests finally 
subdued by Trajan, 100, when Decebalus, the Dacian 
leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned to the Goths 
by Aurelian iu 270 ; subdued by the Huns, 376 ; by 
Scythians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, and by the Magyars, 
in the 9th century. 

DAGHISTAN (S.W.Asia) was conquered by the 
Czar Peter, 1723 ; restored to Persia, 1735 ; but rean- 
nexed to Russia by Alexander I., 1813. 

DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented by Da- 
guerre, 1S38. See Photography. 

DAHLIA. This beautiful flower was brought from 
Mexico, of which it is a native, in the present century. 
It was first cultivated by the Swedish botanist, Pro- 
fessor Dahl, and soon became a favorite in England. 
In 1S15, about two months after the battle of Water- 
loo, it was introduced into France, and the celebrated 
florist Andre Thouine suggested various practical im- 
provements in its management. The botanist Georgi 
shortly before introduced it at St. Petersburg; hence 
the dahlia is known in Germany as the Gcorgina. 

DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, West Africa, became 
known to Europeans early in the last century, when 
Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a man of energy and 
talent, was king. He died iu 1732, and was succeeded 
by a series of cruel tyrants, a large part of whose rev- 
enue was derived from the slave-trade. Abbeokuta, 
which was a robber's cave in 1S25, is now a strong- 
walled populous town, inhabited by free blacks, and 
is consequently opposed by the King of Dahomey. 
His army has been severely defeated in its attacks on 
this place, and iu one on March 16, 1864, a great num- 
ber of his Amazons were slain. During the last few 
years this kingdom has been visited by Captain Bur- 
ton and other travelers, who have described the sau- 
guiuary customs of the royal court. 

DAHRA (Algeria). On June IS, 1845, above 500 
Kabyles at war with the French were suffocated iu a 



cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order 
of General Pelissier, afterward Duke of Malakhoft". 
They had fired on the messenger bearing an oft'er of a 
truce. The massacre was condemned by Marshal 
Soult, the minister of war, but justified by Marshal 
Bugeaud. 

DAKOTA was organized as a territory of tlie United 
States on March 2, 1861. 

DALECARLIANS (Sweden) revolted against Chris- 
tian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus Vasa on 
the throne of Sweden. 

DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N.E. of the 
Adriatic Sea, was finally conquered by the Romans, 
34 B.C. The Emperor "Diocletian erected his palace 
at Spalatro, and retired there, A.D. 305. Dalmatia 
was held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and 
Turks, till its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty 
of Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria. In 
1805 it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, 
and gave the title of duke to Marshal Soult, but iu 
1814 it reverted to Austria. 

DALTONISM. See Color, note. 
DAMASCUS (Syria), a city iu the time of Abraham, 
1913 B.C. {Oen. xiv.), consequently one of the most an- 
cient iu the world, now the capital of a Turkish pa- 
chalic. 

Taken by David (1040 B.C.), but retaken shortly 
after, and made the capital of Syria under Ben- 

hadad and his successors B.C. 951 

Taken by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria 740 

From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and 
from them to the Greeks, under Alexander; and 

afterward to the Romans, about 70 

Paul, converted, preaches here {Acts ix.) A.D. 52 

Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075; 

destroyed by Tamerlane 1400 

Taken by Ibrahim Pacha in 1832 

The disappearance of a Greek priest, named Fa- 
ther Tommaso, from here, Feb. 1, 1840, led to 



DAM 



157 



DAN 



the torture of a number of Jews, snspected of 
)iis murder, and to a erncl persccuiiun of that 
l)eoii!e, which caused rcmoustraucca from mauy 
states of Europe. 

Damascus was restored to Turkey 1S41 

lu couscciucnce of a dispute between the Druses 
and MaiDiiitcs, tlie Moliammedans massacred 
al)ove iidiio I'liristians and destroyed the houses, 
reudcrint; vast numbers of persons homeless 
and destitute ; a larixe number were rescued by 
Abdrel-Kader, who held the citadel, 

July 0,10, 11,1860 
Summary justice executed for these crimes by 
Fuad Pacha: 100 persons of all classes executed, 
includini; the Turkish governor; and 11,000 per- 
sons made soldiers by conscription, Aug., Sept., " 
DAMASK LINENS ani> SILKS, tirst manufactured 
at Damascus, have beeu beautifully imitated by the 
Dutch and Fleuiish. The manufacture was brought 
to Enirland by artisans who lied from the persecutions 
of the Duke of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask Hose was 
brought to England from the south of Europe by Dr. 
Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 1540. 

DAMIENS'S ATTEJIPT. Louis XV. of France was 
stabbed with a knife iu the right side by Damiens, a 
native of Arras, Jan. 5, 1757. The culprit endured the 
most excruciating tortures, and was then broken on 
the wheel, March'SS. 

DA:MIETTA (Lower Egypt) was built about 1250. 
Here, it is said, was first manufactured the cloth term- 
ed dimitt/. 

DAMON AXT1 PYTHIAS (or Phintias), Pythagorean 
philosophers. When Damon was condemned to death 
by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, about 3S7 B.C., 
he obtained leave to go and settle some domestic af- 
fairs, on the promise of returning at the appointed 
time of execution, and Pythias became surety for the 
performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour 
approached, Damon did not appear, and Pythias sur- 
rendered himself, and was led away to execution ; 
but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem 
his pledge. Dionysius was so struck with their lidel- 
ity that he remitted the sentence, and entreated them 
to permit him to share their friendship. 

DANAI: an ancient name of the Greeks, derived 
from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 

DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death over 
all ranks of men was a fovorite subject with the artists 
of the Middle Ages, and appears in rude carvings and 
pictures in various countries. The C/iorca Macliabceo- 
rum, or Dniise Macabre, was the first printed rejn'esen- 
tation, published by Guyot Slarchand, a bookseller of 
Paris, in 14S5. Holbein's celebrated Dance of Death 
(concerning the authorship of which there has been 
much controversy) was printed at Lyons in 1538, and 
at Basil, 1594. Since then mauy editions have ap- 
peared : one with an introduction and notes was pub- 
lished by Mr. Russell Smith in 1849. — The term Dance 
of Death was also ap])lied to the frenzied movements 
of the Flagellants, who had sometimes skeletons de- 
picted on their clothing, about the end of the 14th cen- 
tury.* 

DANCING to the measure of time was invented by 
the Curetes, 1534 B.C. — Eusebhis. The Greeks were 
the first who united the dance to their tragedies and 
comedies. Pantomimic dances were first mtroduced 
on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. — LUhcr. Dancing by 
cinque paces was introduced into England from Italy, 
A.D. 1541. In modern times the French were the first 
who infniduced ballets analnijiics in their musical dra- 
mas. The country dance (eontre-danfte) is of French 
origin, but its date is not precisely kn(n\m. — Sjielman. 
The waltz and quadrille were introduced into En- 
gland about 1813. Dancing was the principal amuse- 
ment of the North American Indians. They had re- 
ligious, martial, aud social dances. See Morice Dance. 

DANE-GELD, or Danegelt, a tribute paid to the 
Danes to stop their ravages in Great Britain ; first 
raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 1003; and 
levied after the expulsion of the Danes to pay fieets 
for clearinir the seas of them. The tax was suppress- 
ed by Edward the Confessor in 1051 ; revived by Wil- 
liamthe Comiueror, KKJs; nnd formed part of the rev- 
enue of the crown, until abolished by Stephen, 1136. 
Every hide of land, i. e., as much as one plow could 
plow, or, as JSede says, maintain a family, was taxed 



* The Dancinfj Manias accompanied by aberration of mind and dis- 
torUons of the body, was very prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in 
the 16th century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantiftm, and erro- 
neously supposed to be 'caused by the bite of the Tarantula spider. 
The music and songs employed for its cure are still preserved. 



at first I.S., afterward as much as Ts. Camden says 
that once £24,300 was raised. 

DANES. See Denmark. During their attacks upon 
Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France 
where, iu 895, under Kollo, they received presents un- 
der the walls of Paris. They returned and rava^^ed 
the French territories as far as Ostend iu 896. They 
attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the 
King of France to Rollo aud his NoVmans (North- 
men), hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of En- 
gland and Ireland were as follows : 

First hostile appearance of the Danes 783 

They land near Purbeck, Dorset ' 7ST 

Descend iu Northumberland : destroy the church 
at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and perish by ship- 
wreck 794 

They invade Scotland and Ireland .'. ..'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'795 790 
They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and po.s- 
sess themselves of Dublin, Fiugal, and other 

places '. 703 

They take the Isle of Sheppey 832 

Defeated at Ilengestou, in Cornwall, by Egbert.! 835 
They laud iu Kent from 350 vessels, and take York 867 

They defeat the Saxons at Merton 871 

They take Wareham and Exeter 876 

They take Chippenham ; but 120 of their ships are 

wrecked $77 

Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- 
tian, and many settle in England 878 

Alfred enters into a treaty with them 882 

Their fleet totally destroyed by Alfred at Apple- 

dore 894 

Defeated near Isle of Witrht 897 

They invade and waste Wales 900 

Defeated by Edward the Elder 022 

They defeat the people of Leinster, whose king is 

killed 956 

Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset 982 

And ravage Essex and Sufi'olk 990 

Said to assume the title lord dane about 991 

Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- 
chased by money 992 

They land In Essex, and in the west, and are paid 

a sum of money (£10,000) to quit the kingdom.. 994 
A general massacre of the Danes, by order ofElh- 

elred II Nov. 1.3,1002 

Swein revenges the death of his countrymen, and 
receives £36,000 (which he afterward demands 

as an annual tribute) to depart 1003 

Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight 1000 

They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons 

in Sufi'olk 1010 

They sack Canterbury, imprison the archbishop, 

and kill the inhabitants 1011 

They receive £48,000 as tribute, and murder Al- 

phege, archbishop of Canterbury 1012 

Vanquished at Cloutarf, Ireland (see Cbmtarf) 1014 

Their conquest of England completed; Canute 

king 1017 

They settle in Scotland 1020 

They land again at Sandwich, carrying ofi" much 

plunder to'Flanders 1047 

They burn York, and kill 3000 Normans 1009 

Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy, 
but compelled to depart 1074 

DANNEWERKE, or Dannawieke, a series of earth- 
works, considered almost impregnable, stretching 
across the long, narrow peninsula of Schleswig, Hol- 
steiu, and Jutland, said to have beeu constructed dur- 
ing the "stone age," long before the art of metal- 
working. It was "rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of 
Gormo'the Old, for which she was named "Danna- 
bod," the Pride of the Danes. It was repaired by 
Olaf Tryggveson between 9!)5 and 1000. The retreat 
of the Danes from it, Feb. 5, 1804, occasioned much 
dissatisfaction in Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was first printed 
iu 1472. He was born May 14, 1265, and died at Ra- 
venna, Sept. 14, 1321. A festival in his honor, at Flor- 
ence, was opened by the king. May 14, 1805, when a 
large statue of Dante by Pazzi of Ravenna was un- 
covered. 

DANTZIC (N. Germanv), a commercial city in 997; 
but, according to dther authorities, built by Waldemar 
I. in 1105. Poland ol)taiticd the sovereignty of it in 
1454. It was seized by the King of Prussia, and an- 
nexed in 1793. It surrendered to the French, iMay, 
1S07 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit was restored to inde- 
pendence, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. 
Dantzic was besieged by the Allies in 1812, and sur- 
rendered to them, Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris 
it again reverted to the King of Prussia. By an inun- 



DAN 



ir,8 



DAY 



dation here, owing to the Vistula breaking throiigh 
its dikes, 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were 
destroyed, aud a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 
1829. 

DANUBE (German, Donau ; anciently Ister, in its 
lower part). Except the Wolga, the largest river in 
Europe, rising in the Black Forest and falliug into the 
Black Sea. Its navigation has been considered an ob- 
ject of great importance, from the time of Trajau to 
the present time. Part of Trajan's bridge at Gladova 
still remains. It was destroyed by Adrilin to prevent 
the barbarians entering Dacia, Steam navigation was 
projected on this river by Count Szeuechyi in 1830, 
and in that year the first steam-boat was launched at 
Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed short- 
ly after. The Bavarian company was formed in 1836. 
Charlemagne, in the Sth century, contemplated unit- 
ing the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the peace 
of 1856 the free navigation of the Danube was secured. 
DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES ; Wallachia and 
Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest and Jassy. United, as 
RoUiMANiA, under the government of Prince Alexander 
Cousa in 1859. Population of the two in ISOO, 4,200,000. 
These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, 
which was conquered by Trajan about 106, and aban- 
doned by Aurelian about 270. For some time after 
they were alternately in the possession of the barba- 
rians and the Greek emperors, and afterward of the 
Hungarians. In the 13th century they were subdued 
by the Turks, but permitted to retain their religious 
customs, etc. 

Part of Moldavia ceded to Russia 1812 

The provinces, having participated in the Greek 
insurrection in 1821, were severely treated by the 
Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople were 

placed under the protection of Russia 1829 

The Porte appointed as hospodars Prince Stirbey 
for Wallachia, and Prince Ghika for Moldavia, 

June,1819 
They retire from their governments when the 
Russians enter Moldavia (see Russo- Turkish 

War) July 2,1853 

The Russians quit the provinces and the Austri- 

ans enter Sept.,1854 

The Austrians retire March, 18.57 

The government of the principalities finally set- 
tled at the Paris conference (there were to be 
two hospodars, elected by elective assemblages, 
and the suzerainty of Turkey was to be pre- 
served) Aug. 19,1858 

Alexander Cousa was elected hospodar of Molda- 
via, Jan. 17 ; of Wallachia Feb. 5,1859 

The election acknowledged by the allies as an ex- 
ceptional case Sept. 6, " 

The definitive union of the provinces (under the 
name ofRoumania) acknowledged by the Porte, 

Dec, 1861 
M. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- 
ters, assassinated as he was leaving the Cham- 
ber of Deputies June 20,1802 

The united chambers of the two principalities 

meet at Bucharest Feb. 5, " 

Coup d'etat of Prince Cousa against the aristo- 
crats : a plebiscite for a new Constitution, May 

2, which is adopted May 28,1864 

A law passed enabling the peasants to hold land, 

Aug., " 
DARDANELLES, The, are two castles (Sestos, in 
Romania, aud Abydos, in Natolia), commanding the 
entrance of the Strait of Gallipoli, built by the Sultan 
Mohammed IV. in 1659, and named Dardanelles from 
the contiguous town Dardauus.— The passage of the 
Dardanelles was achieved bv the British squadron 
under Sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the ad- 
miral was obliged to repass them, which he did with 
great loss, March 2 following, the castles of Sestos and 
Abydos hurling down stories of many tons' weight 
upon the British ships. The allied English and French 
fleets passed the Dardanelles at the sultan's request, 
October, 1853. See Hellespont. 

DARIC, a Persian gold coin issued by Darius (hence 
its uame) about 538 B.C. About 550 cents. — Knowles. 
It weighed two grains more than the English guinea. 
— Dr. Bernard. 

DARIEN, Isthmus of, Central America, discovered 
by Columbus, 1494. Abotit 1694, William Patersou, 
founder of the Bank of England, ptiblished his plan 
for colonizing Darien. In consequence, a company 
was formed in 169.5, and three ill-fated expeditions 
sailed there in 1698 aud 1699 from Scotland, where 
i;400,000 liad been raised. The first consisted of 1200 
yoitng men of all classes, besides women and children. 



The enterprise not having been recognized by the En- 
glish government, the settlements were threatened by 
the Spaniards, to whom they were finally surrendered, 
March 30, 1700. 

DARK AGES, a term applied to the period of time 
called the Middle Ages ; according to Hallam, compris- 
ing about 1000 years— from the invasion of France by 
Clovis, 486, to that of Naples by Charles VIIL, 1495. 
During this time learning was at a low ebb. 

DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the insur- 
rection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of nuns, of the 
order of St. Augustine, endowed here by Edward III., 
1355, was converted by Henry VIII. into a royal palace. 
The first paper-mill in England was erected at Dart- 
ford by Sir John Spielraanra German, in 1590.— Stow. 

DARTMOOR, Prison of. On the breaking out of 
hostilities between England and the United States in 
1812, 2500 impressed sailors, claiming to be American 
citizens, refusing to serve in the British navy, were de- 
tained in Dartmoor Prison, in Dartmoor, Devonshire, 
England, where most of them were kept until the end 
of the war. Accounts of the harshness of their treat- 
ment reached the United States, and created a great 
deal of feeling. This was especially the case when 
the guard fired upon the prisoners. Explanations 
have shown that the occurrence was the result of a 
mistake. 

DARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the French in 
the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a third 
attempt (1404), the invaders were defeated by the in- 
habitants, assisted by the valor of the women. The 
French commander, Du Chastel, three lords, and thir- 
ty-two knights were made prisoners. In the war of 
the Parliament, Dartmouth was taken after a siege of 
four weeks by Prince Maurice, who garrisoned the 
place for the king (1643) ; but it was retaken by Gen- 
eral Fairfax by storm in 1640. 

DATES were aflixed to grants and assimments IS 
Edw. I., 1290. Before this tmie it was usual at least to 
pass lands without dating the deed of conveyance. — 
Lewis. Numerous instruments of assignment enrolled 
among our early records establish this fact. The date 
is determined by the names of the parties, particularly 
that of the grantor : the possession of land was proof 
of the title to it— Hardie. A useful glossary of the 
dates given in old charters and chronicles will be 
found in Nicolas's "Chronology of History." 

DAUPHIN. It is an error to suppose that, by the 
treaty of 1343, which gave the full sovereignty ofDau- 
phiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that 
the eldest s(m of the king should bear the title of dau- 
phin. So fiir from it, the first dauphin named in that 
treaty was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. — 
IlmauU. The late Duke of Orleans, eldest son of 
Louis-Philippe, was not called the dauphin. 

DAVID'S, St. (S.W.Wales), the ancient Menapia, 
now a poor decayed place, but once the metropolitan 
see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. When Christianity 
was planted in Britain, there were three archbishops' 
seats appointed, viz., London,York, aud Caerleon upon 
Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at Caerleon, being too 
near the dominions of the Saxons, was removed to 
Menew, and called St. David's, in honor of the arch- 
bishop who removed it, 519. St. Sampson was the last 
archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself 
on account of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, carried 
the pall with him ; but his successors preserved the 
archiepiscopal power, although they lost the name. 
In the reign of Henry I. these prelates were forced to 
submit to the see of Canterbury.— £ea<so?i. Present 
income £4500. 

DAVID'S DAY, St., March 1, is annually commem- 
orated by the Welsh in honor of St.David. Tradition 
states that on St.David's birthday, 540, a great victory 
was obtained by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; 
that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order 
of St.David by a leek in their cap. 

DAVIS'S STRAIT (N.America), discovered by the 
English navigator, John Davis, on his voyage to find 
a N. W. passage, between 1585 and 1587. He made two 
more voyages for the same purpose, aud afterward 
performed five vovages to the East Indies. In the last 
he was killed by Japanese pirates in the Indian Seas, 
on the coast of Malacca, December 27, 1605. 

DAVY LAMP. See Safety Lamp. 

DAY. Day began ft sunrise among most of the 
Northern nations, and at sunset among the Athenians 
and Jews. Among the Romans, day commenced at 
midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in 



DEA 



159 



DEC 



many places, at the present time, reckon the clay from 
gunset to !-uii^et, inakin;,' their clocks strike twenty- 
four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is 
done in all other countries, into ecjual portions of 
twelve hours. This mode is but partially used in the 
larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, 
Rome, and Milan being set to the hour designated on 
French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the 
day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which 
begins at noon, is divided into twenty-four hours (in- 
stead of two parts of twelve liouis), and is the mode of 
reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, 
day and night were tirst divided in time by means of 
water-clocks, the invention of Jjcipio IS'asica, 15S B.C. 
DEACONS (literally servants), an order of the Chris- 
tian priesthood, which took its rise from the institu- 
tion of seven deacons by the apostles, which number 
was retained a long period in many churches, about 53. 
(Act<i vi.) The original deacons were Stephen, Philip, 
Prochorus, Nicanor, Timou, Parmenas, and Nicolas. 
The qualitications of a deacon are mentioned by St. 
Paul (65), 1st Tim. iii., S-14. 

DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, are men- 
tioned in early Christian history. Their qualifications 
are given in Tim. v., 9, 10 (C5). Their duties were to 
visit the poor and sick, assist at the agapte or love 
feasts, admonish the young women, etc. The office 
was discontinued in the Western Church in the 5th 
and 6th centuries, and in the Greek Church about the 
l'2th, but has been recently revived in Germany. 

DEAD, Prayers foe, began a.ho\ik 190.— Husebius. 
See Prayer. 

DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name from its 
locking up the capital of the Bank of England, which 
in 1823 advanced .£ll,(»00,(i()0 to the government (to 
construct new ordnance, etc.). The latter engaged to 
give an annuity of i;585,7>10 for 44 years, which ceased 
In 1S67. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt 
to instruct the deaf and dumb was made by Pedro de 
Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about 1570. Bo- 
net, also a monk, published a system at Madrid in 
IG-.'O. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the 
subject in 1650. The first regular academy for the 
deaf and dumb in Britain was opened in Edinburg in 
1773. In modern times the Abbo de I'Epee (1712-S'.t), 
and his friend and pupil the Abbtj Sicard, of Paris 
(1742-18-22) ; the Rev. Mr. Townseud and Mr. Baker, 
of London ; Mr. Braidwood, of Edinburg ; and Sur- 
geon Orpen, of Dublin, have labored with much success 
m promoting the instruction of the deaf and dumb. 
The asylum "for deaf and dumb children was opened 
in Loudon through the exertions of Jlr. Townsend in 
17!I2 ; one in Edinburg by Mr. J. Braidwood in 1810 ; 
and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood in 181.5. 
The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, was opened in 1816. 
In 1S,51, there were in Great Britain 12^.553 deaf and 
dumb out of a population of 20,9.59,477. The number 
of deaf and dumb in the United States in 1860 was 
12,821. There are very successful asylums for them in 
many of the Northern States, the one in Hartford, Con- 
necticut, being the largest. 

DEATH, Pctnishment of. The ancients inflicted 
death by crucifixion, and even women suffered on the 
cross. Mithridates, a Persian soldier, wjao boasted 
that he had killed Cyrus the Younger at the battle of 
Cuna.xa, was, by order of Artaxerxes Muemon, eight- 
een days in a state of torture ex))osed to the actioia of 
the sun. Drowning in a quagmire was a punishment 
among the Britons about 450 B.C. — Stmo. Maurice, 
the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quar- 
tered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in 
England, 25 Ilen. III., 1241. The punishment of death 
in England was abolished in a great number of cases 
by Sir R. Peel's acts, 4 to Ki Geo. IV., 1824-9 ; and by 
the criminal law consulidation acts of 18G1, was con- 
fined to treason and willful murder. See ItavaiUac, 
JioiViiiri, Ifiiriiiiin, Unufiinii, Ftirfjerv, and Execution. A 
Parliamentary commission respecting capital punish- 
ment was ap])ointed early in 1864. "Capital punish- 
ment was restricted in Italy in April, 1865. In the 
United States the only crimes punishable with death 
are murder and arson. 

The commission on capital punishment issued their 
report (recomniPiuling that penal servitude be sub- 
stituted for death in simie cases where murder was 
unpremeditated, and that executions should not be 
public), Dec, 1865. 

DE.VTHS, Regibtees of. See Dills of Mortality and 
Registers. 



DEBT. See National Debt, Banhrvpt.% and Insolv- 
ents. Debtors have been subjected to imprisonment 
m almost all countries and times ; and until the pass- 
ing of the later bankrupt laws and insolvent acts, the 
prisons of Great Britain were crowded with debtors to 
an extent that is now scarcely credible. It appears by 
Parliamentary returns that in the eighteen months 
subsequent to the panic of Dec, 1825, as many asl01,000 
writs for debts were issued from the courts in England. 
In the year ending 5th Jan., 1830, there were 7114 per- 
sons sent to the several prisons of London ; and on 
that day, 1.547 of the number were yet confined. On 
the 1st of Jan. ,1x411, the number of prisoners for debt 
in England and Wales was 1732 ; in Ireland the number 
was under loiiff; and m Scotland under 100. The oper- 
ation of statutes of relief, and other causes, considera- 
bly reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When 
the English Bankruptcy Act (abolishing imprisonment 
for debt except when fraudulently contracted) came 
into operation, in Nov., ISfil, a number of debtors who 
had been confined were released.* Arrest of Abscond- 
ing Debtors' Bill, 14 & 15 Vict, c. 52, 1S52. 

DEBUSCOPE, an instrument of French origin, some- 
what similar to the kaleidoscope, said to be useful for 
devising patterns for calico-printers, etc., made its ap- 
pearance in 1860. 

DECAMERONE (10 days). See Boccaccio. 

DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth month of 
the year of Romulus, commencing in March. In 713 
B.C.Numa introduced January and February before 
March, and thenceforward December became the 
twelfth of the year. In the reign of Commodus, A.D. 
181-192, December was called, by the way of flatterv, 
Amazonius, in honor of a courtesan whom that prince 
had loved, and had painted like an Amazon. The En- 
glish commenced their year on the 25th of December 
until the reign of William the Conqueror. See Year. 

DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, who were appointed to 
draw up a code of laws, and to whom for a time the 
whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. 
The laws they drew up were approved by the senate 
and general assembly of the people, written on ten 
metallic tables, and set up in the place where the peo- 
ple met (comitinm), 450 B.C. The Decemviri at first 
ruled \yell, but the tyranny of Appius Claudius toward 
Virginia occasioning an insurrection, they were forced 
to resign, and consuls were again appointed, 449 B.C. 

DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Augustus, 17 
B.C., celebrated by the Roman emperors every tenth 
year of their reign, with sacrifices, games, and largess- 
esy^Livy. And celebrated by Antoninus Pius, A.D. 
148. They do not appear to have been continued aft- 
er the reigns of the Caesars. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weightb, etc. In 
1782, Gouverneur Morris, the able assistant fiscal agent 
of the Continental Congress (United States) report- 
ed a decimal currency sj-stem, in which he attempt- 
ed to harmonize the moneys of all the states. He as- 
certained that the one thousand four hundred and 
fortieth part of a Spanish dollar was a common divisor 
for the various currencies. Starting with this fraction 
as a tmit, he proposed the following table of moneys: 

Ten units to be equal to one penny. 

Ten pence to one bill. 

Ten bills one dollar (about 75 cents of our present 
currency). 

Ten dollars one crown. 

In 1784, Mr. Jefferson, as chairman of a committee 
of Congress, proposed to strike four coins upon the 
basis of the Spanish dollar, as follows : 

A golden piece of the value often dollars. 

A dollar in silver. 

A tenth of a dollar in silver. 

A hundredth of a dollar in copper. 

The Congress adopted his proposition, and this is 
the origin "of the cent, dime, dollar, and ewjle of the 
United States currency. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, United 
States. On the 2d of July, 1776, the American Con- 
gress resolved "that these united colonies are, and 
of right ought to be, free and independent states ; and 
that'all political connection between us and the State 
of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." 
On the 4th, a declaration, setting forth the causes 
which impelled the colonies to a separation, was adopt- 
ed, siguedby John Hancock, the president of Congress, 
and sent forth to the world. At the beginning of Au- 
gust (it having been engrossed on parchment) it was 



* Imprisonment fnr ilebt stiU cont 
ty 16,000 persona -were imprisoned by 
erage time, 15 day" 



;s in England. In lSf.3 near- 

-- , - iler of the county courts : av- 

it of debt, £3 lOj. 



DEC 



IGO 



DEL 



sii?ned by all the mem'bers of Congress then present, 
and subsequently by two others, making the whole 
number of signers 56. That parchment is preserved 
at Washington City. 

DECLARATION of Eights. See Rights. 

DECORATIVE ART. The true principles of dec- 
oration enunciated by A. W. Pugin, in his " Designs," 
published in 1S8.5, have since been greatly advanced 
by Owen Jones, Redgrave, and others. Owen Jones's 
elaborate "Grammar of Ornament" was published iu 
1856. A Decorative Art Society, founded iu 1844, ex- 
isted for a short time only. 

DECRETALS. The decretals formed the second 
part of the Canon Law, or collection of the pope's 
edicts and decrees and the decrees of councils. The 
first of these acknowledged to be genuine is a letter 
of Siricius to Ilimerus, the Bishop of Spain, written in 
the first year of his pontificate, 385. — Howel. Certain 
false decretals were used by Gregory IV. in S37. The 
decretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of 
canons), were compiled in 1150. — llenault. Five books 
were collected by Gregory IX., 1227 ; a sixth by Boni- 
face VIII. iu 129T ; the Clementines by Clement V. in 
1313 ; employed by John XXII. iu 131T ; the Extrava- 
gantes range from 1422 to 14S3. 

DEDICATION of the Jewish Tabernacle took place 
1490 B.C. ; of the Temple, 1004 B.C. ; of the second 
Temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Constantine 
built new churches and dedicated them with great so- 
lemnity in A.D. 331 et scq. The dedication of Books 
(by authors to solicit patronage or testify respect) be- 
gan in the time of Maecenas, 17 B.C. He was the friend 
and counselor of Augustus Csesai-, and a patron of ge- 
nius and learning ; hence it is customary to style any 
nobleman imitating his example a Maecenas. 

DEED, a written contract or agreement. The form- 
ula, "I deliver this as my act and deed," occurs in a 
charter of 933. — Fosbrooke. Deeds in England were for- 
merly written in the Latin and French languages : the 
earliest known instance of the English tongue having 
been used is the indenture between the Abbot of Whit- 
by and Robert Bustard, dated at York in 1343. 

DEFAMATION. The jurisdiction of the ecclesias- 
tical courts on this subject was abolished by 18 & 19 
Vict, c. 41 (1S55). 

DEFENSE OP the REALM ACT was passed in 
Aug., 1860, in consequence of the unsettled state of 
Europe, aggravated by the doubtful policy of the Em- 
peror Nai)6leon. See Fortification. 

DEFENDER op the FAITH (Fidei Defensor), a title 
of the British sovereign, conferred by Leo X. on Henry 
VIII. of England, for his tract on behalf of the Church 
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Catholicce, 
against Luther, in Oct. 11, 1521. 

DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to determine 
the length of a geographical degree about 250 B.C. — 
Snellius. See Latitude and Longitude. Collegiate de- 
grees are coeval with universities. Those iu medicine 
are traced up to A.D. 13S4 ; in music to 1463. In Oct., 
1803, women were permitted to compete for degrees. 

DEISM OR THEISM (Greek, theos, Latin, deus, God), 
the belief in a God. About the middle of the 16th 
century some gentlemen of France and Italy termed 
themselves Deists, to disguise their opposition to 
Christianity by a more honorable appellation than 
that of Atheism {irhich see). Deists reject revelation, 
and profess to go by the light of nature, believing that 
there is a God, a providence, vice, and virtue, and an 
after -state of punishments and rewards: they are 
sometimes called Free-thinkers. The most distin- 
guished Deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 
1624; Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, Lord Bolingbroke, 
Gibbon, Hume, Holcroft, Fame, and Godwin. 

DELAWARE, one of the LTnited States of North 
America, named after Lord de la Warre, governor of 
Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It was settled by 
Swedes, sent there by Gustavus in 1627. 

DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by Godfrey 
le Bossu about 1074 ; famous for the earthen - ware 
known by its name ; first manufactured here about 
1310. The sale of Dutch delft greatly declined after 
the introduction of potteries Into Germany and En- 
gland. Delft was an important place during the 
struggle against Spain. The renowned Grotius was 
born here, April 10, 1.5S3 ; and here the great William, 
prince of Orange, was assassinated, July 10, 1.584, by 
Gerard. Delft-Haven, the port of Delft, "is celebrated 
in our American history as the place whence the Pil- 
grim fathers sailed on July 22, 1620. 



DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul Empire, 
and chief seat of the Mohammedan power in India; 
it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is now in decay, 
but contained a million of inhabitants in 1700. Iu 
1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he enter- 
ed Delhi; 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the 
sword, and plunder to the amount of i;62,000,000 ster- 
ling is said to have been collected. The same calami- 
ties were endured iu 1761 on the invasion of Abdalla, 
king of Candahar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by 
the French, took Delhi, but were afterward defeated 
by General Lake, and the aged Shah Aulum, emperor 
of Hindostan, was restored to his throne with a pen- 
sion. See India, 1803. On May 10, 1857, a mutiny 
arose in the Sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soou 
checked ; but the fugitives fled to Delhi, and, com- 
bined with other troops there, seized on tlie city; 
proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul as king, and 
committed the most frightful atrocities. The rebels 
were anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after 
a gallant defense it was exploded by order of Lieuten- 
ant Willoughb}', who died of his wounds shortly after. 
The other heroes in this exploit were Lieutenants 
Forrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley and 
Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the Brit- 
ish, but was not taken till Sept. 20 following. The 
final struggle began on the 16th, Brigadier (since Sir 
Archdale) Wilson being the commander. Much hero- 
ism was shown ; the gallant deaths of Salkeld and 
Home at the explosion of the Cashmere gate created 
much enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were 
captured soou after: the latter were shot, and the for- 
mer, after a trial, was sent for life to Rangoon. See 
India, 1857. 

"DELICATE INVESTIGATION," The, into the 
conduct of the Princess of Wales (afterward Queen 
of England, as consort of George IV.), was commenced 
by a committee of the Privy Council, under a warrant 
of inquiry, dated May 29, 1806. The members were 
Lord Grenville, Lord Erskine, Earl Spencer, and Lord 
EUenborough. The inquiry, of which the Countess 
of Jersey, Su- J. and Lady Douglas, and other persons 
of rank were the prompters, and in which they con- 
spicuously figured, led to the publication called "The 
Book ;" afterward suppressed. The charges against 
the princess were disproved in 1807, and again in 
1813 ; but, not being permitted to appear at court, she 
went on the Continent in 1814. 

DELIUM, Boeotia, N. Greece, the site of a celebrated 
temple of Apollo. Here, iu a conflict between the 
Athenians and the Boeotians, in which the former 
were defeated, Socrates, the philosopher, is said to 
have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 424 B.C. 

DELLA CRUSC A ACADEMY of Florence merged 
into the Florentine iu 1582. — The Della Crusca. 
ScuooL, a terra applied to some English persons re- 
siding at Florence, who wrote and printed a quantity 
of inferior sentimental poetry and prose iu 1785. 
They came to England, where their works were pop- 
ular for a short time, but were severely satirized by 
GifTord in his "Baviad and Mseviad" (1794-5). 

DELOS, a Greek isle in the JEgean Sea. Here the 
Greeks, during the Persian War, 477 B.C., established 
their commou'treasury, which was removed to Athens, 
461. 

DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enigmatical 
oracles delivered by the Pythia, in the temple of Apol- 
lo, which was buiU, some say, by the Council of the 
Amphictyous, 1263 B.C. The priestess delivered the 
answer of the god to such as came to consult the ora- 
cle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The 
temple was burnt by the Pisistratidce, 548 B.C. A 
new temple was raised by the Alcmreonidre. The Per- 
sians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were deterred 
from plundering the temple by awful portents. It 
was, however, robbed and seized by the Phociaus, 
357 B.C., which led to the Sacred War, and Nero car- 
ried from it 500 costly statues, A.D. 67. The Pythian 
games were first celebrated 586 B.C. The oracle was 
consulted by Julian, but silenced by Theodosius. 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty-nine 
of the Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for the 
use of the dauphin {in xisum Delphini), son of Louis 
XIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius was added 
in 1730. The Due de Montausier, the young prince's 
governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop of Av- 
ranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with other 
learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* edited all 

* This henutiful and fMla\ woman translated CaUimacluis at the afre 
of 23, and also Anacreim, Sappho, Flaulua, Terence, and Uomer. She 
died iu 1720. 



DEL 



IGl 



tr.ft.^,? 1 V ^''''' e-T^ept.Lucan. Each author is illus- 
tiated by uotes aud au iudcx of words. An edition 
of the l)elphm Chissics, with additional notes etc 

p'Se'J.t'c'eX ^ ^'- ""'''''' ""' ^^"'^""' ''^'^"^^^ 



DEN 




Beh,.e, according ?o D^^HaSf '''" "^' ^^"^'^^ °^'^^ 

Clinton B.C. '482 

P'-yft^r 2352 

Usher aud Eng. Bible 2348 

Marsham 2344 

Petaviiis , ' "23"9 

Strauchius !'.'.;; 2293 

Hebrew 22SS 

Vulgar Jewish ....... 2104 



Scjituagint B.C. 3246 

Jackson 3170 

V'''^"^ 3155 

Josephus 3146 

Persian 3103 

Hindoo 3102 

Samaritan 2998 

Howard 2698 



vnsinii* ne n'^,* • " i-ouuiry. ±1 or their iinmpivi,.c i„ 
v- 'LT" °^„?''tain, etc,, .see Danes 




and La„el,bml''w!.fto\TinPo':.n' ™adeindepemieni; 
with Prussia, yf^ re^siur^ S'^ ''' '^^^-- 



In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 1764 BC a 
^:^' C l"'i".!^'"''A\3."i'=4i ti!''^t it lay wa.^e Lr 




The deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is placed 1503 
B C. according to Eusebius. It was often cSiind- 
ed by he ancients with the general flood but con 
SKlered to be merely a local iuundatiot°°occas oned 
by the overflowing of the River Piueu'^ who^e 
course was stopped by an earthquake Se ween the 
Mounts plympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then 
reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha anc?some 
of their subjects, are stated to have saved them! 
selves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. 
q^PPa^^A^A AND EssEQuiBo, colouics in Guiana 
bv h A™?/'?'''' ^'TH^^ ^y the Dutch, 1.580, vere"S 
for h,^''""^'' ""'l'^'" *?"J°'' «*^"eral Why e, Aprfl 22 

DEMOCRATS, advocates for government by the 
people hemselves {demos, pcople,^nna kmfell to mv 
eru) a erm adopted by the French Repub cansTn 
1.90 (who termed their opponents .Ir^o™ from 

adopted by the pro-slavery party n the United States 
and hose opposed to the extension of slaverv were 
called nepubUeam. Into these two grea parties a 

DENAIN (N. France). Here Marshal Villars bv 
his skill, defeated the Imperialist army, July 12 ni'7 

DENARIUS, the chief silver coin amon- the Ro- 
mans, weighing the seventh part of a Roman ounce 
and value 7l,'d sterling, first coined about 269 Sc 
when It exchanged for ten ases (see ^.9). In 216 Bc' 
It exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound wei^^.hfof 
silver was coined into 100 denarii._X»ivZ/ A t^minri 
0O6 l^''c°'^°nd Tr^"'"?^'-"^° twenty din^arii^aSn 
'^iLltLc.'^M'ere'^''^' ^™« '"^^ ^^rty-flve denarii 



1523 
1536 



1612 



Reign of Sciold, first kino _ ^ 

The Danish chronicles ?neutioiV Vq 'i.:;' " ' ' ' V^l^' ^'^ 
time of Ragnor Lodbr™ aT 7I1 t -ff ,^-° ^^^ 
attempt to ?nvade EniL-T^d '^^' ^'^^""^ "^ an 

Canute the C4reat connuers Nni\Vn,'r ''^^ 

Denmark, Norway ami tvo^L ^ 1016-23 

^ one kingdom un^iieraLir" ret "'' ^^"''"^^ '"^^ , 

Copenhagen made the capital H?I 

Accession of Christian i f„V'r>ii" i'" \ 1*^0 

^ whom the late S fai'il^ smanr^'"'^^' ^™'^\ ,. 

ChSn"in ''"'^^'^'^ '"^ ^'''' established by 
DamshEastlndiaCompanyesL^blishedbyCh 
'SSS'^^liif^^°^'^^^-t-tanUeague 
Charles Gustavus of Sweden iuVades DmmaVk 'be 

sieges Copenhagen, and makes conqiS ' ^%65S 
F^edeHnWvf ? ^^^'^^itary and absoliUe ::;: -"S 
-tiedeuck IV. takes Holstein, Schleswi<r Tonn nl 

gen, andStivalsund; reducesVeismm^andXves 
the Swedes from Norway "-,"'" ^? 

''S^lKr'^ •^^r'?^^^''^y''^«-VwhYch 'o^^-"^- 

and 4 conter'"'' ' '''''''''''' *^^ "'liversity, 

The peacefufreign of Christian vi: .' ." .' {-oqJI 

^°L"l?,?"^e" dowager against the m'iuiste rs 
Chris i'an VI '^n*''" "{""'"'Se HI. aml"quee^Tf 
^nustian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda en- 
t le^'^fr^ '"f °i "" confession of criminality to Lave 
flemnp^ t°^-''"' .^"PPosed tover Struenzee, con! 
demned to imprisonment for life in the castle of 

Count Struenie^ and BVVncirbeh^aded ' ' ' Am"i 93'^^^^ 
Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 ' " ^ ^ ^'1,-,, 

Christian VII. become^ derangwl", and Prince Fred- 
erick is appointed regent..!. " ^'^"^e j^iea- 
Oue fourth of Copenhagen burnt.'.'.' .'.■.■.■.■ ' June 1795 
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenha- 
gen, and engage the Danish fleet, takin°Cdl 



DENIS, St., au ancient town of France near PnH« 
^Ji''}^':%.i'L\\'^'>^^y.-^^} church, the forme?abolS 




dunghills, melting the lead for thei^own n'se By a 
decree of Bonaparte, dated Feb. 20, 1806, the church 
(which had been turned meanwhile uf o a cTaUle mar- 
ket !) was ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated 
as 'the future burial-place of the emj <fi ors of FraLce " 
?ffpM ^'■^'"l" f the Bourbons more'restorat ons were 
,1^?^?'^Vi!"'^ '''''S" ^.^^ ^"« 'le Berri aud Louis XVUI 
died, both were buried there. 

,..„^ENMARK_ (N. Europe). The most ancieut inhab- 
itants were Cimbri and Tuetones, who were driven 
out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutoues sett cd in 
Germany aud Gaul; the Cimbrians invaded Italy 
Tf ?n?I nr/ Jf ? 'K'''''''^ by Marius. The peni m & 
«.n,I Vt? o'^tains Its name from the Jutes ; and the 
name of Deumai;k^ssupposed to be derived from Dan, 



stroyiug 18 ships of the line, of whose crews isof) 

of^thetme, 15 frigates, and 37 brigs, etc., suiTen! 

Peace of 'Kki : ;Po'm'e'ran'ia'and Rug^n are'annexeY^"^ 

to Denmark m exchange forNonvay... Jan 14 1S14 

Commercia treaty with England.. . . ..... ^^'Uli 

JCt''''^^JiP'?''\^ a new Constitution... .""issi 

iueZ7J^in}'f^^"''}^^ "S^^* °f the crown o^^ 
tocuieswig, Holstein, etc Julvli I8ir. 

AccessionofFrederick VII., Jan. 20; he'proclaims 

clo"e7v^^rb'll""°"'r^'^S ^^'^ duchTes'more 

Closely with Denmark Jnn 98 18^9 

Insurrection in the duchies ; • • ' ' ' '■ '^^ 



a provisional goveru- 
The rebels seize' the strong fortress 'o'fRradsbJir J " 
They are defeated near Flensburg ^^Apdf o' <' 

dm hIp.T.' 1'^^"^^ '^-y ^^^ ^"ssfans (helping 1^^ 

duchies) at Schleswig Annl 9^ " 

The xNorth Sea blockaded by Den'm'ark.'.'i^Aul. 1 " 
Hostilities suspended: the European powers Rec- 
ommend peace ^ Auo- 26 " 

Hostilities recommence March 251849 

VictOT-y of the Danes over the Holsteiners and 
""" .April 10,1849 



Germans 



Several_ conflicts with varying success June' 

Armistice signed at Malmo July 10' " 

Separate peace with Prussia July 2'lS50 

Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England 

Prance, Prussia, aud Sweden July 4 "■ 

Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswio-! 

Holsteiners by the Danes July 25 " 

Protocol signed in London by the ministers of all 

the great powers Auo- 23 " 

Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the 'Holsleinl 

ers, and the to^vn almost destroyed, but not 

taken. . Sept. 29 to Oct. C, " 

Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswi"-! 



DEN 



1G2 



DEN 



Holstein placing the rights of the country nnder 
the protection of the Germanic Confederation, 

^ Jan. 10,1851 

The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the in- 
dependence of Schleswigand its old union with 

Holstein guaranteed by treaty Feb. 18,1852 

Austrians evacuate Holstein, etc March 2, " 

Treaty of European powers settling the succession 

of the Danish crown May 8, " 

[The line of Augustenburg is put aside ; the suc- 
cession in the line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg 
settled, and the integrity of the Danish king- 
dom guaranteed.] 
The king promulgates a new Constitution, July 29, 

1854 ; adopted Oct. 1,1855 

The Sound dues abolished for a compensation (see 

Soimd) March 14,1857 

Fortification of Copenhagen decreed — March 27,1858 
Discussion between the government and the duch- 
ies Oct. 1S57-1S62 

New "ministry appointed Dec. 3, 1859; resigns, 
Feb. 9 ; Bishop Monrad forms a ministry, 

^ Feb. 24,1800 
The assembly of Schleswig complain that the 
promise of equality of national rights in 1852 has 
not been kept, Feb. 11 ; protest against the an- 
nexation to Denmark March 1 , ' 

The Prussian Chamber of Deputies receive a peti- 
tion from Schleswig, and declare that they will 
aid the duchies. May 4; at which the Danish 

government protests May 16, " 

Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
government declare for war if the forces of the 
Germanic Confederation enter the duchies, Jan., 1801 
Energetic warlike preparations in Denmark, Feb., " 

Decimal coinage adopted June, " 

Agitation in favor of union of Denmark with Swe- 
den, June ; the King of Sweden visits Denmark, 

and is warmly received July 17,1802 

Earl Russell recommends the government to give 
to Holstein and Laueuburg all that the Germanic 
Confederation desire for them, and to give self- 
government to Schleswig Sept. 24, " 

M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede ; 
stating that to do so would imperil the existence 

of the monarchy itself Nov. 20, " 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 

Prince of Wales at Windsor March 10,1863 

The king grants, by patent, independent rights to 

Holstein, but annexes Schleswig March 30, " 

Austria and Prussia protest against this decree, 

April 17, " 

Farther diplomatic correspondence May, " 

The king accepts the crown of Greece for his rel- 
ative. Prince William -George, and gives him 

sound political advice June 6, " 

Death of the CrowTi Prince Frederick-Ferdinand, 

the king's nncle June 29, " 

The German Diet demands annulment of the pat- 
ent of March 30, and that Holstein and Schles- 
wig should be united with the same rights ; and 

threatens an army of occupation July 9, " 

The king replies that he will consider occupation 

to be an act of war Aug. 27, " 

Vain efforts for a defensive alliance with Sweden, 

Aug., " 
Extraordinary levy to strengthen the army de- 
creed Aug. 1, " 

New Constitution (uniting Schleswig with Den- 
mark) proposed in the Rigsraad Sept. 29, " 

Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Chris- 
tian IX Nov. 15, " 

Prince Frederick of Augusteuburg claims the duch- 
ies of Schleswig and Holstein Nov. 16, " 

Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials re- 
fuse to take oath to Christian Nov. 21 et seq., " 

Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German powers 

resolve to support the Prince of Augusteuburg, 

Nov. 20 et seq.. 

New Constitution affirmed by the Rigsraad, Nov. 

13 • signed by the king, Nov. 18 ; published, 

Dec. 1,2, " 
The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they 
will quit Copenhagen if the Constitution of Nov. 

18 is not annulled Dec, " 

Great excitement in Norway; proposals to sup- 
port Denmark Dec, " 

Prince Frederick's letter to the Emperor Napoleon, 

Dec. 2, obtains an ambiguous reply Dec. 10, " 

Denmark protests against federal occupation, 

Dec. 19, " 
900 representatives of different German states meet 
at Frankfort, and resolve to support Prince Fred- 



erick as Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and 
the inseparable union of those duchies. .Dec. 21,1863 

The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regi- 
ment enters Altona, Dec 24 ; and the federal 
commissioners assume administrative powers, 

Dec 25, " 

Hall's ministry resign, but soon after reassume 
office Dec 28, " 

The Danes retire from Holstein to avoid collision 
with federal troops Dec. 24 ct seq., " 

Prince Frederick enters Kiel, and is proclaimed 
Duke of Schleswig and Holstein Dec 30, " 

The Danes evacuate Rendsburg Dec 31, " 

Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and Bishop Mon- 
rad forms a cabinet Dec. 31, " 

Dissension among the Germans ; the Austro-Prus- 
sian proposition rejected by the Diet ; the former 
declare that they will settle the question if the 
Diet exceeds its powers Jan. 14,1864 

Austria and Prussia demand the abrogation of the 
Constitution (of Nov. 18) within 2 days, Jan. 16 ; 
the Danes require 6 weeks' time Jan. 18, " 

The German troops, under Marshal Wrangel, en- 
ter Holstein Jan. 21, " 

The Prussians enter Schleswig and take Ecken- 
forde Feb. 1, " 

They bombard Missunde, Feb. 2, which is burnt, 

Feb. 3, " 

TheDanesdefeatedbyWrangelatOverselk,Feb. 3, " 

The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save their 
army, Feb. 5 ; great discontent in Copenhagen, 

Schleswig taken; Prince Frederick proclaimed, 

" Feb. 6, " 

The allies occupy Fleusburg, Feb. 7 ; commence ^^ 

their attack on Diippel Feb. 13, 

The federal commissioners protest against the 

Prussian occupation of Altona Feb. 13, 

The Prussians enter Jutland, and take Kolding, 

Feb. 18 ; the Danes fortify Alsen, Feb. 18 et seq., " 
A conference on Danish affairs proposed by En- 
gland ; agreed to by allies Feb. 23, 

A subscription for the wounded Danes begun in 

London Feb. 24, " 

The Rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, Feb. 

26; adjourned March 22, " 

The Prussians bombard and take the village of 
Diippel, or Dybbol, March 16, 17 ; and bombard 
Fredericia, March 20 ; repulsed in an attack on 
the fortress, March 28 ; bombard SiJnderberg : 
much slaughter, April 23 ; which causes Bishop 
Monrad to appeal to European powers, April 9, " 
The opening of the conference adjourned from 

April 12 to 20, " 
The Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, April 1,8, " 
Meetings- of the conference at London ; result un- 
favorable to Denmark April 25 ct seq., " 

The Danes retreat to Alsen, and evacuate Frede- 
ricia and the fortresses of Jutland April 29, " 

Agreement for an armistice for one month from 

May 12 May 9, " 

Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war 

contribution to Prussians May et seq., " 

The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 

Heligoland May 9, '' 

Armistice prolonged for a fortnight from June 9, ' 

The conference ends June 22, 

Hostilities resumed, June 26 ; the Prussians bom- 
bard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 prison- 
ers June 29, " 

The MoiiVad ministry resigns ; Count Moltki 

forms an administration July 8-10, " 

Alsen taken ; Jutland placed under Prussian ad- 
ministration ; Prince John of Denmark sent to 

negotiate at Berlin Jnly 9, " 

Formation of the Bluhme administration, July 11, |^ 

Armistice aareed to July IS, 

Bednning of conference for peace at Vienna, 

'^ July 26, " 
Treaty of peace signed at Vienna; the King of 
Denmark resigus'the duchies to the disposal of 
the allies, and agrees to a rectification of his 
frontier, and to pay a large sum of money to de- 
fray the expenses of the war Oct. 30, 

Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the 
duchies, releasing them from their allegiance, 

Nov. 16, " 
Project of a new Constitution published. .Dec 30, " 
The project of a new Constitution rejected by the 

assembly Feb. 25,1865 

New ministry formed under Count Frysenborg, 

Nov. 6, " 
A new Constitution approved by the Rigsraad, 

Nov. 7, " 



I 



803 
824, 
855. 
936. 
985. 

1014. 

1016. 

1035. 
1042. 
1047. 
1073. 
1070. 
1080. 
1086. 
1095. 
1103. 
1105. 
1135. 
1137. 

1147. 

1157. 
1182. 
1202. 
1241. 
1250. 

1252. 
1259. 
1286. 
1320. 
1334. 
1340. 
1375. 
1376. 
1387. 

1397. 
1412. 

1438. 
1440. 

1448. 



1481. 
1513. 



152: 



1534 



1559, 
1.5SS. 
1648. 



1670, 
1099. 



n.so. 

1740. 



1760. 
17S4. 



1808. 
1839. 



1848. 



1863. 



DEN 

„. , „SOVEEEIONB OF DENMARK. 

bigurd Snogoje. 

Hardicauute i. 

Gormo the Old ; leiirncd .53 years. 

Harold II., suruamed Blue Tooth. 

buenou or ^weyu, the Forked-beard. 

Harold III. 

• ^^","Jf(|"- ^^'^ ^'■'^"f' ^^i"S of Deumark and Eu 

Cauute III.'s son, Hardicanute of Euo-land 
Magnus, eurnamed the Good, of Norway 
Sueuon, or Sweyn II. •' 

[luterreguum.] 
Harold, called the Simple. 
Canute IV. 

Olaus IV., the Hungry. 
Eric I., styled the Good, 
[luterreguum.] 

Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
Eric II., suruamed Harefoot. 
Eric III., the Lamb. 
I Sueuou, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. 
(Canute V. until 11,')7. 
Waldemar, styled the Great. 
Canute VI., suruamed the Pious. 
Waldemar II., the Victorious. 
. Eric IV. 

. Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric • kill- 
ed m an expedition against the Frisous.' 
. Christopher I.: poisoned. 
. Eric V. 
, Eric VI. 
. Christopher II. 
[Interregnum of seven years.] 
Waldemar III. 
[Interregnum.] 
Olaus V. 
Margaret, styled the "Semiramis of the North " 

queen of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark ' 
Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 
CTO ' "^ '"^'g^s alone ; obliged to resign both 
[Interregnum.] 

Christopher III., king of Sweden 
Christian I., count 6t Oldenburg; elected Kin"- 
of2)e«mart-,1448; of ^'w;e(?eM, 1467 ; succeeded 
by his son 
John : succeeded by his son 
Christian II., called the Cruel, and the "Nero 
ot the JNorth ;" among other enormous crimes 
he caused all the Swedish nobility to be ma.s' 
sacred: dethroned for his tyranny in 1523- 
died in a dungeon in 1559. ' 

[In this reign Sweden succeeded in separating 
Itself from the crown of Denmark.] 
. Frederick I., duke of Holstein, sou of Christian 
i. : a liberal ruler; King of Denmark audiW- 

. Christian III., son of Frederick; established the 
Lutheran religion; esteemed the "Father of 
his People." 
. Frederick II., son of Christian III. 
• Christian IV., son. 

. Frederick III ; changed the Constitution from 
an elective to an nKREniTAKv monakoiiy, vest- 
ed in his own family, 106,5. 
Christian V., son of Frederick III. ; succeeded 

Dy his son. 
Frederick IV. ; leagued with the Czar Peter and 
the King of Poland against Charles XII. of 
Sweden. 
Christian VT., his son. I 

Frederick \' his son ; married the Princess 

rbn'r''' '^/t?"?^-^°^' fla»f?hter of George IL ' 
Christian VII., his son. See p 161 

Prince Frederic-k declared regent inconseqiience 

of the mental derangement of his father 
Frederick VI previously regent, now king. 

Chr'^r ^ \^h ?? of Frederick, brother of 
Chri.«t an \ II.) king oU)enmark only 

Frederick ML, son of Christian VIII -Jan 20- 
^Z"^ ^icV"' l^"^ ' i^paratcd from his first wife," 
Sept., 1S3( ; from his second wife, Sept , 1846 • 
married morganatically Louisa, countess of 
Daiiner, Aug. 7, IS^o : died Nov. 15, 1863. 

Christian I\., son of William, duke of Schles- 
wig Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg; Nov 
(succeeded by virtue of the protocol of Lou- 
don, M.ay 8, 18.52, and of the hnv of the Danish 
succession, July 31 1,S53). He was born April 
8, 181,8; married Princess Loui.^a of Hesse- 

Phrff ■' '^^"■yrf • ^'^f ■ Jfl^ '« descended from 
C hnstian III., and she from Frederick V. • 
both from George IL of England.] 



163 



DER 



Allies, 6000 The defeat of NonT°°"'.*='T'^-.' °^ ^"^^ 
the 18th of October followh^'^?''"'? ,?•* ^^'P^'^, on 
campaign. ''""'^^'^ lollowing, closed his disastrous 

caSy^'i^Si'counties^t;'}^'^ '" ^ '^'P'°'^««° 
ipotentiary from France n'l'Z^^''^'' minister plen- 
be a./emak at a trial it th„ t-"'^?°V,"''^® affirmed to 
an action tJ recoyVr vS%t\"^^,^5,"«'^ '^ ^^'1. ^^ 
quently wore female ntt,-,o i ? "'\'?ex. He subse- 

DEPARTMENTS. See »„„ 

house, Sept. 2, 1758; the red house, Feb 26 1761 n^^^' 

Of Co^;rS.i?^^^^ "" ^^^^' -'--^ it to!^''thtn"a:Se 

q^J^^^i^iT T"^ "^^.^^ ^ I'oy^l burg by Egbert (about 
a colonf Tn io^'"^ '\^ ^''^"^'^ ''^^ it^and placed 

ag&Uel^Ll^ei^S^'/s.^^i^Sl^^S' 
by to his illegitimate son, William PeveHl ^10^.7^^: 
silk-throwing machine was set fp^n ml and °n^™ 

S'' Vhe von^r^^^^^ '\'' ^^'^y ribbeclstocking: 
irame. 1 he young Pretender reached Derby Dec % 

^^^S^^^ ^' Epsom^^n^lnXS! 

DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS: the first formed 
after the resignation of Lord John Russell Feb 21 

19,1858 '"'""'^ "*"'' '""^^ of LordPalmerstontFeb: 

riEST ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 27, 1852 
First Lord of the Treasury, Earl of Derby t 

warSgtn) ^°"' ^'^ ^'°''""^' (Previously Sir Ed- 
President of the Council, Earl of Lonsdale. 
Lord Privy Seal, Marquess of Salisbury. 
Home, Foreign, and Colonial Secretaries, Mr. Spencer 

PakfSol^ ''^'^'■^°^^'''°'^''^"''y'''^°'lS"Joli^^ 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, Benjamin Disrieli 
Board of Control, John Charles HeSles 
Board of Trade, Joseph Warner Henlev 
Postmaster General, Earl of Hardwicke 
Secretary at War, William Beresford ' 

''lord'^rr'Tarerf '""''' ''''''''''''''' '^^'^^^^s, 
Robert Adam Christopher, Lord Colchester, etc. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 2.5, 1858. 

First Lord of the Treasury, Earl of Derby 

Lord Chancellor, Lord Chelmsford (previously Sir F 
Thesiger). •' 

Chancellor of the. Exchequer, B. Disraeli 

^<^<^etaries~Foreign, Earl of Malmesbury ; Home, Spen- 
cei H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Sotheron 
Estcourt ; Colonies, Lord Stanley— in June, 1,S6S, Sir 
E. Bulwer Lytton ; War, Col. Jonathan Peel 

Presidents—of the Council, Marquess of Salisbury • of 
Board of Control (Dulia), 1. Earl of Ellenbonnigh 
(who resigned in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter Sn 
his own authority, cen.«uring the proclamation of 
Lord Canning to the Oude insurgents ; the govern- 
ment hardly escaped a vote of censure) ; 2. In June 
]S>8, Lord Stanley; Board of Trade, Mr. Joseph w' 



■eth.Tu 



nd B 



Trials. . 
ior, Weightman, and o^ucm, , 
"f hiRh treason, Oct. 15, 1817 
Ludlam execiited, Nov. 7 folt 
— PhiUipa. 21 prisoners were 
eral miners in the Red-soil n 
that the mischief was not willful, March 23^!^ 1 S34 

t Born 1799; M.P. for Stockbrid^e (as Hon EOS t;ta„l„ n • 
l^ialtlt^^?^:^ f.rIre,and,I..0-4; .ecrei^y'k^l.^^S^^ 



■, Ludlam senior, Ludlam jun- 
t this memorable commission 
ndreth, Turner, and the elder 

'; /'\'^"^, ''■''■''• «'"' '- not 'fied. 
■ted at Derby for the murder of sev- 
but were acquitted on the ground 



DEE, 



164 



DIA 



Henley (resigned in March, 1S59) ; Earl of Donough- 

niore;' Boara of Works, Lord John Manners. 
Lord Privy Seal, Earl of Hardwicke. 
First Lord of the Admiraltji, Sir John S. Pakington. 
Postmaster, Lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Duke of Montrose. 
[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of 

want of confidence, June 11, 1859 ; it was succeeded 

by the Palmerston-Eussell cabinet i^which see), but 

again came into power, July, 1806. 

DERRICKS are lofty, portable, crane-like struc- 
tures, used on land and water for lifting enormous 
loads, and in some cases depositing them at an eleva- 
tion. They are extensively used in the United States, 
and were introduced into England as floating derricks 
for raisinsf sunken vessels by their inventor, A. D. 
Bishop, in 1S5T. 

DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Edward Mar- 
cus Despard, a native of Ireland, and Broughton, Fran- 
cis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and Wrattan, con- 
spired to seize the king's person on the day of his 
meeting Parliament, Jan. 16, 1803, to destroy him and 
overturn the government. A special commission was 
issued on Feb. T, and they suffered death on the top 
of Horsemonger Lane jail, Sonthwark, Feb. 21, 1803. 
Between thirty and forty persons of inferior order 
were taken into custody on Nov. 16, 1802, for this con- 
spiracy, which caused great consternation at the time. 

DETROIT (Michigan), the oldest city in the West, 
was built by the FreTich about lOTO. 

DETROIT, StTEKEKBER OF. Ou the 16th of August, 
1812, Gen. William Hull surrendered the fort at De- 
troit, with his army of 340 regulars and about 2000 
militia and volunteers, to Gen. Brock, of the British 
army, who had about 13,000 regulars, militia, and In- 
dians. By this surrender all Michigan fell into the 
hands of the British. 

DETTINGEN (Bavaria), Battle of, June 10, 1T43, 
between the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian army 
(52,000), commanded by King Geors^e II. of England 
and the Earl of Stair, and the French army (60,000), 
under Marshal Noailles and the Due de Grammont. 
The French passed a defile which they should have 
merely guarded. The Due de Grammont, with his 
cavalrj', charged the British foot with great fury, but 
was received with such intrepidity that he was obliged 
to give way, and to repass tlie Maine, losing 5000 men. 

DEVONPORT. ^ee Dock-yards and Plymouth. 

DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINISTRATION, 

formed Nov. 16, 1756, and resigned April 5, 1757. 

First Lord of the Treasury, William, duke of Devon- 
shire. 

Chancellor of the Excliequcr, Hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 

Lord President, Earl Granville. 

Privy Seal, Earl Gower. 

Secretaries of State, Earl of Holdernesse and Wm. Pitt 
(afterward Earl of Chatham, the Yirtivdl premier) . 

George Greuville, Earl of Halifax, Dukes of Rutland 
and Grafton, Earl of Rochfort, Viscount Barring- 
ton, etc. The great seal in commission. 

DEW, the modern theory respecting its formation 
was put forth by Dr. Wells in his treatise published in 
1814. 

DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the ancients 
instead of the crown, and consecrated to the gods. At 
first it was made of silk or wool, set with precious 
stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, 
the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the 
neclj. Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who 
wore a diadem, 272. — Tillcmont. 

DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B. C. — 
Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome was 
placed on the temple of Quiriuus by L. Papirius Cur- 
sor, when time was divided into hours, 293 B.C.— 
Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every pal- 
ace and public building had a sun-dial. They were 
first set up in churches in A.D. 613. — Lcnglct. Dial of 
Ahaz, Liaiah xxxviii., 8. 

DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical analy- 
sis, depending on the difi'erent detirees of dift'usibility 
of STibstances in liquids, was made known in 1861 by 
its discoverer, Professor Thomas Graham, the Master 
of the Mint. 

DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed by cer- 
tain bodies of behaving differently to iron when placed 
between two magnets. The phenomena, previously 
little known, were reduced to a law by Faraday in 
1845. 



DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe from the 
East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor was the first 
known, and where the mines of Golcouda were discov- 
ered in 1534. This district may be termed the realm 
of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 
1728. From these last a diamond, weighing 16S0 car- 
ats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portu- 
gal, and was valued by Mr. Romeo de I'lsle at the ex- 
travagant sum of 224 millions ; by others it was valued 
at 56 millions ; its value was next stated to be Zyi mil- 
lions ; but its true value (it not being brilliant) was 
£400,000. 

The great Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz- 
12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The Empress Catharine II. of- 
fered for it i;i04,166 13.s. 4d., besides an annuity for 
liie to the owner of i;l041 13s. id., which was re- 
fused ; but it was afterward sold to Catharine's fa- 
vorite, Count Orloff, for the first-mentioned sum, 
without the annuity, and was by him presented to 
the empress on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in the 
sceptre of Russia. 
The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cut- 
ting 106 carats : it was sold to the King of France 
for X125,000 in 1720. 
The PiGOTT diamond was sold for 9500 guineas, May 

10, 1802. 
The diamond called the Moitntain of Light, or Kom- 
jjooR, was found in the mines of Golcouda in 155&, 
and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jehan, 
Aunmgzebe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and aft- 
erward to the Sikh chief, Runjeet Singh. Upon the 
abdication of Dhuleep Singh, the last ruler of the 
Punjab, and the annexation of his dominions to the 
British empire in 1849, the Kohinoor was surren- 
dered to the queen. It was accordingly brought 
over and presented to her, July 3, 1850. It was 
shown in the Great ExhilMtion, 1851. Its original 
weight was nearly 800 carats, but it was reduced by 
the unskillfulness of the artist, Hortensio Borghese, 
a Venetian, to 279 carats. A general idea may be 
formed of its shape and size by conceiving it as the 
pointed half (rose cut) of a small hen's egg. The 
value is scarcely computable, though two millions 
sterling have been mentioned as a justifiable price, 
if calculated by the scale employed in the trade. 
This diamond was re-cut in London in 1852, and now 
weighs lOiH carats. 
The Sanoi diamond, Avhich belonged to Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundv, was bought by Sir C. Je- 
ieebhoy from the Deinidofl' family for £20,000 in 
Feb., 1805. 
A diamond, termed the Star of the South, was 
broua;ht from Brazil in 185.5, weighing 254><S carats, 
half of which was lost by cutting. 

Inflammability of Diamonds. 
Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- 
flammable, 1609.— jGo7/te. 
Discovered that when exposed to a high temperature 
it gave an acrid vapor, in which a part of it was dis- 
sipated, 1673. — Boyle. 
Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 

power that it must be combustible, 1675. 
Averani demonstrated, by concentratins- the rays of 
the sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in 
vapor, and entirely disappeared, while other pre- 
cious stones merely grew softer, 1695. 
It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
that although diamonds are the hardest of all known 
bodies, they yet contain nothing more than pure 
charcoal, or carbon. Diamonds were charred by the 
intense heat of the Voltaic battery— by M. Dumas, in 
Paris, and by Professor Faraday, in London, in 1842. 
Diamond Necklace Affair. — In 1785, Bcehmer, the 
court jeweler of France, oftered the queen, Maria- 
Antoinette, a diamond necklace for £64,000. Tho 
queen desired the necklace, but feared the exjjense. 
The Countess de la Motte (of the ancient house r, f 
Valois) forged the queen's signature, and by pre- 
tending that the queen had an attachment for bun, 
persuacled the Cardinal de Rohan, the queen's al- 
moner, to conclude a bargain with the jeweler for 
the necklace for £56,000. De la Motte thus obtamed 
the necklace and made away with it. For this she 
was tried in 1786, and sentenced to he branded on 
the shoulders and imprisoned for life. She accused 
in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer, Cagliostro, 
of complicity in the afiair, he being then intimate 
with the cardinal. She made her escape and came 
to London, where she was killed by falling from a 
window-sill in attemptinst to escape an arrest for 
debt.— De Rohan was tried and acquitted, April 14, 
1786. The public in France at that time suspected 
the queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand 



DIA 



1G5 



wrote at the time, "I shall not be surprised if this 
miserable affair overturu the throne." 

DIANA, Tkmple of (at Ephesns), long accoixnted 
one ot the seven wonders of the world, was built at the 
common char;,'e of all the Asiatic states, 552 B.C. The 
chief archilect was Ctcsiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 
years were employed in completing this rich temple. 
It was 425 feet louj,', 225 broad, and was supported )3v 
127 coluums (GO feet high, each weighing 150 tous of 
Fariau marble), furnished by so mauy kings. It was 
set on lire, ou the night of Alexauder's natiVity, by an 
obscure individual named Eratostratus, who confessed 
oil the rack that the sole motive which had prompted 
him to destroy so magniflceut an edifice was the desire 
of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 B.C. The 
temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by the Goths in 
their naval invasion, A.D. 256 or 'ZQ'i.—Crmv. Hist 



DIL 



DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palame- 
des, of Greece, about 1244 B. C. The game of Tali aud 
Tessera amoug the Romans was played with dice. 
Stow meutious two entertainments given by the city 
of London at which dice were played.* Act to rei-u- 
Tv*^ tl>e licenses of makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. 

DICHROOSCOPB, an optical apparatus, described 
by the inventor. Professor Dove, of Berlin, in 1S60, who 
intended it to represent interferences, spectra in dif- 
ferent colored lights, polarization of light, etc. 

DICTATORS were supreme and absolute man-is- 
ti-ates ot Rome, appointed to act in critical tinies 
Jm^lf .. 'm!'? ^"'??'^^*' t^'e «'•«' dictator, was appointed 

]. c ;, ■ ^^"® °*^® became odious by the usurpations 
pt t>y]la and Julius Cresar ; and after the death of the 
latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the Consul 
Antony, passed a decree, which forever forbad a dic- 
tator to exist in Rome, 44 B.C., but Augustus became 
perpetual dictator, 2T B.C., as Imperator. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chi- 
nese language, containing about 40,000 characters 
most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations' 
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected 
by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.C.— Morrison. 
The oldest Greek dictionary is the Onomastikon 

of Julius Pollux, written about 120 B.C. ; a Latin 

one was compiled by Varro, born B.C. 110 

The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 

first, is by Aml)rose Calepini, a Venetian friar, 

in Latin ; he wrote one in eight lano-nawes (A'l- 

T^^'i^--; ;■•;.■.• about a. d. 1500 

John E. Avenar's Dictionarium Hcbraicum was 
published at Wittenberg iu 15S9. Buxtorf s great 
work. Lexicon Hcbraicum, etc., appeared 1621 

The Lexinon Heptarjlotton was published by Ed- 
mund Castell in 1(559 

The great dictionary of the English ianguage,by 
Samuel Johnson, the "Leviathan of Literature," 
appeared in ; _ -[-^^^ 

Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Ton'o-'ue 
was compiled in f. .1768 

The following academies have published lart'e 
dictionaries of their respective languaires : the 
French Academy, first in 1694; the Spanish, 
1T26 ; the Italian Academy (della Crusca), 1T29 • 
and the Russian 1TS9-94 

Schwau's great German-French Dictionary ap- 
peared in 1 Ten 

ichardson s English Dictionary appeared in.. . .1836 
Nathan Bailey's Dictionary, published in Queen 
Anne's reign, was for a long time the only one 
in -cneral use. IToah Webster, the eniinent 
pliilologist, publisl'.ed the revised aud enlarged 
edition of his dictionary in 1S41, and so he left it 
at the time of his death in 1S4.5. Ilis son-in-law 
Chauncey A. Goodrich, D.D., LL.D., published a 
new edition of the dictionary iu 1859, with great 
additions, and in 1S60 a revised pictorial edition 
was edited by Professor Noah Porter, of Yale 
College. Worcester's large dictionary was pub- 
lished in jggg 

Lcmpricre's Classical Dictionary, which first ap- 
peared in ITSS, is now superseded by Dr. W. 

Smith's classical series 1842-57 

The Philological Society of London issued "pro- 
posals for a new English Dictionary" 1859 



... 'n 'W-thekinprs of Scotland and France, beinj; prisoners, nnd the 
Kins of Cvlirus on a vxsM to Edward III., a great tournament was held 
at Smithtield, and afterward Henry Picard, nfayor of London, " kept 
his hall aeainst all coiners that were wiUinR to play at dice and hazard. 
: . Lady AInrirarct, his wite, did keepo her chamber to the same in- 
tent. The mayor restored to the Kinc of C\-prus 60 marks which he 
hiul won from him. saying, " My lord and king, be not acerieved ■ for I 
eovet not your gold, but your pi«y," etc.— Stow. ' 



'^^]^J^''^^^ G^tm^Ti Dictionary, by Jacob and Wil- 

neim Grimm ^^<'i. i>t eon 

M^ Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of English ^' 

Smith's DictionaiV of the' Biide' was ■published .!lS60-3 
The earliest known English-Latin Dictionary is 
UxelromptMriura Parvulorum, compiled by Gal- 

folk"in ^Iin""''"i'"''- "l P'-^^^ching friar of Noi- 
lolk, in 1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as Proivp- 
torms Pucmrwm, in 1499. A new edition, care- 
ful y edited by Mr. Albert Way, from MSS , was 
published by the Camden Society. .. . . . . ! ' i^ls-eg 

(See Encijclo2)mlia.) 

in^8?i™Ti^,t^^P^v«? T^""]' "^'^covered by Mosander 
Ihanmn and'Sm.'" '° ^'^^^^ '''''"^^''^ ^"»^ '^^- 

by°anS4^-fl^i;?''\ '^^}% ^^^^^ "^^^^ bombarded 
in ashes July, 161 4. It was again bombarded in 1794 • 
and again together with Vat town of Grauv le -by 
the British, September 14, 1S03. "lauvnie, oy 

"DIES IR^" ("Day of Wrath"), a Latin medieval 
hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed to various 
authors, amoug others to Pope Gregory the Great 
(died about 604) ; St.Bernard (died 1153) : but is gen- 
erally considered to have been composed by Thomas 
of Celano (died 12.55), and to have been used iu the 
Roman service of the mass before 18S5. 

DIET OF THE Gekman Empire (in which the su- 
preme court of authority of the empire may be said lo 
have existed) was composed of three colletres : one of 
electors, one of princes, and one of imperial towns 
and commenced with the edict of Charles IV., 1356 
See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had lonc^ 
previously been held on important occasions. ThS 
Diet of \V_urtzburg, whicn proscribed Henry the Lion. 
was held in 1180 ; that of Worms, at which Luther wal 
present, m 1521 ; that of Spire.s, to condemn the Re- 
i«?®''S;u'^ V^'^^ : ^^^ t'^e famous Diet of Augsburg, in 
1530. The league of the German princes, called the 
Confederation of the Rhine, fixed the diet at Frank- 
r oi ^^ V-' ^^^'^- Germany was governed by a diet 
of 38 members, having votes varying from four to one 
each, till 1864, when Schleswig and Holstein were in- 
cluded. Diets were held in 1S48 and 1S50, at Frank- 
fort {which see). 

Dim ET MON DROTT ("God and my ri-ht"), the 
royal motto of England, was the parole of the day 
given by Richard I. of England to his army at the bat- 
tle of Gisors, iu France, Sept. 20, 1198, when the French 
army was signally defeated. '' Dieu et mon droit" ap- 
pears to have been first assumed as a motto by Henry 
V I. (1422-1401). , 

^^DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE. See Calculating Ma- 

DIFFUSION OP Gases. For our present knowl- 
edge of the laws regulating this phenomenon, which 
performs so important a part in respiration and other 
natural processes, we are greatly indebted to the re- 
searches of Professor T. Graham, published in the 
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 
1850. 

DIFFUSION OF Useful Knowledge Society, in 
England, which published a number of books relatino- 
to history, science, and literature, and a useful atlas"! 
ridiculed as the "Sixpenny Sciences," in a cheap form 
\yas established in 1S27, by Lord Brouaham, Mr. Wil- 
liam Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. It pat- 
ronized the publication of the Penny Magazine aud 
the Penuy Cyclopa?dia. The Roval Institution of 
Great Britain was established iu 1800 for "the Promo- 
tion, Diftusion, aud Extension of Science aud Useful 
Knowledge." 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws un- 
der this title was prepared bv Alfrenus Varus, the ci- 
vilian, of Cremona, CO B.C.— Qvintil. The Digest, so 
called by way of eminence, was the collection made 
by order of the Emperor Justinian, 529: it made the 
first part of the Roman law and the first volume of the 
civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ft'.— 
Pardon. A digest of the statute law of England is 
now strongly recommended (1S05). 

DIGITS. Auy whole number under 10 : 1, 2, etc. 
are the nine digits. Arithmetical figures were kuown 
to the Arabian Moors about A.D. 9(i0, and were intro- 
duced by them into Spain in 1050, and thence into En- 
gland about 12.53. In astronomv, the digit is a meas- 
ure used in the calculation of eclipses, and is the 
twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed. See Figures. 

DILETTANTI, Society of, in England, was estab- 



DIM 



166 



DIV 



lished in 1734 by several noblemen and gentlemen 
(Viscount Harcourt, Lord Middlesex, Duke of Dorset, 
etc.), who had traveled and who were desirous of en- 
couraging a taste for the fine arts in Great Britain. 
The society published, or aided in publishing, Stuart's 
Athens (1762-lSlG), Chandler's Travels ("1775-76), and 
several other finely_ illustrated vi'orks, having aided 
the authors in their investigations. The members 
diue together from time to time at the Thatched-house 
Tavern, St. James's. 

DIMITY. See Damietta. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman Empire 
into dioceses, at that period civil governments, is as- 
cribed to Constantine, 323 ; bnt Strabo remarks that 
the Romans had the departments called dioceses long 
before. In England the principal dioceses are coeval 
with the establishment of Christianity ; of 2S dioceses, 
20 arc suiTragan to the diocese of Canterbury, and six 
to that of York. See Buhops. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of Martyrs, 
on account of the persecution in his reign) was used 
by Christian writers until the introdiiction of the 
Christian era in the Cth century, and is still employed 
by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day 
on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chal- 
cedon, August 20, 284. 

DIOPTRIC SYSTEM. See Lvjht-houses. 

DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had 
long been admired at Paris, was first opened in Lou- 
don by MM.Bouton and Daguerre, Sept. 29, 1S23. The 
diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, 
that, instead of a circular view of the objects repre- 
sented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in per- 
spective. It was not successful commercially, and 
was sold in 1S4S. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek dii)hthera, a mem- 
brane), a disease which has the essential character of 
developing a false membrane on any integument, par- 
ticularly on the mucous membrane of the throat. It 
was so named by Bretonueau of Tours in 1S20. From 
its prevalence in Boulogne, it has been termed the 
Boulogne sore - throat ; many persons were affected 
with it in England and in the United States at the be- 
ginning of 1S5S, and since. 

DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the relations of 
foreign states by means of ambassadors, envoys, con- 
suls, etc. See Ambafssadors. New regulations for the 
British diplomatic service were issued Sept. 6, 1S62. 

DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the science of 
Palteography or ancient writings. Valuable works on 
this subject have been compiled bv Mabillon (IGSl), 
De Vaiues (1774), Astle (1781), De Wailly (1S3S), and 
other antiquaries. 

"DIRECTORY for the Public 'Woitsnip or Gon" 
was drawn up at the instance of the Parliament by an 
assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644, after the 
suppression of the Book of Common Prayer. The 
general hints given were to be managed with discre- 
tion ; for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer 
or manner of external worship, and enjoined the peo- 
ple to make no responses except vl men. It was adopt- 
ed by the Parliament of Scotland in 1045, and many 
of its regulations are still observed. 

DIRECTORY, The Frenou, established by the Con- 
stitution of Aug. 22, 179,'), and nominated Nov. 1, was 
composed of five members (MM. Lipeaux, Letourneur, 
Rewbel, Barras, and Carnot). It ruled in conjunction 
with two chambers, the Council of Ancients and Coun- 
cil of Five Hundred (which sec). It was deposed by 
Bonaparte, who, with Cambaceres and Sieyes, as- 
sumed the government as three consuls, the first as 
chief, Nov. 10, 1799. See Consuls, 

DIRECTORY, the first London, is said to have been 
printed in 1677. 

DISCIPLINE, EooLESiASTioAL, originally conduct- 
ed according to the divine commands in Matt, xviii., 
15 ; 1 Cor. v.'; 2 Thess. iii., 6, and other Scripture texts, 
was gradually changed to a temporal character, as it 
now appears in the Roman and Greek churches. The 
"First i?ook of Discipline" of the Presbyterian Church 
of Scotland was drawn up by John Knox and four 
ministers in Jan., 1560-1. The more important "Sec- 
ond Book" was prepared with great care in 1578 by 
Andrew Melville and a committee of the leading mem- 
bers of the General Assembly. It lays dowu^i thor- 
oughly Presbyterian form of government, defines the 
position of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, etc. 

DISCOUNT.* See Bank of England. 

* Bank discount raised to 4><, Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 5 ; 
to 7, Oct. 7 {three times i-n one week) ; reduced to 6, Nov. 23 : raised to 
7, Dec. 28, 1863 ; to 8, Jan. 4, 1866. 



DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical 
advice and medicines, began in London with the Roy- 
al General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholo- 
mew's Close in 1770. It relieved about 20,000 persons 
in 1801. — Loio's Charities. 

DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first 
granted by Pope Innocent III. in 1200. These exemp- 
tions from the discipline of the Church, with indul- 
gences, absolutions, etc., led eventually to the Refor- 
mation in Germany in 1517, and in England In 1534, 
et seq. 

DISPENSING POVirER of the Ceown (for setting 
aside laws), asserted by some of our sovereigns, espe- 
cially by James II. in 16S6, was abolished by the Bill 
of Rights, 1089. However, it has been on certain oc- 
casions exercised, as in the case of embargoes upon 
ships, the Bank Charter Act, etc. See Indemnitij. 

DISSECTION. See Anatomy. 

DISSENTERS, the modern name in Great Britain 
of the Puritans and Nonconformists (which see). In 
1851, in London alone, the number of chapels, meet- 
ing-houses, etc., for all classes of dissenters amounted 
to more than 554. (The Church of Enirland had 458 ; 
Roman Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. IV., c. 17) 
for the relief of dissenters from, civil and religious dis- 
abilities was passed May 9, 1828. By this act, called 
the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of the 
several acts of preceding reigns as imposed the neces- 
sity of receiviug the sacrament of the Lord's Supper 
as a qualification for certain offices, etc., was repealed. 
By & 7 Will. IV., c. 85 (1836), dissenters acquired the 
right of solemnizing marriages at their own chapels 
or at a registry office. See Worshi}}. 

DISTAFF, the staff to which hemp, flax, wool, or 
other substances to be spun is fastened. The art of 
spinning with it at the small wheel first taught to En- 
glish women by Anthony Bouavisa, an Italian.— .Stot». 
The distaftMs lised as an emblem of the female sex. 

DISTILLATION, and the various chemical pro- 
cesses dependent on the art, are generally believed to 
have been introduced into Europe by the Moors about 
1150; their brethren of Africa had them from the 
Egyptians, ^qq Alcohol, Brandy . The distillation of 
spirituous liquors was in practice in Great Britain in 
the 10th century. — Burns. The processes were im- 
proved by Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's 
work (ISOl) contains the most recent improvements, 
lis licenses to distillers were granted in the year end- 
ing March 31, 1858, for the Untted Kingdom. 

DIVINATION. In the Scriptures and ancient au- 
thors diflereut kinds of divination are mentioned. 
See Augury, DcliM, Magi, Witchcraft, etc. 

DIVINE RIGHT of Kings, the absolute and un- 
qualified claim of sovereigns to the obedience of their 
subjects, a doctrine which is totally foreign to the 
genius of the English Constitution, was defended by 
many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by 
Hobbes the Free-thinker (1042), by Salmasius (1040), 
by Sir Robert Filiner, in his Patriarcha in 1080, and by 
the High-Church party generally about 1714 ; but op- 
posed by Milton (1(551), Algernon Sydney, and others. 

DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though obscurely, 
by Aristotle, about 325 B.C.) was used in Europe 
about A.D. 1.509. It is said to have been used on the 
coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the 
Spanish Armada, before"l062. William Pliipps, of 
Boston, Mass., in 1087, succeeded in recovering a great 
amount of treasure from a sunken Spanish troasure- 
ship on the Cuban coast. Halley (about 1721) greatly 
improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first 
who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on the 
ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton made use 
of the diving-bell in improving Ramsgate Harbor, 
1779-88. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down 
in a diving-bell in Ireland were drowned, June 1, 1783. 
The Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off 
Portsmouth in 1782, was first survej'ed l)y means of a 
diving-liell in May, 1817. Latterly it has been employ- 
ed in submarine surveys. Many'of the harbors of the 
I'nited States have been much improved by the help 
of diving-bell explorations; and Americans have been 
very successful with improved bells in other parts of 
the world. The use of the old diving-bell is super- 
seded by the submarine armor, which allows the oper- 
ator to remain much longer below the surfiice, as he 
is supplied with fresh air by means of a force-pump. 
Invented in 1830, and afterward improved till it be- 
came very useful and successful. 

DIVINING ROD (virgula divina, baculatorius), 
formed of wood or metal, was formerly believed, even 



DIV 



167 



DOM 



by cckicatecl persons, to have the property of indicat- 
iuij; the position of niiuerals iiud springs of water. lu- 
tftauces were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. Mays, in his 
work on " Popular Superstitious." 

DIVORCE FOR Adultkry (of early institution). It 
was permitted by the law of Moses (Deut. xxiv., 1), 
1451 U.C, but was forbidden by Christ except for adul- 
tery (Matt, v., :il). It was put in practice by Spurius 
Carvilius Ruiia at Rome, 234: B.C. At this time mor- 
als were so debased that 30(10 prosecutions for adul- 
tery were enrolled. Divorces are of two kinds : one, 
d vinctiti) ■matnitionii (total divorce) ; the other, d mcn- 
sd et tlioro (from board and l)ed). Divorces were at- 
tempted to be made of more easy obtainment in En- 
<;laud iu 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying 
their seducers was brought into Parliament in ISOl. 
In April, 1853, the commissioners on the law of divorce 
issued their first report. By 20 & 21 Vict., c. 85 (1S5T), 
the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts respecting 
divorce, etc., was abolished, and the Divorce and Mat- 
rimonial Causes Court was instituted, to consist of 
three judges, the judge of the Probate Court to be one 
(if possible). The above-mentioned act was amended 
by acts passed in 1S5S-G0, iu consequence of the in- 
crease of the business of the court. See Marriarje. An 
act respecting divorces iu Scotland was passed iu 1861. 

DIZIER, St. (N.E. France). Here a siege was sus- 
tained for si.x weeks against the army of the Emperor 
Charles V., 1544. The Allies here defeated the French 
under Napoleon, Jan. 2T and March 26, 1814. 

DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria ; iu 
1854, the scene of the earlier Incidents of the Eusso- 
Turkish war {which see). 

DOCET^, a sect of the 1st century, said to have 
held that Jesus Christ was god, but that his body was 
an appearauce, not a reality. 

DOCTOR. Doctor of the Church was a title given 
to Athauasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chry- 
sostom iu the Greek Church ; and to Jerome, Angus- 
tin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great in the Romish 
Church, 3T3 et scq. In later times the title has beeu 
conferred on certain persons with distinguishing epi- 
thets, viz., Thomas Aquinas (Angelicus), Bonaveutu- 
ra (Serapliicus), Alexander de Hales (Irrefragabilis), 
Dims Scotus (Subtilis), Roger Bacon (MirabilTs), Wil- 
liam Occam (Singularis), Joseph Gerson (Christianis- 
simus), Thomas Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. 
Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. 
The degree of doctor was conferred iu England, S 
John, 12i>l.—S2JelrHan. Some give it an earlier date, 
referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John 
de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, was the 
first that obtained the degree at Cambridge about 725. 

DOCTORS' COMMONS, the college for the profess- 
ors of civil and canon law residing in London ; the 
name of commons is given to it from the civilians com- 
moniug together, as in other colleges. It was founded 
by Dr.IIeury Hervie iu 156S ; but the original college 
was destroyed in the great tire of 1666 ; in 16T2 it was 
rebuilt on the old site.* After the great fire, and until 
1672, the society held its courts at Exeter House, in the 
Strand. It was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. 
— Cooti'. Till 1857 the causes taken cognizance of here 
were blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, 
tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, etc. See Ecclesias- 
tical Courts, Civil Law, etc. 

DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 1S14 to a class 
of politicians in France ((Juizot, Due de Brofilie, and 
others), who upheld the constitutional principles, as 
opposed to arbitrary monarchical power. The party 
came into office in 1S30 under Louis Philippe, and fell 
with him in 1848. The term has been applied iu this 
country to the writers in the " Westminster Review" 
(1824 et scf].), Benthatn, Molesworth, and others. 

DODONA, Ei'iRus. The temple of Jupiter here, re- 
nowned for its oracle, was destroyed by the .^Etolians, 
219 B.C. 

DOG. Bufl'on considers the .shepherd's dog as " the 
root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it pos- 
sesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The 
Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known 

* In Ffhniarv, l.ilW, Dr. Henry Hervie, (lean of the arrhes and mas- 
ter of Trinity I^all (a seminary "founded at Cambridge chiefly for the 
study of llie'< ivil and canon laws) procured from the dean and chapter 
of tile diorese of London a lease of Montjoy House and other buildmcs 
in liie jiarisli of St. Bene't, Paul's W'harf, I'or the accommodation of the 
society. Tlie courts over xvhich he presided, the Prerogative Court of 
Canterbury, that of the Bishop of London, and also the Court of Ad- 
niirnlty (except for criminal cases), were thenceforward hoiden in tlie 
buiidiiitrs thus !issi£rned,and the whole place, for an obvious reason, re- 
ceived the appellation of " Doctoks' Com.mo.\s." — CooWa Emjliili Ci- 
vilians. 



in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall men- 
tions that a dog was taken from Vienua to Euglaud ; 
that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, lauded 
at Calais, and, after accompanying a gentleman to 
Mentz, returned to Vienna. Statute against dog steal- 
ing, 10 George III., 1770. Dog-tax imposed, 1796^ and 
again in 18(i8 ; now (1S65) 12s. a year. The employ- 
ment of dogs in drawing carts, etc., in London, was 
abolished, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom. 1854. Dog- 
shows have been held in London in 1H61, 1862, 1863, 
1864, and 1SC5, latterly at the Agricultural Hall, Isliug- 
tou. ^ 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days commence 
on the 3d of July and end on the 11th of August. The 
rising and setting of Sirius or the dog star* with the 
sun has been erroneously regarded as the cause of ex- 
cessive heat and of consequent calamities. 

DOGE, the title of the Duke of Venice, which state 
was first governed by a prince so named, Auafesto 
Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697. See Venice. The Genoese 
chose their first doge, Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. — 
Muratori. 

DOGGERBANK (German Ocean). Here a gallant 
but indecisive battle was fought between the British, 
under Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, and the Dutch, Aug. 
5, 1781. 

DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which twelve 
were equal to a penny sterling. Some of those struck 
by Charles I. and II. are iu the cabinets of the curious. 
The circulation of " doydekyns" (small Dutch coins) 
was prohibited by statute iu 1415. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). 
Stamped Spanish dollars were issued from the Mint in 
March, 1797, but called iu in October followinsr. The 
dollar is the principal silver coin iu the United States 
of North America- 
DOM BOO or Doom Book (Liber Judiciales), the code 
of law compiled by King Alfred from the West-Saxon 
collection of lua and other sources. Alfred reigned 
871 to 901. 

DOMESDAY BOOK or DOOMSDAY {Liber Censu- 
alis Awjliie), a book of the general survey of England, 
commenced in the reign of William I., 1080 (some say 
1085), and completed in 1086. It was intended to be a 
register whereby to determine the right in the tenure 
of estates; and from it the question whether lands be 
ancient demesne or not is sometimes still decided. 
The book is still preserved in the Chapter House, 
Westminster Abbey, fair and legible, consisting of two 
volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the couuties 
of England, except Northumberland, Durham, West- 
moreland, and Cumberland, are surveyed. "This 
Domesday book was the tax-book of Kinge William." 
—Camden. It was printed in four vols, folio, with in- 
troductions, etc., 1783-1816. The taxes were levied ac- 
cording to this survey till 13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a 
more accurate survey was taken, called by the people 
the New Doomsday Book. Photographic copies of 
various counties have been published since 1861. 

DOMINGO, St., a city in Hayti, the seat of the Do- 
minican republic, independent from 1844-61. It has 
been much troubled by the Emperors of Ilayti, espe- 
cially by Faustiu I., dethroned in 1858. Its last presi 
dent. General Jose Valverde, was elected in 1S5S. Pop- 
ulation 200,000. See Hayti. In March, 1861, a num- 
ber of Spanish emigrants landed in St. Domingo ; a 
cry for its annexation to Spain was raised, and St. Do- 
mingo was incorporated with that monarchy. May 20, 
1861. An insurrection agaiust the Spaniards broke out 
on Aug. 18, 1863, and the rebels had gained nearly all 
the island in November, when the Spanish govern- 
ment proclaimed it iu a state of blockade. A Spanish 
force was sent and several conflicts ensued, in which 
the insurgents Mere generally worsted. In Dec, 1864, 
the British government recognized the Haytians as 
belligerents,"and in 1865 the Spanish government re- 
tired from the contest. 

DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by Columbus 
iu his second vovage, on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493. It was 
taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to 
them by the peace of 1763. The French took Domin- 
ica iu 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 
17S3. It suflered great damage by a tremeudous hur- 
ricane in 1806. 

DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious order 



* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the dog star, is the nearest to 
us of all the fixed stars ; and they compute its distance from our earth 
at S.Sfin.OOO millions of miles. They maintain that a sound would not 
reach our earth from Sirius in 50,0li0 years ; and that a cannon-ball, 
tlyinc with its usual velocity of 4S0 miles an hour, wouid consume 
523,211 years in its passage thence to our globe. 



DON 



168 



DRA 



(called in France Jacobins, and in England Black 
friars), founded in order to put down the Albigenses 
and other heretics by St. Dominic, approved bj'lnno- 
cent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius III. in 
1216, tmder St. Austin's rules and the founder's particu- 
lar constitution. In 127G the corporation of Loudon 
gave the Dominicans two whole streets near the 
Thames, where they erected a large convent, whence 
that part is still called Blackfriars. 

DONATISTS, an ancient puritanical sect, formed 
about 313-318 by an African bishop, Donatus, who was 
jealous of Creciliau, bishop of Carthage ; it became 
extinct in the 7th century. The Donatists held that 
the Father was above the Son, and the Son above the 
Holy Ghost; and that there was no virtue in the form 
of the Church. Their discipline was severe, and those 
who joined their sect were rebaptized. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes 
(born 1547 ; died 1016). The first-part of this work ap- 
peared in 1005, and the second part in 160S. It is said 
that upward of 12,000 copies of the first part were cir- 
culated before the second could be made ready for the 
press. — Watts. 

DOOMSDAY BOOK. See Domesday Book. 

DORIANS, a people of Greece, claimed their de- 
scent from Dorus, son of Hellen. See Greece. Their 
return to the Peloponnesus took place 1104 B.C. They 
sent out many colonies. To them we owe the Doric 
architecture, the second of the five orders. 

DORT, OK DoRDREOuT, au ancient town in Holland, 
■where the independence of the thirteen provinces 
was declared in 1572, when William, prince of Orange, 
was made Stadtholder. Here happened au awful In- 
undation of the Meuse in 1421, through the breaking 
down of the dikes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 
persons perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- 
lart, in Friesland, and in Zealand. In the last two 
provinces upward of 300 villages were overflowed, and 
the tops of their towers wei^e long after seen rising 
out of the water. A Protestant synod was held at 
Dort in 1018 and 1C19, to which deputies were sent 
from England, and the Reformed Churches in Europe, 
to settle'the difference between the doctrines of Lu- 
ther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon points of 
justification and grace. This synod condemned the 
tenets of Arminius. 

DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was tak- 
en from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 1297 ; re- 
stored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, 
from whom it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It 
was captured by the Duke of Marlborough in 1710, 
and retaken by the French next year. This town 
gives its name to the Roman Catholic edition of the 
Bible in use, by the consent of the popes, as the only 
authorized English version; its text is explained by 
the notes of Roman Catholic divines. The Old Testa- 
ment was first published by the English college at 
Douay in 1609 ; the New had been published at Rheims 
in 15S2. The English college for Roman Catholics was 
founded in 1568 by William Allen, afterward cardinal. 
—Dodd. 

DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portugal) 
which, after a desperate struggle between Welling- 
ton's advanced guard under Hill, and the French un- 
der Soult, was successfully crossed by the former on 
May 12, 1809. So sudden was the movement, that 
Wellington at 4 o'clock sat down to the dinner pre- 
pared for the French general. — Alison. 

DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near here Ju- 
lius Cresar made his first lauding in England, Aug. 26, 
55 B.C. Its original castle is said to have been built 
by him soon after ; but this is disputed. The works 
were strengthened by Alfred and succeeding kings, 
and rebuilt by Henry II. 
At Dover, King John resigned his kingdom to 

Pandolf, the jjope's legate May 13,1213 

Charles II. lauded here from his exile May 25,1660 

A large part of the cliff fell, Nov. 27, ISIO, and 

Jan. 13,1853 
A telegraph wire laid down experimentally be- 
tween Dover and Calais (see Submarine Tele- 
graph), Aug. 28, 1850 ; telegraph opened Nov. 13,1851 
Earl Granville was appointed constable Dec, 1865 

DOWER, the gifts of a husband for a wife before 
marriage {Genesis xxxiv., 12). The portion of a man's 
lands or tenements which his wife enjoys for life after 
her husband's death. By the law of King Edmund, a 
widow was entitled to a moiety of her husliand's lands 
and tenements for her life, 941. The widows of trai- 
tors, but not those of felons, are debarred their dower 



by statitte 5 Edw. VI., 1551. The last dower act passed 
iu 1833. 

DOWN (N. E. Ireland), BisiiorKio or. An ancient 
see, whose first bishop was St. Cailan, in 499. At the 
instance of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, 
the cathedral, although previously consecrated to the 
Trinity, was dedicated to St. Patrick aboui 11S3. The 
sepulchre of St. Patrick (who was buried here in 493, 
in the abbey of Saul, founded by himself) brought this 
place into great repute. 

DRACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when archon of 
Athens, 021 B.C.), on account of their severity, were 
said to be written in blood. Idleness was punished 
with as much severity as murder. This code was set ' 
aside by Solon's, 594 B.C. 

DRAINAGE of Land, in England, is of early date, 
remains of British works being still extant iu the 
Feus district. The truly national works began iu 
1621, when Cornelius Vermuydeu, the Dutch engineer, 
was invited to England. Amid much opposition, he 
and his successors drained the districts termed the 
Great Levels. See Levels. In the present century 
great progress has been made iu drainage. In 1861 
was passed "an act to amend the laws relative to the 
drainage of land for agricultural ptirposes." See 
Setoers. 

DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis 
Drake sailed from Falmoitth Dec. 13, 1577, and, sail- 
ing round the globe, returned to England, after many 
perilous adventures, Nov. 3, 1580. He was vice-admi- 
ral under Lord Howard, high admiral of England, in 
the conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. 

DRAMA, Ancient. Both tragedy and comedy be- 
gan with the Greeks. 
The first comedy performed at A thens, by Susarioii 

and Dolon, on a movable scaflbld B.C. 562 

The chorus introduced 556 

Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, 

on a wagon {Artmd. Marb.) 536 

Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, per- 
formed at Athens "Alcestis," and was reward- 
ed with a goat {Pliny) " 

^schylus introduced suitable dresses and a stage 486 
The drama was first introduced into Rovie on oc- 
casion of a plague which raged during the con- 
sulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Licinius 
Stolo: the magistrates, to appease the incensed 
deities, instituted the games called the "Sceui- • 
ci," which were amusements entirely new; act- 
ors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan man- 
ner, to the flute 364 

Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- 
troduced intrigues upon the stage ; he composed 
about 100 plays, of which 10 obtained the prize ; 

he died 340 

Subsequently came satires, accompanied with 
music set to the flute ; and afterward plays were 
represented by Livius Andronicus, who, aban- 
doning satires, wrote plays with a regular and 
connected plot. He flrst gave singing and 
dancing to different performers ; he danced 
himsell^ and gave the singing to a younger ex- 
hibitor 240 

The greatest ancient dramatic writers were — 
Greek, ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides (trage- 
dy), and Aristophanes (comedy), 525-427; Latin, 
Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184-160 ; Seneca 
(tragedy) T B.C.-A.D. C5 

DRAMA, Modern, arose early in the rude attempts 
of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, 
and England. Stories from the Bible were represent- 
ed by the priests, and were the origin of sacred come- 
dy. — Warton. 

Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the Church, 
is said to have constructed a drama on the Pas- 
sion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of 

the heathen stage, about 364 

Fitzstephen, iu his "Life of Thomas a Becket," 
asserts that "London had for its theatrical ex- 
hibitions holy plays, and the representation of 
miracles, wrought by holy confessors ;" he died 

about 1190 

The Chester Mysteries* were performed about — 1270 
Plays v\'ere performed at Clerkenwell by the par- 
ish clerks, and "miracles" were represented in 

the fields iu 1397 

Allegorical characters were introduced in the 
reign of Henry VI. 

* The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries have been 
printed during the present century. 



DRA 



1C9 



Individual characters were introduced in Henry 
VII. 's reii^u. •' 

Skclton and others wrote "Moralities" about 1500 

Itie tirst regular drama acted in Europe was the 
bophonisba" of Trissino, at Kome, in the pres- 
ence of Pope Leo X. ( Vulfairc) . 1515 

The tirst royal license for the dram.a in Eu<^laud 
was^to Master Biirbage and four others, servants 
w the Earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, 
Bankside I5-4 

Shakspeare began to write about". 1590 

A license granted to Shakspeare and his'asso- 
cuites in iQ(fr^ 

Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1G33, ancl 
were afterward suspended until the Restoration 



DRU 



1G60 



Two com[)anies of regular performers were li 
censed by Charles IL, Killigrew's and Sir Wil- 
liam Davenant's. The flrst was at the Bull 
Vere Street, Clare Market, which was imme- 
diately afterward removed to Drury Lane ; the 
other in Dorset Gardens, 1UG2. Till this time 
boys performed women's parts ; but Mrs. Cole- 
man (the flrst female on the stage) had perform- 
ed lantlie, in Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," 

Sir William Davenant introduced operasi kudboth 
companies united, 1US4, and continued together 
till 161)4, when a schism under Betterton led to 
the opening of a theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
the parent of Covent Garden IG95 

Act for the revision of plays and for licensin<^ 
them previously to being performed "1737 

i,^'M'i'''T®,,-^'"^''"^'^''''= Copyright Protection Act, 3 

\\ ill. IV., c. 15 jmjg ;^g33 

(See Theatres, Covent Garden, Ih-uru Law, and Cojju- 
right.) ■' -^ 

DRAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of distress- 
ea actors and their children, was proposed July "1 
li-SS, at the Princess's Theatre, London, by Messrs. c! 
Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. Webster, and others 
Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, with cer- 
tain stipulations, was declined. The queen is the pa- 
tron. Ihe hrst stone of the building was laid bv the 
prince consort, June 1, 1S60; and on Sept '>0 186" 
seven annuitants were installed. The central hall 
was opened by the Prince of Wales, June 5, 1S65. 

. DRAPIER'S LETTERS, by Dean Swift, published 
in 1(24, against WoocVs Halfixnce {which see). 

DREAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e.q., Joseph's 
and Pharaoh's, 1T15 B.C. {Gen. sxsvii. and sli.), and 
Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B.C. {Daniel ii. and iv ) 
Ihe nrst attempt to interpret dreams and omens is 
ascribed to Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 B.C. A re- 
markable modern instance is attested in the life of 
Thomas, lord Lyttelton.* 

DRED SCOTT CASE. See United States, 1857. 

DREPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the Carthar 
ginian Admiral Adherbal totally defeated the Romafl 
Heet under P. Claudius, 249 B.C. 

DRESDEN, termed the German Florence, became 
the capital of Saxony in 154S. Peace of Dresden be- 
tween Saxony, Prussia, and the Queen of Huno-ary 
coiiiirmmg the treaties of Berlin and Breslau, signed 
Dec. 25, 1745. Dresden was taken by Frederick of 
Prussia in 17.96; by the Austrians in 1759; and bom- 
barded m vain by Frederick in July, 1760. Here se- 
vere contests took place between the allied army un- 
der the Prince of Schwartzenberg, and the French 
army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813 
The Allies, 200,000 strong, attacked^Napoleon in hi.s 
position at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved 
latal to them but for an error in the conduct of Gen- 
eral \ audamme. They were defeated with dreadful 
loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia- but 
V audamme pursuing them too far, his division was 
cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made pris- 
oners. In this battle General Moreau received his 
mortal wound while in conversation with the Emperor 
of Russia. Marshal St. Cyr and 25,000 French troops 
surrendered Dresden to the Allies, Nov. 11, 1813. Dur- 
ing a political commotion the King ofSaxony resi^ni- 
ed the royal authority, and Prince Frederick, his neph- 
ew, was declared regen t, Sept. 9 et seq., 1S30. See 

* Lord Lyttletnn Hrean.t that a younff female, dressed in white, sol- 
emn V war„e,l hi,,, uS\u. dissolution in three day, from that time.' On 
the thirrl day his lordship had a party to spend the evening with him. 



rlo^?°®^^^^'^/^'^"^^''"l Iceland, E.), formerly Tre 

Aston and the whole of the garrison, to the'swoi^' 
Sept. 11, 1649. More than 300o"men, nTost of them En^ 
glish, perished. It surrendered to William III J^iego 

hv^JJ??^!*^^^' ^.'«io™io OP (N.E. Ireland), founded 
by St. Coleman, hrst bishop, about 556. By an extent 

books \Vi.^r'/ '■' '^'V^^i ''^' ^''-^'""^ '» the k'S 

nd^oi;^^^lilS^e^1n^6^r i^.^S? 

T^niSi'tTefict?l8^3r ^'^'^"^'^ '""^ '^'^^ ^'^-^ 

DROWNING, as a punishment, is very ancient 
The Britons inflicted death by drownino- in a mf^,;: 
mire before 450 B.C.-«o,.. ft is said to have ^been 
I^'a'd °"^'Shty intractable bishops near Nicome^ 
dia, A.D. o.O; and to have been adopted as a punish- 

fT^^J,F''T'' ^'J ^°."'« ^I- The wholesale drown- 
ings of the Royalists in the Loire at Nantes, by com- 
mand of the brutal Carrier, Nov., 1793, were teS 
Aouades He was condemned to death in Dec I™ 
—societies for the recover;/ of drowning persons were 
hrst ms ituted in Holland in 1767. The iecond socle 
ty IS said to have been formed at Milan fn 1768 the 

and the ^,T^''\^ 'V"'^ ' "^^ ^''''''^ "^ Paris in 1772 • 
and the hfth in London in 1774. 

C^,fJ^l^A-Ti ^"^'''' '^'"""S the ancient Germans, 
Gau s, and Britons, so named from their veneration 
for the oak (Brit ften.). They administered sac ed 
things, were the interpreters of the gods, and supreme 
judges. They headed the Britons who o], osed C:^! 
sar s hrst landing, 55 B.C., and were exterminated by 
the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, A.D. 61. 

DRUM : the invention is ascribed to Bacchus, who 
according to Polytenus, "gave his signals of batt"^ 
with cymbals and drums." It was brought by the 
Moors into Spain,713._iie Clerc. The drmn, or drum! 
capstan for weighing anchors, was invented by Sir S 
Morland m US5.—A7iderso7i. ^ ' 

riJ^^y^n'^^rP (W. Scotland). Here the Covenanters 
defeated Graham of Claverhouse on June 1 1679 An 
account of the conflict is given by Walter Scott in 
"Old Mortality." '^ ^ ^ ^'^°" ^^ 

DRUMMOND LIGHT. See Lime-light. 

r,.?^^^rn^^^I^^.^ ''^l^l^ t° ^® excommunicated in the 
early Church, 59 (1 Cor, vii.). In England, a canon 



— . ' : ^' ••'" '"'■•^>"i' I'nu II pnri.> to spenu me eveningrwith him 

find about the time predicted he observed to the company present thai 
h« believed he should jockey the trhost ;" but in a lew minutes after- 
ward he was seized with a sudden faintness, carried to bed, and rose no 
more. He died in 1719, aged 35. Some assert that he committed sui- 



AT J f. ,"* P'"'«ela'n ware known as Dresden china was invented bv 
M. Boettcher, at the time an apothecary's boy, about 1700. Hard por- 
celain w-as made there in 1709. Services of this ware have cost many 

minTd ti?( rV,",''' 'T^- ^ ™="y ''"'""'' <""='' Pi«^« exquisite!^ 
painted, with battles, etc., was presented to the Duke of Wellington 
^x'o? ^iP", °' ^'■"^^"' '° 1816, and was the finest in England. 
+ Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, 
close-sieeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely 
flowered and embroidered with pearls, and in the feather of his hat a 
arge ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig in place of a but- 
ton. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at 
the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great C'ourt days, were so 
^rfSon^ rayered w-ith precious stones as toliave exceeded tiie value 
2 ,. u, •• *"'^.T """l ■* *"" of armor of solid silver, with sword and 
U» .1 n"l^ ""In ^'."P"'"'^^' ■■"bifs, and pearls. King James's favor- 
ite, the Duke of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked 
so loosely on, that wlien he chose to shake a few off on the ground he 
obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were gener- 
ally lea Dames de la Cour. We may here mention a novel dress, the 
Bloomee Costume, introduced into the United States in 1849 by Mrs 
Ann Bloomer, and worn there for a while by a few of the wom»n It 
resemb ed male attire, being an open-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, 
tlie la ter wide like those ot the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles 
The Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in the western parts 
of London in August. 1851 ; but, though it was recommended by some 
Aiiiericnn ladies m popular lectures, it was soon afterward totally dis- 
continued. ^ 



DRU 



170 



DUE 



law forbade drnnkenness in the clergy, 74T. Constan- 
tine, king of Scots, punished it with death, 870. By 21 
James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was liable to a penalty 
of live shillings, or six hours in the stocks. 

DRURY LANE THEATRE, London, derives its 
origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a 
theatre in the reign of James L It was rebuilt, and 
called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an exclu- 
sive patent to Thomas Killigrew, April 25, 1002. The 
actors were called the king's servants, and ten of 
them, who were called gentlemen of the great cham- 
ber, had an annual allowance of ten yards of scarlet 
cloth, with a suitable quantity of lace. The theatre, 
with sixty adjoining houses, was burnt down in 1072, 
and a new edifice was built in its room by Sir Chris- 
topher Wren in 1674. The interior was rebuilt by Mr. 
Adams, and was reopened Sept 23, 1775. The Drury 
Lane Theatrical Fund was originated by David Gar- 
rick in 1777. In 1791 the theatre was pulled down ; it 
was rebuilt and opened March 12, 1794. It was totally 
destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1809, and was rebuilt and 
opened October 10, 1812. See Theatres and Drama. 

DRUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the 
mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a fa- 
natical Mohammedan sect which arose in Egypt about 
99C, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. They 
now retain hardly any of the religion of their ances- 
tors: they do not practice circumcision, prav, or fast, 
but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 1800, 
in consequence of disputes (in which, doubtless, both 
parties were to blame), the Druses attacked their 
neighbors the Maronites {which see), whom they mas- 
sacred, it was said, without regard to age or sex. 
Peace was made in July ; but, in'the mean'time, a re- 
ligious fury seized the Mohammedan population of 
the neighboring cities, and a general massacre of 
Christians ensued. See Danutscus and Syria. Fuad 
Pacha with Turkish troops, and General Hautpoul 
with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in August 
and September. The Druses surrendered, giving up 
their chiefs, several of whom were tried and con- 
demned to die in January, ISCl. 

DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called Ash- 
cled, said to have been built 140. It obtained its pres- 
ent name from Alpinus, a lord or chief among the 
Irish, whose daughter, Auliana, having been drowned 
at the ford where now Whitworth Bridge is built, 
he changed the name to Anliaua, by Ptolemy called 
Eblana (afterward corrupted into Dublann), that she 
might be had in remembrance. Alpinus is said to 
have made this place his residence about 155, when he 
brought "the then rude hill into the form of a town." 
See Ireland. 

Christianity established here on the arrival of St. 

Patrick, about 432 

[St.Patrick's Cathedral founded about this time.] 

Dublin environed with walls by the Danes 798 

Named by King Edgar in the preface to his char- 
ter "Xoblissima Civitas" 904 

Battle of Clontarf (lohich see) April 23,1014 

Dublin taken by Raymond le Gros for Henry II., 

who soon after arrives 1171 

Charter granted by this king 1173 

Christ Church built, 1038 ; rebuilt 1190 

Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near 

Dublin (see Culleii's Wood) 1209 

Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear allegiance 

to King John 1210 

Foundation of Dublin Castle laid by Henry de 

Loundres, 1205 ; finished 1213 

Thomas Cusack, first mayor 1409 

Besieged by the son of the Earl of Kildare, lord 

deputy 1500 

Christ Church made a deanery and chapter by 

Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) 1541 

Trinity College founded l.'iOl 

Charter granted by James 1 1609 

Convocation which established the Thirty-nine 

Articles of Religion 1614 

Besieged by the Marquis of Ormond, and battle of 

Rathmiues (which see) 1649 

Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 400 

horse Aug., " 

Chief magistrate honored with the title of loT-d 

while holding office 1065 

Great gunpowder explosion 1093 

Lamps first erected in the city 1098 

Parliament House began 1729 

Foundling Hospital incorporated 1739 

St.Patrick's spire erected (see StPatrick) 1749 

Royal Dublin Society originated, 1731 ; incorpora- 
ted " 



Hibernian Society 1765 

Marine Society 1766 

Queen's Bridge first erected, 1CS4 ; destroyed by a 

flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 176S 

Act for a general pavement of the city , 1773 

Royal Exchange begun, 1769 ; opened 1779 

Order of St.Patrick mstituted 1783 

Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) " 

Police established by statute 1786 

The rebellion ; arrest of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, 

in Thomas Street May 19,1793 

Union with England (see Union) Jan. 1,1801 

Emmet's insurrection July 23,1803 

The "Bottle Conspiracy" Dec. 14,1822 

Dublin lighted with gas Oct. 5,1825 

Awful storm raged Jan. 6, 1839 

O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) .Oct. 14,1843 

He is found guilty Feb. 12,1844 

His death at Genoa May 15,1847 

Arrest of Mitchell, of the United Irishman news- 
paper May 13,1848 

State trial of Wm. Smith O'Brien and Meagher in 

Dublin May 15, " 

[These persons were afterward tried at Clonmel, 
and found giiiltij.'i 

Trial of Mitchell ; guiltij May 20, " 

Irish Felon newspaper first published July 1, " 

Nation and Irish Felon suppressed July 29, " 

Conviction of O'Doherty Nov. 1, " 

Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel M'Man- 

us Nov. 10-12,1861 

Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
lord lieutenant, Jan. 5, who opens the National 

Gallery of Ireland Jan. 30,1804 

The O'Connell monument founded Aug. 8,1864 

St.Patrick's Cathedral restored by Mr.Gninness ; 

reopened Feb. 24,1805 

The newspaper The Irish People seized, and sever- 
al Fenians taken in custody (see Fenians and 
Ireland) Sept. 15,1805 

DUBLIN, AncHmsnoPKio of. It was united to Glen- 
dalagh in 1214. It is supposed that the bishopric of 
Dublin was founded by St. Patrick in 448. 

DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by dukes. 
— Johnson. First coined by Longiuus, governor of It- 
aly. — Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia, 
1140. — Du Cangc. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in 
1240. 

DUELING took its rise from the judicial combats 
of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, Wil- 
liam, count of Eu, and Godfrey Bayuard, took place 
1090. Dueling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 
1305. The present practice of dueling arose in the 
challenge of Francis I. to the Emperor Charles V., 
1528. The fight with small swords was introduced 
into England,' 29 Eliz., 1587. Proclamation that no per- 
son should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 
30 Charles II., 1079.* Dueling was checked in the 
army, 1792, and has been almost abolished in England 
Dy the influence of public opinion, aided by the prince 
consort. A society "for the discouraging of duel- 
ing" was established in 1845. See Battle^ Warier of, 
and Combat. 

MEMORABLE DTIELS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun, 
fought Nov. 15,1712 

[This duel was fought with small swords in Hyde 
Park. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, 
and the duke expired of his wounds as he was 
being carried to his coach.] 

Capt. Peppard and Sir. Hayes ; latter killed 1728 

Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed 1748 

Mr. S. Martin and Mr. Wilkes, M.P 1703 

Lord Townshend and Lord Bellamont; Lord Bel- 
lamont wounded Feb. 1,1778 

The Count d'Artois and the Duke of Bourbon, 

March 21,1778 

Mr. Donovan and Capt. Hanson, the latter killed, 

Nov. 13,1779 

Charles James Fox and Mr. Adam ; Mr. Fox 
wounded Nov. 30, " 

Colonel Fullerton and Lord Shelburne ; the latter 
wounded March 22,1780 

Rev. Mr. Allen and Lloyd Dulany ; the latter kill- 
ed June 18,1782 

Colonel Thomas, of the Guards, and Colonel Gor- 
don ; Colonel Thomas killed Sept. 4,1783 



* *' As many as 227 official and memorable duels were foujrht during 
my prand cliniacteric." — Sir J. BarriTigton. A single writer enumer- 
ates 172 duels, in which 6.1 individuals were killed and 'i^ wounded ; in 
three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the sur- 
vivors su£f«rtid the sentence of the law. — Hamilton. 



DUE 



171 



Lord Macartney and Major Gen. Stuart ■ the for- 
mer wouuded jmje § ^^gQ 

Mr. Barrmgton and Mr. M'Kenzie; the former 
killed on the fj;rouDd by General Gillespie, the 

second ol the latter 17SS 

Mr. M'Keon and George Nu2;eut'Reynolds';"the 

latter murdered bv the fornier Jau 31 " 

Mr. Purefoy and Colonel Roper ; the latter killed', 

Dec 17 " 
Ditke of York and Col. Lenox, afterward Duke of 

Kichmond (for an iusiirniflcaut cause).. .May 2T,1789 
bir George Kainsay and Capt. Macrea : Sir George 

killed ^ J7Q0 

Mr. Currau and Major Hobart April i '"' 

Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed, June 4! " 
Mr. Harvey Aston and Lieut. Fitzgerald ; the for- 
mer severely wounded June 25 " 

Mr. Stevens and Mr. Anderson ; the former killed', 
TIT ^ , , ,, , Sept. 20, " 

Mr. Graham and Mr. Julms ; the former killed, 

July 10 1701 
Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality! 

March 1 1792 
Earl of Lonsdale and Captain Ciithbert ; no fiital- 

T,,"y ■■■■•■■■■: June 9, " 

M. de Chauvigny and Mr. Lameth ; the latter 

wounded Nov 8 " 

Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Pride ; the former killed', 

T 1 ^T 1 •, ,, August 20,1796 

Lord Norbury and Mr. Napper Tandy ; an affair 

no meetiug Auo- 21' " 

Lord Valeutia and Mr. Gawler • 'the former wolind- 

William i'itt and GeorgeTieruey .'.'.'. May 27' '" 

Isaac Com- and Ilenry Grattan Jan. is'.lSOO 

Lieut. Wilhs and Major Impey ; the major killed. 

Alio* 9fi 1Qfl1 

Rt. Hon. George Ogle and Bernard Coyle, 8 sSots! 
no fatality ' '^gQ2 

Sir Rithard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones •' Sir 
Kichard wounded June 8 " 

Colonel Montgomery and Captain" MacNamara • 
the former killed April g'iSOS 

■""7'^ ,*^/\";'^\'"'J''cl "ud Captain Best ; Lord Camel- 
lord killed March 10 " 

Surgeon Fisher and Lieutenant Torrens ■' the latter 



DUL 



'^ford"no f^n!]f'''°Sham and the Duke of Bed- 

Mn Bnc, barrister, and Mr. Hayes ; the former kilH^'^ 
Rev. ivir! iiodsonaud Mr. Grady : 'the laiter woiindl " 

''^i^'S?i^^2^^^'^^^'^^^'^-ttanr|:'f^^^;' 

^';o';rfl7^''^^'^y ^"-^ Mr. CrespignyVnXr 



1828 



killed. 

Baron Hompesch and Mr. Richardson';' the' "latter 
severely wounded Sept 21 " 

Sir Francis Burdett and 3Ir. Pau'li j the former- 
wounded Jljjy 5 -^ggj^ 

Mr. Alcock and Mr. Colclough ; the' iatt'er 'kil'led '• " 
the survivor lost his reason June 8* " 

M. de Grandpree and M. Le Pique, in balloons', 
near Pans, and the latter killed May 3 1808 

Major Campbell and Captain Boyd ; latter mur- 
dered (former hanged, Oct. 2, 1808) June 23 " 

Lord Paget and Capt. Cadogan ; neither wounded' 

T 1 ^ „ , May 30,1809 

Lord Castlereagh and Mr. George Canning ; the 
latter wounded Sept 22 '• 

Mr. George Payne and Mr. Clarke ;" the former 
killed Sept C 1810 

Captain Boardman and Ensign de Bal't'o'n '; the for- 
mer killed. March 4,1811 

Lient. Stewart and Lieut. Bagnal ; the latter mor- 
tally wounded Oct 7 1812 

Mr. Edward Maguire and Lieut. Blmide'li '; 'the I'atl 



ter killed. 



Mr. Hatchell and Mr. Morley .' ." 'Feb 12'lS14 

Captain Stackpole i-of " Statira" frigate) and Lieut' 
Cecil; the captain killed (arose on account of 

words spoken four years previouslv) April " 

Mr. D. O'Connell and Mr. D'Esterre"; Mr D'Es- 

terre killed Peb 1 1S15 

Colonel Quentin and Colonel Palmer Feb' 7' "' 

Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting^ 

Captain Fottrell and Colonel Ross ; 5 shots each' 

but no fatality jjgg 'jgj^ 

Lieut. Hindcs aiid Lieut. Gilbert Conroy • the fori 

mer killed March 6 " 

Mr. John Sutton and Major Lockyer; the former 

killed j)gp 20 II 

Mr. O'Callaghau and Lieut. Bayley; the latter killl 

cd Jan 12 1818 

Mr. Grattan and the Earl of Clare June 7'l8'>0 

Mr. Heushaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperate- 



ly wounded . 



Mr. Scott and Mr. Christie; the former kiiTe^i' 
•nr ■»! 1 , ,T ^ Feb. lfi,lS21 

M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont April 9 " 

Sir Alexander Boswell and Mr. James Stuart- the 
former killed Marc'h 2G,1S22 



"no°inlrv''"'"^*°° and'ihe'Ear'l' o'f'winchilsea ; 

Captain Smith and Mr. O'Gr'aciy';" 'the latter' kilkd', 
Mr. Storey and Mr. Mathias ; the latter woumled' " 
Mr. Maher and Mr. Colles. . . . ^^f' ^^'^^^P 

Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Henu'i's';"the'la'tre"r 

mortally vvounded, and died on the ISth . .MaylO " 
Charles Weliesley Ashe and Sir Charles Hampton, 

Lord Alvauley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell ,^ 2 shotV^^* 

^'^cn ' M')v d IQ^PI 

Sir Colqnhonn Grant and Lord Seymour';' no fa- 

tality Mav ''9 " 

Mr Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black,"e'di'tor of tlie 

Monirnf) Chronicle ; 2 shots each Nov 19 " 

^^];-rK"f,h^'en and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and 

Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; the latter wound- 

t| Earfof "Cardigan 'and" c'apiai'n ' TuckeU/lll^®^*' 
Regt. ; 2 shots each, the latter wounded (for this 
the earl was tried in the House of Lords, and ac- 
quitted, Feb. 10, 1841) Se^t 12 1SiO 

Captain Boldero and Hon. Craven Berkeley-' no 
fatality Tiil v 1 -^ t^iq 

Colon^el Fawcett and Captain' Mu'nroe';" fonner 

.March 22,1800 Lieit.'seton'au'd Lieut". Hawkey;" "the" fornix- kJl'fed;^^^^ 

TyTqy on 1 C (K 

Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at "' 

Pans for a newspaper attack Oct.,lS62 

DUELING IN THE United States. Most of the 
states have laws prohibiting dueling, imposino- lines 
imprisonment, and other penalties on those who en- 
gage m It, either as principals or seconds. In the mil- 
itary and naval service of the United States, oificers 
engaged m any capacity in duels may be cashiered on 
conviction of the offense. 

MEMOE*nLE DUELS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

The first, between two serving-men, Plymouth 

J Mfigs ir9i 

Woodbi-idge and Phillips, "on "B"o"s"t"o"n 'Commo'n.; ! 'l72S 
Button Gwinnett and General M'Intosh 1777 

Gen. Conway and Gen. Cadwallader. . 1773 

De Witt Clinton and John Swartwout isO" 

Gen. Dayton and De Witt Clinton iso3 

General Hamilton and Colonel Aaron Burr- "tlie 

general killed, greatly lamented. . . . ' 1S04 

General Jackson and golonel Dickenson ' ' ' '18O6 

Colonel Benton and General Jackson. ' 'i8l3 

Major Greene and Mr. Price isi6 

Commodore Decatur and Commodore'Barron" ' '"lS20 

Henry Clay and John Randolph 1820 

Graves and C'illey " ^§33 

DUKE, Latin dux, a title first given to generals of 
armies. In England, during Saxon times, the com- 
manders of armies were called duces.— Camden. In 
Gmeazsxxxvi., some of Esau's descendants are termed 
dukes, puke-duke was a title given to the house of 
Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many 
duchies. •' 

Edward the Black Prince made Duke of Cornwall,133T 
Robert de Vere was created Marquess of Dublin 

and Duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II 1335 

Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, Duke 

of Rothesay, a title which afterward belonged to 

the king's eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by 

the Prince of Wales 
Cosmo de Medici created drand-diike of Tuscany, 

the first of the rank, by Pope Pius V. 1509 

DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey), called God's-gift 
College, founded by Edward Allevn, an eminent "co- 
median, was completed and solemnly opened Sept. 13, 



.July 9,1813 



.Sept. IS, 



DUM 



172 



DYE 



1C19. Alle5'n was its first master, and died in 1626. A 
flue gallery to contain the Bourgeois collection of pic- 
tures, bequeathed by Sir Francis Bourgeois, was an- 
nexed in 1S13. In 1S57 an act was passed by which 
the college was reconstituted. Two schools were es- 
tablished, and the number of the almspeople increased, 
lu 1860 the annual income was i;il,482. 

DUMB. See Deaf and Dumb. 

DUMBLANE ok Dunblane (Perth), near which took 
place a conflict called the battle of Sheriftmuir, be- 
tween the Royalist army and the Scots rebels, the for- 
mer commanded by the Duke of Argyle and the latter 
by the Earl of Mar, Nov. 13, 1715. Both sides claimed 
the victory. 

DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish army 
and John Baliol were defeated by the Earl of War- 
renne, and Scotland was subdued, April 2T, 1296. Here 
also Cromwell obtained a signal victory over the Scots, 
in arms for Charles II., Sept. 3, 1050. 

DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by Alex- 
ander Pope, was published in 1T2S. 

DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). In 1318, at Foughard, 
near this place, was defeated and slain Edward Bruce, 
who had invaded Ireland in 1315. The walls and for- 
tifications of Dundalk were destroyed in 1641. It was 
taken by Cromwell in 1649. The first cambric manu- 
facture in Ireland was established in this town by arti- 
sans from France in 1727. 

DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The site was 
given by William the Lion (reigned 1165-1214) to his 
brother David, earl of Huntingdon, who built or 
strengthened the castle, and erected a large church, 
the tower of which, 156 feet high, still remains. The 
town was taken by the English in 1385 ; pillaged by 
Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by Monk in 1651 ; and was 
visited by Queen Victoria in 1S44. It has thriven since 
1815, through its extensive linen manufactories. Clav- 
erhouse, viscount Dundee (killed 1689), had a house 
here. 

DLTSTGAN HILL (Ireland). Here the English army, 
commanded by Colonel Jones, signally defeated the 
Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, while 
the loss on the side of the English was inconsiderable, 
July 10, 1047. 

DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric by 
David I. in 1127 ; the ancient Culdee church, founded 
by King Constantiue III., becoming the cathedral. 

DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th century, 
was taken from the Spaniards by the English and 
French, and put into the hands of the EugHsh, June, 
1658. It was sold by Charles IL for £500,000 to Louis 
XIV., Oct. 17, 1662. Dunkirk was one of the best for- 
tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were 
demolished in conformity with the treaty of L'trecht 
in 1713. The French resumed the works, but they 
were ordered to be demolished at the peace of 1763'; 
in 17S3 they were again resumed. The English at- 
tempted to besiege this place; but the Duke of York, 
who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and forced 
to retire with loss, Sept. 7, 1793. It was made a free 
port in 1S16. 

DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of the 
manor (made by Robert Fit/.-Walter, 1244), "that what- 
ever married couple will go to the priory, and, kneel- 
ing on two sharp-pointed ston^, will swear that they 
have not quarreled nor repented of their marriage with- 
in a year and a day after its celebration, shall receive 
a flitch of bacon."* 

DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was fought 
the battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, 
and Siward, earl of Northumberland, 1054. Edward 
the Confessor had sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm 
HI., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had 
murdered. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said was 
pursued to Lumphanau, in Aberdeenshire, and there 
slain, 1056. 

DUPPEL or Dybbol. See under Denmark, 1864. 

DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Baliol and 



* The earliest recorded claim for tbe bacon waa in 1445, since -when 
to 1855 it had only been demanded five times. The last claimants pre- 
vious to 1S55 were John Shakeshanks and his wife, who established 
their right to it, June 20, 1751 ; they made a lar^e sum by sellinf^ slices 
of the nitch to those who were witnesses of the ceremony, there being 
5000 persons present. The claim was revived on July 19, 1855, when 
flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chipping-Ongar, and 
the Chevalier Chatelaine and his Indy. The lord of the manor op- 
posed the revival, but Mr. W. Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and 
some friends, defrayed the expense, and superintended the ceremonials. 
Endeavors have been made to perpetuate the custom. A ditch waa 
awarded in 1860. 



his English allies totally defeated the Scots under the 
Earl of Mar, Aug. 11, 1332, and obtained the crown for 
three months. 

DURHAM, an ancient city, th.e Ditnholvie of the Sax- 
ons, and Durcme of the Normans. The hishopkic was 
removed to Durham from Chester - le - street in 995, 
whither it had been transferred from Liudisfarne, or 
Holy Island, on the coast of Northumberland, in 634, 
in consequence of the invasion of the Danes. The 
bones of St. Cuthbert, the sixth bishop, were brought 
from Liudisfarne, and interred in Durham CathedraL 
The palatiue privileges, granted to the bishop by the 
Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, were taken by 
the crown in June, 1S36. Durham was ravaged by 
Malcolm of Scotland in 1070, and was occupied by the 
Northumbrian rebels in 1569, and by the Scots in 1640. 
In 1650 Cromwell quartered his Scotch prisoners in the 
Cathedral. Near Durham, on Oct. 17, 1.340, was fought 
the decisive battle of Neville's Cross {which see). This 
see, deemed the richest in England, was valued in the 
king's books at X2821. Present income, £8000. The 
college, founded in 1290, was abolished at the Reforma- 
tion. In 1657 Cromwell established a college, which 
was suppressed at the Restoration. The present Uni- 
versity was established in 1831, opened in 1833, and 
chartered in 1837. Certain reformed ordinances, rec- 
ommended by a commission, were set aside in 1803. 

DURHAM LETTER. See Papal Aggression. 

DUTCH REPUBLIC. See Holland. 

DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed by 
Tarquin the Proud, 520 B.C., to take care of the books 
of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain the fate 
of the Roman Empire. The books were placed in the 
Capitol, and secured in a chest under the ground. The 
number of keepers was increased to ten (the Decem- 
viri) 365 B.C., afterward to fifteen ; the added five call- 
ed quinque viri. 

DWARFS : Ancient. Philetas of Cos, distinguish- 
ed about .330 B.C. as a poet and grammarian, was so 
diminutive that he always carried leaden weights in 
his pockets to prevent his being blown away'by the 
wind. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. — 
yElian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had a dAvarf named 
Coropas, two feet and a hand's breadth high ; and An- 
dromeda, a freed maid of Julia's, was of the same 
height. — Pliny. Aug. Cresar exhibited in his plays a 
man not two feet in stature.— )S'?fcton. Alypius of Alex- 
andria, a logician and philosopher, was but one foot 
five inches and a half high : " he seemed to be con- 
sumed into a kind of divine nature.' — Vos. Instit. 
Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
brought to the Duke of Parma in 1592, when he was 
35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skill- 
ed in languages, and not more than three feet high. 
Jefl'rey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of IS 
inches high, was served up to table in a cold pie, be- 
fore the. king and queen, by the Duchess of Bucking- 
ham, in 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts, who had 
oftended him, to fight a diiel, but the latter came to 
the ground armed only with a squirt. This led to 
auother meeting, when the dwarf shot his antago- 
nist dead, 1653. 
Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman of great accom- 
plishments and elegant manners, well known in En- 
gland, where he resided many years, was born in 
Nov., 1739. His growth was, at one year of age, 14 
inches ; at six, 17lnches ; at tweut}', 33 inches ; and 
at thirty, 39. He had a sister named Anastasia, sev- 
en years younger than himself, and so much shorter 
that she could stand under his arm. He visited many 
of the courts of Europe, and died in England, at the 
great age of 98, in 1837. 
Charles Stratton (termed General Tom Thumb), an 
American, was exhibited in England, 1846. In Feb., 

1863, in New York, when 25 years old and 31 inches 
high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 32 inches 
high. He, his wife, Commodore Nutt, and Minnie 
Warren (two other dwarfs), came to England in Dec, 

1864, and remained there some time. 

DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 1,500 
B.C. The English sent their goods to be~dyed in Hol- 
land till the aft was brought to them in 1608. " Two 
dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in 
tkenorth" (of England), 1628. A statute against abuses 
in dyeing passed in 1783. The art has been greatly 
improved by chemical research. A discovery of Dr. 
Stenhouse in 1848 led to M. Marnas procuring mauve 
from lichens ; and Dr. Hofmann's production of ani- 
line from coal-tar has led to the invention of a num- 
ber of beautiful-dyes (mauve, magenta red, etc.). See 
Aniline, 



EAG 



173 



EAR 



E. 



EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, marie of a base 
metal, and current in the first years of Edward I., 
about 1'2T2 ; was so named from the figure impressed 
upon it. The United States t,'old coinatje of eagles, 
halfeairlos, and quarter eagles began Dec 6, 1792; an 
eagle is oi'tlu' value of $10, or aboiit two guineas.— The 
staiiihtril II f tlic iwilf was borne by the Persians at Cu- 
naxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried gold and silver 
eagles as ensigns, and sometimes represented them 
with a thunderbolt in their talons, on the point of a 
spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne added the second head 
to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires 
of Rome and Germany were united in him, A.D. S02. 
The eagle was the standard of Napoleon I., and is that 
of Napoleon III., as well as of Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia. — The White Eagle, au order of knighthood, 
was instituted in 1325 by Uladislaus, kiug of Poland ; 
that of the Black Eagle in 1701, by the Elector of 
Brandenburg, Frederick I., on his being crowned 
King of Prussia ; and that of the Red Eagle in 1705 
and 1712 by George, prince of Brandeuburg-Anspach. 

EARL, or comes, introduced at the Conquest, super- 
seded the Saxon earldorman, and continued the high- 
est rank in England until Edward III. created dukes 
in 1387 and 1351, and Richard II. created marquesses 
(13S5), both above earls. Alfred used the title of earl 
as a substitute for kiug. William Fitz-Osborn was 
made Earl ofllereford by William the Conqueror, 1006. 
Gilchrist was created Earl of Angus, in Scotland, by 
King Malcolm III., in 1037. Sir John de Courcy was 
created Baron of Kiusale and Earl of Ulster iu Ireland 
by Henry IL, llSl. 

EARTH. See Globe. 

EARTHEN- WARE. See PoUcrTj. 

EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed that 
earthquakes were produced by subterranean clouds 
bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults 
that confined them, 435 B.C. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, 
Des Cartes, and others supposed that there were many 
vast cavities under ground which have a communica- 
tion with each other, some of which abound with 
waters, others with exhalations, arising from iuflam- 
* mable substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, etc. 
Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes 
to electricity. It appears probable that steam gen- 
erated by subterranean heat contributes to occasion 
them. An elaborate Catalogue of Earthquakes, with 
commentaries on the phenomena, by R. and J. W. 
Mallet, was published by the British Association iu 
1S5S-9. Iu ISGO the velocity of their propagation was 
estimated by Mr. J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet 
per second. The following are quoted from the best 
sources : 

One which made Euboea an island B.C. 425 

Ellice and Bula, in Peloponnesus, swallowed up, 372 
One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, 

M. Curtius, armed aud mounted on a stately 

horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it occa- 
sioned {Livi/) 358 

Duras, in Greece, buried, with all its inhabitants ; 

and 12 cities in Campania also buried 345 

Lysiraachia and its inhabitants totally buried 2S3 

Ephesus and other cities overturned A.D. 17 

One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius; 

the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried, 79 
Ftmr cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- 

jatia overturned 107 

Antiocli destroyed 115 

Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicnea overturned 126 

Iu Asia, Poutus, aud Macedonia, 150 cities aud 

towns damat;ed 357 

Nicomedia again demolished, aud its inhabitants 

buried in its ruins 358 

One felt by nearly the whole world 543 

At Coustanlinople; its edifices destro3'ed, and 

thousands jjerished 5.57 

In Africa ; many cities overturned 560 

Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia; more 

than 500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of 

life surpassed all calculation 742 

In France, Germany, and Italy 801 

Constantinople ovei turned; all Greece shaken. . . 93G 

One felt throughout England 1089 

One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed, among 

them Mariseum aud Mamistria 1114 



Catania, iu Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 

buried in the ruins 1137 

Oue severely felt at Lincoln 1142 

At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 

overwhelmed iu the Adriatic Sea liSG 

One again felt throughout England; Glastonbury 

destroyed 1274 

In England ; the greatest known there. . .Nov! 14,1318 

At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished 145G 

At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 
in the ruins ; several neighboring towns inculfed 

with their inhabitants TFel).,1531 

One felt iu London ; part of St. Paul's and the 

Temple churches fell igso 

In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands 

perish i,W6 

Awful oue at Calabria 1G38 

Oue in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in 

Pekin alone 1062 

One severely felt in Ireland IG'JO 

One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Roy- 
al, whose houses were ingulfed 40 fathoms deep, 

and 300 persons perished 1692 

One iu Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, 
and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 18,000 in- 
habitants, not a trace remained ; more than 

100,000 lives were lost Sept.,lG03 

Palermo nearly destroyed ; 6000 lives lost 1726 

Again iu China; aud 100,000 people swallowed up 

at Pekin 1731 

In Hungary ; a mountain turned round 1736 

Oue at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent; 

but the monks escaped 1740 

Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons bur- 
ied iu the ruins Oct. 2S,174G 

In London, a slight shock, Feb. 8 ; but severer 

shock March 8,1750 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752 

At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 per- 
sons swallowed up 1754 

Quito destroyed April, 1755 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight min- 
utes most of the houses and upward of .50,000 in- 
habitants were swallowed up, aud whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
Braga suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 
wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- 
rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
Arabs perished there. Above half of the island 
of Madeira became waste ; and 2000 houses in 
the island of Mytilene, in the Archipelago, were 
overthrown. This awful earthquake extended 

5000 miles ; even to Scotland Nov. 1, " 

In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Baal- 

bec destroyed 1759 

At Martinico ; 1600 persons lost their lives, Aug., 1707 
At Guatemala, which, with SOOO inhabitants, was 

swallowed up July 7,1773 

A destructive one at Smyrna 1778 

At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- 
tudes buried 1780 

Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- 
thrown ; 40,000 persons perished Feb. 5,1783 

Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 per- 
sons buried in its ruins 17S4 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 1000 

perso"us swallowed up Sept. 30,1789 

Another fatal one iu Sicily 1791 

In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 

Torre del Greco June,1794 

In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons 

lost their lives " 

The whole country between Santa F6 and Panama 
destroyed, including Cusco and Quito ; 40,000 __ 

people buried in one second Feb. 4-20,1797 

At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal pal- 
ace and an immeusitv of luiildiugs, and extend- 
ed into Romania and' \\'allachia Sept. 26,1800 

A violent one felt iu Holland Jan., 1804 

At Prosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost July 26,1805 

At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sur»k, and 
a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, 

Aug. 11,1810 

Awful one at Caraccas (leliich see) March 26,1812 

Several throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; 
2000 persons buried June,lS19 



EAR 



174 



EAS 



Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 
a;reatly damaged ; thousands perish 1S19 

OiTe in Calabria and Sicily Oct., 1826 

In Spain ; Mercia and numerous villages devasta- 
ted ; 6000 persons perish March 21,1829 

In the Duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks 
were experienced at Borgotaro ; and at Pontre- 
moli many houses were thrown down, and not 
a chimney was le£t standing Feb. 14,1834 

In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 
persons buried April 29,1835 

In Calabria ; 1000 l)uried at Rossano, etc. .Oct. 12,1830 

In many cities of Southern Syria, by which hun- 
dreds of houses were thrown down, and thou- 
sands of lives lost Dec, " 

At Martinique : nearly half of Port Royal destroy- 
ed ; nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole isl- 
and damaged Jan. 12,1839 

At Teruate ; the island made a waste, and thou- 
sands of lives lost Feb. 14,1840 

Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ara- 
rat, in one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 
houses were overthrown, and several hundred 
persons perished July 2, " 

Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons 
perished Oct. 30, " 

At Cape Haytieu, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two thirds of the town ; between 4000 
and 5000 lives were lost May 7,1842 

At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely 
destroyed Feb. 8,1843 

At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in at 
the latter place, crushing a village, and destroy- 
ing 600 persons March,1851 

At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were 
destroyed April 2, " 

In South Italy ; Melfi almost laid in ruins ; 14,000 
lives lost Aug. 14, " 

At Philippine Isles ; Manilla nearly destroyed, 

Sept. and Oct., 18.52 

In N.W. of England, slight Nov. 9, " 

Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed Sept., 1853 

St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed. . . April 16,1854 

Amasca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de- 
stroyed ; Jeddo much injured Dec. 23, " 

Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed Feb. 28,1855 

Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 

July 25, 26, " 

Jeddo nearly destroyed Nov. 11, " 

At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
volcanic eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 
lives lost March 12,1856 

In the Mediterranean ; at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 
Rhodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 Oct. 12, " 

In Calabria,* Moutemurro and many other towns 
destroyed, and about 22,000 lives lost in a few 
seconds Dec. 16,18.57 

Corinth nearly destroyed Feb. 21,1858 

At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an im- 
mense amount of property destroyed, March 21,1859 

At Erzerouni, Asia Minor ; above 1000 persons said 
to have perished June 2, " 

At San Salvador; many buildings destroyed, no 
lives lost '. Dec. 8, ' ' 

In Cornwall, slight Oct. 21, 1859 ; Jan. 13,1860 

At Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost May 8,1861 

At Mendoza, Sonth America : about two thirds of 
the city and 7000 lives lost. March 20,1861 

In Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places in- 
jured Dec. 26, " 

Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
stroyed Dec. 19,1862 

Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons 
perished, and much cattle and property lost, 

April 22,1863 

Manilla, Philippine Isles ; immense destruction of 
property ; about 10,000 persons perish. . .June 3, " 

Central, west, and northwest of England, at 

3/i. 22)H. A.M., Oct. 6, " 

At Macchia, Bendinella, etc., Sicily ; 200 houses 
destro3'ed, 64 persons killed July 18,1865 

There was an earthquake in San Francisco, Cali- 
fornia, iu 1865, that did a great deal of damage. 

On the Hawaiian (Sandwich) Islands there was a 
violent earthquake, accompanied by an eruption 
of Mauno Loa, April 2, 1868. During a period 
of fifteen days over two thousand shocks were 
experienced. The eruption of lava was profuse, 
causing much destruction of life and property. 

On the 13th of August, 1868, Peru, Ecuador, and 
Chi li were largely devastated by a violent earth- 

*In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of N.-iples 
lost .It least 111,1100 inhahitants by the effects of earthquakes, or more 
thau 150O per year out of an average populatioa of 6,000,000 ! 



quake, which destroyed several large cities along 
the coast. It is reported that between 30,000 
and 60,000 people lost their lives. 
EAST ANGLES. This kingdom (the si.xth of the 
Heptarchy) was commenced by Uffa, 575, and ended 
with Ethelbert in 792. See Britain. The ancient see 
founded by St. Felix, who converted the East Angles 
in 030, was removed to Norwich {which see). 
EAST INDIES, etc. See India. 
EAST* SAXONS. See Britain. 
EASTER, the festival observed by the Church in 
commemoration of our Savior's resurrection, so called 
in England from the Saxon goddess Eostre. It was 
instituted about 68, and the day for its observance iu 
England was fixed by St. Austin in 597. After much 
contention between the Eastern and Western Church- 
es, it was ordained by the Council of Nice, 325, to be 
observed on the same day throughout the whole Chris- 
tian world. "Easter day is the Sunday following that 
fourteenth day of the calendar moon which happens 
upon or next after the 21st of March ; so that, if the 
said fourteenth day be a Sunday, Easter day is not 
that Sunday, but the next." Easter day may be any 
day of the live weeks which commence with March 22 
and end with April 25. The dispute between the old 
British Church and the new Anglo-Saxon Church re- 
specting Easter was settled about 664. — Easter Sun- 
day, in 1860, Apl. 1 ; in 1867, Apl. 21 ; in 1868, Apl. 12. 

EASTER ISLAND, iu the Pacific Ocean, was dis- 
covered by Davis in 1080 ; it was visited by Roggewein 
in 1722, and from him obtained the name it now bears ; 
it was visited by Captain Cook in 1774. At the south- 
east extremity is the crater of an extinguished volca- 
no, about two miles in circuit and 800 feet deep. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of the Em- 
peror Jovian, in Feb., 364, the generals at Nice elect- 
ed Valentinian as his successor ; in June he made his 
brother Valens Emperor of the West. The Eastern 
Empire ended with the capture of Constantinople, 
and death of Constantino XIIL, May 29, 1453. See 
Turkcij. 

Theodosius X.,the Great, succors Valentinian II., 
the Western emperor, and defeats the tyrant 

Maximus, at Aquileia 383 

Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, 

who makes Eugenius emperor 392 

Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who 

reunites the two empires Sept. 0, 394 

Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 
between his sons — Arcadius receives the East, 

Honorius the West Jan. 17, 395 

Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire " 

Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius 11. es- 
tablishes schools, and endeavors to revive learn- 
in". 425 

The Theodosian Code promulgated 438 

The Councils of Ephesus, 431, 449; of Chalcedon.. 451 
Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues 
and Greens, circus factions, at Constantinople, 

498-520 

The Justinian Code published 629 

War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious ca- 
reer of Belisarius, the imperial general 529-531 

He suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer'.') insurrec- 
tion of the circus factions; 30,000 Greens slain.. 532 

His victories in Africa, Italy, and the East .533-541 

Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542; again, 

548 ; again, 549 ; disgraced 562 

Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia 545 

The Slavonians ravage Illyria 551 

Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome. . 552 
Death of Belisarius, aged 84; of Justinian, aged S3, 565 
Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East7579 et seq. 

Disaffection of Narses 591 

Severe contests with the Avars 594-020 

Narses burnt at Constantinople 606 

The flight (Hejra) of Mohammed from Mecca to 
Medina, where he establishes himself as a proph- 
et and prince July 16, 622 

Victorious career of Heraclius II 622 et seq. 

He recovers his lost territories 627 

The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Her- 
aclius at Aiznadin, 633 ; take Alexandria, 640 ; 
and the Greek provinces in Africa, 648 ; Con- 

stans purchases peace with them ^. 660 

They besiege Constantinople seven times 672-677 

The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Moesia 
(now Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country 

up to Constantinople 711 

The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 

718 : defeated 720 

Leo III., the Isauriau, forbids the worship of im- 



EAS 



175 



EAS 



ages (this loads to the Iconoclast controversj', 
abd eventually to the separation of the Eastern 

and Western churches) 720 

A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by 

Acrouius 739 

The monasteries dissolved 770 

Destruction of iniai^cs throughout the emjure de- 
creed, 754; image-worship restored by the Em- 
press Irene (for which she was canonized) 787 

The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; Dal- 

matia, ><'25; Sicily and Crete 827 

Image-worship persecuted, S;J0; restored, 842- for- 
bidden at Constantinople by one council, 869 ; 

restored by another 879 

South Italy annexed to the empire S!)0 

Five emi)eVors reigning at one time 942 

Naples added to the empire " 

Basil subdues the Bulgarians 987, 1014 

Bulgaria annexed to the empire 1018 

The Turks invade Asia Minor IOCS 

The Normans conquer South Italy 1080 

The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia Minor.. 1097 

The Venetians victorious over the Greeks 1125 

The Hungarians repelled, 1152; peace made with 

the Normans in Sicily 1156 

Wars with the Turks audthe Venetians 1172 

Cyprus hist to the empire 1190 

The fourth crusade begins 1202 

Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 
Crusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac 

and his son Alexis IV. 1203 

Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 
throne; the Crusaders take Constantinople, kill 
Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under 

Baldwin, count of Flanders 1204 

Kingdom of Epirus and ^^tolia established 1208 

The" Greek Empire re-established by Michael Pa- 

Iseologns 1261 

Establishment of the Turkish Empire in Asia, un- 
der Othmau 1 1299 

The Genoese trade in the Black Sea 1303 

The Turks ravage Mysia, etc., 1340 and 1345; and 

settle in the coast of Thrace 1353 

The Sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes 
it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, greatly re- 
duces the emperor's territories 1373 

All the Greek possessions in Asia lost 1390 

The Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christian army, 
under Sigismund of Hungary, at Nicopolis, 

Sept. 28,1396 
The Emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the 

Western sovereigns 1400 

A Turkish pacha established at Athens 1401 

The Greek Empire made tributary to Timour, 
1402 ; who subjugates the Turkish sultan, and 
dismembers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour 

on his way to China 1405 

Dissension among the Turks defers the fall of 
Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mohammed I., aided 

by the Emperor Manuel, becomes sitltan 1413 

Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 1422 ; 

jjeace made 1425 

John Pateologus visits Eome and other places, 

soliciting help in vain 1437-40 

Accession of Constantine XIII., the last emperor. .1448 
Accession of Mohammed II., 1451 ; he begins the 
siege of Constantinople, April 0, and takes it, 

May 29,1453 
(He granted to the Christians personal security 
and the free exercise of their religion.) See 
Turkey. 

EMPEK0E8 OF TUE EASTERN EllPIKE. 

304. Valeus. 

379. Theodosius I., the Great. 

395, Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 

40S. Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 

450. Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 

457. Leo I., the Thracian. 

474. Leo the Younger, died the same year. 

" Zeno, called the laaurian. 
i'A. Anastasius I., an lUyrian, of mean birth. 
51>i. Justin I., originally a private soldier. 
5'-'7. Justinian, founder of the Digest. 
5(;r<. Justin II., nephew of Justinian. 
57s. Tiberius II., renowned for his virtues. 
5S2. ^laurice, the Cappadocian: murdered, with all 

his children, by his successor, 
C02. Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes 

and cruelties led to his own assassination in 

010. 
010. Ileraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 
C41. Ileracleonas-Constantine, reiirned a fewmonths; 

poisoned by his step-mother Martina. 



641. Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 

COS. Constantine III., Pogonatus. 

685. Justinian II., son of the precediuir ; abhorred for 
his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : de- 
throned and mutilated by his successor 

095. Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
Aspimar. 

698. Tiberius III., Aspimar. 

705. Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. 
Justinian slain in 711. 

711. Philippicus-Bardanes: assassinated. 

713. Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theodo- 
sius in 716 ; afterward delivered up to Leo III. 
and put to death. 

710. Theodosius III. 

718. Leo III., the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great Icon- 
oclastic controversy ; the alternate prohibition 
and restoration of images involves the peace 
of several reigns.] 

741. Constantine IV., Copronymus, son of the pre- 
ceding ; succeeded by his son, 

775. Leo IV. 

780. Constantine V. and his mother Irene. 

790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
Irene having become unpopular. 

792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterward 
alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties and mur- 
ders, and exiled. 

802. Nicephorus I., surnamed Logothetes: slain. 

811. Staurachius : reigns a few days only. 
" Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 

813. Leo v., the Armenian: killed in the temple at 
Constantinople on Christmas day, 820, by con- 
spirators in the interest of his successor, 

820. Michael II., the Stammerer. 

829. Theophilus, sou of Michael. 

842. Michael III., surnamed Porphyrogenitns, and the 
Sot, sou of the preceding ; murdered by his suc- 
cessor, 

867. Basilius I., the Macedonian. 

886. Leo VI., styled the Philosopher. 

911. Alexander and Constantine VI., Porphyrogeni- 
tns, brother and son of Leo, the latter only six 
years of age ; the former dying in 912 ; Zoe, 
mother of Constantine, assumes the regency. 

919. Eomauus Lecapenus usurps the imperial'power, 

and associates with him his sous 

920. Christopher, and 

928. Stephen and Constantine VII. 

[Five emperors now reign : of these Christo- 
pher dies in 931 ; Romanus is exiled by his 
sons, Constantine and Stephen, who are them- 
selves banished the next year.] 

945. Constantine VII. now reigns alone : poisoned by 
his daughter-in-law Theophania, 959. 

959. Romanus" II., son of the preceding : this mon- 
ster, who had contrived his father's death, 
banishes his mother, Helena. 

963. Nicephorus II., Phocas ; marries Theophania, 
his predecessor's consort, who has him assas- 
sinated. 

969. John I., Zemisces, celebrated Mneral ; takes Ba- 
silius II. and Constantine VIIL, sous of Ro- 
manus II., as colleagues ; John dies, supposed 
by poison, and 

976. Basilius II. and Constantine VIIL reign alone: 

The former dies in 1025, the latter in 1028. 
1028. Romanus III., Argyropulus ; poisoned by his 

profligate consort Zoe, who raises 
1034. Michael IV., the Paphlagonian, to the throne: 
on his death Zoe places 

1041. Michael V., surnamed Calaphates, as his success- 

or: Zoe dethrones him, has his eyes put out, 
and marries 

1042. Constantine IX., Monomachus ; he and Zoe reign 

jointly ; Zoc dies in 1050. 
1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 

1056. Michael VL, Stratiotes, or Strato ; deposed. 

1057. Isaac I., Comnenus: abdicates. 
1059. Constantine X., surnamed Ducas. 

1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus 
IV., surnamed Diogenes, whom she marries, 
reign to the prejudice of Michael, Coustantine's 
son. 

1071. Michael VII., Parapinaces, recovers his throne, 
and reiu'us jointly with Constantine XL 

1078. Nicepluinis III., dethroned by 

1081. Alexis or Alexius I., Comnenus, succeeded by 

Ills. John Comnenus, his son, snrnamedKalos: died 
of a wound from a poisoned arrow. 

1143. Manuel I., Comnenus, son of John. 



EBI 



176 



EDD 



1180. Alexis II., Comnenus, son of the preceding, un- 
der the regency of the Empress Maria, his 
mother. 

1183. Androuicus I., Comnenus, causes Alexis to he 
strangled, and seizes the throne : put to death 
by 

1185. Isaac II., Angelus Comnenus, who is deposed, 
imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
brother. 

1195. Alexis III., Angelus, called the Tyrant: this last 
deposed in his turn, and his eyes put out ; died 
in a monastery. 

1203. Isaac II. again, associated with his son, Alexis 

IV. : deprived. 

LATIN EMPEROKS. 

1204. Baldwin I., earl of Flanders, on the capture of 

Constantinople by the Latins, elected emper- 
or: made a prisoner by the King of Bulgaria, 
and never heard of afterward. 

1206. Heury I., his brother; dies in 1'217. 

1210. Peter de Courteuay, his brother-in-law. 

1221. Robert de Courteuay, his son. 

1228. Baldwin II., his brother, a minor, and John de 
Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
emperor. 

1261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of 
the Franks or Latins terminates.] 

GKEEK E.MPEKOES AT NICE. 

12C4. Theodore Lascaris. 

1222. John Ducas, Vataces. 

12.55. Theodore Lascaris II., his son, 

1259. Joliu Lascaris, and 

12U0. Michael Vin.,PaL'Bologus. 

EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 

1261. Michael VIII., now at Con.stautinople: he puts 
out the eyes of John and reigns alone. 

1282. Androuicus II., Pateologus the Elder, sou of the 
preceding: deposed by 

1328. Androuicus the Younger, his grandson. 

1332. Androuicus III., the Younger. 

1341. John Palieologus, under the guardianship of 
John Cautacuzenus : the latter proclaimed em- 
peror at Adrianople. 

1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 

13!)5. John Palieologus restored. 

1391. Manuel PalcEologus, his son: succeeded by his 
sou and colleague, 

1425. John Palieologus II. The throne claimed by his 
three brothers. 

1448. Constautine Pal^ologus XII. (XIII. or XIV., 
some of the other emperors being called Con- 
stantme by some writers) killed, when Con- 
stantinople is taken. May 29, 1463. 

EBIONITES, heretics, in the 2d century, who seem 
to hixve been a branch of the Nazareues, were of two 
kinds: one believed that our Savior was born of a 
virgin, observed all the precepts of the Christian re- 
ligion, but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the oth- 
er believed that Christ was born after the manner of 
all mankind, and denied his divinity.— /'a«to«. Pho- 
tinus revived the sect in 342. 

EBONITE (vulcanized India-rubber). See Caout- 
chouc. 

EBKO, a river in Spain— the scene of a signal defeat 
of the Spaniards by the French, under LiVunes, near 
Tudela, Nov. 23, 1808, and also of several important 
movements of the allied British and Spanish armies 
during the Peninsular War (1809 and 1813). 

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS m Englant>. 
One was appointed by Queen Elizabeth, 15S4 ; by 
James I. in Scotland, 1617 ; by the English Parliament 
in 1641 ; aud by James II. to coerce the universities in 
1687. The present Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bish- 
ops, deans, irnd laymen) were appointed in 1835, and 
incorporated in 1836. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no 
distinction between lay aud ecclesiastical courts in 
England until after the Norman Conquest, 1066. See 
Arches and Comiftor;/ Courts. Till the establishment 
of the Divorce and Probate Courts {which .lee) in 1S57, 
the following were the causes cognizable in ecclesias- 
tical courts: blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, 
heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices, 
matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, forni- 
cation, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, etc. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States op tue 
CniTRcn. See Rome, Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL. See Papal Ag- 
gression. 



ECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle between 
the maiu armies of France (75,000) aud Austria (40,0ij0) ; 
Napoleon and Marshal Davoust (hence Prince d'Eck- 
miihl) defeated the Archduke Charles, April 22, 1809. 

ECLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), ancient 
philosophers (called Analogetici, and also Philalctlies, 
or the lovers of truth), who, without attaching them- 
selves to any sect, chose what they judged good from 
each : of them was Potamon of Alexandna, about 
A.D. 1. — Dryden. Also a Christian sect, who consider- 
ed the doctrine of Plato conformable io the spirit of 
Christianity. 

ECLIPSES. Their revolution was first calculated 
by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians 
said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the 
sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from Vulcan 
to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The theory of eclipses 
is said to have been known to the Chinese before 120 
B.C. The first eclipse recorded happeued March 19, 
721 B.C., at8/i. 40i»i. P.M., according to'Ptolemy ; it was 
lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. A 
list of eclipses to the year A.D. 2000 is given in '■'UArt 
de Verifier les Dates." 

eemaeeable eclipses. 
Of the Sim. 

That predicted by Thales* (see Halys) {Pliny, lib. 
ii., 9), believed to have occurred May 28 B.C. 585 

One at Athens {Thucydides, lib. iv.) 424 

Total one : three days' supplication decreed at 
Rome {Livy) 188 

One general at the death of Jesus Christ {Josephiis), 

A.D. 33 

One observed at Constantinople 908 

In France, when it was dark at noonday {Du Fres- 
noy) June 29,1033 

In England ; a total darkness {Wm. MalmcKbun/), 

March 20,1140 

Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning 
{Camden) June 23,1191 

The true sun, and the appearance of another, so 
that astronomers alone could distinguish the dif- 
ference by their glasses " 

Again : total darkness ensued 1331 

A total one ; the darkness so great that the stars 
shone, and the birds went to roost at noon {Old- 
mixon's Annals of George I.) April 22,1715 

Remarkable one, central and annular in the inte- 
rior of Europe Sept. 7,1802 

Total eclipses of the sun — July 17, 1S33 ; July S, 
1842 ; July 28, 1851. 

An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photographed 
at Ouudle, but not seen well at other places, 

March 15,1858 

Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by Mr. G. B. 
Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spaiu ; 
Mr. Warren de la Rue took photographs, July 18,1860 
[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period 
of IS years 10>^ days.] 

Of the Moon. 
The first, observed by the Chaldfeans at Babylon 

{Ptolemy, iv.) B.C. 721 

A total one observed at Sardis {Thucydides, vii.), 413 

Again, in Asia Minor {Polybius 219 

One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 

{Livy, xliv.) 163 

One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their 

revolt {Tacitus) A.D. 14 

ECUADOR, or Equator, a South American repub- 
lic, founded in 1831, when the Colombian republic was 
divided into three, the other two being Venezuela and 
New Granada. The population of Ecuador is about 
1,040,400, of which 76,000 are in Quito, the capital. 
General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859 ; defeated in 
battle by General Flores, Aug., 1860. President (elect- 
ed in 1861), G. G. Moreno. 

EDDAS, two books containing the Scandinavian 
mythology (or history of Odin, Thor, Frea, etc.), writ- 
ten about the 11th and 12th centuries. Translations 
have been made into French, English, etc. MSS. of 
the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 

EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE, off"the port of Plym- 
outh, erected by the Trinity House to enable ships 
to avoid the Eddystone rock. It was commenced uu- 
der Mr. Winstauley in 1696; was finished in 1699; and 
was destroyed in the dreadful tempest of Nov. 27, 1703, 
when Mr. Wiustanley and others perished. It was re- 
built by act of Parli;\ment, 4 Anne, 1706, and all ships 

* Mr. Airy thinks tbe date should be 610 ; others s.ly 603 or 5S4 B.C. 
It is the one recorded by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 
the Medes and Lydians. 



EDE 



177 






EDU 



have .ee.> I3^ul.y^^^;™-^S!^ S^^i^fi^il^ 

, and in 11S4, 
contained flf- 

Abgarus and Jlannus. "" '""^° "' "'^"'^ '^^^'■'^ "^"^«1 
cL ,?£' ,'"»■■"'«"' »f l..il«>rl.™,e i "life c "fiS 

EDICIS, public ordinances and decrees nsmllv cpt 
forth by sovereigns ; the n" — ^..= A_^^^ ,"®"?Vy set 



159., ^s:as confirmed VLL^I"!.^?";? I'Ad by 



•anee 
l?!!;:^r!,!?L-'.°!j^^-^ crys^S^^SJftlri^^ 



i'^,,??il'?,'!^.^hl-^'J^'bere,their descendants yet remain • 
ud St. Giles's, anc' 

^^SVuirSI^J^« Ci^^Sr I ^ade ..t b,ho. 



^ April 5, 16ol?he rev sU ^it"' '''"^ °^' ^ilf ''-""^^ 

^hei^^KSiiFr^^i'^^'^'^^i'-'^-i 

Earl of Argyll behe,uled ^'""'"^^■'^II by Dundas,l650 

African and East Indio Onm^^nA" ' • ''"""^ yO,lGS5 

Bank of Scotland founded^ ^ incorporated.. . .'1695 

Union of the kingdoms " 

Royal Bank founded 1^07 

First stone of the preseutlw^ -f ; ••T ' ' 1 'S3 

Holyrood an asylum to UntJ%\V^^' ^"^- 16,17S9 
I „ brother, afterward" harlesX "^- *''"t'^'« 

Smith, Henry ^l^^^^^^^^^ 

^^^S:^^^^'^^^^ "^'"S 

Nelson's monument comnYeVed '^^ ^l.lSll 

Professor Playfair dies V ", ^^^^ 

Society of Ai/s instiUtled;; V. ^^'^ 20,1819 

Destructive fires j -; V • • • ^^21 

Death of Sir Walter' Scott "" "J^ Nov.,1824 

Association of the Fine Irt's. ^^^P*" 21.|833 

Secession, and formation of the Free Church 

''°%''Sbr^'"^^^^^--"-ofthe&^ 

'tS%^;^1li=tF^'°^^V./VrangS?:i?f^^ 
^eie'reLewed "^ ""^ ^'''' satisfaction ; riots 

Theatre Royal bu^^n^r George ■LoVim^r" de^n°''of^^^^ 
guild, and seven other persons, killwl bVfall of n 
wall while endeavoring 10 extnVnto L^kV.:!." °f ^ 

EDINBURG, BisuoPEio , 



nam^i^i"V£?„d^.l™^.f™Po"« of Scotland, deriv 



Picts, 626. But it is';;aid ti^^^t e V^ fl^rtflf bv 
5^"-™fi°"'„'^'"F °f the Picts, 330 B.C. it makes a con": 



minums, erected ^t^r^e^^^^^^^^^^ 
aV'F^'ltm-itories from the incm-sions of the Scote and 

3 first built by 
spicuous appelirauce, standing TtThe weTwd o/t"h"; 
town on a rock 300 feet highland before the use of 
great guns, was a fortification of con^siderable strength 
Pfb-^',hn''"'J^','°^'"?'^"'='^'^ (''eiffn of Donald I.) 2OI 

ReS^ySK^^-^S'-^-^- ■■•■■■^ 

llovV!^^':^: '■"''^ '"""^ rebniii by Malcolm Can! 

Besieged by Donald Bain! '.'.'..W. ?^If 

Holyrood Abbey founded by David 



1093 
1128 



Jan. 13,1865 

post-Revolution bishopricfn nlo. ""l^eSSf '"^ ^ 

ions houses, and Robert Sbkhnr>f,fn'f "' ^"^'S- 
hrst principal was annoi.f.H u. ^-^ The^frndation 



«tnnf "^^IP*^^ was appointed in 1585. 

stone of the new buildings was laid by Prancir'im.;? 

'^k^'^^Zf^' ^^'--^ of fscotCd'Nov 
,J,n!;„,.,iA^^^tbe library contained upward of 



,_ ^.. „,.u," * ,, EDOM. ^ee Idumixa. 



^ earliest schools for the lower 



ot. Giles's Cathedral built \IZ classes were those attached to thTT. °\- ^°";*^'' 

Burnt by Richard II |359 ^^ j^. , J^ose attached to the monasteries ; for 

AndbyHenrylV :...■::;:;.•;:;••:;•• .? founde^d. SefteZ-orl'^nr^i?"^^^^^ 



James II. first king crowned here. . ]fl 

Esecution of the Earl of Athol ,? 

City strengthened by a wall . . 1 ,^„ 

Charter of James III.. "50 

Edinburg made the metropolis by James ITT 1^9 

Sroy5^^^!r^°--'=-^-t«''- •::::i5o^ 

^'^jlfme'sTv. "^ HoljTood is built inihe'^eignof '"^ 
ABritish forc^, landing from a fleet of 200 shin« 

11-1 T .r,J*U * ""' 



.1503 



founded. See Oxford and Cambridge. 

EDUCATION IN GEEAT BKITAIN 

cfc.°*'^J^^'''''''™ P^^"f«l 'be school at Win- 
andOxfoJd.'.°.''.'!';°!': '°"'^'' ''' that place 

Eton College was founded by Henry vi um 

ncn^inn''"'^ years following the R/formation"ec-. 
ucation was greatly promoted, and many gram- 
w.?r;;'^°°'^'';.T ^'"^^t^^ and endowed b>Ed- 



burns both EdinburgVn Le th .'' °' """ M?v'l^ Westminster school founded by Eli;:ibeth:::: " 15^ 
Le.h IS again burnt, but Edinburg is soared' ^^'S^ Foundation of Rugby School by Lawrence Sheriff: 



Tolbooth built.".:""'' ""^ -"-""■•g ,s spared 1.^47 

Marriage of Queen Map^ and Lord Darniey! ! ! ! ! " Tm6 
i^avid Kizzio murdered ^ i^'2 

poller"'"'''''"'™ "P i" a pViVatehouse bygun'-'''' 
-P "^"'^' .Feb. 10,1.'56- 



i.-i-iT I TKR7 „firr - ", -— by Lawrence Sheriff, 

lin n,?f ' ^°^ Harrow school by John Lyon '1571 

1^!;^ I ^'^^t'?,^n"^ '''''' the zealous friend of education. 
Whi eprincess, she founded the Gray-coat school. 
Westminster, m 1098, and cordially supported 
lh,v'f I'"? ,"P Parochial charity schools (one of 
which hiict been established in 16S8 at St. Mar- 
garet's, Westminster), -^i-.mcir 

rrP^tT-.°^'^'fT'S^°«'« '''^'"^ established in 
Great Britain and Ireland, principally by the in- 



Mary marries James; eaVrofBothw;ii:::;MS' 15^^ 
Death"of ^hHS ''^''''"' '""'''^ resignat'lo5l57, 
University chartered (see EdmhurgUniversitii), "^ 




1572 



EDU 



178 



EGY 



First epoch: the dvnasty of its Pharaohs, or "great 
'i rus sqn KchnUrH i kiugs," commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, 

1,548,890 .cholais. __ _ ^^^_^^^ .^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ son of Noah, 2188 B.C , to^e conquest by auu- 



In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 



Sunday-school Union was 1 . 

■^"«h-^ct me cSen luhlX^""''' ^'^"^- ■ "• •"•1796 I the Great,-and establishment of the Ptolemies, ....i^.u 
Hlh^d 90 pSs before hVwasisVears old. and^_^^ | 3d epoch, to^the^deathof^Cleopatra and the eubjuga- 



byses, 525 B.C. 2d epoch, to the death of Alexander 
thft fireat.-and establishment of the Ptolemies, 323 B.C. 



1000 pupils in ••••.• •I'^^-'S 

To provide teachers, he invented the monitorial 
system. In consequence of his exertions, the 
present British and Foreign School Society was 
founded with the name of the "Royal Lancas- 

terian Institution," etc • . . . • ■ • ■ ■ ■ • -loOS 

This was followed by the institution of the Church 
of England " National Society for Educating the 

Poor," on Dr. Bell's system • ■ • • -ISll 

Infant Schools began about ibio 

The Charity Commission, appointed at the in- 
stance of Mr. (now Lord) Brougham, published 
their reports on Education in 37 vols, tolio . 1819-40 
Irish National School System (to accommodate 
both Roman Catholics and Protestants) organ- 
ized mainly by Archbishop Whately and the Ro- 

man Catholic Archbishop Murray •I'^^l 

In 1834, the British government began annual 
grants (the first £20,000), which continued till 
1839, when the Committee of the Privy Council 
on Education was constituted for the distribu- 
tion of the money. The grant for public edu- 
cation in Great Britain, in 1852, was £150,000 ; 
1856-T, £451,213 ; 1860, £798,951 ; 1861, £803,794 ; 
1864, £705,404. For Ireland, 1S60, £270,722; 1861, 
£285,377; 1863, £316,770. From 1839 to 1860, 
£3,655,067 were granted for education. The 
grant for education, science, and art, in 1861, was 
£1,358,996. , ^ , , „ ■ x 

In 1836, the Home and Colonial School Society 
was instituted, and about 1843 were formed the 
Voluntary School Society and the Congregation- 
al Board of Education. In 1851, out of a popu- 
lation of 17,927,609, there were 2,466,481 day 
scholars. Primary schools in Great Britain, 1854, 
3825; 1863,7739. 

Ragged School Union established 1S44 

The Industrial Schools Act passed in .185( 

Middle Class Examinations from the University of 
Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners grant- 
ed the degree of A.A. to many persons at Liver- 
pool, Leeds, etc. ; similar examinations from 
Cambridge took place in the autumn, and are to ^ 

be continued • • -ISSb 

Royal Commission appointed to inquire mto the 
state of education in Scotland. First meeting 

at Edinburg. . ; Nov. 14,1864 

" Conscience-clause," introduced by Committee of 
Council on Education, freeing children of Dis- 
senters from being taught Church Catechism, or 

being sent to church, early in 

Miss Burdett Coutts proposes the establishment 
of small village schools, to be taught by " ambu- 
latory" teachers Jan., 1865 

Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire 
into the best mode of benefiting schools unas- 
sisted by the state Feb. 28, " 

Committee appointed at a meeting for establish- 
ment of higher schools for middle classes in Lon- 
don, by means of funds of lapsed charities, etc., 
Nov. 7; nearly £28,000 subscribed by end of 
Dec, 180.5. 

EDUCATION IN THE United States. In the United 
States the subject of p6pular education has always re- 
ceived much attention, and, though the state govern- 
ments do not interfere in the arrangements of the 
schools, which are left to the people, m nearly every 
state a tax is levied for the support of common schools, 
and grants have been made at various times for the 
erection and support of colleges. Next to that of 
Prussia, the common school system here is considered 
the best in the world. In 1860 the whole number of 
educational establishments in the United States was 
113,006, in which were employed 148,742 teachers, giv- 
ing instruction to 5,417,880 persons. Of these estab- 
lishments 445 were collegiate, with 54,969 students. 
The academies and other schools (except public scho- 
lastic institutions) numbered 6636, in which 55,559 pu- 
pils were instructed. The number of public schools 
was 106,915 ; the number of scholars in them, 4,917,552. 
There were 27,730 hbraries, containing 13,316,379 vol- 
umes. 

EGYPT.* The early seat of political civilization. 



tiou of the Romans, 30 B.C. 

Dynasty of Meues (conjectural) B.C. 2717 or 2412 

Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) .2188 

E'l-ypt made four kingdoms, viz., Upper Egypt, 
Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abbe Lcnglet, 

Blair) ^1™ 

Athotes'iuveuts hieroglyphics 2122 

Busiris builds Thebes (Usher) .- • - ■ -Jin 

Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into 
Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits 
to be represented in sculpture and pamtmg (Ush- 



er, LengU't) ^■•■f-A\: 'I'i '■; 

The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold it 

260 years (Usher) ; the dynasty of Shepherd kings 

be"-ins ^^^^ 

The Lake of Moeris constructed by him • •1938 

The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt .1920 

Syphoas introduces the use of the common letters 

(Usher) •, /nJ ■ : ' V " ' ' 

Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Leng- 



Ign _ _ . 

Ameuophis I. is acknowledged the kin 

Egypt (Lenglet) 



of all 



.1821 



Joseph is sold into Egypt as a slave U28 

He interprets the king's dreams 1 a.5 

His father and brethren settle here .liOo 

Rameses IIL, or Sesostris, reigns: he extends his 
dominion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, In- 
dia, and Asia Minor (Lenglet)* 1618 

Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) ■■■■■■■■■ -.• ■ -1615 
Rameses, who imposed on his subjects the build- 
ing of walls and pyramids, and other labors, dies 

(Lenglet) ; • • • r : " • :; ' ' 'i' Ti" ' ' •^^''^ 

Ameuophis II. is overwhelmed lu the Red Sea, 

with all his army (LengUt, Blair) ._• • • " 

Reign of ^gyptus, from whom the country, hith- 
erto called'Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Z)ta»r),1485 
Rei"-n of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks), who 
had the faculty of assuming whatever form he 
pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 

liie 11°^ 

[These "fictions were probably intended to mark 
the profound policy of this king, who was em- 
inent for his wisdom, by which his dominion 
flourished.— CteM".] 
Pseusennes (Shishak) enters Palestine, ravages Ju- 
dea, and carries off the sacred vessels of theTem- 

ple 971 

The dynasty of kings called Taiiites begins with 

Petubastes (Blair) S25 

The dynasty of Saites (Blair) 781 

Sebacon (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, subdues 
the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roast- 
ed alive ( Usher) • • • • • -.- ^37 

The Dodekarchy (12 rulers) expelled by Psammeti- 

chus the Powerful /z " 

He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the 

longest siege in the annals of antiquity (U-iher), 647 
Necho begins the famous canal between the Ara- 

bic Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea (Blair) 610 

This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 

120,000 men (Herodotus) 609 

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries. ..... 581 

Apries taken prisoner and strangled m his palace 

(Diod. Siculus) • • »'l 

The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos 
into Egypt, and is instructed in the mysteries of 

Egyptian theology (Usher) • 5oo 

The line of the Pharaohs ends m the murder ot 

Psammenitus by Cambyses (Blair) ; . 526 

Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the chil- 
dren of the grandees, male and female, to death, 

and makes the country a waste (Herodotus) 5^4 

He sends an army of 50,000 men across the desert 

to destroy the temple of Jupiter Amnion, but 

they all perished in the burning sands (.Justin) . . 

Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued 

by Xerxes (Blair) 487 

A revolt under Inarus (Blair) 4od 

Successful revolt under Amyi'taius, who is pro- 
claimed king (Lenglet) 'lli 



* Three most map^ificent works on Egypt have been published : in 
France (commenced by Napoleon, and the savans who accompanied 
him to Egypt), Desmplim de VEgypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, Rosellini's 
Monumenta dell' Egitto, 1832-34 ; and in Prussia, Lepsiua'a Denkmaler 



aiis jEgypten, 1848-56. All these are in the Library of the Royal In- 
stitution of Great Britain, London. . ■ T,, ■ „ 1 ,. 
* The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertam : Blair makes 
it fall 133 years later. As to the achievements of this monarch tliey 
are supposed to have been the labors of several kings attributed by the 
Egj-ptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose yery existence, mdeed, is 
doubted. 



EGY 



179 



Egypt again rednced by Ochus, king of Persia 
aud Its temples pillaoed {U.her) . . .?. ''• 350 

Se,^"i n" ''''Si ''.':f,«'-« fsypt, wrests ii-froni ° 

^ F!^'rf f/'-' .^'"""delphus; reigus' ■<undeV "whom 

^ abourlhiClinu:''''*'''" °^^''^ °'^' Testameut maci; 

Ambassadors first sent to Rome." .■:::;::::: 260 

Ptolcniy III., Kiirgetes, reigns, 247; overruns'sVrl 
la, and returns laden with rich spoils and 2^0 
Btatues and vessels of gold and"^ siive^r vhfch 

Ses(S) '" *''■""' ^^^ ^-^P""" ^«^- 

Ptolemy IV., Philopatol-V. '.'.'.'..'. H^ 

Ptolemy v., Epiphaues '. if,^ 

Ptolemy VI., Philometor... is? 

At the death of Philometor, hiV brother Physcon 
(P olemy VII ) marries his queen, and on the day 
of his nuptials murders the infant son of Philo- 
metor in Its mother's arms. . 1 ,P 
He rejnujiates his wife, and mar'ries'heVdau-hter 

by his brother {Blair) "'lu^mer 

lis subjects wearied by his cruelties and ■crimes 
demolish his statues, set fire to his palace ^nd 
he flies from their fury (Dlmr) ^ ' ^ 

LTu.'}i'l^J.U!'}l ^'y^^? ^^^y queen Tafso his 



ELE 



Ibrahim Pacha dies ^spp %;/>r^ tvt ,„ . 

The Suez Canal bf^n ^ ^°^- ^"'^^^S 

Malta and Alpvinrf -lo t^i'„" i 1858 

The viceroy Smdvits It ff F^^'^P"""^-.- ^?^- ^'1801 
Mav to tf„nf Z . •^' ''^''^"•^^' aud England, 

Greatly increase^d cumvS'of coltontn^S'''''' 
At th9 demand of the sultnn +>,« ■ 1863-64 

1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept.- di^-«nvjo Ls 

1803. Ismail (brother), Jan. IS ^^ ^-' ^^^■" ^ 

EGYPTIAN ERA 



N, C^ X "" J v,M.i, >VtlD 

abonassar, beginning Feb. 



^!f„™„fe'l'.^'«?''!ed by his'crueitYes and crimes, 

, set fire to his 

ry (Dlair) jog 

„„„ , . ,, y bis new queen; also his 

son by her mother, sending the head and limbs 

feasfday ' '"' "" ^''■"'""^ ^'^ ^'^^ parents on a 
""tl^i^f ^'ii'-^"^" army, he-^ecoveVshis " 

Ptolemy VIII., Soter II .'^'^^ '' 

Alexander I |1J 

Ptolemy VIII. restored.'.' .'.'.'.' ^^l 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes d'e's'troyed 'after a 
siege of three years (£i(orf.S,«<j«s).. ^ " "^^^ ^^ 

Alexander II. and Cleopatra I. 01 

Ptolemy IX., Auletes H 

Berenice and Tryphajna.... f' 

Auletes restored, 55; leaves his kingdom 't'o'pt'o'l'el 

my and Cleopatra (C?rt?>) " '■"jri.oie 

During a civil war between Ptolemy and cTeopatra 
. 11., Alexandria is'besieged by Cfesar, and the li- 

brary nearly destroyed by Are (Blair) ... 47 
Ciesar defeats the king, who, in crossing the' Nile 
is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cle- 
opatra reign .f. 

Cleopatra poisons her brother, and 'r'e'i'g'ns 'al'oiie 
bhe appears before Marc Antony to answer for th'is 
crime. Fascinated by her beauty, he follows her 

into Egypt .f, 

Antony defeated by Octavius 'Casar 'at' the battle 

of Actium (Blair) o-, 

Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and 'ci'eopatra'kil'l 
themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman 

province „q 

Egypt wrested from the Eastern' Emperor'Herac- 
luis by Omar, caljph of the Saracens. . a D 



identical with tiTe'erk o?fe'°'-^-^?^5"^? y^^"" ^''""s 
26 747 B.C., and consists 



26, 747 B.C., and consistPfl of ^«r T*"' ''egmnrng Fen 
refoi;nied 30•B,c',Tvteh^S^t^r"^^^^ 



period the commencement 






devotion 



f 

but 



43 






^rf ^^^^ DECLARATION. See Germany, 1S59. 
EISTEDDFODD. See Bards. 

T ^W^\ J®^"^- °^ ^''^ "^^^ coast of Tuscany) taken hv 
Lord Nelson m 1796, but abandoned 1797 ^ Elba was 
nn"H«'fpr'P°" ^."P°leon (with the title of Emperor 
??14-H» '"''"'■!?'"- ^}''' "^^""e of France, Apdl 5 
n?i^-AM';flf,'.yi'?'^l^.':ked hence with abou't'l200 



by the Grand-duke of Tuscany, July, 1815. 

ELDERS (iuGreek,2)res6tttero?-), in the early Church 
equiva ent with epi.copoi, or bishops (see 1 y^'m iii 
and Tnmi.), who afterward became a distinct and sn' 
faymen"''^''' ^^^''' ^^ '^' Presbyterian churches are 

EL DORADO (the "Gilded Man"). Whe 




»,.., • -,,- , „ o ,-". .. of the coun- 

tiy IS conquered by the French, underBonaparte 1709 
Ihe invaders dispossessed by the British, and the 

lurkish government restored -isni 

Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes,' and'ojj'- 

tains the supreme power March isii 

Arrival of Belzoni, 1815; he removes youn- Mem- 

non, ISIO ; explores the ancient temples.'etc. 1817 
Formation of the Mahmoud Canal connecting 

Alexandria with the Nile ^IgoQ 

Mehemet Pacha revolts and invades Syria. 1831 

His son Ibrahim takes Acre, May 27 ; overruns 

t5}Tia, and defeats the Turks at Koiiieh, Dec. 21 1833 
He advances on Constantinople, which is entered 
by Russian auxiliaries, April 3 ; the war ends 

with the convention of Kutayah May 4 1833 

Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary pow- 

er ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib, June 24 1839 
England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake 
to expel Ibrahim from Syria; Napier bombards 
Beyront, Sept. 10 ; Acre taken by the British and 
Austrian fleets, under Sir R. Stopford, Nov. 3- 

the Egyptians quit Syria Nov. 21 et. sen 'l840 

leace restored by treaty; Mehemet is made he- 
reditary viceroy of Egypt, but is deprived of 
^y-'^^ July 15,1841 



and rolled in gold dust (whi?hre"port"^vas found d 
a merely annual custom of the Indians), they organ" 
ized various expeditions into the intedor of Smith 
America, which were accompanied with disasters and 
crimes about 1500. Raleigh's expeditions in sS 
of gold in 1590 and 1G17 led to his fall. 

ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea, in Sicilv by Ce- 
llophanes of Colophon, about 535 B.C. He had been 
banished to Sicily on account of his wild theory of 
God and nature. He supposed that the stars were ex- 
tinguished every morning and rekindled at ni^ht- 
that eclipses were occasioned by a partial extinction 
ot the sun ; that there were several suns and moons 
tor the convenience of the diff"ereut climates of the 
earth, etc.— «mZ;o. Zeno (about 304) was an Eleatic. 
ELECTOR PALATINE. See Palatinate. 
ELECTORS for members of Parliament for counties 
were obliged to have forty shillings a year in land 8 
Hen. VI., 1429. Among the acts relating to electors 
are the following: Act depriving excise and custom- 
house officers and contractors with government of 
their votes, 1782. Act to regulate pollino-, IS'^8 Re- 
form m Parliament Act (see Befnrm Bill), 1832. Coun- 
ty Elections Act, 1S36. See Briberi/. The forty-shiJ- 
Iing freeholders in Ireland lost their privilege in 1829 



ELE 



180 



ELE 



By Dodson's Act, passed in 1S61, University electors 
are permitted to vote by sending balloting papers. 

ELECTORS OF Gebmany. The empire became elect- 
oral about 619. In the 13th century seven princes (the 
Archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the King 
of Bohemia, the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, 
and the Elector Palatine), who possessed the greatest 
power, ashiumed the exclusive privilege of nominating 
the emperor. — Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) 
was made in 1648, and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. 
The number was reduced to eight in 1777, and was in- 
creased to ten at the peace of Luueville in 1801. On 
the dissolution of the German Empire the crown of 
Austria was made hereditary, 1801-1806. See Ger- 
many. 

ELECTORS (United States). By a provision of 
the Constitution (Art. II., sec. 1), the President and 
Vice-President are chosen every four years by electors. 
These are appointed by each state ''in such manner 
as the Legislature thereof may direct," their number 
for the said state being equal to the whole number of 
representatives and senators to which the state may 
be entitled in Congress. The electors meet in their 
respective states and vote by ballot for two persons, 
of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. The result, duly certi- 
fied, is then transmitted to the President of the United 
States Senate, who, upon the meeting of Congress in 
December, in the presence of both houses, opens the 
certiflcatcs, and the votes are counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes is declared Presi- 
dent, " if suih number be a majority of the whole num- 
ber of electors appointed ; and if there be more than 
one who have such majority, and have an equal num- 
ber of votes," then the House of Representatives 
chooses one of them for President, the votes being 
taken by states. After this vote, the person having 
the greatest number of electoral votes is declared Vice- 
President. If the House in such a case should not be- 
fore the 4th of March following choose a President, 
then the former Vice-Presideut"becomes acting Presi- 
dent. In case there is no majority of electoral votes 
for Vice-President, he is, in like manner, chosen by 
the Senate. 

ELECTRICITY, from the Greek clektron, electrum, 
amber. The electrical properties of rubbed amber are 
said to have been known to Thales, 600 B.C. See 
Magnetism. 

FRIOTIONAI, OB STATIC ELECTKIOITY. 

Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
generate electricity when rubbed, and that all 
substances may be attracted 1600 

Otto von Guericke constructs the first electric ma- 
chine (a globe of sulphur) about 1G47 

Boyle publishes his electrical experiments 16T6 

Stephen Grey, aided by Wheeler, discovered that 
the human body conducts electricity, that elec- 
tricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies 
being produced by frictional electricity at a dis- 
tance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, 
and other remarkable phenomena 1720-30 

Dufay originates his dual theory of two electric 
fluids : one vitreotis, from rubbed glass, etc., the 
other resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, etc. ; 
and showed that two bodies similarly electrified 
repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely 
electrified, about I733 

The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by 
Kleist, 1745, and by Cunoeus and Muschenbroek, 
of Leyden ; Winckler constructed the Leyden 
liattery I-4Q 

Desagubers classifies bodies as electrics and non- 
electrics 11^2 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Becca- 
ria, and Nollet 1740-47 

Franklin announces his theory of a siuo-l'e 'fluid 
terming the vitreous e]ectridty jwsitive^ and the 
resinoifs negatiee, 1747 ; and demonstrates the 
identity of the electric spark and lightning, 
drawing down electricity from a cloud Ijy means 
of a kite*.. June,1752 

Professor Richmann killed at St. Petersburg while 
repeating Franklin's experiments Aug., 1753 

Beccaria publishes his researches on atmospheric 
electricity, 1758 ; and ^piuus his mathematical 

^theory 1759 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by In- 
genhousz. Cavendish, and others, about 1773 

Lichtenberg produces his electrical figures 1777 

* In 1748, at a picnic, he " killed a turkey by the electric sparlt, and 
roasted it by an electric jack before a Sre kindled by the electric bot- 
tle." — Penny Ct/clopcedia. 



Electro-Statics: Coulomb applies the torsion bal- 
ance to the measurement of electric force 17S5 

Electro-chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others 1787-90 

Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic Elec- 
tricity, below) 1791-03 

ffirsted, of Copenhagen, discovers electro-magnet- 
ic action (see Electro-Magnetism, below) 1819 

Thermo-Electricity (currents produced by heat) dis- 
covered by Seebeck: it was produced by heat- 
ing pieces of copper and bismuth soldered to- 
gether, 1823 ; the thermo-electrometer invented 
by Snow Harris, 1827; the thermo- multiplier 
constructed by Melloni and Nobili, 1S31. [Mar- 
cus constructed a powerful thermo-electric bat- 
tery in 1S65.] 

Faraday produces a spark by the sudden separa- 
tion of a coiled keeper from a permanent mag- 
net (see Magneto-Electricity, below) 1831 

Wheatstone calculates the velocity of electricity, 
on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles a 
second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles 
a second 1834 

Armstrong discovers, and Faraday explains, the 
electricity of high pressure steam, which pro- 
duces the hydro-electric machine 1840 

Eleotbio Machines. — Otto von Guericke obtain- 
ed sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur about 
1647 ; Newton, Boyle, and others used glass 
about 1675; Hawksbee improved the machine 
about 1709 ; Bose introduced a metallic conduct- 
or, 1733 ; Winckler contrived the cushion for the 
rubber, 1741 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 
1742, for which a plate was substituted about 
1770 ; Canton introduced amalgam for the rub- 
ber, 1751; Van Marum constructed an electric 
machine at Haarlem, said to have been the most 
powerful ever made, 17S5 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set 
up at the Panopticon, Leicester Square, London, 
a very powerful electric machine and Leyden 
battery [in possession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1S62].1S55 

The Ilydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
constructed 1840 

The Electkophokus, a useful apparatus for ob- 
taining frictional electricity, was invented by 
Volta m 1775, and improved by him in 1782 

Electrometer and Electroscope, as the terms 
signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the pres- 
ence and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith- 
balls were employed in various ways as electro- 
scopes by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Mil- 
ner invented an electrometer similar to Peltier's, 
1783. The gold-leaf electrometer was invented 
by Rev. A. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer 
about 1810 ; Lane's discharging electrometer is 
dated 1767; Henley's, 1772 ; Bohnenberger's elec- 
troscope, 1820 ; Peltier's induction electrometer 

about 1S4S 

GALVANISiM, OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY, AND ELECTEO- 
MAONETISM. 

Siilzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tongue 
when silver and lead were brought into contact 
with it and each other 1T62 

Madame Galvani obser%'cd the convulsion in the 
muscles of frogs when brought into contact with 
two metals, in"l789 ; and M.Galvani, after study- 
ing the phenomena, laid the foundation of the 
Galvanic battery -. .1T91 

Volta announced his discovery of the "Voltaic 
pile," composed of disks of zinc and silver, and 
moistened card 1800 

By the Voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- 
pose water, and Dr. Henry decomposes nitric 
acid, ammonia, etc " 

Behrens forms a dry pile of SO pairs of zinc, cop- 
per, and gilt paper 1805 

By means of the large Voltaic battery of the Royal 
"institution, London, Davy decomposes the alkali 
potash, and evolves the metal potassium. .Oct. 0,1807 

Zamboni constructs a dry pile of paper disks, 
coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
manganese on the other 1809 

Children's battery fuses platinum, etc " 

Davy exhibits the Volt-^ic arc l?!^' 

Woliaston's thimble battery ignites platinum wire,lS15 

Galvanometers invented bv Ampere and by 
Schweisrsrer, 1S20 ; by Cummins:, 1821 ; De la 
Rive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule (mag- 
netic), 1843. 

Ohm enunciates his formulae relating to the Gal- 
vanic current 1S2T 

Improvement in constructinsr the Voltaic battery 
made by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; Stur- 



ELE 



181 



geon 1S30; J. F. Dnnlell, 1S36 ; Grove (nitric 
acid, etc.), 1S3!> ; Jacobi, 1S40 ; Smee, 1S40 ; Bun- 
sen (ciirbon, etc.), 1842 ; Grove (gas battery), 1S4-.' 

i<araday deiucDstratcs the nature of electro-chem- 
ical (lecompo!<iii,„i, and the principle that the 
quaiitily and intensity of electric action of a 
uajvanic battery dcjjends on the size and num- 
ber of plates employed 1834 

\\ heatstoue invents his electro-magnetic chrouo- 
scope ^ ^ 1940 

Eleotro-Magnetism begins with (Er'sted's'discov- " 
ery of the action of the electric current on the 
magnetic needle, 1819 ; proved by Ampere, who 
exhibits the action of the Voltaic pile upon the 
magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism 
upon the voltaic current; he also arrau"-es the 
conducting wire in the form of a helix or^spiral 
invents a galvanometer, and imitates the mao-- 

uet by a spiral Galvanic wire 1S20 

Arago magnetized a needle by the electric current" 
and attracted iron filings by the connecting wire 



ELE 



of a Galvanic battery 

Induction of electric currents discovered by Fara- 
day and announced igqi 

Faraday discovers the electro-magnetic ' rotative ' 
■J^^'^^'iol^^'^'^P'^'^^ '" ''' magnet by Voltaic electric- 
ity, 18.^1 ; experiments on the induction of a 

voltaic current 152^ 

Sturgeon makes a bar of soft iron "magnetic bv 
surrounding it with coils of wire, an(f seudiuo- 
an electric current through the wire "^IS^T 
Becquerel invents an electro-magnetic balance'" ''"' 
Breguet uses electro-magnetic force to manufac- 
ture mathematical instruments about 1S54 

Magneto-Eleotrioitt (the converse of CErsted's 
discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by 
^araday, who produced an electric spark by sud- 
denly separating a coiled keeper from a perma- 
nent magnet, and found that an electric current 
existed m a copper disk rotated between the 

poles of a magnet jgoj 

The Magneto- Ekctric machine ' arose' out' o'f 'Fara- 
day s discovery, and was lirst made at Paris by 
1^1X11, 18.S2, and in London by Saxton. . . t 1S33 
KuhmkortT's magneto-electric induction coil con- 
structed about IggQ 

ELECTRIC TELEGKAPH.* 

The transmission of electricitv by an insulated 
wire was shown in the middle of the last cen- 
tury by Watson and others. 

Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Le- 
earge, 1744; Betaucourt, 1787; Cavallo, 1795- 

Tclio '"''li ' ** ', , '^™'^®""»' exhibited August 29, 
IfitW ; Ronalds 1^\Q 

Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement' 'e'm'- " 
ploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the 
Galvanic battery Ig20 

F. Ronalds publishes an account of 'his eiect'dc't'el'- " 
egraph -^ggg 

Professor Wheatstone constructs an ele'c'tro-nia^- 
uetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are cou- 
veyed through nearly four miles of wire. . .,Tune,lS3G 

1 elegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and \^^eb- 
er (magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil and by 
Masson, 1837 ; by Morse ........ -^1337 

The magnetic needle telegraph paten'te'd W 'w.'f. 
Cooke and C. Wheatstone. ... June 12 " 

.111- Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great 
Uestern Railway, from PaddinLrton to West 
Drayton^ 1S.3S-9 ; on the Blackwall line, 1840, 
and in Glasgow ' \^^-^ 

Profess, )r Wheatstone's alphabet'ic'al'pri'uti'iig "tele- 
graph patented *= » 

The_ first telegraph line iirAmerica'set'iipfroiii 
Uashmgtou to Baltimore. IS44 

The murderer Tawell apprehended by m'e'an.s ' of 
the telegraph jg_,_E 

The Electric Telegraph Com'paii've'stabli.shed (hav- 
ing purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's tele- 
graphic inventions) ^ Ig^g 

Gutta-percha suggested as an iusul'a'tor by Fara' 

Ov(-r-houm eiect'ric telegraphs' '('fl'r's't' 'e'rected'at 
i aris )^etji p betw een their premises in the City 

• The Elertvic T.-leuraph ,n«v be s.iid'Sri;^ 
unci liralen Iiim. New Orle 
'i-ka nre thus later in the foi 



1847 



a race with Time, 
I ivestH-ard of New Yovk, and the 

tn fl.u .!,•«■..-„„ <■ 1 '" "•;■• ', ;;.;''>■ ""'" '" "'<' Ia"er, in proportion 

r„ vo r of ':"K'""'«- When the Atlavllc n.ade her first re- 

turn voyage from Liverpool, a brief abstract of her news was tele- 
i"7'r,! ,'rl,. I UA '';.'"""' "' " •■"?■ minutes afl,.r noon (New York time) ; 
be v^r >"''l;fl'«'l m the New Orleans papers on the evening of 

(Apri is"u) "' ^"■'^""^ fe'"^'"^ "'^ «""« "'""S n' tlie same hour 



and West End by Messrs. Waterlow, in ISW • 
extended throughout Loudon ' ^ iggg .0 

House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain's'el'e'c'tro- 
chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes's system I&55. 
the American combination system (of the nrp 
ceding) which can convey 2000 ^^wds an h ur" 
adopted by the American Telegraph Co J. n isw 
mT"' '"^''""'""'^ P"'^""^ telegiap'h pa^ '' 

Professor' Charles Wlieaist'one,' 'in' im' dr'e'w'Dl'a'ns^^^** 
of a projected stibmarme telc^rai^h betwein Do 
ver and Calais. In 1 847, Mr. John Watk us BreH 

out Tu eel' r h! ^i^ ^,°"'« ™"PPe wifh- 
out success but in 1850 he obtained nerrnis^ion 

flTe'^^nln^^'^ 'is\o° "t^^^ ^'''^'- ™^took 

graphic wire, inclosed in a covering of 4t a 

ft'arted from "^ '"'^ '" ""'T'^'^'- The gX/. 
started tiom IJover, unrolling the telerrranhic 
wire as she proceeded, and allowing itToTop 
to the bed of the sea. In the evening the steam- 
er arrived on the French coast, and ti.e wi re v ras 
run up the chft- at Cape Grisnez to its terminal 
station and messages were sent to and fro be- 
t^yeen England and the French coast But the 
wire, m settling into its place in the sea-bottom 
crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and 
thus the enterprise for that time failed. New 
arrangements were soon made, and on a scale of 
greater magnitude, and the telegraph was open- 
ed Nov. 13, 1S51. On that day tlie opening and 
closing prices of the funds in Paris were known 
on the London stock aschange within business 
hours, and guns were fired at Dover by commu- 
nication from Calais. 
Communications were complete between Dover 
and Ostend, and between Portpatrick and Don- 
aghadee, m May, 1853 ; Holyhead and Howth 
June, 1854; Paris and Bastia, Nov., 1854 ; Lon- 
don and Constantinople, May, 1858 ; Cromer and 
Emden, 1858 ; Aden and Suez, May, 1859 • Malta 
and Alexandria, Sept. 28, 1861 ; England and 
Bombay, opened March 1, 1SG5 (engineer, Sir C. 
1. Bright) ; Marsala, Sicily, and La Calle, Alce- 

. "^ - June 21,1SC5 

Atlantic TELEGEAru.— The project of the Atlan- 
tic cable was originally conceived in 1853, when 
the magnetic telegraph had been in operation 
but ten years. The original projectors were 
American capitalists, embracing Peter Cooper, 
Cyrus W. Field, Moses Taylor, Marshal O. Rob- 
erts, and others, including Prof. Morse This 
company succeeded in builcling the line from St 
John's acrossNewfouudland, and uuderthe Gulf 
of St. Lawrence to the main land. Thev have 
obtained subsidies from the British and United 
States governments. These have since expired. 
The first attempt to lay the cable was made iu 
1857. The beginning of the laying of the cable 
took place on the 5th of August. On the 11th 
of the same month the cable parted in 2000 fath- 
oms of water. In 185S another attempt was 
made. The laying was besfun, and 145 miles of 
cable were paid out, when it broke again. An- 
other attempt was made the same year, and suc- 
ceeded. The cable was laid from shore to shore, 
and news and messages between the President 
and Queen Victoria were actually transmitted 
on the wires. Telegrams from London of Aug. 
27 were received in New York Aug. 28, with the 
wildest demonstrations of joy. Sept. 1, the citi- 
zens engaged in a celebration which is almost 
without'a parallel. The officers of the British 
ships GorfTon and Tndiis, with Cyrus W. Field 
and the officers of the Kiafiara, were ihe heroes 
of the occasion. The rejoicing was, however, 
very brief. Those first messages were the only 
intelligible ones ever received'by that cable. In 
1^05 the capitalists of New York determined to 
make another attempt. Great improvements 
had been made since 1858 in the construction, 
layin<T, and working of submarine telegraphs. 
July 19th, 1SG.5, the Great Ea.ttern and her con- 
voys arrived at Valentia. The laying was im- 
mediately begun. On the 29th of Julv, when 700 
miles of cable had been paid out," insulation 
ceased. The cable was instantly transferred to 
the picking-up gear, which bedan hauling in. 
Two and a quarter miles of cable were recovered 
from a depth of 1900 fiithoms, when the defect 
was found and remedied. The work of laying 



ELE 



182 



ELY 



the cable proceeded, when suddenly it parted ; 
three unsuccessful attempts were made to grap- 
ple for the end, and on the 11th of August the 
Great Eastern returned to Sheerness with the re- 
mainder of the cable. In 1S67 the last and suc- 
cessful attempt was made to lay the cable. It 
was finished on the morning of July '2T, 1S67, 
and has been in operation since. 
It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles 
of electric telet;raph wire in Great Britain ; 
80,000 on the Continent of Europe ; and 48,000 
in America; and altogether about 150,000 miles 

laid down in the world July,lS62 

Bonelli's typo-electric telegraph made known and 
company established, ISCO, and adopted between 
Liverpool and Manchester, 1S63 ; promised revi- 
val Juue,lS64 

Au "electric telegraph" conference, at which IG 
states (not Great Britain) were represented, met 
first at Paris March,lS65 

Electric Clock, etc. — Professor Wheatstone in- 
vented au electro-magnetic telegraph clock iu 
1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by 
Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, 
appeared in the exhibition of 1851. Au electric 
clock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was 
set up in front of the office of the Electric Tele- 
graph Company, in the Strand, Loudon, July, 
1S5J. A time ball was set up by Mr. French, in 
Coruhill, in 1S50. In 1860, Mr. C. V. Walker so 
connected the clock of the Greenwich Observa- 
tory with that of the Southeastern station, Lon- 
don, that they could be controlled by electricity. 

Electric Ligut. — Apparatus for regulating the 
electric light were devisedju 1846, and shown by 
Staite and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon aft- 
er. Jules Duboscq's Electric Lainii (the most 
perfect of the kind) appeared at the Paris exhi- 
bition in 1S55, and was first employed by Pro- 
fessor Tyndall, at the Royal Institution, Loudon, 
for illustrating lectures on light and colors, iu 
1856. The works of new Westminster Bridge 
were illuminated by Watson's electric light m 
1858. M, Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved 
electric lamp in 1862. The Magiwto- Electric liglit 
(the most brilliaut artificial light yet produced), 
by means of apparatus devised by Professor 
Holmes, was successfully tried in 1858 and 1859, 
at the South Foreland Light-liouse, Dover. Iu 
April, 1861, the French governmeut ordered eight 
light-houses on their coast to be illuminated by 
electric light. MM. Dumas and Benoit construct- 
ed an electric safety-lamp iu 1862 

Electric Loom. — M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 18.54, de- 
vised a plan of employing magnets and electro- 
magnets in weaviug, thereby superseding the 
tedious and costly "Jacquard system of cards. 
His loom was set up in London "in 18.59, and lec- 
tured upon at the Royal Institution by Professor 
Faraday on June 8,1860 

Electeo-Puysiology was not much cultivated aft- 
er the discoveries of Galvani in 1790 till about 
1830, when the researches of Matteucci com- 
menced ; all the phenomena of electro-physiol- 
ogy or animal electricity being considered by 
Vblta as due to au ordinary electric current. 
Fowler experimented on animals with Galvan- 
ism, 1793, and Aldini, 1796, who produced mus- 
cular contractions in a criminal recently exe- 
cuted, 1803: Ure did the same, 1818; Du Bois 
Eeymoud lectured ou animal electricity at the 
Eoyal Institution, and showed the existence of 
an electric current developed by action of the 
human muscles in 18,55 

Electeo-Tint.— Mr. Palmer, of Newgate Street, 
London, patented inventions by which eugrav- 
iugs may not only be copied from other en- 
graved plates, but the engraving itself actually 
produced by electrical agency, and one process 
he termed glyphography 1841-2 

Electrotype or Deposit. — Mr. Spencer, in En- 
gland, and Professor Jacobi, iu Russia, made the 
first successful experiments iu this art in 1837 
and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others 
have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Robt. 
Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bod- 
ies as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz 
and Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding and sil- 
ver plating. Since 1850,printing-types and wood- 
cuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped 
with copper, and the process is now extensively 
adopted in the arts. 

Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment 



on the application of electricity to military pur- 
poses in 1S61 

The Electro-block Company established 1860 ; by 
their processes the enlargement and reduction 
of engravings, obtained by India-rubber, can be 
be immediately transferred to a lithograph stone, 
and multiplied at pleasure. Leech's engravings, 
so enlarged, were colored by himself, and exhib- 
ited in 1862 

ELEGY. Elegiac verse was the first variation from 
the hexameter or epic measure, as used for various 
subjects by TyrtiEus and other early poets. The el- 
egies of Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's 
"Elegy, written iu a country church-yard," was pub- 
lished in 1749. 

ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four— earth, 
air, fire, and water. The chemical elements now are 
about 51 (1865). 

ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to war. 
The history of the Maccabees informs us that "to ev- 
ery elephant they appointed 1000 men armed with 
coats of mail, aud 500 horse ; and upon the elephants 
were strong towers of wood," etc. The elephants iu 
the army of Autiochus were provoked to fight by show- 
ing them the " blood of grapes and mulberries." The 
first elephant said to have been seen in England was 
one of enormous size, presented by the King of France 
to Henry III. iu 1238. — Baker's Chron. But Polyienus 
states that Csesar brought one to Britain 54 B.C., 
which terrified the inhabitants greatly. In Burmah 
the elephants are trained to work in the dock-yards, 
and are found most useful. They work with the pre- 
cision of reasoning beings. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. The institution of 
these celebrated religious ceremonies at Athens are 
generally attributed to Euinolpus, 1356 B.C. If .any 
one revealed them, it was supposed that he had called 
divine vengeance upon him, aud he was put to death. 
They were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and 
lasted about ISOO years, aud were at last abolished by 
Theodosius the Great, A.D. 3S9. The laws were, 1. To 
honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits of 
the earth %Z. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero 
makes the civilization of mankind one of the benefi- 
cial effects of the Eleusinian Mysteries. 

ELGIN MARBLES were derived chiefly from the 
Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at 
Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and 
pediment, the work of Phidias under the government 
of Pericles, about 500 B.C. Thomas, lord Elgin, began 
the collection of these marbles during his mission to 
the Ottoman Porte iu 1802 ; they were purchased of 
him by the British government for .£35,000, and placed 
iu the British Museum in 1816.* 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the "Holy Land, "in the 
Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclidse, 1103 B.C. 
Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 884, which 
were regularly celebrated after Coroebus gained the 
prize in'7T6. "The city of Elis was surrendered to the 
Spartans in a war, 899. Elisjoined the Achoean League, 
274 ; and, with the rest of Greece, was subjugated by 
the Romans in 146 B.C. 

ELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 45 
inches by King Henry I. in 1101. The old French ell, 
or aune, was 46'790 inches. 

ELLISON GALLERY. In April, 1860, Mrs. Eliza- 
beth Ellison presented to the South Kensington Mu- 
seum a series of 50 original water-color drawings by 
the first masters. 

EL MOLINO DEL REY, Battle at. On the morn- 
ing of the Sth of Sept., 1847, less than 4000 Americans 
attacked over 14.000 Mexicans under Santa Anna, at 
El Molino del Rey (the King's Mills), near the fortress 
of Chapultepec, close by the City of Mexico. They 
were at first repulsed with much slaughter; but, re- 
turning to the attack, fought desperately for an hour, 
aud conquered. The Am'ericans lost about 800 men ; 
the Mexicans left more than 1000 dead on the field. 
See Chapultfjicc. 

ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a 
church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queeu of 
Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded a 
religious house, filled it with virgins, aud became her- 
self first abbess. The Danes ruined the convent about 
870; but a monastery was built iu 879, and filled with 
monks, on whom King Edgar and succeeding mon- 
archs bestowed great privileges and grants of land, 

* The ship conveying them was wrecked near Ceriiro. Mr. W. R. 
Hamilton remained several months at Cerigo, and succeeded in recov- 
ering them from the sea. 



ELZ 



183 



ENC 



whereby the abbey of Ely became the richest in En- 
ghiud. Uichard, the elevouth abbot, wishing to free 
himself from the Bishop of Lincoln, made great inter- 
est with Henry I. to get Ely erected into a bishopric, 
IIUS. His snccessor Herviens was the first prelate, 
1109. It is valued in the king's books at je'J134 ISs. 5d.; 
present stated income, i;560U. 

ELZEVIRS, a celebrated family of printers in Hol- 
land, whose reputation is based on flue pocket editions 
of tbe classics. Their first book is dated 1CS3. 

EMANCIPATION. See Roman Catholics and Slav- 
ery. 

EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians, believing 
that tlu'ir souls, after many thousand years, would re- 
inhabit thi!ir bodies, if these were preserved entire, 
enibahued the dead. Some of the bodies, called 71111.111- 
niien, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. 
"The physicians embalmed Israel," 1681) B.C. {Gen. 1., 
2). Sec Mumjtiies.* ■ 

EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by the 
ancients for preservation from their enemies and the 
inuudatious of the tide. Those of the Egyptians are 
described by Herodotus and Strabo. ^I'o the Ro- 
mans are attributed the first dikes of Holland, and 
the embankments of Romney Marsh, considered to be 
the oldest in Britain. In 1250 Henry III. issued a writ 
enforcing the support of these valuable works ; and 
his successors followed his example. James I. greatly 
encouraged the embankment of tbe Thames. Sir W. 
Dugdale's "History of Embanking" first appeared in 
1062. See Drainage and Levels. Since 1S30, many mil- 
lions of pounds have been expended in embankments 
for railways. 

EMBARGO, from the Spanish embargar, to detain, 
applied to the restraining ships from sailing. This 
power is vested in the crown, but is rarely exercised 
except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude 
to war. The most memorable instances of embargo 
were those for the prevention of corn going out of 
Great Britain in 1706, and for the detention of all 
Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several 
ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, 
Jan. 14, ISOl. On account of insnlts to the American 
flag by British cruisers, the Congress of the United 
States, in Dec, 1807, decreed an embargo, detaining 
all vessels, American and foreign, in their ports, and 
ordering all American vessels home. The embargo 
decree was repealed in March, 1S09, and the non-inter- 
course act passed. Another embargo, for 90 days, was 
laid in April, 1812. See Armed M"utralit.g. 

EMBER WEEKS, ordained in the Christian Church 
in the 2d century to implore the blessing of God on the 
produce of the earth by prayer and fasting, in which 
penitents used to sprinkle the ashes (embers) of hu- 
miliation on their heads. In the English Church the 
Ember days are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday 
after the first Sunday in Lent, Whit-sunday, Sept. 1-1 
(Holy Cross), and Dec. 13 (St. Lucia). 

EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; 
but we learn from Homer and other ancient authors 
that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this species 
of necdle-worlv. Mention is made of this art in 1491 
B.C. {Exodus XXXV., 35, and xxxviii., 23). See liayeux 
Tapestry. Embroidery is now done by machinery. 
The first embroidery machine is said to have been in- 
vented by John Duncan, of Glasgow, in 1804. Heil- 
man's machine was exhibited in Paris in 1834. 

EMERALD, a precious stone of a green color, found 
in the East and in Peru. It has been erroneously al- 
leged that there were no true emeralds in Europe be- 
fore the conquest of Peru : but there is one in the Paris 
IMuseum taken from the rhitre of Pope Julius II., who 
died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545. 

EMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and clergy 
began to leave their country in July, 1789, at the break- 
ing out of the Revolution ; their estates were confis- 
cated in December. A large number returned in 1802, 
afier the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified 
after the Restoration in 1815. 

EMIGRATION. Phoenician and Greek emigrants 
coioni/ed the coasts of the Mediterranean and the 
Black Sea. See Magna Gr/vcia, MarscilUs, etc. The 



* The most perfect specimens of modern embahninq are preserved in 
the Museum ot the Royal Coileffe of Surgeons, one being the body of 
the wife of Vnn Butchell, preserved by John Hunter by injecting cam- 
phorated spirits of wine, etc., into the arteries and veins ; and tile oth- 
er the body of a young woman, who died about 1780 of consumption, 
in the Lock Hospital. The method of embnlming roval personages in 
modern times is fully described in " Hunter's Posthumous W'orks." 
He died in 179,'?. — During the American War (1S61-5) many soldiers' 
bodies were embalmed and sent home. 



discovery of America opened a vast field for emigra« 
tiou, which was restrained by Charles I. in 1637. It 
has been greatly encouraged since 1819. Regulations 
tor emigration were made in 1831, and in Jan., 1840, 
the Colonial Land and Emigration Board was estab- 
lished. 

Emigration from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 • 
in 1820, 25,7-29; in 1830,50,907; in 1840, 90,743- in 
1850, 280,843. , , , lu 

Emigrations to North American colonies. West Indies 
Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River! 
Vip Diemen's Land, etc., in 1820-30, according to 
oflicial returns, 154,291 ; in 1830^0, 277,095. 

From England. Ireland. Scotland. Total. 

In 1846 87,611 38,813 3,427 129,851. 

In 1847 153,898 95,756 8,616 2.58,270. 

In 1848 176,883 59,701 11,505 248 089. 

In 1849 212,1'>4 70,247 17,127 299,498. 

In 1850 214,612 51,083 15,154 280 849. 

In 1S51 254,970 62,350 18,646 335,966. 

From the United Kingdom. 



Inl861 91,770 

InlS62 121,214 

Inl863 223,753 

InlS64 208,900 



In 1852 368,764 

InlS54 323,429 

In 1855.. : 176,807 

Inl857 212,875 

Inl859 120,432 

To the North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123 ; in 1847, 

109,680; in 1850, 16,378; in 1857, 21,001; in 1861, 

12,707 ; in 1863, 18,083 ; in 1864, 12,7'21. 
To the United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in 

1857,126,905; in 1861, 49,764; in 1862, 58,706 ; inlS63, 

146,813 ; in 1864, 147,042. 
To Australia and Nexo Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; in 1845, 

830 ; in 1850, 16,037 ; in 1852 (qold discovery), 87,881 ; 

in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 83,237 ; in 1855, 52,309 ; in 

\sm, 44,.584 ; in 1857, 61,248 ; in 1861, 23,738 ; in 1863, 

53,054 ; in 1804, 40,942. 

EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks and 
Persians, first awarded to the descend,ants of Moham- 
med's daughter Fatima, about 650. — Ricant. To such 
only was originally given the privilege of wearing the 
green turban. 

EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing crimin- 
als, mentioned by Juvenal, and often iufiicted in 
Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In En- 
gland the dead bodies of murderers were sometimes 
staked in this manner previously to being buried. 

EMPEROR, from Imjjcrator (ruler), a title conferred 
on victorious Roman generals, and taken by Julius 
Caesar as perpetual dictator, B.C. 46. 

Augustus Cffisar tbe first Roman emperor B.C. 27 

Valentinian I. first Emperor of the West, and Va- 

lens first Emperor of the East A.D. 364 

Charlematrne first Emperor of Germany, crowned 

by Leo III 800 

Othman I., founder of the Turkish Empire, the 

first Emperor of Turkey 1296 

The Czar the first Emperor of Russia 1722 

Napoleon Bonaparte first Emperor of the French, 1804 
Don Pedro IV., of Portugal, the first Emperor of 

Brazil 1825 

Louis Napoleon Third and present Emperor of the 

French, crowned 1S52 

Faustin I. the first Emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; de- 
posed 18,59 

Maximilian I. first Emperor of Mexico.. April 10,1804 

EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 3d 
century before Christ, who "contended that all reason- 
ing respecting the animal economy was useless, and 
that experience and observation alone were the foun- 
dation of medicine. The sect adopted the principles 
of Acron of Agrigentum, who flourished about 430 
B.C. 

EMUCFAU A?JD ECCANACHOCO, Battles on, on 
the 22d and 24th of Jan., 1814. These were fought by 
930 Tennessee volunteers and 200 or 300 friendly In- 
dians, under Gen. Jackson, against 900 Creeks. The 
Americans lost 20 killed and 75 wounded. The Creeks 
left 190 warriors dead on the field. 

ENAMELING was practiced by the Egyptians, Chi- 
nese, and other nations, aud was known in England 
in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enameled 
jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as ap- 
pears by the inscription, was made by bis order, in 
his reign, about 8S7. Limoges enameled ware was 
popular in the 16th century. On June 19, 1862, Ma- 
dame Rachel sued Captain Carnegie for £'.y29. for en- 
ameling his xvife's face, and was nonsuited. See Mo- 
saic. 

ENCJENIA, Greek festivals kept on days on -which 



ENC 



181 



EXG 



cities were built and temples consecrated ; and in later 
times, as at Oxford, at the celebrations of founders 
and beuefactors.— OWisicorf/i. They were the origin 
of church-wakes in England about 600. They were 
also feasts celebrated by the Jews on the 25th of the 
ninth mouth, in commemoration of the Maccabees 
cleansing the Temple, which had been polluted by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, the art of enameling or 
painting by fire. — Baileij. Paiuting with burnt was is 
said to have been kno\\-n to Praxiteles, about 860 B.C. 
This art, after having been lost, was revived by M. 
Bacheller, 1T49, by Count Caylus, 1765, and by Miss 
Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 

ENCRATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, de- 
nounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and from 
wine even at the Lord's Supper. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA, or Ctolop^dia, a general dic- 
tionary of art, science, and literature. This name has 
been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the 13th 
century. Alsted's Encyclopasdia appeared in 1620, 
Ho/mann's Lexicon Universale in 1677, and Bayle's LHc- 
tionnaire in 1696. The earliest English encj'clopiKdia 
is the Lexicon Technicum of John Harris, 1704 ; supple- 
ments, 1710, 1741. 

Louis Moreri's Dictiouuaire Historique 1673 

Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts 1694 

Ephraim Chambers's Cycloptedia 1728 

Zedler's Universal Lexicon 1732-50 

Encyclopodie (by Didurot and D'Alembert) 1751-80 

LThe contributors were termed Enoyclopedistes, 

and their bold writings are believed to have 

hastened the outbreak of the French Revolution 

in 1789.] 

Encyclopedia Britannica, 1st edition (by William 

Smellie) 1778 

[The Sth completed, 1861.] 

Encyclopedie Methodique (by Pancouck) 17S2-1S32 

Chambers's Cycloptedia (edited by Rees) 1786 

Kees's Cyclopsedia (reprinted in Philadelphia, 

1810-24) 1802-19 

Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexicon, 1st edition. .1818 
[New editions frequent.] 

Encyclopaedia Metropolitana 1829^5 

Encyclopedia Americana (by P. Lieber, etc.).. .1829-32 
Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatises).. 1829-46 

Penny Cyclopiedia 1833-46 

Knight's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) 1853-61 

New American Cyclopredia, began 1858 

Homans's Cyclopsedia of Commerce 1859 

Appleton's Annual Cyclopsedia 1861 

Chambers's Cyclopsedia (now published) began.. .1859 
Ersch und Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie, be- 
gan 1818 ; 125 vols, published ISGl 

ENDERBY LAND. See Southern Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, found 
that if two fluids, gases or vapors, of unequal density, 
are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, 
,the denser will attract the less dense through the me- 
dium. This property he called endosmose when the 
attraction is from the outside to the inside, and exos- 
mose when it operates from the inside to the outside. 
By this discovery many natural phenomena are more 
clearly understood. — Brande. 

ENFIELD MUSKET. See Fire-arms. 

ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the Aus- 
trians. May 3, 1800. 

ENGHIEN, or Steenkikk (S.W.Belgium). Here 
the British under William III. were defeated by the 
French under Marshal Luxemburg, July 24, 1692.— A 
victory obtained here by the great Coude first gave 
the dircal title to a prince of the house of Bourbnn- 
Conde. Their descendant, the Due d'Eughien, was 
seized in Baden by order of Bonaparte, conveyed to 
Vincennes, and, after a hasty trial, shot by torch-light, 
immediately after condemnation, March 20, 1804. The 
body was exhumed March 20, 1816. 

ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as en- 
gineers were formerly called trench-masters. Sir Wil- 
liam Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. The 
chief engineer was called camp-master general in 1634. 
Captain Thomas Rndd had the rank of chief engineer 
to the king about 1650. The corps of engineers was 
formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, 
and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. 
It has a colonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, and 
16 colonels. Civil Engineering began to be eminent in 
the middle of the last century, vvhen Smeaton began 
the Eddystone light-house, and Brindley the Bridge- 
water Canal. Since then, the Kennies, Telford, the 



Stephensons and Bruuels, Locke, and others, have 
constructed the breakwaters, docks, bridges, railways, 
tixnuels, etc., whicli are the marvel of oui"age. 

ENGLAND, so named by order of Egbert, first king 
of England, in a general council lield at Winchester, 
829. This appellative had been used as far back as 
688, but had never been, until then, ratified by any as- 
sembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of 
Saxons, and load, the Saxon for country. See Anglo- 
Saxons. England and Wales were united in 1283 ; 
Scotland was united under the same sovereign in 1603, 
and the same legislation in 1707, when the three were 
styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with 
them, by the act of legislative union, Jan. 1, 1801, and 
the whole was called the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland. For previous history, see Brit- 
ain; and for farther details, population, revenue, etc., 
see separate articles. Histories of England, hy Rapin 
(in English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte, 1747-55 ; David 
Hume, 1755-62 ; Tobias Smollett, 1757-65 ; John Liu- 
gard, 1819-30 ; Charles Knight, 1856-62. 

Egbert, "king of the English," 827; defeats the 

Welsh, Danes, etc., at Hengestdown 835 

Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 
quishes the Danes 871-896 

He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and 
navy, surveys and subdivides the country, and 

promotes education 890 

Athelstau's great victory over the Danes, Scots, 

etc 937 

Predominance of Duustan ; he promotes mona- 

chism and the celibacy of the clergy about 953 

Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace . . . 991 
And treacherously causes their general massacre, 

Nov. 13,1002 
Which is avenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark ; 

Ethelred flees to Normandy 1003 

Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies 1016 

Canute tjie Dane sole monarch 1017 

Edward the Confessor king; Saxon dynasty re- 
stored 1042 

Harold II. crowned, Jan. 6 ; defeats the Norwe- 
gians, Sept. 25 ; defeated and slain at Hastings 

by William of Normandy Oct. 14,1066 

Wn.LiAM I. crowned Dec. 25, " 

The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 

Humber to the Tyne 1069-70 

Introduction of the feudal system about 1070 

Justices of peace appointed 1076 

Domesdav Book compiled 1085-0 

William II. crowned Sept. 26,1087 

The crusades begin 1096 

Henky I. crowned ; grants a charter restoring Sax- 
on laws, etc Aug. 5,1100 

Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy,1106 

Stephen crowned Dec. 26,1135 

Civil war between the Empress Maud, Henry's 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots 
defecated at the battle of the Standard, Aug. 22, 
1138; she lands in England, and is successful, 
1139; crowned at Winchester, March 3,1141; is 
defeated ; retires to France, 1147 ; concludes a 

peace with Stephen 1153 

Henp.y II. crowned Dec.19,1154 

Constitutions of Clarendon enacted Jan. ,1164 

Arrogance of Becket ; murdered Dec. 29,1170 

Conquest of Ireland 1172 

England divided into six circuits for the adminis- 
tration of justice 1176 

English laws digested by Glanville about 1181 

RiOHAKi) I. crowned Sept. 3,1189 

He joins the crusades, 1191 ; defeats Saladin, 1192 ; 
made prisoner by Henry VI. of Germanv, Dec, 
1192 ; is ransomed by his subjects forX46o,000. .1194 

John crowned May 27,1199 

Normandy lost to England 1204 

England put under an interdict 1208 

Magna Charta signed June 15, 1215 

Henry III. crowned Oct. 28,1216 

Gold first coined in England 1257 

The Barons' War (zvhieh see) 1262-S 

The first regular Parliament 1265 

Epvvarp I. crowned Nov. 20,1272 

Wales united to England 1283 

Death of Ro<:er Bacon 1292 

Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts 1297 

Edwart> II. crowned July 8,1307 

Defeated by Robert Bruce at Bannockburn, 

June 24,1314 
Insurrection of the barons against his favorites, 

1308, 1315,1325 

Edward III. crowned Jan. 25,1327 

Defeats the Scots at Hallidown Hill 1333 



ENG 



Invades France ; victorious at Crecy Aii"-. 20,1346 

Takes Calais ° y^^-j 

Order ol' tlic Garter iustituted 1350 

Victory at Poictiers ;. . . Sept i9;i356 

Law pleadings in English .1302 

RiciiAKi) II. crowned June 22,13T7 

Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 13S1 

Death of Wickliffe 13S5 

Hknky IV. crowned Sept.' 3b!l3!)9 

Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . " 

lusuiTection of the Percies and the Welsh 1403-5 

Hknuy V. crowned March 21,1413 

1! ranee invaded by Henry V., who gains the bat- 

tie of Agiucourt Oct. 25,1415 

Ireaty of Troyes; the French crown gained by 

Henry . .1420 

Hejjuy VI. cro^vned at Paris Dec 1430 

Apijearance of the Maid of Orleans ; the French 

conquests lost, except Calais 14-^9-31 

Edward IV. deposes Henry VI March 4"l461 

War of the Roses (see Hoses and Battles) 1455-71 

Printing introduced by Caxton 1471 

Edward V.— accession '.'.April 9'l4Sa 

KiouARD III. deposes Edward V Juue 25, " 

Henry VII. — accession ; Richard defeated and 

slain at Bosworth Field An" 2'' 14S5 

Henry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward'lV.' 14S6 
Insurrection of Lambert Simuel quelled. . . . 14S6-7 

Court of Star-Chamber instituted 14S7 

Yeomen of the Guard, the first appearance of a 

standing army in England, instituted 14SS 

Henry sells the sovereignty of France 1490 

Insurrection of Perkiu Warbeck qnelled .'.' 1492-8 

Gardening introduced into England, principally 

from tlie Netherlands about 1502 

Death of Prince Arthur April 2 " 

Henry VIII.— accession April 22ll509 

Rise of Wolsey. ; . . jg^^^ 

Henry VIII.'s interview with Francis "l. 'at Ardres 
_(see "Field of the Cloth of Gold") June 4-25 1520 



185 ENG 

"Arrest of the five members," Jan. 4; the Civil 
War begins; battle of Edgchill (see Battles), 

Archbishop Laud beheaded ,Lan' wltt 

Charles defeated at Naseby j„ne 14 " 

He flees to the Scotch, May 5, who give him up, 

Execution of Charles I ^j^J; % lut 

Cromwell's victory at Worcester. . '. '. '. '. '. ". '.'.Sept. 3 1651 

''mrwe^aX^^"^^ "^^'^ ^-'-'-' ^^ *^« ^'-- 

IbSrf 

ept. 3,1658 



Richard Croih well protector V 

Richard resigns iyj - 25'l059 

CuARLEs II. : monarchy r'e'-es'tabl'ishe'd '. .' iMay 29!l660 
stoied °™^ ^ passed ; Church of England re- 

ThegreAt'piagiie'.'.'.'.'.'.V. ItH 

The great fire of London. . . .'.'.■.■.■.'.■.'.■ ' ' ' Se'Dt"2 's'lfififi 

Disgrace of Lord Clarendon. P^" ^' ^'l^n? 

Death of Milton ^:;- oj^^' 

Oates's " Popish Plot" creates 'a p'a'ni'c'.'.' '. ! Aug. Lsliels 
Sir Edmoudbury Godfrey found murdered, Oct 17 " 

Many Roman Catholics executed 1078-9 

The Habeas Corpus Act, for protecting En'o-'lish 
subjects against false arrest and imprisonineut 

passed *^ '-[».„ 

'Rye-house Plot ;" Lord Russell (July 2l") andAl"- 

geruon Sydney (Nov. 21) executed 16S3 

James II.— accession p^i, g j^ggg 

Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defea'ted'a't Sedo-1 

moor, July 6 ; he is beheaded July 15 " 

Acquittal of the seven bishops June 30;i6S8 

Abdication of James II Dec 11 " 

William III. and Mary proclaimed'b'y'the Con- 
vention Parliament Feb. 13,1689 

National debt begins . 




divorces Cath 

arine May 23 1533 

Henry VIIL is styled "Head of the Cliii're'h". '1534 
The pope's authority in England is abolished " 

Sir Thomas More beheaded July 6 1535 

Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded May 19'l536 

Queen Jane Seymour dies Oct. 24'l537 

Monasteries suppressed 153S 

Statute of Six Articles passed .'. ... .'.1539 

Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, etc., executed.'.'.' " 
The first authorized edition of the Bible (Cran- 

mer's) printed u 

Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded .1540 

Anne of Cleves divorced July 9 " 

Queen Catharine Howard beheaded .'l542 

Tlie title of "King of Ireland" confirmed to the 

English sovereigns I543 

Henry marries Catharine Parr ..3u.iy'v2, " 

Edward VI. _ accession Jan. 28; promotes the 

Reformation (Somerset, protector) I547 

Somerset deprived of power, 1540 ; beheaded 1552 

Book of Common Prayer established " 

Mary— accession Jnly'6 ; restores poperv ...'. 1553 

Execution of Lady Jane Grey and her friends . . . 1554 
Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Prot- 
estants II 

Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer bui-ii't'.'.'.'.iisss'a'nd 155G 

Calais retaken by the French 155S 

ELizAiiETii— accession Nov. 17; the Church of En- 
gland re-established " 

Mary Queen of Scots lauds iu England.l'ses ;' 'ex'e- 



culed. 



.Feb. 8,1587 



The Spanish Armada '.'.'.. ' 'l.5S8 

Devercnx, earl of Essex, beheaded I601 

James I.— accession ; union of the two crowns, 

A ., , , ,.,.-. March 24,1603 

Assumes the style of "King of Great Britain," 

mu r. , ^, Oct. 24,1604 

The Gnnpinvder Plot '16O5 

The i)]c.-cnt translation of the Bible completed. '.'.1611 

Baronets first created May " 

The Overburv murder ' Sept l"5'l613 

Shakspeare dies . April 23;i616 

Raleiffh beheaded .' jglS 

Book of Sports published May 24' " 

CnAKi.Es I. — acccssicm March 27*1625 

Death of Lord Bacon April'!»'l62() 

Duke <if BuckiiiL^iain assassinated Aug. 23,'l62R 

lIam|)don's trial respecting " ship-money" '1037 

Contest between the king and Parliament: im- 
peachment and execution of Lord Straflord . . . .1641 



Bank of England incorporated ....'. .' April' 25 1C94 

Death of the queen regnant, Mary Dec 28' " 

Peace of Ryswick 'w)X 

Death of James IL in exile '.".'.'." 'Sept'i6'l701 

ANNE-accession Marcii 8;i702 

V ictory of Marlborough at Blenheim 1704 

Union of the two kingdoms under the title of 

Great Britain May 1, 1707 

Sacheverell riots ^'j-^q 

Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to'Crea't Br'i'taiii', 

n T -J,., AP'''l ll.'lTlS 

George I.— accession of the house of Hanover, 

The Scots' rebellion quelled °' 'i7i<! 

South Sea bubble {^^0 

Death of the Duke of Marlborough 1723 

Order of the Bath revived {loldch see) 172,^ 

George II —accession JauV ii' 172*7 

Death of Newton March 20 " 

George IL present at the victory of Det'tingen, ' 
e 1 o ^ , , „. ^ J"He 16,1743 
Second Scots' rebellion: Prince Charles-Edward 
gains Ediuburg, Sept. 17; victor at Preston-pans 
Sept. 21, 1745; at Falkirk, Jan. 18 ; defeated to- 
tally at Culloden April 16 1746 

Death of Prince Frederick-Louis, son of Georrre 

IL and father of George III 1751 

New style introduced into England, 

„ ,. ,„, , . Sept.3(madel4),1752 

Seven Years' War begins 1750 

Conquest of India b'egins, under Colonel (a't^t'er'- 

ward Lord) Clive (see India) 17,57 

Death of General Wolfe (see Qxiebec) ..li'm 

George III.— accessioB Oct.' 25 1700 

His nuptials with Charlotte Sophia, of Meck'len- 
burg-Strelitz, Sept. S ; crowned Sept. 22. . . 1701 

Peace of Paris 17(53 

Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain 1765 

Death of the Old Pretender, the "Chevalier de St. 

George" Dec. 30, " 

Royal Marriage Act pasred 1772 

Commencement of American War 1773 

Death of Earl of Chatham May 11,1778 

" No Popery" riots June 2-7,1780 

Separation of America from England Nov. 30,1782 

Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of George 

HI Aug. 2, 1780 

Trial of Warren Hastings begins Feb. 13,1783 

Death of the Young Pretender at Rome, March 3, " 

The king's illness made known Oct. 12, " 

He recovers, and goes to St.Paul's to make thanks- 
giving April 23,1789 

First coalition against France June 26,1792 

Habeas Corpus Act suspended May 23,1794 

Howe's victory June 1, " 

Marriasre of the Prince of Whales with the Princess 

Caroline of Brunswick April 8,1795 

Warren Hastings's trial ends ; acquitted. .April 17^ '' 



EXG 



186 



ENG 



Princess Charlotte born Jan. 7 



Cash payments suspended Feb. 25, 

Death of Edmund Burke July 8, 

Battle of the Nile Aug. 1 

Habeas Corpus Act again suspended Aug. 

Hatfield's attempt on the king's life May 11 

Union of Great Britain with Ireland Jan. 1 

Nelson's victory at Copenhagen April 2 

Habeas Corpus Act again suspended April 19, 

Peace of Amieus Oct 

War against Bonaparte May IS 

Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar. . .Oct. 21 

Death of Mr. Pitt Jan. 23! 

" Delicate investigation" May 22, 

Lord Melville impeached, April 29 ; acquitted, 

June 12. 

Death of Charles James Fox Sept. 13 

Orders in council against the Berlin decree, Jan. 7 

Abolition of the slave-trade March 25, 

Death of Sir J. Moore (see Cortmna) Jan. IG 

Duke of York impeached by Col. Wardle Jan 

Jubilee celebrating the king's accession. . .Oct. 25! 
Unfortunate Walcheren expedition . . . Aug.-Nov. 

Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots April (: 

Death of Princess Amelia ; king's malady returns! 

Nov. 2 

Great commercial embarrassment Dec. 

Eegenoy — the Prince of Wales prince regent, 

Feb. 5 

!Luddite riots Nov. 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier. . .May 11 

Earl of Liverpool premier June 9 

War with America commenced June IS, 

Peace with France, etc April 14, 

Visit of the Emperor of Russia and King of Prus- 
sia to England June 7 

Centenary of the house of Hanover Aug. 1 

War with America Aug 

Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) Dec. 2 

Battle of Waterloo (close of French War), June 1 
Princess Charlotte marries Prince Leopold of 

Saxe-Coburg May 2 

Death of R. B. Sheridan July 9 

Spaflelds meeting (which see) Dec. 2 

Green-bag inquiry (which see) Feb. 2 

Habeas Corpus Act suspended Feb. 21 

Cash payments resumed Sept. 22! 

Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth Nov. 

Queen Charlotte dies at Kew Nov. 17 

Queen Victoria born May 24! 

!Manchester reform meeting Aug. 16, 

Duke of Kent dies Jan. 23 

George IV. — accession Jan. 29 

Cato Street conspirators arrested Feb. 2: 

Trial of Queen Caroline Aug. 19 to Nov. 10. 

Coronation of George IV July 19! 

Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith Aug. 7^ 

Lord Byron dies April 19, 



Commercial panic 1825-26 

Duke of York dies Jan. 22,1827 

Mr. Canning first minister, April 30; dies Aug. 

Battle of Navarino Oct. 20! 

Roman Catholic Relief Bill passed April 1.3, 

Political panic in London ; riots Nov. 9! 

WiLLiA.M IV.— accession June 26 

Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the Live 

pool and Manchester Railway Sept. 15, 

Grey administration formed Nov, 

King opens the new Loudon Bridge Aug 

Thecholera-morbus in England Oct. 26j 

Reform Bill rejected by the Lords, Oct. 7 ; fatal 

Bristol riots Oct. 29, 

Reform Act passed June 7 

Sir Walter Scott dies Sept. 21, 

Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner 

at Ascot June 19, 

S. T. Coleridge dies July 25, 

Slavery ceases in the colonies Aug. 1 

Corporation Reform Act passed Sept. 9, 

QuEE.v Victoria — accession ; Hanover separated 

from Great Britain Juue 20 

Coronation of Victoria June 28! 

Beginning of war with China March 

Penny postage begins Jan. 10. 

Marriage of the queen with Prince Albert of Saxe- 
Coburg (see p. 189) Feb. 10, 

Oxford's assault on the queen June lo! 

Prince of Wales born Nov. 9. 

King of Prussia visits England Jan. 24! 

John Francis fires at the queen May 30, 

Bean presents a pistol at her July i 

Income Tax Act passed Ausr 

Queen embarks for Scotland (1st visit) . . .Aug. 2ft 
Peace of Nankin (with China) Dec, 



1796 
1797 



ISOO 
1801 



1S03 
1805 
1806 



1S07 



1814 



1815 



1818 
1819 



1S20 



1824 



1830 



1S31 



1832 



1S35 

1837 
1S3S 
1839 
1S40 



1841 
1842 



Death of the Duke of Sussex April 21,1843 

Queen's visit to the Orleans family at Chateau 

d'Eu Sept. 2, " 

Emperor of Rus.sia visits England June 1,1844 

King Louis Philippe's visit Oct. 7, " 

Tractarian or Puseyite controversy 1844-5 

Anti-corn-law agitation 1845 

Queen's visit to Germany Aug. 9, " 

Peel's new tarifi', 1S45 ; railway mania, Nov., 1845 ; 

panic !March,lS46 

Corn laws repealed Juue 26, " 

Chartist demonstration in London April 10,1843 

Cholera reappears in England in 1848 and 1849 

Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland Aug. 1, " 

Adelaide, queen dowager, dies Dec. 2, " 

" Exhibition of 1851" announced Jan. 3,1S50 

Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) April 23, " 

Pate's assault on the queen June 27, " 

Death of Sir Robert Peel (aged 62) July 2, " 

Duke of Cambridge dies July 8, " 

Queen's visit to Belgium Aug. 21, " 

Great excitement occasioned by the pope's estab- 
lishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in En- 
gland Nov., " 

Census of United Kingdom (see Population), 

March 30,1851 

The first " Great Exhibition" opened May 1, " 

Australian gold arrives Dec, " 

Death of the poet, Thomas Moore Feb. 20,1852 

Slight earthquake at Liverpool, etc. Nov. 9, " 

Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14, funeral 

Nov. IS, 

Camp at Chobham June 14-Aug. 19,1853 

Death of Sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde, 

Aug. 29, " 
English and French fleets enter the Bosporus, 

Oct. 22, " 
Protocol signed between England, France, Aus- 
tria, and Prussia, for the re-establishment of 

peace between Russia and Turkey Dec. 5, " 

Many meetings on the Eastern Question, favorable 

to Turkey Sept. to Dec, " 

Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unemployed 

at one time Oct. 15, 1853, to May 1,1854 

Queen reviews the Baltic fleet March 11, " 

Treaty of alliance between England, France, and 

Turkey signed March 12, " 

War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkifth 

War) March 28, " 

Fast day on account of the war April 26, " 

Marquis of Anglesey dies May 28, " 

King of Portugal visits England June, " 

Crystal Palace opened by the queen Juue 10, " 

Cholera prevails in the south and west of London, 

Aug. and Sept , " 

Thanksgiving for abundant harvest Oct. 1, " 

Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and New- 
castle Oct. 6, " 

Meeting of Parliament Dec. 12, " 

Resignation of Aberdeen ministry Jan. 29,18.55 

Formation of Palmerston ministry Feb., " 

Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) Feb. 20, " 

Sebastopol Inquiry Committee nominated, Feb. 2.3, " 
Visit of the Emperor and Empress of the French, 

April 16-21, " 

Loan of 16 millions agreed to April, " 

Distribution of Crimean medals May 18, " 

Metropolitan cattle-market opened June 13, " 

Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday Trading 

Bill, which is withdrawn July 2, " 

The queen and prince visit Paris Aug. 18, " 

Peace with Russia proclaimed, April 19 ; thanks- 
giving dav, May 4 ; illuminations, etc. . .May 29,1856 

War witli C'liina '(which sec) Oct., 1856 

War with Persia (which see) Nov., " 

Dissolution of Parliament, March 21 ; new Parlia- 
ment meets April 30,1857 

Death of the Duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the 

last of George III.'s children April 30, " 

Mutiny of Indian army begins (see India), March, " 
Educational conference iuLondon, Prince Albert 

in the chair June 22, " 

Victoria crosses (ivhich see) distributed by the 

queen in Hyde Park June 20, " 

Meeting for relief of sufterers by the mutiny in In- 
dia Lby Nov. 15, £260,000 raise'd] Aug. 25, " 

Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension 

of Bank Charter Act of 1844 Nov. 12, " 

Parliament meets Dec 3, " 

Marriage of princess royal to Prince Frederick- 
William of Prussia Jan. 25,1858 

Excitement respecting the attempted assassina- 
tion of Louis Napoleon, Jan. 14; indiscreet ad- 
dresses of French colonels, published. . .Jan. 27, " 



ENG 



187 



ENG 



" Conspiracy to Mnrfler" Bill (introclnced by Lord 
PalincTston, Feb. 8) rejected Feb. 19; Pulnierston 

ministry resi^'iis Feb. 22,1858 

Dcrby-DiMucli ;idininistration formed Feb. 26, " 

Dr. Simon I'.crnard acquitted of conspiracy ajrainst 

the lilr ol' Loui.s Napoleon April 17, " 

The Je\vii<li Dii^abilities Bill passed July 12, " 

The India Bill passed July 23, " 

The queen visits Birminp;ham, June 15 ; Cher- 
bourg, Aug. 4, 5 ; the i)rincess royal (at Pots- 

dam); Aug. 12, etc. ; and Leeds Sept. 1, " 

Excitement about the confessional; public meet- 
ings lifid against it July 12 and Sept. 18, " 

The Association for the Promotion of Social Sci- 
ence meet at Liverpool Oct. 12, " 

E.xcitemont respecting the Italian War — proclama- 
tion for manning the navy April 30,1859 

Declarati(ni of neutrality of England May 12, " 

Proclamation for the organization of volunteer 

rifle corps ; many formed May-Oct., " 

The Derby ministry defeated on the Reform Bill ; 
dissolve Parliament, April 23 ; again defeated, 
they resign, June 11 ; and the Palmerston-Rus- 

sell administration is formed June 18, " 

The Handel commemoration June 20, 22, 24, " 

The income tax increased to provide for the de- 
fenses of the country July, " 

Lord Sttcaulay dies (aged 59) Dec. 28, " 

Commercial treaty with France signed Jan. 23; 

approved by Parliament March, 1860 

Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) May 12, " 

The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde 

Park June 23, " 

Great failures iu the leather trade July, etc., " 

National rifle-shooting match at Wimbledon, 

July 2-7, " 
The Earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lancashire 

volunteers at Knowsley «... Sept. 1, " 

The queen and prince visit their daughter iu Prus- 
sia Sept., " 

Peace with China signed Oct. 24, " 

Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82), 

Oct. 31, " 
Prince of Wales visits Canada and United States, 

July 24-Oct. 20 ; returns to England Nov. 15, " 

Severe cold (see Cold) Dec, 1800, and Jan., 18G1 

Charter granted for Exhibition of 18(52.. . .Feb. 14, " 
Death of the Duchess of Kent (aged 75), March 10, " 

Excitement about "Essays and Reviews" " 

Seventh census taken April 8, " 

Great excitement through Capt. Wilkes (of U. S. 
Navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason 
from the Royal British mail steamer Tiryjt (see 

United States) Nov. 8, " 

King of Sweden and his son visit London . . Aug., " 
Death of the prince consort of "typhoid fever, 
duration 21 days," Dec. 14 ; buried (see A Ibcrt 

Memorial) Dec. 23, " 

The L'nited States government release Messrs. 

Slidell and Mason Dec. 28, " 

International Exhibition opened by the Duke of 

Cambridge May 1,1862 

Prince Alfred declared King of Greece at Athens 

(declined) Oct. 2,3, " 

Final closing of international exhibition, Nov. 15, " 
Remains of the prince consort transferred to the 

mausoleum at Frogmore Dec. 18, " 

Great distress in the cotton manufacturing dis- 
tricts begins, April ; contributions received, Cen- 
tral Relief Fund, X407,830 ; Mansion House 

Fund, £236,926 Dec. 20, " 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
March 7 ; married to the Prince of Wales, 

March 10,1863 
The British, French, and Austrian governments 
remonstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland, 

April 7, " 
Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to 
the" prince consort in the Horticultural Gardens, 

London June 11, " 

Arrival of Captains Grant and Speke from explor- 
ing the source of the Nile June, " 

Great decrease of distress in cotton districts, Oct., " 
Earthquake in central and N. W. England . .Oct. 6, " 
The government declines the French emperor's 

proposal for a congress of sovereicrns Nov., " 

Death of William M. Thackcrav (aged 52), Dec. 24, " 

Birth of Prince Albert- Victor of Wales Jan. 8,1864 

Final judtrtnent of the Judicial committee of the 
Privy Council that tlie government had no au- 
thority to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) 

steamer Feb. 8, " 

Garibaldi's visit to England causes great enthusi- 
asm April 3-2T, " 



The Ionian Isles made o\er to Greece June 1,1S64 

European conference at London on the Schleswig- 

Holstein Question April 24-.June 25, " 

Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
in a tirst-class carriage on the North London 

Ri^ilway July 9, " 

Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 

Magazine near Woolwich Oct. 1, " 

Death of John Leech (aged 47) Oct. 29, " 

Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) April 2,1865 

Prince George of Wales born June 3, " 

General election; majority for Palmerstou admin- 
istration July 10, etc., " 

Visit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs Aug. 6, " 

Prevalence of a cattle-plague June-Oct., " 

Royal Commission appointed, met Oct. 10, " 

English fleet visits Cherbourg, Aug. 15; French 

fleet visits Portsmouth Aug. 30, " 

Fine art and industrial exhibitions opened in Lon- 
don and the jirovinces July-Sept., " 

Death of Lord Palmerston Oct. IS, " 

His public funeral Oct. 27, " 

The queen announces her assent to the marriage 
of Princess Helena with Prince Christian of A u- 

gustenburg Dec. 5, " 

Important commercial treaty with Austria signed, 

Dec. 16, " 
New Parliament opened by the queen iu person, 

Feb. 6,1866 

KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGL.\ND. 
BEFOKE TUE COTsQrEKT. 

827. Egbert, styled "King of England" in 828. 
837. Ethelwolf, his son. 

8.57. Ethelbald, his son. 
860. Ethelbert, brother. 
866. Ethelred, brother. 

871. Alfred the Great, brother ; died 21st or 2Sth Oct., 
901. 

001. Edward the Elder, son ; died 925. 

925. Athelstan, eldest son; died Oct, 17, 940. 

940. Edmund I., fifth son of Edward the Elder, bled 
to death from a wound received iu an aftray, 
May 26, 946. 

946. Eldred, brother ; died 9.55. 

955. Edwy, eldest sou of Edmund, died of grief in 
958. In this reign, Duustan, a turbulent and 
ambitious priest, ruled the king, who after- 
ward banished him. 

9.58. Edgar the Peaceable, brother; died July 1, 975. 
975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 

Castle, at the instance of his mother-in-law 
Elfrida, March 18,979. 
979. Ethelred IL, half-brother; retired. 

1013. Sweyn proclaimed king; died Feb. 3, 1014. 

1014. Canute the Great, his son. 

1015. Ethelred restored in Canute's absence ; died 

April 24, 1016. 

1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 

with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, Nov. SO, 
1010 ; reigned seven months. 

1017. Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of 

Ethelred ; died Nov. 12, 103.5. 
10,35. Harold L, natural son ; died April 14, 1039. 
1039. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died of 

repletion at a marriage feast, June S, 1042. 
1042. Edward the Confessoi', son of Ethelred and 

Emma ; died Jan. 5, 1066, naming William of 

Normandy his successor. 
1066. Harold II., son of Earl Godwin ; reigned nine 

months ; killed near Hastings, Oct.'l4, 1066. 

TUE NOKMA^•R.* 

1066. William the Conqueror, crowned Dec. 25 ; died 
at Rouen, Sept. 9, 1087. 

* The KEfiNAL-DATES are those given by Sir H. NicoLis. The early 
Norman and Plantagenct kinss reckoned their reiprns from the day of 
their coronation; the later Plantajienets from tlie day after the death 
of tlieir predecessor. With Edward VI. befran the present custom of 
beginning the reign on the death of the preceding sovereign. 

KOVAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 

William I., William II., and Henry I.— two lions or leopards nass.int : 
Stephen— sasittari us, the archer o'f the signs of the zodiac (IraditionaT). 

Henry II. to Edward II.— three lions passant. 

Edward III. and his successors quartered the preceding with fleurs de 
lys, the arms of France. 

Ilenrv V. used only 3 fleurs de Ivs. 

Mary U quartered the preceding'with the arms of her husband, Philip 
II. of Spain. 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

James I. and his successors combined the arms of England and France 
(1 St and 4th quarter) ; 2d, the lion rampant of Scotland ; 3d, the harp 
of Ireland. 

George I., George II., and George III. introduced the arms of Bruns- 
wick. 

In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the arms were mod- 
ified through Hanover being made a kingdom. 

Victoria. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted, and the arms are 



ENG 



188 



ENG 



Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; married iu 1054 ; died in 10S3. 

lOST. William II., Rufus ; reign began Sept. 26 ; killed 
by an arrow, Aug. 2, 1100. 

1100. Henry I., Beauclerc, bis brother ; reign began 
Aug. 5 ; died of a surfeit, Dec. 1, 1135. 
Quectis, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king 
of Scotland ; married Kov. 11, 1100 ; died May 
1, 1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl 
of Louvain ; married Jan. 29, 1129 ; survived 
the king. 

1135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign 
began Dec. 26 ; died Oct. 25, 1154. 
Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogue ; married iu 1128 ; died May 3, 1151. 
[Maude, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir 
to the throne ; born 1101 ; betrothed in 1109, at 
eight years of age, to Henry V., emperor of 
Germany, who died 1125. She married, sec- 
ondly, Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 
1130. Was set aside from the English succes- 
sion by Stephen, 1135 ; landed in England and 
claimed the crown, 1139. Crowned^ but soon 
after defeated at Winchester, 1141 ; concluded 
a peace witli Stephen, which secured the suc- 
cession to her sou Henry, 1153 ; died 1165.] 

THE PL.\NTAQENETS. 

1154. Henry II., Plantagenet, grandson of Henry I. and 
sou of Maud ; reign began Dec. 19 • died July 
6, 11S9. 
Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
VII., king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
and Poitou ; married to Henry 1151 ; died 1204. 
See Rosamond. 

V.SO. Richard I., Coeur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
Sept. 3 ; died of a wound, April 6, 1191). 
Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the King of Na- 
varre ; married May 12, 1191 ; survived the 
king. 

1199. John, the brother of Richard; reign began May 
2T; died Oct. 19, 1216. 
Queens, Avisa, daughter of the Earl of Glouces- 
ter; married in 11S9; divorced. 2. Isabella, 
daughter of the Count of Augouleme ; she was 
the young and virgin wife of the Count de la 
Marche ; married to John in 1200. Survived 
the king, on whose death she was remarried 
to the Count de la Marche. 

121C. Eeury III., sou of John; reign began Oct. 2S ; 
died Nov. 16, 1272. 
Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the Count de Pro- 
vence; married Jan. 14, 1236; survived the 
king ; and died in 1291, in a monastery. 

1272. Edward I., son of Henry, surnamed LoufishanJcs ; 
reign began Nov. 20 ; died July 7, 1307. 
QueeTis, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; died 
of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- 
ham, iu Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister 
of the King of France ; married Sept. 12, 1299 ; 
survived the king, dying in 1317. 

1307. Edward II., son of Edward I. ; reign began July 
8; dethroned Jan. 20, 1327; mitrdcred at Berke- 
ley Castle, Sept. 21 following. 
Queen, Isabella, daughter of the King of France ; 
married in 130S. On the death, by the gibbet, 
of her favorite Mortimer, she was confined for 
the rest of her life in her own house at Risings, 
near London, and died in 1357. 

1327. Edward III., his sou ; reign began Jan. 25 ; died 
June 21, 1377. 
Queen, Philippa, daughter of the Count of Hai- 
nault; married in 1326; died Aug. 1.5, 1.369. 

1377. Richard II., son of Edward the Black Prince, 
and grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 
June 22 ; dethroned Sept. 29, 1399 ; murdered 
at Pomfret Castle, Feb. 10 following. 
Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the Emperor 
. Wenceslaus of Germany; married in Jan., 
1382 ; died Aug. 3, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter 
of Charles V. of Prance ; married wheu only 
seven years old, Nov. 1, 1396. On the murder 
of her husband she returned to her father. 

nOUBE OF I.AN0A8TEK. 

1399. Henry IV., cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 
Sept, 30 ; died March 20, 1413. 
Queens, Mary, daughter of the Earl of Hereford ; 
she died before Henry obtained the crown, in 
1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the Duke 
ofBretagne; married 1403; survived the king ; 
died 1437. 



now, 1st and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant for England ; 2d, lion ramp- 
ant for Scotland , 3d, harp for Ireland. 



1413. Henry V., his son ; reign began March 21 ; died 
Aug. 31, 1422. 
(2Mee»i,Catharine, daughter of the King of France ; 
married May 30, 1420. She outlived Henry, and 
was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of 
Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 1437. 

1422. Henry VI., his son ; reign began Sept. 1 ; de- 
posed March 4, 1461 ; murdered by Richard, 
duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, June 20, 
1471. 
Queen, Margaret, daughter of the Duke of Anjou ; 
married April 22, 1445; survived the king; died 
Aug. 25, 14S1. 

HOCSE OF YOKK. 

1401. Edward IV. ; died April 9, 1483. 

Queen, Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Sir Rich- 
ard Woodville, and widow of Sir John Grey, of 
Groby ; married March 1, 1463 or 1464. Sus- 
pected of favoring the insurrection of Lambert 
Simnel ; and closed her life iu confinement, 
June S, 1492. 

14S8. Edward V., his son ; deposed June 25, 1483, and 
murdered in the Tower by Gloucester ; reigned 
two mouths and thirteen days. 
" Richard III., brother of Edward IV. ; began to 
reign June 26; slain at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485. 
Queen, Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick, 
and widow of Edward, prince of Wales, whom 
Richard had murdered, 1471. She is supposed 
to have been poisoned by Richard (having died 
suddenly, March 16, 1485), to make way for his 
intended marriage with Princess Elizabeth of 
York. 

UOUSE OP TUDOE. 

1485. Henry VII. ; began to reign Aug. 22 ; died April 
21, 1509. 
Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; married January 18, 
1486 ; died Feb. 11, 1503. 

1509. Henry VIII. , his son ; began to reign April 22; 
died Jan. 28, 1547. 
Queens, Catharine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother Arthur, prince of Wales ; mar- 
ried June 3, 1509 ; was the mother of Queen 
Mary ; was repudiated, and afterward formal- 
ly divorced, May 23, 1533 ; died Jan. 7, 1536. 2. 
Anne Boleyn, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, 
and maid of honor to Catharine ; was private- 
ly married before Catharine was divorced, 
Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of Queen Eliz- 
abeth ; was beheaded at the Tower, May 19, 
1536. 3. Jane Seymour, daughter of Sir John 
Seymour, and maid of honor'to Anne Boleyn ; 
was married May 20, 1536, the day after Anue's 
execution ; was the mother of Edward VI., of 
whom she died iu childbirth, Oct. 24, 1537. 4. 
Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
Cleves ; married Jau. 6, 1540 ; divorced July 
10,1540; died 15.57. 5. Catharine Howard, niece 
of the Duke of Norfolk ; married July 28, 1540 ; 
beheaded on Tower Hill, Feb. 12, 1542. 6. Cath- 
arine Parr, daughter of Sir Thomas Parr, and 
widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married July 
12, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose death 
she married Sir Thomas Seymour, created Lord 
Sudley ; died Sept. 5, 1548. 

1547. Edward VI., son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Sey- 
mour) ; died July 6, 1.553. 

1553. Jaue, daughter of the Duke of Suffolk, and wife 
of LordGuiidford Dudley ; proclaimed queen 
on the death of Edward ; ten days afterward 
returned to private life; was tried Nov. 13, 
1553 ; beheaded Feb. 12, 1554, wheu but seven- 
teen years of age. 
" Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catharine of Ara- 
gon) ; niiirried Philip of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; 
died Nov. 17, 1558. 

1553. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), 
died March 24, 1603. 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

1603. James L of England and VL of Scotland, son of 
Mary Queen of Scots ; died March 27, 1625. 
Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
Frederick II. ; married August 20, 1590 ; died 
March, 1619. 

1625. Charles I., his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, Jan. 
30, 1649. 
Queen, Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV., 
king of France; marriedJuue 13, 1625; sur- 
vived the king; died in France, Aug. 10, 1669. 

1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made Pro- 
tector, Dec. 12, 1653 ; died Sept. 3, 1658. 



ENG 



189 



ENG 



165S. Eichard Cromwell, his son, made Protector, Sept. 
4; resii:;iiecl April 2-2, 105'.). 

ICGO. Charles 11., sou of Charles I. ; died Feb. 0, 1CS5. 
Queen, Catharine of Brajianza, iufauta of Portu- 
m1, daui^hter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso 
Vl. ; married May 21, 1602 ; survived the king ; 
returned to Portii-ral ; died Dec. 21, 1705. 

1685. James II., his brother; abdicated by flight, Dec. 
11, 108S : died in exile, Aug. C, ITOl. 
Queen. [Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; nfarried Sept., lOliO ; died 
before James ascended the throne, 1671 ; moth- 
er of Queens Mary and Anne.] Mary Bea- 
trice, princess of Modeua, daughter of Alfonso 
d'Este, duke; married Nov. I'l, 1G73 ; at the 
Kovolutiou in 10S8 she retired with James to 
France ; died at St. Germain's, 1718. 

16S9. William III., prince of Orange, to'/w, and Mary, 
queen, daughter of James ; married Nov. 4, 
1677 ; besan their reign Feb. 13, 1689 ; INIary 
died Deer 28, 1694 ; William died of a fall from 
his horse, March 8, 1702. 

1702. Anne, daughter of James II.; married George, 
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1GS3 ; succeeded 
to the throne Slarch 8, 1702 ; had thirteen chil- 
dren, all of whom died young ; lost her hus- 
band Oct. 2S, 1708 ; died Aug. 1, 1714. 
uousE OF HANOVEK. (Scc Brunsivick and Este.) 

1714. George I., elector of Hanover and duke of 
Bruuswick-Luneburg ; sou of Sophia, who 
■was daughter of Elizabeth, the daughter of 
James I. ; died June 11, 1727. 
Qiieen, Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the Duke 
of Zell : she died in prison, Nov. 2, 1726. 

1727. George II., his son ; died Oct. 25, 1760. 

Queen, Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
denburg -Anspach; married 1705; died Nov. 
20, 1737. 

1760. Georse III., grandson of George II. ; died Jan. 
2!>,lS20. 
Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the Duke 
of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; married Sept. 8,1701; 
died Nov. 17, ISIS. 

1820. George IV., his son ; died June 26, 1830. 

Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of 
the Duke of Brunswick ; married April s, 1795 ; 
died Auu'. 7, 1821. (See article Quern Cuniline.) 

1830. William IV., brother of George IV. ; died June 
20, 1837. 
Qxiecn, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
sister of the Duke of Saxe-JIeiuingeu ; mar- 
ried July 11, 1818 ; died Dec. 2, 1849. 

1S37. Victoria, the reigning queen, whom god tre- 

8ERYE. 
TUE TEEBENT EOYAL FAMILY OP GREAT BKITAIN. 

The QUEEN,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of 
Edward, duke of Kent ;t born Ma^ 24, 1819 ; succeed- 
ed to the throne on the decease of her uncle, William 
IV., June 20, 1837 ; crowued at Westminster June 28, 
1838; married (Feb. 10, 1840) to her cousin. 

Francis-ALnERT-Augustus Charles-Emmanuel, duke of 
Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born Aug. 
26, 1819 (ordered June 20, 1857, to be styled Prince 
Consort) ; elected Chancellor of the University of 
Cambridge, Feb. 28, 1847 ; died Dec. 14, 1861. 

ISSUE. 

1. Victoria-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess ro^al,born 

Nov. 21,1840; married to Prince Frederick-Wil- 
liam of Prussia, Jan. 25, 1858 (dowry £40,000 and 
annuity of ilSOOO). Issue: Frederick -William, 
born Jan. 27, 1859 ; Charlotte, July 24, 1860 ; Hen- 
ry, Aug. 14, 1S62 ; Sigismund, Sept. 15, 1864. 

2. Albert-folward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 

duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester 
and Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and lord of the 
Isles, born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married Princess Alex- 
andra of Denmark, March 10, 1863. Issue : Albert 
Victor, born Jan. 8, 1864 ; George Frederick, June 
3,186.5. (See Wales.) 

3. Alice-Maud-Mary, born April 25, 1843; married 

Prince Louis of Hesse -Darmstadt, July 1, 1862 
(dowry £30,000, annuity £6000). Issw: Victoria, 
April 5, 1M">H ; a princess, Nov. 1, 1864. 

4. Alfred-Ernest, born Aug. 6, 1844 ; entered the Eury- 

ahis as midshipman Aug. 31, 1858. 



» On Nov. 1, Isr.S, tlie (jucen was proclaimed tliroughout India as 
" Victoria, by the Grace of God, of tlie United Kinjrdom of Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland, and of tlie colonies and dependencies thereof, in Eu- 
rope, Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia, Ql'een, defender of the 
faith,'* etc. 

t He was born Nov. 2, 1767, and died Jan. 93, 1820 ; he married Vic- 
toria-Maria Louisa (widow of the Prince of Leinincen, sister of Leo- 
pold, king of the Belciana, and aunt to the prince consort), May 29, 1S18. 
She was born Aug. 17, 17S6, and died March 16, l»(il. 



5. Helena-Angusta-Victoria, born May 25, 1846. 

6. Louisa-Carolina-Alberta, born March IS, 184S. 

7. Arthur-Patrick Albert, born May 1, 1850. 

8. Leopold-George-Duncan-Albert, born April 7, 18.53. 

9. Beatrice-Mary-Victoria-Feodore, born April 14,1857. 
The queen's aunt and cousins, Augusta, duchess 

(widow of the late duke) of Cambrid-e, born July 25, 
1797. Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, com- 
mander-in-chief, born March 26, 1819; ixud her daurih- 
ters, Augusta, grand-duchess of Mecklenburg-Stre- 
litz, born July 19, 1822, and the Princess Mary of 
Cambridge, born Nov. 27, 1833. 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the Frisian 
variety of the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the 
great Indo-European family. 

Celtic prevailed in England A.D. 1 

Latin introduced 1-450 

Saxon prevails (Beowulf, Cffidmon, Alfred) .'.' .'450-1066 

Latin reintroduced by missionaries 596 

Norman-French combining with English* (Orm, 
Robert of Gloucester, Layamon, Havelok), 1066-1350 

English in course of formation 1209-1500 

English formed 1550 

Law pleadings were made in English by order of 

Edward III', instead of the French language.. ..1362 
The English tongue and English apparel wet-e or- 
dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry VIII 1536 

The English was ordered to be used in all law- 
suits, and the Latin disused May,1731 

Percentage of Anglo-Saxon words in the English 
Bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare and Thomson, 
85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, 81 ; Locke, 
80; Youuff, 79; Pope, 76 ; Johnson, 75; Robert- 
son, 68 ; Hume, 05 ; Gibbon, bS.— Marsh. 
Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from 
other sources. 

PRINCIPAL BRITISII AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 

Born Died 

John Gower about 1320 1402 

Geoffrey Chaucer 1328 1400 

Paston Letters 1460 1482 

William Caxton 1421 1491 

Sir Thomas More 1482 1535 

Sir Philip Sidney 1,554 1586 

Holinshed's Chronicles 1586 

John Fox 1517 15ST 

Edmund Spenser 1553 1598 

Rieliard Hooker 1553 1600 

William Shakspeare 1564 1616 

Walter Raleigh, 1552 1018 

Francis Bacon 1561 1626 

George Herbert 1593 1635 

Ben Jonson 1574 1037 

Philip Massinger 1584 1640 

Jeremy Tavlor 1613 166T 

John Milton 1608 1674 

Isaac Barrow 1630 1677 

Samuel Butler 1612 1680 

John Bun van 1628 1683 

John Drvdcn 1631 1700 

John Locke 1632 1704 

Joseph Addison 1672 1719 

Matthew Prior 1664 1721 

Richard Steele 1671 1729 

Daniel De Foe 1663 1731 

John Gay 1688 1732 

Alexander Pope 1688 1744 

Jonathan Swift 1667 1745 

James Thomson 1700 1748 

Henry Fielding 1707 1754 

Samuel Richardson 1089 1761 

Edward Young 16S1 1765 

Laurence Steriie 1713 1768 

Mark Akenside 1721 1770 

Thomas Gray 1710 1771 

Tobias Smollett 1720 1771 

Oliver Goldsmith 1728 1774 

David Hume 1711 1776 

Samuel Johnson 1709 1784 

Benjamin Franklin 1706 1790 

William Robertson 1721 1793 

Edward Gibbon 1T37 1794 

Robert Burns 1759 1796 

William Cowper 1731 1800 

Percy Bvssh* Shelley 1792 1822 

George,"Lord Byron 1788 1824 

Walter Scott 1771 1832 

Samuel Tavlor Coleridge 1772 1834 

Charles Lamb 1775 1834 

* Williiiin J. and his successors used English in their laws, itc. ; it 
was superseded by Latin in the reign of Henry II. Norman-French 
was not used in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 



ENa 



190 



EPI 



Bom Died 

William Cobbett 1T62 1835 

Robert Southey 17T4 1843 

Thomas Campbell 1777 1844 

Sidney Smith 1771 1845 

William Wordsworth 1770 1850 

J. Fenimore Cooper 1798 1851 

Joanna Baillie 1763 1851 

Thomas Moore 1780 1852 

John Wilson 1785 1854 

Samuel Rogers 1763 1855 

Henry Hallam 1778 1859 

Thomas de Quincey 1786 1859 

WashiuLTtou Irving 1783 1859 

William' Prescott 1796 1859 

T. B. Macaulay 1800 1859 

Archbishop Richard Whately 1787 1803 

William Makepeace Thackeray 1811 1S63 

Thomas Carlyle 1795 

W. C. Bryant 1797 

George Bancroft ISOO 

Edward Bui wer Lyttou 1805 

Benjamin Disraeli 1805 

H. W. Lona;fellow 1807 

Richard Hildreth 1807 

Alfred Tennyson 1809 

Charles Dickens 1812 

J. L. Motley 1814 

J. R. Lowell 1819 

John Ruskiu 1819 

ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Exod. xsviii., 
11, B.C. 1491. Engraving on plates and wood began 
about the middle of the 15th century. Engraving on 
glass was perfected by Bourdier, ofParis, 1799. The 
copyright to engravings has been protected by sever- 
al statutes : among the principal are the acts 16 & 18 
Geo. III., 1775 and 1777 ; and the acts 7 & 8 Vict, Aug. 
6, 1844, and 15 Vict., May 28, 1852. A process of en- 
larging and reducing engravings by means of sheets 
of vulcanized India-rubber was shown by the Electro- 
printing Block Company in 1860. See Lithograiihij and 
Photo-Galvanograj)hij.* 

Engkavino on Copper.— Prints from engraved cop- 
per-plates made their appearance about 1450, and 
were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed 
Finiguerra, is considered to have been the first Ital- 
ian engraver, about 1440. The earliest date known 
of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling-presses 
for working the plates were invented in 1545. Of 
the art of eichinfj on copper by means of aqtw-fortis, 
Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed in- 
ventor, about 1532.— Ke Piles. Etching was practiced 
by Albert Durer. The Etching Club was established 
in 1838. 
Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began in 
Europe with the brief mahlers, or manufacturers of 
playing-cards, about 1400. See Printing. The art 
is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer 
(1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). It was 
much improved in England "by Bewick and his 
brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, etc., 1789 et 
sea. The earliest wood engraving which has reach- 
ed? our times is one represeiitiug St. Christopher car- 
rying the infant Jesus over the sea : it bears date 
1423. 
Engraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened afterward, 
was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and 
Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. 
Mezzotinto is said to have been invented by Col. de 
Siegen, who engraved a portrait of Princess Amelia 
of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was improved by 
Prince Rupert in 1648 ; Sir Christopher Wren farther 
improved it in 1662. 
Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pro- 
duced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, 
St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his invention 
to Le Prince. Barabbe, of Paris, was distinguished 
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 176.S. 
Chiar'-oscuro engraving originated with the Ger- 
mans, and was first practiced by Mair, one of whose 
prints bears date 1491. See Zinc, etc. 
ENNISKILLEN (N.W. Ireland). This town made 
an obstinate defense against the armv of Elizabeth, 
1595, and against James II., 16S9. 1.500'EuniskiIlenei-s 
met General M'Carthy with 6000 men (o/whom 3000 
were slain, and nearly all the rest made prisoners), 
they losing but twenty men, July 30, 1089. The dra- 
goon regiment, the "Inniskillingers," is recruited here. 
ENOCH, Book of, a n apocryphal work, quoted by 

* In" Lyra fiermanica," published in 1861, are illustrations engraved 
upon blocks photographed from negatives taken by John Leighton, 



the fathers, disappeared about the Sth century. A MS. 
Ethiopic version was found in Abyssinia by Bruce, 
and brought to England in 1773. Of this Archbishoii 
Lawrence published an English translation in 1821, 
and the Ethiopic text in 1838. 

ENTAIL of estates in England began with the stat- 
ute of Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation 
broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the 
estate is to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy 
(1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold. 

ENTOMOLOGY, the science ofinsects, mainly based 
upon the arrangement of Liunseus, 1738. Ray's "Meth- 
od of Insects" was published in 1705. The Entomo- 
logical Society of London was instituted in 1S33. 

ENVELOPES for letters came into general use 
shortly after the establishment of the penny postal 
system in 1840. Machinery for their manufacture was 
patented by Mr. George Wilson in 1844, and by Messrs. 
E. Hill and Warren de la Rue ia 1845. 

ENVOYS AT Courts, In dignity below ambassadors, 
enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of am- 
bassadors. Envoys extraordinary are of modern date. 
— Wiequefoii. The court of France denied to them the 
ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal 
carriages, 1639. 

E P A C T (Greek, added) is the excess of the solar 
mouth above the lunar syuodical mouth,l day,ll hours, 
15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar month being only 
29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds ; and the ex- 
cess of the solar year above the lunar synodical year 
(nearly 11 days), the lunar year being 354 days. The 
number of the Gregorian epact for 1865 is 3 ; for 1866, 
14; for 1867, 25. 

EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by the 
louians about 1043 B.C. It was subdued by Cyrus in 
544 B.C. ; it revolted from the Persians 501 B.C., and 
was destroyed by an earthquake in A.D. 17. Paul 
preached here A.D. 55, 56 {Acts xviii.,xix). His epistle 
to the Ephesians is dated A.D. 64. See Diana, Tenqile 
of, and Seven Churches. The third General Council 
was held here in 431. 

EPHORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five in 
number, said to have been first created by Theopom- 
pus to control the royal power, about 757 B.C. 

EPIC POEMS (from Greek, epos, a song), narrative 
in verse. Eminent examples : 
Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" (Greek), between 

8th and 10th century B.C. See Homer. 

Virgil's "^neid" (Lah'n), about B.C. 19 

Ovid's " Metamorphoses" (Latin), about A.D. 1 

Dante (died 1321), "Divina Commedia" (/toWara), 

published 1472 

Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso" (Italian) 1516 

Camoens's " Lusiad" (Portugritse) 1509 

Tasso, "Jerusalem Delivered" (Italian) 1581 

Spenser's " Pai-ry Queen" 1590-6 

Milton's "Paradise Lost" 1667 

Voltaire, " Ilenriade" (French) 1728 

Walter Scott, "Lay of the Last Minstrel," etc 1805 

EPICUPEAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Garget- 
tus, near Athens, about 300 B.C., taught that the great- 
est good consists in peace of mind springing from vir- 
tue, as tending to prevent disquiet ; but the name Epi- 
curean is given to those who derive happiness from 
sensual pleasure. 

EPIGRAMS derive their origin from the inscrip- 
tions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus 
Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, 
who flourished about A.D. 83, is allowed to have ex- 
celled all others, ancient or modern. The following 
Latin epigram on the miracle of our Savior turning 
water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is given as an ex- 
ample : 

" V'idit eterubuit lympha pudica Deum." 

" The modest water saw its God, and blushed." — Crasliaw, d. 1650. 

EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), vulgarly 
called Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation of 
the Savior l)y the "appearance of the star which con- 
ducted the Magi to the place where he was to be found ; 
instituted S\2.—Whcatley. 

EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history is 
very obscure. 

The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus 
after the Trojan War, 1170 B.C., and was killed 

in the temple of Delphi, about B.C.1165 

Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Macedon 
from Demetrius, 290 ; compelled to yield it to 
Lysimachus 287 



En 



191 



ETH 



IIcinvarlcsTtalv; dcrcats the Romans, 280; again, 

iiiil ; sul)duc.s"Sicily B.C. 278 

lie iuvadcs Italy again, and is totally defeated by 

Curias l)eutal"us 274 

lie takes Macedon from Antigonus 273 

He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, 

and is killed by a tile thrown by a woman 272 

Philip unites Epirus to Macedou 220 

Its conquest by the Romans 107 

Epirus annexed to the Ottoman Empire A.D.1406 

An insurrection put down 1S54 

EPISCOPACV. See Bishojis. 

EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the Jews, 
Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published a 
collection entitled "Chronicles of the Tombs" in 1857. 

EPITII ALA:MIUM, a nuptial song at marriage. Tis- 
ias, the lyric poet, is said to have been the first writer 
of one. lie received the name of Stesichorus from the 
alterations made by him. in. music and dancing, 530 
B.C. — Bossiiet. 

EPOCIIA, a point of time made remarkable by some 
eveut, from which subsequent years are reckoned by 



historians and chronolo 

Creation B.C.4U(I4 

Deluge 2348 

1st Olympiad 770 

Building of Rome 753 



See Eras. 
The birth of Christ, 

A.D. 1 
The Hegira (or Hight 

of Mohammed) 622 

EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were dis- 
covered in 1018. The races began about 1711, and 
have been held annually since 1730. 

EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress passes 
through the equator in one of the equino~ctial points, 
the day and night are equal all over the globe. This 
occurs twice iii the year; about March 21, the vernal 
equinox, and Sept. 22, the autumnal equinox. The 
equinoctial points move backward aboiit 50 seconds 
yearly, requiring' 25,000 years to accomplish a complete 
revolution. This is called the precession of the equi- 
noxes, which is said to have been observed by the an- 
cient astronomers. 

EQUITY, Courts of, in England, are those of the 
lord chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master 
of the rolls, their office being to correct the operations 
of the literal text of the law, and sujjply its defects by 
reasonable construction not admissible in a court of 
law. The Supreme Court of Session in Scotland com- 
bines the functions of law and equity. In 1865 equity 
powers were conferred on the County Cotirts for cases 
respecting sums under £500. 

ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found 
in their alphabetical order; a few only need be men- 
tioned here : 

Era of Kahonassar, after which the astronomical 
observations made at Babylon were reckoned, 

began Feb. 26, B.C. T47 

Era of the Seleucidce (used by the Maccabees), com- 
menced 312 

The Ohjminads belong to the Grecians, and date 
from'the year 776 B.C. ; they subsequently reck- 
oned by indictions, the first beginning A.l). 313 ; 
these, among chrouologers, are still used. See 
Indictions. 
The Romans reckoned from the building of their 
city, 7.53 B.C., and afterward from the 10th year 
of the Emperor Augustus (see Ccesars), which 
reckoning was long used by the Spaniards. 
The Mohammedans liegan their era from the IIc- 
ijira, or llight of their prophet from Mecca, A.D. 022 
(See'Calciular, Creation, Anno Domini.) 

ERFURT (Central Germany) was founded in 476, 
and its University established about 1300. Erfurt was 
ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, 
when 14,000 Prussian troops surrendered, Oct. 16, 1800. 
In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered 
peace to England, Sept. 27, 1808. The French retreat- 
ed to Erfurt from Leipsic, Oct. IS, 1813. A German, 
Parliament met here in March and April, 1850. 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE. See Heat, note. 

ERIE, FoKT, in Upper Canada, nearly opposite Black 
Rock, was the theatre of many stirring events. On 
the 3d of .July, IsU, it was taken from the British by a 
part of General Brown's division, commanded by Gen- 
erals Scott and Itipley. The garrison withdrew to the 
intrcncluHl British camp. Early in August, Fort Erie 
Avas besieged by (icneral Drummond, with 5000 men. 
General Gaines was in command of the fort, with 2500 
troops. Drummond made a severe assault on the 15th, 
but was repulsed with the loss of almost 600 men in 



killed, wounded, and prisoners. The Americans lost 
26 killed and SO wounded during the siege. On the 
17th of Sept., when General Browu had command of 
the fort, a sortie was made, by his orders, by 3000 of 
his division, who drove the British toward Chippewa. 
They were then more than 5000 strong. In that sortie 
the British lost almost 1000 men. The Americans lost 
79 killed and 216 wounded. 

ESCHEATS. Land or other property that falls to a 
lord within his manor by forfeiture or death. The es- 
cheator observes the rights of the king in the county 
whereof he is escheator.— Coicci. In Londou a court 
of escheats was held before the lord mayor to recover 
the property of a bastard who died intestate, for the 
king ; such a court had not been held in the city for 
150 years before— July 10, 1771.— P/(?7Zjjjs. . 

ESCURIAL (or Escorial, 25 miles N.W. of Madrid), 
the maguiflcent iialace of the sovereigns of Spain, was 
commenced by Philip II. in 1563, and completed in 
1580, at a cost of 6,000,000 of ducats. It is built in the 
form of a gridiron in honor of St. Lawrence, on whose 
day (Aug. 10, 1557) the Spaniards gained the victory of 
St. Quentin. According to Francisco de los Santos, 
the total length of all its rooms and apartments is 
above 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colmenar as- 
serts that there are 14,000 doors and 11,000 windows. 

ESPARTO, a Spanish grass, a species of stipa, now 
largely employed in paper-making, was first imported 
into this country, as we are informed, in 1857. 

ESPIERRES (or Point-a-Chin, Flanders). The 
French, under Pichegru, here attacked the allied En- 
glish and Austrian army (100,000 men) commanded by 
the Duke of York, and vv'ere repulsed after a long and 
desperate engagement, losing many killed and wound- 
ed, and prisoners, and several pieces of cannon. May 
22, 1794. 

ESPRIT, Saint (or Holy Ghost), the title of an or- 
der of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of France in 
1578, and abolished in 1791. 

ESQL'IRES, among the Greeks and Romans, were 
armor-bearers to, or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. 
In England, the king created esquires by putting 
about their necks the collar of SS, and bestowing upon 
them a pair of silver spurs. The distinction of es- 
quire was first given to persons of fortune, not attend- 
ant upon knights, 1345. — Stoio, 

"ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergymen and 
one layman of the Church of England (the Revs. Drs. 
Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, Professor Baden 
Powell, H. B. Wilson, ]\[ark Pattison, and Professor B. 
Jowett, and Mr. C. W. Goodwin), were published in an 
8vo vol. in March, 1800.* 

ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time of 
Christ. 

ESSEX, Kingdom or. See Britain. 

ESSLING, Battle of. See As2)erne. 

ESTE, House of. Boniface, count of Lncca and 
duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to have descended 
from Odoacer, king of Italy. From Boniface sprang 
Albert Azzo II., marquess of Italy and lord ,of Este, 
born about 896, who married first Cuuegonda of tlie 
house of Guelf, by whom he had Guelf, duke of Bava- 
ria, the ancestor of the house of Brunswick (see Bava- 
ria and Brunstcick), and, secondly, Gersonda, by whom 
he had Fulk, the ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Fer- 
rara and Modeua. 

ETCHING. See Engraving. 

ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. Ni- 
tric ether was first discovered by Kunkel in 1681, and 
muriatic ether, frcmi the chloride of tin, by Courtan- 
vaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by Count 
Lauraguais same year, and hydriotic ether was first 
prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric ether was 
obtained by M. Boullay. The discovery that by inJial- 
ing ether the patient is rendered unconscious of pain, 
is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, Mass. Mr. 
Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it 
into surgical practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions 
(1846). See Chloroform an AAmylcns. The term "ether" 

* The book did not excite much attention at first, but having been 
severely censured for heterodox views by nearly all the bishops and 
many of the clergy, it created much excitement in 1661, and was con- 
demned by Convocation June 24, 1864. The ecclesiastical court sen- 
tenced the Revs. R. Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one 
year, and costs, Dec. 1.5, 1862 ; but on appeal the sentence was reversed 
liy the judicial committee of the Privy Council, Feb. 8, 1864. The most 
remarkable among the works put forth in opposition (in 1862) are the 
"Aids to Faith," edited by the Bishop of Gloucester (W. Thomson, 
now Abp. of York), and " Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by 
the Bishop of Oxlord (S. Wilberforce). 



ETH 



192 



EUT 



was applied to the transparent celestial space by the 
German astronomer Encke, about 18-^9, when studying 
the elements of Pous's comet, discovered iu 1818. 

ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works of 
Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius contain ancient sys- 
tems. The New Testament is tlie code of Christian 
ethics. Paley's Moral Philosophy appeared iu 1TS5, 
and Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rath- 
er vaguely to countries the inhabitants of which had 
sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but it is 
now considered to apply properly to the modern Nu- 
bia, Sennaar, and Northern Abyssinia. Many pyra- 
mids exist at Napata^ the capital of Meroc, the civil- 
ized part of ancient Ethiopia. 

The Ethiopians settle near Egypt B.C.1G15 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa 941 

A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt 

from 4 7(5.5 to 715 

Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against Sen- 
nacherib 710 

Ethiopia unsuccessfully invaded by Cambyses. 525-522 
Ptolemy Euergetes extended his conquests in 

Ethiopia 225 

Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against the 
Eoman settlements at Elephantine, defeated 

and subdued by Petrouius A.D.22-23 

ETHNOLOGY, a branch of anthropology, is defined 
as the science "which determines the distinctive char- 
acters of the persistent modilications of mankind, 
their distribution, and the causes of the modifications 
and distribution." The study of the relations of the 
dift'erent divisions of mankind to each other is of re- 
cent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was publish- 
ed in 1820, and Dr. Prichafd's great work, Researches 
on the Physical History of Mankind, 1841-7. The Eth- 
nological Society, established iu 1843, pttblishes its 
transactions. Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on the Eth- 
nology of the British Empire, appeared iu 1851-2. 

ETHYL, a colorless gas, with a slight ethereal odor, 
a compound of carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in 
the free state by Professor Edw. Prankland in 1849. It 
is one of the compottnd radicles. Many of its com- 
pounds with metals take fire on exposure to the air. 

ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges 
of the Cyclops ; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of 
heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Sicii- 
lus as happening 1G'.)3 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of 
three eruptions as occurring 734, 477, and 425 B.C. 
There were eruptions 125, 121, and 43 B.C. — Livy. 
Eruptions, A.D. 40, 254, and 420. — Carrera. 
One in 1012. — Geoffrey de Viterbo. 
One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabit- 
ants perished in the burning ruins 11C9 

Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1444, 153G, 1537, 1564, and in 
16(59, when tens of thousands of persons perish- 
ed in the streams of lava which rolled over the 
whole country for forty days. 
Eruptions iu 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May, 1830, 
when several villajres were destroyed, and show- 
ers of lava reached near to Rome. 

The town of Bronte was destroyed Nov. 18,1832 

Violent eruptions occurred in Aug. and Sept. ,1852 

The last eruption began on Feb. 1, and ceased iu 

July,1865 
ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), fouuded by 
Henry VI. iu 1440, and designe'd as a nursery to King's 
College, Cambridge. John Stanberry, confessor to 
Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor in 144S), was the first 
provost. Besides about three hundred noblemen's 
and gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's schol- 
ars on the fotindation, who, when properly qualified, 
are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's 
College, Cambridge, and are removed there when there 
are vacancies, according to seniority. In Dec, 1860, 
there were in all 820 scholars. See Cambridge. The 
establishment of the Montem is nearly coeval with the 
college. It consisted in the procession of the scholars, 
arrayed in fancy dresses, to Salt Hill once in three 
years ; the donations collected on the road (sometimes 
as much as wC800) were given to the senior or best 
scholar, their captain, for his support while studying 
at Cambridge. The montem was discontinued in 1847. 
The regatta has taken its place. 

ETRURIA (or Tusoia, hence the modern name Tus- 
cany), an ancient province of Italy, whence the Ro- 
mans, in a great measitre, derived their laws, customs, 
and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the coun- 
try was conquered by a cohmy of Lydians. The sub- 
jugation of this country forms au important part of 



early Roman history. It was most powerful under 
Porsena of Clnsium, who attempted to reinstate the 
Tarqttins, 506 B.C. Veii was taken by Camillus, 396 
B.C. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for 
forty years was concluded 351 B.C. The latter and 
their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake 2S3 
B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265 
B.C. The vases and other works of the Etruscans 
still remaining show the degree of civilization to 
which they had attained. See Tusca^iy. — Etruria, the 
site of Jlr. Wedgwood's porcelain works, etc., was 
founded in 1771. 

EUBffiA, the largest island in the iEgean Sea. 
Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very im- 
portant, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 
B.C., and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the 
Persian War, Eubcea became wholly subject to Athens, 
being its most valuable foreign possession. It revolt- 
ed in 445, but was soon sutidued by Pericles. After 
the battle of Chtieronea, 338, it became subject to Ma- 
cedon. It was made independent by the Romans iu 
194, but was afterward incorporated iu the province of 
Achaia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Greece. 

EUCLID, Ei-F.MENTS OP. Euclid was a native of 
Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 B.C. The 
Elements are not wholly his; for many of the invalu- 
able truths and demonstrations they contain were de- 
rived from Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others. 
Euclid was the first to redtice them to regular order, 
and probably interwove many theorems of his own. 
The Elements were first printed at Basel by Simon Gry- 
uiBus in 1533. 

ELTDIOMETER, au apparatus to ascertain the purity 
of atmospheric air, or the quantity of oxygen gas or 
vital air coutaiued iu it, was iuveuied by Dr. Priestley 
iu 1772. 

EUNUCHS are first mentioned among the Egyptian 
and Assyrian nations. The first princess who employ- 
ed them was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 2007 
B.C. Eunuchs frequently attained to political power 
iu the late Eastern Empire. 

EUPATORIA (KosT.EFp), a sea-port on the west 
coast of the Crimea.- After the allied French, English, 
and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, Sept. 14, 
1S.54, a detachment under Captain Brock occupied thia 
place, which was afterward re-enforced by the Turks. 
It was attacked Feb. 17, 1855, by 40,000 Russians under 
Liprandi. The latter were repulsed with the loss of 
5U0 men by the Turks, whose loss was only 50, among 
which, however, was Selim Pasha, the commander of 
the Egyptian contingent. 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions of the 
old continent ; area nearly 3,800,000 square miles ; pop- 
ulation, 270,000,000 (1861). For the history, see Greece, 
Home, and the modern kingdoms. 

EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near which 
Cimon, sou of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet of the 
Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land forces, 
466 B.C. 

EUSTACE, St.. (Lower Canada). The rebels were 
defeated here, Dec. 19, 1837, and compelled to surren- 
der their arms. Their chiefs fled. 

EUSTATIA, St., a West India island, settled by the 
Dutch, 1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the En- 
glish in 1690 ; again by the British forces under Rod- 
ney and Vaughan, Feb. 3, 1781. It was recovered by 
the French under the Marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same 
year ; captured by the British, 1801, 1810 ; restored to 
the Dutch, 1814. 

EUTAW SPRINGS, Battle of. One of the most 
sanguinary battles of the American Revolution was 
fought at Eutaw Springs, near the San tee, in South 
Carolina, on the Sth of Sept., 1781. The Americans 
were commanded by General Greene, and the British 
by Colonel Stewart. The victory, at the end of the 
conflict, belonged to neither party. Stewart kept the 
field, but that night prudently retreated toward Charles- 
ton. On the folfowing morning Greene took possession 
of the battle-groiind, and sent detachments iu pursuit 
of his enemy. Congress presented a gold medal to 
Greene, aud a British flag captured on that occasion, 
in token of their appreciation of his valor. The Amer- 
icans lost in the battle, in killed, wounded, and miss- 
ing, 555. The British lost 693. 

EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, au abbot 
of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that there was 
but one nature in Christ, the humau having been ab- 
sorbed in the divine. This doctrine was condemned 
by councils — at Constantinople iu 448, and at Chalce- 



EUX 



193 



don in 451 It has been also called Monophysite (of 
one nature), .mAJacohito, fn.m Jacob Barad-eus, its 
jiea ous (lolender in the 6th century. It is the form of 
nians ^^ existing among the Copts and Arme- 

EUXINE. Sg^ Black Sea. 

li,??7^,^n^^l*^''^^ ALLIANCE, founded by Sir Cul- 
, Hw, ' -"-^ ^"i'^'^ '"''' "'''ers at Liverpool in 1845, 
,vi\ \n VT '!' l""'^"""""?? ""ity among all deuomi- 
m 1 i Hi "V! ■'"^Tf ;"'^^''"'''"''""* «-'i'"*t Komanism 
a nilu olity. It h„lds annual meetings. It met in 

fho i-;,! 'r^\' ^.n'; '"' ^^■''?''° '' was well received by 
1805 meeting was held at Hull, Oct. 3, 

,,.^^'^^c^^f/^'^®' P^'^^'^'^ers of the " Gospel," or good 
news, ^ce Gosjjeln. " 

f ^.y£?..^l''i^f ..'^.^X?''?^*','''"^'^!''^}' ^h«-e Prince Edward, 



EXE 



officers sat.* Here are tried all causes relatino- to tb^ 

EXCISE. The system was established ^ 

7 the Long Parliament in ' '^"iJf'nea 

wines, beer, etc., and tobai 



^}^^}^^>^^n^;;turi^;^i:;^^^^^ 




tio „.,, fi r:— ;;,— r Jie period of the bat- 
tle \\as on the point of being cut down by a soldier 
who did not know his ran k^ but was saved by hi' 
timely exclamation, "Do not kill me, soldier; I am 
Henry of ^\ mchester, thy king !" This victory broke 
up the combination of the barons. 

nf^ifA?^?l^' "PPo'i^ted by the Byzantine emperors 

bv Rplt' .w '° ^"r-^;" '^''"''■"1 ""'y ^^^'"■- its conquest 
by Behsarius and Narses, 548. They ruled from 568 
to ,52, w-heu Eutjchus, the last, was overcome by As- 
tolphus the Lombard. ^ "j -a-a 

i.t"^?^?p^'^^-<n9'\? ??"''^ CoUefjmmMercatoruvi ex- 
isted at Home, 403 B.C. The Exchange at Amster- 

ho™J''''f i'^'^/'"®'^ ^^-t ^''^** structure of the kind in 
the world. iAIany edifices of this name in the United 

Lm!'^^^^!''''^'''''- «^^ '^'^^-^ ^-/-«i/^ and 

EXCHANGE, THK Meroiiants, in the city of New 
lork, was destroyed by the great fire in 1835, which 
consume^d severa hundred buildings. A fine marble 
s atue of General Hamilton, by Ball Hughes, was n 
the Exchange, and lost in the flames. The buildiu" 
of the present Exchange was commenced on thesU'e 
of he old one in 1836, and was finished in 1840. It g 
ot blue Qmncy granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of 
QuIncy'SnIte! °^ '"'"' "'"'''''"■ and' of Boston of 

■p,?J-5'^^^*^™^! ^^ iiistitution of great antiquity in 
England, consisting of officers whose functions are 
nprrh'"/"'^ J^l'^i'-' ' ^^'^ t;hancellor of the Escheq! 
uer, the financial officer, formerly sat in the Court of 
Exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor 
vvas Eustace de Fauconbridge, bijhop of London in 
the reign of Henry IIL, aboiTt 1221. Sir Robert Wal- 
po e was the last Chancellor of the Exchequer who 



mentary forces hgainsVcSes T \T''^ ^^^ ^■''^^'^- 
under Charles II! The presen/-«..\^ '''"^ continued 
about 1733. The duty w as arbitro,?^f ?""■'?' ''^"'^^^ 
uors and provisions ^ The old exc p nffi"'' "P^^ "5" 
on the site of Gresham CV^lIeoi hf i:^d ^J'"" '"'''' ^'^^'^ 
at Somerset House The ol.p^.^'^'*' the present is 



withstanding the aboTidon oHhre'cTs'e rbuv n," ^°*- 



;ate annual 



(1S4T and 1861 excepted) in its\„ 

farther modified fi^'t^^rV'tee Itn^''' ""'''''' ^'"^ 



' modified in 1860. 

AMOUNT OP THE EXCISE EEVENUE OF 

{Great Britain.) 

}iij ^3,754,072 

]'^l ■ 5,540,114 

1^08 19,867,914 

IS^O;;;-.- 26,364,702 

(Umted Kingdom.) 

1827 20,995,.924 

,183? 18,644,885 

1834 16,877,292 



GREAT EEITAIN, 



W-'l -£14,518,142 

18-10 12,607,766 

18« 13,58.5,583 

18« 12,883,673 

1^8 13,919,652 

1850 15,278,208 

1858 (to M'ch 31) 17,825,000 

I860 20,361,000 

18o5 19,558,000 



in 1816. See Tally Offit.. 

CUANOELLORS OF THE EXOnEQUEK SINCE ISOO. 

Wnf •l--^w'^'"^''-°-" ^"■^^- ^°'"'' Sidmouth), March 21,1801 
\\m. fm (premier) __ -vr.,,, i,! lon^ 



EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the Duke of York 
afterward James II., from the throne) was passed b^ 
the_ Commons, but rejected by the Lords in 1^79 To 

EXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from Chris 
tian commun on, founded on ^f««. xviH^n Tcor v 

the cZvor° T^"^J°'"'"f^^ *° preserve' tie puHty ol' 
p ?,^i^"'ch. The Roman Church excommunicated bv 
Bell, Book, and Candle {tvhich see). See iXdfct ^ 
GrcMry VII excommunicated the Emperor Henrv 
Janle '"^'"^''''^ ^'' '''^^"''' f™"^ theif alle^ 



May 16,1804 



Lord Henry Petty (o/^cwart^' Marquess' of Lans 

si^^el-kce^ai::::::::::::::: ii^^ffi 

TVinh^\^"'v "'"'"■ ^^'^- ^' ^^^9 (assassinated May 11,1812) 
Fred T R T-""'"*'"*. ^^^^ ^""^ ^^^^'^y) • • ■ • J^ne 9, '' 
^'^rfoF^^Z ":'!:'''''"'' ^'^"^ ^"^^'■!rtn''^^\s2. 

oc^ge.^ing(^^„^,o:::;:::::::::::A^^ 

Henry Goulburn ■;.'.■;. j 'S' oa'-,oc>^ 

Sir Srf Pppi'?' ^"^'- ^^'^ Speucer). . .".".Nov: 22! 830 
&ir Kohert Peel (premier) Dpp m i^q^ 

Pruicis'T 'if,H;r Hi- Lord Monteagiei, Aprif 18,mt 
i< UUIC1.S T. Baring (a/tenvard baronet). . . .Aug. 26 1839 

Henry Goulburn ' Sent R iqji 

Charles Wood (afterward baronet).'.".'.".".'.'.'. Jui; 61840 

Benjamin Disraeli Fph 91 i«^o 

William E. Gladstone. .....: .i I.'.' i." ." Bee' Is' " 

Sir George Cornewall Lewis March'lS5'> 

Benjamin Disraeli Feb 27 1 W 

William E. Gladstone •.•.:'.•. June ^sllsl 

EXCHEQUER, Court op. Instifuted by William I 
on the nioctel of the Transmarine Exchequer ofXJl 

ll^nrWn'-'*''^ ««'''"V"a,,to some authorities? by 
ileniy I. It included the Common Pleas until thev 
vi-cre separated, 16 John, mn.-Coke's Beports The 
Exchequer is so named from a checkered cloth which 
anciently covered the table where the judges and chief 



Innocent IIL excommunicated John of England 
r™5TV ' '°™*''y "'?^^'' •■*" iiiterdict . . ." . a208-14 
pliu-^TT^/ ^'^commiinicated the Emperor Fred- 
ei ick II four times between 1 ooq . ^ 

Hns n"i?i7'^°'' '^^1 excommunicaiecl'by'jn- 
Vm n•|•F,!^' ^'A''".^^ ^y ^"^ ^-^ 1521 ; Henry 
VIII. of England by Clement VII. in 1527 and bv 
Paul IIL m 1535; and Elizabeth by Paul IV 1553 
The Emperor of France, the King of Sard lia and 
others, were virtually excommunicated (but not 
fcr,?^ on account of the annexation of ?he 

Eomagua by Sardmia March 29,1860 

vnf m^JIONS See Crime. In the reign of Henry 
-o nn'n^"^-^^?'' ' '' '^ ^*^own that no less a number than 
.2,000 crimmals were executed. -,SYoi«. In the ten 
years between 1820 and 1830, there were execrated in 
England alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became 
fp'thvlp''"' *''' ""T^"' °f executions decreased? Li 
nn?i Wnf ^'"""-'^ """"'l'^" ^^2'^' ^^^ executions in England 
;w i^4'''f^'""''""'^^V,'' ^^2; in the three years'end- 
qIo f.?"' ^^"^ ""^T^J^^' i" the three years endiu- 
}f,tr^!^? "'"■'' "^f; T'^^ P'^'iee of execution in LondoS 
(formerly generally at Tyburn) has been in front of 
Newgate since 1783. The dissection of the bodies of 
executed persons was abolished in 1832. 

EXEOITTIONS OP REMARKABLE OKIMINALS. 

Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tvburu. . . .Nov. 16.1724 
Lord Balmenno and others, rebellion ; Tower Hill, 

Lord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower Hill March 3o!l747 

Eugene Aram, murder ; York Au^ 6 1759 

Iheodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket. . Apnl 4 1760 



* In rroces3 of time the Court of Exchequer became gradually en- 
irpced m Us jurisdiction, until at length it was not merely a ?evenM 
'Wch s'nit in eo 'r""'"" 'r-'"''}'-'^- ^"yect and subject^ but on™ ?^ 
5 ( 84° thl ?■„ r^.'^f F "'r ■™'""t«'i- I" f""^*- -n'il the 'act 5 Vict." 
(1841), the Court of E.xchequer possessed a triple jurisdiction • but 
,■ th,3 statute Its equity business was transferred to tile Court of Chan' 



EXE 



191 



EXE 



Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 

May 5,1TC0 

John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfield, 

Nov. 11,1761 

John McNaughten, Esq., murderer of Miss Knox ; 
Strabane Dec. 13, " 

Elizabeth Browurigg, murder of her apprentice ; 
Tyburn Sept. 14,1760 

Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, for- 
gery ; Tyburn Jan. 17,1776 

Eev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for £4200 : the 
highest influence was exerted to save him, but 
when the case came before the council, the min- 
ister of the day said to George III., "If your 
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murder- 
ed the Perreaus ;" Tyburn June 27,1777 

Rev. Ileury Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis- 
tress of the Earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn, April 19,1779 

Capt. John Donellan, murder of Sir Theodosius 
Boughton ; Warwick April 2,1781 

Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 11,1797 

Sir Edward Croshie, high treason ; Ireland, June 4,179S 

Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin July 12,1799 

Galloping Dick, highway robbery ; Aylesburv, 

Ap'ril 4,1800 

Governor Wall, murder of Sergeant Armstrong ; 
Old Bailey Jan. 28,1802 

Mr. Crawley, murder of two females; Dublin, 

March 16, " 

George Foster, murder of his wife and child; Old 
Bailey Jan 18,1803 

Col. Despard, high treason ; Horsemonger Lane, 

Feb. 21, " 

John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married, by 
means of the most odious deceit, the celebrated 
•' Beauty of Buttermere"), forgery ; Carlisle, 

Sept. 3, " 

Robert Emmet, high treason ; Dublin Sept. 20, " 

Richard Patch, murder of Mr. Bligh ; Horsemon- 
ger Laue April 8, 1806 

John Holloway, Owen Haggerty ; murder of Mr. 
Steele ; Old Bailey (thirty spectators of this exe- 
cution were trodden to death, and numbers were 
pressed, maimed, and wounded) Feb. 22,1807 

T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder ; Hertford, 

March 7,1808 

Major Campbell, murder of Capt. Boyd in a duel ; 
Armagh Oct. 2, " 

Capt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution Dock, 

June 29,1809 

Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey. . . June 24,1811 

John Belliugham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old 
Bailey May 18,1812 

Philip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
Pennecden Heath Aug. 23,1813 

Francis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin, 

Oct. 9, " 

Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; Horse- 
monger Lane. . .' April 2,1814 

Wm. Sawyer, murder of Jack Hacket ; Old Bailey, 

May 15, " 

Eliza Penning, administering poison ; Old Bailey, 

July 26,1815 

[Immediately after her execution, great sensation 
was caused by its being universally believed that 
this young creature suffered innocently. She 
denied her guilt on the scaftold, and thousands 
believing her, accompanied her funeral. In the 
"Annual Register" for 1857, p. 143, it is stated, on 
the authority of Mr. Gurney, that she confessed 
the crime to Mr. James LTpton, a Baptist minis- 
ter, shortly before her execution.] 

Capt. Grant, Irish robber ; Maryborough, Aug. 16,1816 

John Cashman, Spaflelds riots ; Skinner Street, 

March 12,1817 

Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose Lodge 
affair ; Ireland July 19, " 

The three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder ; Lan- 
caster Sept. 8, " 

Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derby,Nov. 7, " 

Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his house- 
keeper; Penneudeu Heath An [;. 3,1818 

John Scanlan, Esq., murder of Ellen Hanley ; Lim- 
erick March 16,1820 

Arthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, Jas. lugs, John 
Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato Street) ; Old 
Bailey Mav 1, " 

John Channell, Thomas Calcraft, mui-der of Mr. 
Chanuell, Senr. ; Godalmiug Aug. 17, " 

Murderers of Miss Thompson ; Dublin May 3,1821 

David Haggart, famous robber ; Ediuburg, 

June 11,1821 



Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey Nov. 21,1821 

Samuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailev, 

Dec. 27,1822 

John Thurtell, murder of Mr.Weare ; Hertford, 

Jan. 9,1824 

John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey Feb. 24, " 

Hen. Fauntleroy, Esq., banker, forgery ; Old Bai- 
ley Nov. 30, " 

Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell's in the murder 
of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), horse-steal- 
ing ; Old Bailey June 20,1825 

Spitalfields gang, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

Nov. 29,1826 

Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey Jan. 2,1827 

*Edward Lowe, coining ; Old Bailey Nov. 22, " 

Catharine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old Bailev, 

April 14,1823 

tWilliamRea,high way robbery; Old Bailey, July 4, " 

William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury 
St. Edmund's Aug. 8, " 

Jos. Hunton, Quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey. .Dec. 8, " 

Bm'ke, the murderer (see Burking) ; Ediuburg, 

Feb. 16,1829 

Anne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, 

Juue 30, ' 

Stewart and wife, noted murderers ; Glasgow, 

July 24, " 

Thomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery ; 
Old Bailey Dec. 31, " 

Mr. Comyu, burning his own house ; Ennis, 

March 18,1830 

John Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor 
Italian boy (see Burking) ; Old Bailey Dec. 5,1831 

Elizabeth Cooke, burking of Cath. Walsh ; Old 
Bailey Jan. 9,1832 

John Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime; Old 
Bailey April 8,1835 

Mary Anne Burdock, remarkable case of poison- 
ing: Bristol April 15, " 

John Pegsworth, murder; Old Bailey March 7,1837 

James Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown , Old 
Bailey May 2, " 

William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 16,1839 

Francois Benjamin Courvoisier, murder of Lord 
W. Russell ; Old Bailey. July 6,1840 

Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth ; Shrews- 
bury April 2,1841 

Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burdon • Old 
Bailey Nov. 15, " 

John Delahunt, murder of Thomas Maguire ; Dnb- 
liu Feb. 5,1843 

Daniel Good, murder of James Joues; Old Bailey, 

May2"3, " 

William Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

f May 27,1844 

James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter; Old 
Bailey March 24,1845 

John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 

March 28, " 

Thomas Henry Hocker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; 
Old Bailey April 28, " 

Joseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 
Bailey June 2, " 

John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby April 1,1847 

Catharine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury 
St. Edmimd's April 17, " 

James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. Jenny, 
sen. and jun. ; Norwich April 21,1849 

Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Man- 
ning, murder of O'Connor ; Horsemonger Lane, 

Nov. 13, " 

.James Barbour, murder of Robinson ; York, Jan. 15, 1853 

Henry Horler, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

Jan, 15, " 

Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- 
son ; ilonaghan April 10,1854 

Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore and C. 
Collard ; Old Bailey Jan. 22,1855 

William Bousfield, murder of his wife and three 
children ; Old B.ailey March 30,1856 

William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook 
by poison ; Stafford June 14, " 

William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; York, 

Aug., " 

Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Marley, murder of 
Cope, a shopman, in Westminster ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 15, " 

William Jackson, murder of two children ; Ches- 
ter Dec. 20, " 

* He was the last coiner drawn on a sledpe to the scaffold. 

t Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for execution this day for 
forgery ; but he took a dose (an ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save 
himself from the ignominy of the gallowB, and was found dead in his cell. 



EXE 



IdL 



Lagava, Bartelaiio, and Pettrick, mnrder of two 

omcers and i)ii-acy ; Winchester Dec. 23,1856 

Uedea Redaiucs, murder of two girls at Dover 

-Maidstoue ° j^^^ 1 tS5T 

ThomasMausell (after seven months'respite), mur- 
der of a soldier ; Maidstone July 6 " 

Capt. U. Kogers, murder of A. Kose, a black, with 

great cruelty ; Liverpool Sept.l2, " 

1 nomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey,Nov.l6 " 
John AVm. Bcale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, his 

sweetheart ; Taunton jan lo is5S 

James Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of 
Agues Montgomery by poison— discovered by a 

child ; Paisley .Jan. 14 " 

Christian Sattler, a German, murdei" of inspector 

Thaiu : Old Bailey Peb 10 " 

Giovanni Lani, murder of Holoise Thaubin • Old 

Bailey Anril '>6 " 

John B. Bickuell, murder of his' grandfather and 

grandmother; Taunton Au" 24 " 

Henry Reid, murder of wife ; Kirkdale. .. !. . Jaii I'lSSa 
VV m. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, 

Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford, ' ' ' 

wm.-n^ V , March 31,1860 

William loungman, murder of his sweetheart 
Mary btreeter, and of his mother and two broth- 
ers, on Aug. 16; Horsemouger Lane.. Sept 4 " 

I'iJf 1?^",'""*' m'li'c^er of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney! 

OldBailey ..__ Nov 19 " 

James Johnson, murder of two non-commissioned 

oflicers ; Winchester jan 1 1S61 

Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder 'of their 

auut, Tauuton Aprils " 

Wm. Cogan, murder of his wife ; Old Ba'i'ley.Oct.ul " 
ihomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of Serireant 

John Dickson; Winchester Dec '"'T " 

Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- 

mersou to obtain the money she had saved for 

her funeral ; Carlisle. March 15,1862 

G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall on 

herway to church; Winchester. ... Auo- 4 " 

William Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller 'from^'re- 

venge; he previously killed his own children- 

Kirkdale ggpj jg' „ 

Catharine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soame's by poll 

sou [and of several other persons] ; Old Bailey, 

William Ockold (aged TO), murder of his wife,\'fter 

50 years' marriage ; Worcester .Jan. 2,1863 

Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 

March 24 " 
Robert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, ' 

Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son- 

Shre^^'sbury . April 11,' " 

Dennis Delaue hired Beckham and Walsh to murl 

cler his landlord, F. Fitzgerald April 13 " 

J. Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ipswich,' 
•n- TT . , April 14, " 

\\ m. Hope, violation and murder of Mary Corbett ; 

Hereford April 15 " 

D. i}[acPhail and G.Woods, murder 'of Mrs. Walne- 

Kirkdale April 25, " 

J. Brookes, murder of Davey, a policeman; Old 

Bailey ;_ April 2T " 

Joseph Kelly, murder of Fitzhenry, a school-mas- 
ter; Wexford Auo- 11 " 

Thomas, Alvarez, Hughes, and O'Brien,' ferocious 

murderers; Kirkdale Sept 12 " 

Ahcellolt, murderofhermother; Ch'est'e'r',Dec'23' " 
bamuel W right, murder of his paramour. ..Jan. 12,1864 
John Lyon and four others (foreigners), murder and 

piracy ; Old Bailev Feb 22 " 

Charles Bricknell, murder of his sweethear't,Au'<T.l' " 
-brauz Muller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 

carnage (see 2Vw/«) ; Old BaileV Nov 14 " 

Ferdmaud Kohl, murder of M. Filhrkop ; Chel'ms- 

lord T'l 11 9fi 1 Qfl^ 

Edw. William Pritchard,'M.'D.','miirde'r'of wife and 

her mother; Glasgow July '^8 " 

JohnCurrie, murder of Major DeVere- Maidstone' 
Of 1 T- 1 ,. ^ Oct. 12,' " 

Stephen Foi-ward, ahasEnest Southey, murder of 
wife and four children ; Maidstoue. 



EXP 



Bislmn nV'p^^' Were United. St. Petroc was the first 
Bishop of Cornwall, before 900; (Edulphus the first 
nn'nf"]? °f l^«Y«"«h"-e, 905 ; and Leofric, toe first B?h 
op of Exeter, m 1049. The cathedral originally belon"- 
ed o a monastery founded by Athelstai?; Edward The 
Confessor removed the monks to his new Sy of 

toe unkecl 'e'o nu-P^V^^i'!" ^H"''^^ '''' ^ <=^tbedrJl ?o 
tne united see, 1049 ; valued in the k ng's books at X500 
per annum. Present stated income £2700 




...Jan. 11,1866 
EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been early hon- 
ored with the name of: Augusta from havin? been occu- 
pied by the second Aui,nistan legion coniraanded by 
Vespasian : its present name is derived horn Bxcesire, 
the castellated city of the E.\e." It was for a consid- 
erable time the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. 
Ihe nrsiiopRic aucieutlv constiluted two sees, Devon- 
shire (founded about flo'.i) and Cornwall. The church 
of the former was at Crediton, of the latter at Bodmin. 



bytheMarqirisofExeterreIrXsUe,andrni^ 
W elhn^tou Street to Catoarine Street, with a Daisied 
on each sue of which are shops for K artic^le. tla^ 
°?nn,t^ i" ^^f- ^^ '^'''^ P""«l t^^W'i in 1S63 and tol 
Hal?. ' P^'^ ''^ ^^"^ '"^ °f "le Strand Music 

f.^^^'^w^ COLLEGE (Oxford) was foimded by Wal- 
ter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter, in 1314. The colle-e 
Gothic fty'r'''' °f^ J^-'^'^'l^^O'^e 'quadrangle in the later 

fo?to?I^.pr-^^^^/^*f''''?^^' London), erected in 1S30-1 
toi the meetings of religious, scientific, and other in- 
stitutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical societies, a 
S.-o"!'!^'''^'"^^^''' apartment, wito a splendid oi- 
chestia and organ, and having rooms attached for 
committees, etc. See im&ev Mi^ic. Rdigious services 
were held. here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Sptrrgeon and S 
lS5.Jjy ministers of the Church of England, on Sun- 

EXHIBITION OP 1867, Paris. The Chavms de Mars 
chosen for the site of the great Exposition of 1SG7 
was formerly used for the manceavres of troops and 
for grand reviews. The palace of the Exposition 
which rises in toe middle of the Champs de Mars, cov- 
ers a space of 161,304 yards. It measures in its -'reat- 

f.t}!!^f^ ^'?f ^'"h " ^°'^t''^i'^« ^even gallerie , a 1 
named Irom the objects they were destiSed to hold. 
Fnnh.ni'',?!-' S.al'ery IS used for special collections. 
Each collection is subdivided into classes, whose nrod- 
uctsare placed on the ri-ht and left of the ea lerv 
An inscription indicates the number. The exterior 
and interior limits of toe palace are built of iron, 
brick etc. The light has been arran-ed in a way 
most favorable to the objects exposed. ^In almost ev- 
ery thing but machinery, the American department 
was not as full as could be wished. In the art de- 
partment, the finest pictures by American artists were 
not on exhibition. 

EXODUS (Greek, wfflT/ out), a term applied to the de- 
parture of he Israelites from Egypt, 1491 B.C., and de- 
scribed m toe book of ^u^ocZ,,,,,. Chronologers vary in 
1 -L'''^,",,"^ this event: the LXX. give l(il4; Hales, 
164b; Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 1314. 

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIOjfs are those filed by 
the attorney general, b;/ virtue of Ms office, without ap- 
plyiug to the court where they are filed for leave, or 
giving the defendant an opportunity of showing cause 
why they should not be filed.— Cafimei Lazvyer. They 
J^^'Z'^.wsed by the Liverpool administration about 
l^l'.-19- William Hone was tried on cnminal infor- 
mation, Dec. 18-20, 1817, and acquitted. The British 
bank directors were thus tried, 1857. 

EXPEDITIONS, British. Many are described un- 
der their respective heads ; e.g.: 

France, near Port I'Orient Oct. 1 1746 

Cherbourg a„„ T'lTfis 

St. Malo ; 4000 men lost. ...'.'.'. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. . Sept 'l758 

Quiberou Bay (French emigrants) .'lygg 

Ostend (all inade prisoners) May 1798 

Helder Point and Zuyder Zee Sept 'l799 

Ferrol, in Spain Aug.','lSOO 

Egypt (.4 bcrcrombie) March,lS01 

Copeubageu Sept.,180r 

W alcheren (unfortunate) July 1809 

Bergen-op-Zoom March s'l814 

Crimea Sept., 1854 

EXPENDITURE. See under Revenue. 
EXPLORING EXPEDITION, United Statks, un- 
der Lieutenant Wilkes, consisted of six small vessels 
of the United States Navy (Vincenues, Peacock, Por- 
poise, Relief, Flying-Fish, and Sea-Gull), to explore the 
Southern Seas, sailed from Hampton Roads Virf'nia 
on the 19th of Auar., 1S3S. Thev discovered an^'Ant- 
arctic continent July 19, 1839. The Peacock was lost 
on the l)ar at the mouth of the Columbia River in July 
1841. The Vincenues, Wilkes's flag-ship, returned to 



Exr 



196 



FAM 



New York in June, 1S42, after an absence of almost 
four years. Wilkes's Narrative was published in six 
vols., illustrated. The scientific reports form twenty 
quarto and folio vols. 

EXPORTS. Edward III., by his encouragement of 
trade, turned the scale so much in favor of English 
merchandise, that by a balance taken in his time, the 
exported commodities amounted to i;294,000, and the 
imported to only £38,000. See Ilcveniie. The declared 
value is of much less amount than the official. 

OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FKOM GREAT BEITAIN TO 
ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. : 



1700 £6,097,120 

17.W 10,130,991 

1775 16,326,363 

1800 38,120,120 

1810 45,809,839 

1820 51,733,113 



1830 £66,735,445 

1835 78,376,732 

1840 97,402,720 

1845 131,564,.503 

18,50 175,126,706 

1851 190,397,810 



TOTAL DECLARED VALUE OP BEITISn AND IRISU PROD- 
UCE EXPORTED. 



1S.'51 £74,448,722 

1553 98,933, 7S: 

1855 95,688,085 

1856 115,826,948 

1857 122,155,237 

1859 130,440,427 



1860 £135,891,227 

1861 125,102,814 

1862 123,992,264 

1803 146,602,342 

1864 160,486,302 



EXPORTS OF THE United States. The exports of 
the United States have much increased within twenty 
years. The principal articles of export are cotton, 
grain, tobacco, lumber, and manufactured machinery. 
The total value of the exports for the sixteen years 
ending in 1802 was $3,749,031,415. 

EXTRADITION TREATY between Great Britain 
and France was concluded in 1843. lu Dec, 1865, the 
French government gave notice of withdrawing from 
it iu six months. 

EXTREME UNCTION. See Anointing. 

EYLAU (Prussia), where, on Feb. 7, S, 1807, the 
French defeated the Russians in one of the most 
bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded 
in person. Both armies, by this and other battles, 
were so much reduced, that the French retired to the 
Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel. The victor 
lost 15,000 men ; the Russian loss in slain alone was 
20,000. 

EYRE (old French for ire, to go). The itinerant 
court of justices, the justices in eyre, was instituted by 
Henry II., 1176 ; and when the forest laws were in 
force, its chief justice had great dignity. These jus- 
tices were to go their circuit every third year, and 
punish all abuses committed in the king's forests. 
The last instance of a court being held in any of the 
forests is believed to have been in"l071. — Beatson. 



F. 



FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who 
derived their name from faha, a bean, because some 
of their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; they were said 
to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Her- 
cules, and were once so numerous that they took upon 
themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They 
came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in 
which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain 
iu a sudden attack, 477 B.C. There only remained 
one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, 
and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following 
ages. Fabius Cunctator (the delayer) kept Hannibal 
iu check for some time without coming to an engage- 
ment, 217, 216, B.C. 

FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees {Judges ix., 
about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, and as beautiful 
as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the 
poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 1034 B.C.) is next in an- 
tiquity. The earliest collection of fables extant is of 
Eastern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The 
fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most 
beautiful, if not the most ancient iu the world. — Sir 
William Jones. Th^ well-known .(Esop's fables {which 
see), supposed to have been written about 565 or 620 
B.C., were versified by Babrius, a Greek poet, about 
130 B.C. {Coray), and turned into prose by Maximus 
Planudes, a Greek monk, about 1320, who added other 
fables, and appended a worthless life of .^sop. The 
fables of Lafontaine (1700) and Gay (1727) are justly 
celebrated. 

FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for produc- 
ing manufactures, have immensely increased in En- 
fland since 1815. The Factory Act, regulating the 
ours of labor, etc., was passed in 1833. No child is 
to be employed under nine years of age, except iu silk 
fiictories. Similar acts have been passed since. 

FAIR OAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the 
site of two sanguinary indecisive battles between the 
Confederates, under GeneralJoseph Johnston, and the 
Federal Army of the Potomac, under General M'Clel- 
lan. May 31 and June 1, 1862. See Peninsular Cam- 
paign. 

FAIRS ANT) Wakes, of Saxon origin, were instituted 
in England by Alfred, 886. — Spi'hunn. Wakes were es- 
tablished by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed 
Ferice, at which the monks celebrated the festival of 
their patron saint : the vast resort of people occasion- 
ed a great demand for goods, wares, etc. Fairs were 
established in France about 800 by Charlemagne, and 
encouraged in England about 1071 by William the Con- 
queror. 

FALCONRY in England can not be traced with cer- 
tainty until the reign of King Ethelbert, the Saxon 
monarch, 850. —Pennant The grand seignior at one 
time kept six thousand falconers in his service. 



FALCZI, Peace of, concluded between Russia and 
Turkey, July 2, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof and 
all their possessions on the Black'Seato the Turks. 
The Russians were saved from imminent destruction 
by the address of Catharine, the empress. In 1712 the 
war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Con- 
stantinople, April 16, 1712. 

FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil and Hor- 
ace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as called by Mar- 
tial, Mous Massicus, in Campania. Horace, in his 
Odes, boasts of having drunk Falernian wine that had 
been, as it were, born with him, or which reckoned its 
age from the same consuls, 14 B.C. The Opimian 
wine is said to have been kept for 200 years. 

FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site of a 
victory by the English under Edward I. over the Scots, 
commanded by W^allace, part of whose forces deserted 
him. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 of the latter were 
slain, July 22, 1298. A battle was fought here between 
the royal forces and Prince Charles'Stuart, in which 
the former were defeated, Jan. 17, 1746. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the South At- 
lantic, belonging to Great ISritain. Seen by Americus 
Vespucius, and visited by Davis. 1592. Taken posses- 
sion of by France, 1764. The French were expelled 
by the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain gave up the sov- 
ereignty to England. Not having been colonized by 
us, the republic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to 
these islands, and a colony from that country settled 
at Port Louis ; but, owing to a dispute with America, 
the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. In 
1833 the British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a 
British officer has since resided there. — M^Culloch. 

FAMINES. The famine of the seven years iu Egypt 
began 1708 B.C. — Usher; Blair. 
Famine at Rome, when thousands of people threw 

themselves into the Tiber..... B.C. 436 

Awful famine in Egypt A.D. 42 

At Rome, attended by plague 263 

In Britain, so grievous that people ate the bark of 

trees 272 

In Scotland, and thousands die 306 

In England, where 40,000 perish 310 

Awful one in Phrygia 370 

In Italy, when parents ate their children {Duf res- 
nog) 450 

In England, Wales, and Scotland 739 

Again, when thousands starve 823 

Again, which lasts four years 9.54 

Awful one throuirliout Europe 1016 

In England, 21 William I .1087 

In England and France: this fiimine leads to a 

pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to 1195 

Another famine in England 1251 

Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the 
flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin 1315 



FAN 



197 



FER 



One occasioned by long rains A.D.1335 

One iu England and France {Rfqjin) 1353 

Again, one so great tliat bread was made from 

fern-i-oots {.stoir) 143S 

One tliroughont these islands 1565 

Awful one in l-'iMiice ( Valtaire) 1093 

One general in these realms 1748 

One which devastates licugal 17T1 

At Cape de Vcrd ; lt),iioo persons perish 1775 

One grievonsly felt in France 17S9 

One severely i'clt in Knglaud 1795 

Again, thronghont the kingdom 1801 

At Droutheiiu, owing to Sweden intercepting the 

supplies 1813 

Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 
1S14, ISIO, lS-."_', isisl, 1S4G, in consequence of the 
failure of the potato crop. Grants by Parliament 
to relieve the suffering of the people were made 
in the session of 1S47, the whole amounting to 
ten millions sterling. 
Iu N.W. provinces of India, thousands starving 
(see Iiulia) Jan. -March, 1S61 

FAN. The use of the fan was known to the an- 
cients; CajM hoc fiahcJhuii, et veiitultiin Iiiiic sic facito. 
"Take this fan, and give her thus a little air." — Ter- 
ence, Eumic1mi<, B.C. 106. Pans, together with muffs, 
masks, and false hair, were tirst devised by the harlots 
in Italy, and were brought to England from France. — 
Htuw. The fan was used by females to hide their faces 
at church. — Pardon. In the British Museum are fan- 
handles and other articles of Egyptian manufacture, 
used anciently by women. 

FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or two 
acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. The best English 
fiirces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstaff, etc.) appeared 
from about 1740 to 1780. These species of dramatic 
entertainment originated in the droll shows which 
were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons iu 
the open street. See Drama. 

FARNESE FAMILY became important through 
the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the papacy ^s 
Paul III. lie gave his natural son Peter the duchy of 
Parma, and his descendants ruled there till the death 
of Antony without issue iu 1731. Alexander, prince 
of Parma, was governor of the Netherlands iu 1579. 

FARTHING, an early English coin. Farthings in 
silver were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing 
of his reign is of the date of 1210, and is valuable and 
rare. Farthinsrs were coined iu England in silver by 
Henry VIII. First coined iu copper by Charles II., 
1665: and again iu 1672, when there was a large coin- 
age of copper money. Half farthings were first coined 
in the reign of Victoria, 1843. See Qiieen Anne's Far- 
things. 

FASTS, observed by most nations from the remotest 
antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Ch'ron. xx., 3) ; by the Nine- 
vites (Jonah iii.). A fast was observed by the Jews 
on the great day of atonement. Lev. xxiii., 1490 B.C. 
The first Christian miuisters were ordained with fast- 
ing (45), Acts xiii., 2. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, 
an"d at other stated times, and on particular occasions 
to appease the anger of God, began in the Christian 
Church iu the 2d century, 138. "The Mohammedan 
fast is termed Hamadan {irhicli see). Fast days are ap- 
pointed by the Reformed churches in times of war and 
]5esiilcnce (as March 21, 1S55, for the Russian War, and 
Oct. 7, 1S57, for the Indian Mutiny). See Abstinence. 

FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are 
the principal : 

SEOoNn CENToiT. Orcck. 
Justin Martyr., .f/. abt. 106 

Irena>us d. abt. 200 

Atheuagoras. 

TniRD oKNTrp.Y. Grcck. 

Clements (1. abt. 217 

Origen d. abt. 2,53 

Latin. 

Tertullian <1. abt. 220 

Minutius Felix . . rl abt. 230 
Cyprian r/. abt. 2.5S 

FOUnXU AND FIFTH CENTU- 

U1E8. Greek. 
Eusebius d. abt. 340 



Athanasins d. 373 

Ephrem Syrus. ..d. abt. 378 

Basil f7. 379 

Cyril of Jerusalem., .d. 386 
Gregory Nazianzen..f7. 389 
Gretrory Nyssen.d. abt. 394 

Epiphanius d. 402 

Chrysostom d. 407 

Cyril of Alexandria, d. 444 

Latin. 

Arnobins ^..303 

Lactantius d. abt. 330 

Ambrose d. 397 

Jerome d. 420 

Augustine d. 430 



FATIMITES. See All and Moliammedanism. 

FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. The 
researches of Chevreul since 1811 on their chemical 
nature are very important See Candles. 

FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in cheap 



books, flourished about the end of the 15th century. 
Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The " Feasts of the 
Lord," viz., those of the Passover, Pentecost, Trum- 
pets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. {Le- 
viticus, ch. xxiii.). The Feast of the Tabernacles was 
celebrated with the greatest magniticence for fourteen 
days, upon the dedication of the Temple of Solomon, 
1004 B.C. Hezekiah (726 B.C.) and Josiah (023) kept 
the feast of Passover in a most solemn manner. In 
the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Easter, 
Ascension, and the Pentecost, or Whitsuntide, are 
said to have been ordered to be observed by all Chris- 
tians in the Isl century. Rogation days were appoint- 
ed in 409. Jubilees iu the Romish Church were in- 
stituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jubilees. For 
fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as 
settled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Com- 
mon Prayer. For Feasts of Charity, see Arja2)ce. 

FEBRUARY (from Fehruus, an Italian divinity), 
the second month of the year, in which were celebra- 
ted Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of deceased 
persons. This month, with January, was added to 
the year by Numa, 713 B.C. 

FECIALES, or Fetialeb, heralds of Rome, twenty 
in number, to denounce war or proclaim peace, ap- 
pointed by Numa about 712 B.C. 

FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fur, in the Pacific Ocean, 
about 1500 miles from Sydney. There are 80 islands, 
the largest about 360 miles In circumference, with 
20,000 inhabitants. The islands wore offered by the 
chiefs to the British government, July, 1859, but not 
accepted. In ISOO the House of Commons granted 
£1680 for expenditure in them. 

FELONY, iu English law (says Blackstoue, iu 17C5), 
comprises every species of crime which occasions the 
forfeiture of land and goods. 

FENCING was introduced into England from 
France. Fencing-schools, having led to dueling in 
England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 Edw. 
I., 128.5. Iu 1859 there were eight teachers of fencing 
in Loudon. 

FENIANS, a secret society in the United States of 
America, which became known early iu 1863, formed 
with the professed object of invading Ireland and es- 
tablishing a republic. Attempts to enlist supporters 
in Dublin in Jan., 1864, were discountenanced by the 
Roman Catholic clergy, but secret drilling went on till 
Sept., 186.5. John O'Mahony, termed the "head-cen- 
tre," resides at New York. The principal agent iu 
Ireland is Stephens, who was concerned iu the move- 
ment in 1848. See Ireland. 
Riot between the Fenians and their opponents at 

the Rotondo, Dublin Feb. 22,1804 

25 persons arrested iu Dublin, and the newspaper 
the Irish Peo2}lc (established Sept., 1803) seized, 

Sept. 15,1805 
Other persons, principally of the lower classes of 

society, arrested Sept. 17-30, " 

The Fenians in America published an address, 
stating that oflicers were going to Ireland to or- 
ganize an army of 200,000 men Sept., " 

Fe"uians arrested at Manchester Sept. 21, " 

A ship laden with gunpowder seized at Liverpool, 

Sept., " 
Allocution of the pope, condemning secret socie- 
ties Sept. 30, " 

Evidence adduced that £5000 and 2000 pike-heads 

had been received from America in Sept. 
O'Donovau and five others committed for high 

treason Oct. 2, " 

33 Fenians committed for trial up to Oct. 14, " 

Many arriving from America are arrested Oct., " 

They establish a provisional government at New 
York, and a congress of GOO members held at 

Philadelphia Oct., " 

Fierce disputes between the senate and O'Mahony, 
the head-centre, who is charged with corruption 
and deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his suc- 
cessor Dec, " 

Fenians in the LTnited States said to have raised 
£200,000 in October ; they prepare to attack Can- 
ada Dec, " 

380,000 Fenians reported in the United States,Jan.,lS05 

FERE-CIIAMPENOISE (France). Here the French 
armv, under Marmont, IMortier, and Arrighi, were sur- 
prised and defeated by the Austrians under the Prince 
of Schwartzenberg, March t?5, 1814, after a heroic re- 
sistance. Paris surrendered to the Allies sis days 
after. 



FEB 



198 



FIN 



FERI^ LATINS were solemn festivals at Rome, 
iDstituted by Tarquiii the Proud about 534 B.C. The 
principal magistrates of forty-seven towns of Latium 
assembled on a mount near Rome, where they and the 
Roman authorities ofl'ered a bull to Jupiter Latialis. 

FERMENTATION, by Gay-Lussac termed one of 
the most mysterious processes in uature: he showed 
that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are resolved into 
23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. His memoir ap- 
peared in ISIO. In 1S61 Pasteur brought forward evi- 
dence to show that fermentation depends on the pres- 
ence of minute organisms in the fermenting fluid, and 
that the source of all such organisms is the atmos- 
phere. 

FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once archie- 
piscopal. bt. Edien was seated here in 598. Leighlin 
and Ferns were united in 16U0 ; and by the Church 
Temporalities' Act, passed Aug., 1S33, both were united 
to the bishopric of Ossory. See Ossory. — Ferns, an 
order of cryptogamous plants, now much cultivated 
iu Wardian cases, which see, and also Nature-Printing. 

FEROZESHAH (India). The British, commanded 
by Sir Hugh Gough, attacked the intrenchments of 
the Sikhs, and carried by storm their flrst line of 
works, Dec. 21, 1S45 ; but "night coming on, the opera- 
tions were suspended till daybreak next day, when 
their second line was stormed by General Gilbert, and 
74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to retake their 
guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated 
toward the Sntlej, Dec. 22 ; and recrossed that river 
unmolested, Dec. 27. The British loss was reckoned 
at 2415. 

FERRARA, a city in the Papal States, formerly part 
of the Exarchate of Ravenna, under the Emperors of 
the East. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 
Sth century, and taken from them about 752 by Pepin, 
who gave it to Pope Stephen II. About 120S it fell 
into the hands of the house ofEsle {which sec), and be- 
came the principal seat of the literature and tine arts 
in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the long-claim- 
ed sovereignty in 1.59S, on the death of the Duke Al- 
fonso II., the last legitimate male of the Este fami- 
ly. His illegitimate nephew, Ciesar, became Duke of 
Modeua. The French, under Massena, took Ferrara 
in 1796, but it was restored to the pope in 1S14. An 
Austrian garrison held it from 1S49 ; it retired in June, 
1S59, and the people rose and declared for annexation 
to Sardinia, which was accomplished in March, ISGO. 

FERRARS'S ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. George 
Ferrars, a member of Parliament, being in attendance 
on the House, was taken in execution by a sheriff's 
officer for debt, and committed to the Compter prison. 
The House dispatched their sergeant to require his re- 
lease, which was resisted, and an affray taking place, 
his mace was broken. The House in a body repaired 
to the Lords to complain, when the contempt was ad- 
judged to be very great, and the punishment of the 
offenders was referred to the Lower House. On an- 
other messenger being sent to the sheriffs by the Com- 
mons, they delivered up the senator, and the civil mag- 
istrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, 
the inferior officers to Newgate, and an act was passed 
releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. The 
kina:, Henry VIII., highly approved of all these pro- 
ceedings, and the tranVactiou became the basis of that 
rule of Parliament which exempts members from ar- 
rest. — Holiashed. 

FERRO, the most western of the Canary Isles, from 
whose west point some geographers have taken their 
flrst meridian, was known to the ancients, and was re- 
discovered iu 1402. 

FERROL (N.W. Spain). Upward of 10,000 British 
landed near Ferrol, under the command of Sir James 
Pulteuey, in Aug., 1800. They gained possession of 
the heights ; notwithstanding which, the British gen- 
eral, despairing of success on account of the strength 
of the works, re-embarked his troops. His condi'ict, 
which was in opposition to the opinion of his officers, 
was very much condemned in England. The French 
took seven sail of the line here, Jan. 27, 1809. 

FESCENNINE VERSES were rude extemporary di- 
alogues, frequently licentious, in favor among the an- 
cient Etruscans, and still popular in Italy. 

FESTIVALS. See Feasts. 

FETE HE DIEU, a feast of the Roman Church iu 
honor of the real presence in the Lord's Supper, kept 
on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. See Cor2}us 
Christi. Berengarius, archbishop of Angers, was op- 
posed to the doctrine of transubstantiatiou when it 
was propagated, and to atone for his crime a yearly 



procession was made at Angers, which was cajled la 
fdte de Dicu, 1019. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by suit and 
service to the lord or owner was introduced into En- 
gland by the Saxons about 600. This slavery was in- 
creased in 1068. The kingdom was divided into bar- 
onies, which were given on condition of the holders 
furnishing the king with men and money. The vas- 
salage, restored, btrt limited by Henry VII., 1495, was 
abolished by statute 1660. The feudal .system was in- 
troduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. iu 1008, and the 
hereditary jurisdictions were finally abolished iu that 
kingdom, 1746-7. The feudal laws, established in 
France by Clovis I. about 480, were discountenanced 
by Louis XL in 1470. 

FEUILLANTS, a religious order, founded by Jean 
de la BarriCre in 1577 at the abbey of Feuillant, near 
Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. .The Feuillant 
Club, formed in Paris by Lafayette andxithers in 1789, 
to counteract the intrigues of the Jacobins, was so 
named from the couvent where they met. A body of 
Jacobins burst into their hall and obliged them to sep- 
arate, Dec. 25, 1791 ; ^aud the club was broken up iu 
1792. 

FEZ (in the ancient Mai(,ritania, Africa), founded by 
Edris, a descendant of Mohammed, about 787, was long 
capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continuecl 
struggles, it was annexed to Morocco about 15.50. Leo 
Africanus describes it as containing more than seven 
hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices 
in the 12th century. 

FICTIONS. See Romances. — Fictions in Law were 
invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a 
means of carryiug cases from one court to another, 
whereby the courts became checks to each other. — 
Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the Court of King's Bench, 
emphatically declared that "no fiction ov law biiali. 

F.VKE so FAK prevail AGAINST THE REAL TRUTU AS TO 

I'BEVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 31, 1784. 

FIEF. See Feudal Laivs. 

FIELD OF March and May. See Champ. Field 
OF TUB Cloth of Gold, a plain near Ardres, near Cal- 
ais, iu France, ou which Henry VIII. met Francis I. 
of France, June 7-25, 1520. The nobility of both king- 
doms displayed their magnificence, and many involved 
themselves iu debt. Paintings of the embarkation aud 
interview are at Windsor Castle. 

FIERY CHAMBER. See Chamhre Ardentc. 

FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis -Philifpe. See 
France, 1835. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN about 1645 supposed the 
period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when Je- 
sus should descend from heaven, and erect the fifth 
universal monarchy. They proceeded so far as to elect 
Jesus Christ king at London. Cromwell dispersed 
them, 1653. — Kcarsli'ij. Another rising, with loss of 
life, was suppressed iu Jan., 1661. 

FIGURES. See Arithmetic and Digits. 

FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii., 21) B.C. 1093. 
The manufacture of them has attained to grciU perfec- 
tion by means of file-cutting machinery. That set up 
by Mr. T. Greenwood, of Leeds, in 1859, was invented 
by M. Bernot, of Paris. It is said that the price of 
files made by it are reduced from 32d. to 4d. per dozen. 

FILIBUSTERS, a name given to the freebooters 
who plundered the coasts of America iu the 17th cen- 
tury. See Buccaneers and Nicaragua. 

FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted water 
was patented by Wm. Wollcott in 1675. Other modes 
followed. James Peacock's method of fllti'atiou was 
patented in 1791. 

FINE ARTS. See Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, En- 
graving, etc. 

FINES AND RECOVERIES, conferring the power 
of breaking ancient entails and alienating estates, be- 
gan in the reign of Edward IV., but was not, proper- 
ly speaking, law, till Henry VII., by correcting some 
abuses that attended the practice, gave indirectly a 
sanction to it, 1487. Fines and recoveries were abol- 
ished in 1833. 

FINLAND, a Russian grand-duchy, in the middle 
of the 12th century was conquered by the Swedes, who 
introduced Christianity. It was several times con- 
quered bv the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1S08), and re 
stored (1721 and 1743) ; but in 1809 they retained it by 
treaty. See Abo. Its political constitution was con- 
firmed by the czar in 1809, 1825, aud 1855. Population 
iu 1S62, 1,746,229. 



FIR 



199 



FIR 



FIRE is paid to have been first produced by striking 
flints tos,'ether. The poets supposed that fire was 
stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Ileraclitus, about 
596 B.C., maintained that the world was created from 
fire, and deemed to be a j^od omnipotent. 

FIRE ANNiniL.\TOK, an apparatus invented by 
Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by him in 1849. 
When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are form- 
ed, which extinguish llame. It was not successful in 
practice. 

FIRE-ARMS. See Artillery and Cannon. The first 

small fire-arms were a species of cannon, borne by two 

men. See Revolver. 

Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy 1364 

Employed by the Burgundians in "the defense of 
Arras 1414 

Edward IV., when he landed at Ravenspur, is said 
to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings arm- 
ed with hand-guns 1471 

At the battle of Morat, the Swiss are said to have 
had 10,000 men armed with fire-arms 1476 

Fire-arms were used at the siege of Berwick 1521 

The petronel (from puitritif, the chest), or arque- 
bus, came into use 1480 ; and the musket employ- 
ed in the armies of the Emperor Charles V. 
about " 

All these were of very rude construction, being first 
discharged by a lighted raatch, afterward, about 
1517, by a wheel-lock, then by the flint. 

The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the 
flint-lock about 1692 

The Rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 
principle of igniting gunpowder in muskets by 
means of detonating powder 1S07 

Percussion caps came'into use between. .1820 and 1S30 

The old musket {Brown Bess) was superseded by 
the Enfield rifle, which is likely to give way to 
Lancaster's smooth-bored rifle 1S5S 

SMALL-.^KMS OF THE BRITISH SEEVICf:, 1854. 

Percussion musket ; pattern, 1S42, 

Victoria carbine (for cavalry). 

Regulation rifle musket; pattern, 18.51. 

Enfield rifle musket, adopted for the service in 18.53, 

after experiments at the royal manufactory, Enfield 

Lock. 
Artillery carbine ; pattern, 1842. 

FIRE-ARMS, American. The chief inventions in 
fire-arms by Americans are the "Colt's revolver," 
"Spencer ritie," and the Dahlgren rifled cannon. Sam- 
uel Colt made the first model of his revolver in 1829, 
took out his first patent in 18."5, and it came Into gen- 
eral u^e and was adopted by the United States gov- 
ernment about 1845. The Spencer rifle, a breech-load- 
ing ei'jrht-shooter, came into general use about 1862. 
Captain John A. Dahlgren introduced his shell guns, 
consisting of short sruns of heavy calibre, into the 
United States Navy in 1850. 

FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR is a small apparatus, 
about the size of a chronometer, invented by Mr. G. F. 
Ansell, and patented by him in lSti.5, by which the 
presence of very small q'nantities of fire-damp or light 
carbureted hydrogen gas may be detected in mines. 
It is an application of the law of the dift'usion of gases. 

FIRE-ENOTNES are said to have been invented by 
Ctesil)ius 2.'i0 B.C. They are mentioned by Pliny, A.D, 
70. A "Water-bow" was patented by Thos. Grent in 
1632 : one was constructed by John Van der Heyden 
about 1663. Bramah's engine was patented in 1793, 
and many others since. Mr. John Braithwaite con- 
structed a steam fire-engine in 18.S0. A trial of steam 
firc-cnLTines took ])lace at the Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham, on July 1, 2, 3, 1863, when prizes were awarded 
to a large one by Merryweather, and a small one by 
Shand and Mason. Steam fire-engines are now in gen- 
eral use in all the larger cities of the United States. 

FIRE-INSURANCE. See Insurance. 

FIRE-SHIPS were first used in the 13th century. 
AmouET tlie most formidable contrivances of this kind 
ever used was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge 
of boals at the siesre of Antwerp in 1.585. The first use 
of them in the British navy was by Charles, lord How- 
ard of Eftinirham, in the engagement of the Spanish 
Armada, -Inly, 158S. — Iiai»n^ 

FIRE-W.\TCIT, or Fire-Guard of Loudon, was in- 
stituted Nov., 1791. 

FIRE-WORKS are said to have been familiar to the 
Chinese in remote ages. They were invented in Eu- 
rope at Florence about 1300, and were exhibited as a 
spectacle in 15SS. 



Macaulay states that the fire-works let oflT in England 
at the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, cost X12,000. 

Very grand fire-works were let oft" from a magnificent 
building erected in the Green Park, Loudon, at the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed April 30, 1748. 

At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, May 31, 1770 
in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterward 
Louis X\ I., nearly 1000 persons perished by press- 
ure and drowning, through a panic. 

The^ display of fire-works, under the direction of Sir 
VVm. Congreve, on the celebration of the general 
peace, and to commemorate the centenary accession 
of the family of Brunswick to the British throne, 
surpassed all previous exhibitions, Aug. 1, 1814. 

A grand display of this kind (at a cost of i;iO,000) to 
celebrate the peace with Russia, May 29, 1856. 

FIRES IN North America. Some of the most de- 
structive fires are as follows: 

Norfolk, Virginia, destroyed by fire and cannon 
balls by the British ; property to the amount of 
$1,500,000 perished Jan. 1,1770 

City of New York, soon after passing into the 
hands of the British, 500 buildings consumed, 

Sept. 20, 21, " 

Theatre at Richmond, Va., when the governor of 
the state and a large number of the^leading in- 
habitants perished Dec. 26,1811 

City of New York, 600 warehouses and property 
to the amount of .$20,000,000 Dec. 16,1835 

Washington City, destroying the General Post- 
ofllce and Patent-oflBce, with over 10,000 valua- 
ble models, drawings, etc Dec. 15,1836 

At Charleston, 8. C, 1158 buildings, covering 145 
acres Apnl 27,1S3S 

New York City, 46 buildings ; loss $10,000,000, 

Sept. 6,1839 

Philadelphia, 52 buildings ; loss $500,000. . .Oct. 4, " 

Pittsburg, Peunsylvania,lOOO buildings ; loss about 
$6,000,000 April 10,1845 

Quebec, Canada, 1500 buildings, many lives, and 
an immense amount of property lost May 28, " 

In less than a month afterward, 1300 dwellings — 
in all, two thirds of the city was destroyed, 

June 28, " 

New York City, 302 stores and dwellings, 4 lives, 
and $6,000,000 of property July 19, " 

St. John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the whole town 
destroyed, 0000 people deprived of homes, 

June 12,1846 

Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons burnt to death, 

June 14, " 

Nantucket, 800 buildings and contents, valued at 
$800,0110 July 13, " 

At Albany, 600 buildings, besides steam -boats, 
piers, etc. ; 24 acres burnt over ; loss $3,000,000, 

Sept. 9,1843 

At St. Louis, 15 blocks of houses and 23 steam- 
boats ; loss estimated at $3,000,000 May 17,1849 

At Philadeljihia, 350 buildings ; loss estimated at 
$1,,500,000; 25 persons were killed, 9 drowned, 
and 120 wounded July 9,1850 

Frederickton, New Brunswick, four entire blocks 
in the centre of the city, nearly 300 buildings, 

Nov. 11, " 

Nevada, Cal., over 200 buildings destroved ; loss 
estimated at $1,300,000 March 12,1851 

San Francisco, Cal., nearly 2500 buildings burnt; 
estimated loss about $3,500,000 ; many lives lost, 

Mav 3 to 5, " 

Stockton, Cal. ; loss $1,500,000 Jlay 14, " 

San Francisco, Cal., 500 buildings ; estimated loss 
$3,000,000 June 22, " 

Concord, N. H., greater part of the business por- 
tion of the town destroyed Aug. 24, " 

Congress Library, Washington City, 35,000' vol- 
umes, with works of art Dec. 24, " 

At Montreal (see Montreal) July 8,1S52 

Harper Brothers' printina: and publishins house. 
New York ; loss over $1,000,000 "Dec. 10,1853 

Metropolitan Hall and Lafarge Hotel, New York 
Citv. On the same day. Custom-house at Port- 
land, Maine Jan. 8,1854 

At Jersey City, N. J., 30 factories and houses, 

July 30, " 

Damariscotta, Maine, almost entirely destroyed. 
On the same dav, more than 100 houses and fac- 
tories in Troy, N. Y. On the same day, a con- 
siderable portion of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, con- 
sumed Aug. 25, " 

At Lockport, N. Y., a large portion of the town de- 
stroyed Nov. 2,1855 

At Boston, on Lincoln's and Battery Wharves, 
property to the amount of $.500,000 April 27, " 



FIR 



200 



FIR 



At Syracuse, N. Y., twelve acres of ground burnt 
over, about 100 buildings ; loss $1,000,000, 

Nov. S,185C 

At Toledo, Ohio Feb. i;!,185T 

At Baltimore, Md. ; loss $400,000 Aprill4, " 

At New Orleans ; loss $250,000 July 8, " 

At Chicago, 111. ; several lives and $600,000 lost, 

Oct. 9, " 
New York Crystal Palace destroyed, with an im- 
mense amount of property on exhibition, Oct. 5,1858 
At Key West, Florida, 20 acres burnt over, 110 

honses ; loss $2,750,000 May 16,1859 

At New Bedford, Mass. ; loss $300,000. . . .Aug. 24, " 
The city of Charleston, S. C, was almost totally 
destroyed by tire, with great quantities of naval 

and military stores Feb. 17,1805 

The city of Portland, Maine, was nearly destroyed 
by lire, and 10,000 people rendered homeless ; 

loss $15,000,000 July 4,1866 

FIRES IN London. The conflagration of a city, 
with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is one of 
the most dreadful spectacles which this world can of- 
fer to human eyes. — Dr. Johnson. See Santiago, Liver- 
pool, etc. (1802). 

EEMARKABLE FIEEB IN OR NEAE LONDON. 

A great part of the city destroyed, including St. 

Paul's Cathedral 902 and 1087 

One at London Bridge, began on the Southwark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a numerous crowd. Of those 
who threw themselves into boats and barges, 
about ilOoo were drowned. A great part of the 

city, north and south, was burnt, 14 John, 1212 

The "Great Fire, whose ruins covered 406 acres, ex- 
tended from the Tower to the Temple Church, 
and from the northeast gate to liolborn Bridge. 
It began at a baker's house in Pudding Lane, 
behind Monument Yard, and destroyed, in the 
space of four days, 89 churches (including St. 
Paul's), the city gates, the Royal Exchange, 
the Custom-house, Guildhall, Sion College, alid 
many other public buildings, besides 13,200 
houses, laying waste 400 streets. About 200,000 
persons encamped in Islington and Ilighgate 

fields (see Monument) Sept. 2-6,1666 

In Southwark, 60 houses burnt 1076 

In Wappiug, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost 1715 

Custom-house burnt 1718 

At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt Sept. 10,1736 

In Coruhill Ward, 2()0 houses burnt: this fire be- 
gan in Change Alley, and was the most terrible 

since the great tire of 1606 March 25,1748 

At Coveut Garden, 50 houses 1759 

In Smithliekl, 28 houses burnt 1761 

At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt " 

In Throgmortou Street, 20 houses 1774 

At Wappiug, 20 houses 1775 

At Hermitage Stairs, 31 houses 1779 

At Horsley Down, 30 houses, besides many ware- 
houses and ships April 30,1780 

Newgate, etc., by the Gordon mob June, " 

In the Strand, 40 houses 1781 

lu Aldersgate Street, 40 houses ; the loss exceed- 
ing i;i00,000 Nov. 5,17S3 

The Opera-house June 17,1789 

At Rotherhithe, 20 houses Oct. 12,1790 

Again, when many ships and 60 houses were con- 
sumed Sept. 14,1791 

Pantheon, Oxford Street June 14,1792 

At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India ware- 
house, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were 

stored ; the loss £1,000,000 .July 21,1794 

Astley's Amphitheatre Sept. 17, " 

St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden Sept. 11,1795 

At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt Nov. 1,1796 

In the Miuories, 30 houses March 23,1797 

In the King's Bench, 50 residences July 14,1799 

Near the Customs, three West India warehouses ; 

loss £300,000 Feb. 11,1800 

At Wapping, 30 houses Oct. 6, " 

In Store Street, Tottenham Court Road, immense 

property destroyed Sept. 27,1802 

The great tower over the choir of Westminster 

Abbey burnt July 9,1803 

Astley's again, and 40 houses Sept. 1, " 

Frith Street, Soho, lasted several days ; many 

houses destroyed Dec. 2, " 

Surrey Theatre Aua;. 12,1805 

Covent Garden Theatre Sept. 20,1808 

Drury Lane Theatre Feb. 24,1809 

lu Conduit Street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to 
save Mr. North's library, received an injury 
which caused his death July 9, " 



In Bury Street, St. Mary Axe, half the street made 

ruins June, 12,1811 

Custom-house, warehouses, and public records de- 
stroyed Feb. 12,1814 

At Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- 
stroyed ; loss £80,000 March 16,1820 

At Mile End ; loss £200,000 Jan. 22,1821 

In Smithliekl ; loss £100,000 Aug. 14,1822 

Royalty Theatre destroyed April 11,1826 

In Red Lion Street, 15 houses June 6,1828 

Argyle Rooms destroyed Feb. 5,1830 

English Opera-house, etc., burnt Feb. 16, " 

Houses of Parliament consumed Oct. 16,1834 

Feuning's Wharf, London Bridge, etc., etc. ; loss 

£250,000 Aug. 30,1836 

The Royal Exchange destroyed Jan. 10,1838 

At Wapping, 12 houses June 10,1840 

Camberwell Church Feb. 7, 1841 

Astley's Theatre again June 8, " 

At the Tower; the armory and 280,000 stand of 

arms, etc., destroyed Oct. 30, " 

Raggett's Hotel, Dover Street, Piccadilly ; several 

eminent persons perished May 27,1845 

Several houses in New Square, Lincoln's Inn, 

Jan. 14,1849 

Olympic Theatre March 29, " 

One in St. Martin's Lane (at a publican's named 

Ben Cauut) ; three lives lost Jan. 15,1851 

Fire at Duke Street, London Bridge ; property lost 

estimated at £60,000 Feb. 19, " 

At the Rose and Crown, Love Lane, City ; four 

lives lost May 18, " 

Foot of London Bridge, four large hop warehouses 

burnt ; loss £150,000 June 23, " 

Collard and Co., piano -forte makers, Camden- 

town; loss£60,000 Dec. 19, " 

The warehouses of Messrs. Pawsou, St. Paul's 

Church-yard, burnt Feb. 24,1853 

Works of Gutta-percha Company, near City Road ; 

loss £100,000 June 5, " 

Kirkmau's piano-forte manufactory Aug. 10, " 

Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, Millwall ; 

loss £100,000 Sept. 10, " 

Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, 

Chandos Street, destroyed Sept. 30, " 

Premises of Towneud and Co., Bread Street, de- 

Mroyed ; loss about £100,000 Dec. 31, " 

Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pimlico Aug. 17,1854 

Whittingtou Club-house Dec. 3, " 

Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Renuie, 
etc., Blackfriars Road; loss,oue life and£150, 000, 

Feb. 10,1855 
Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 

works ; loss about £120,000 May 3, " 

Pavilion Theatre Feb. 13,1856 

Covent Garden Theatre March 5, " 

Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much valuable 

machinery destroyed March 12, " 

Messrs. Dobbs's premises, Fleet Street April 1, " 

Shad Thames flour-mill ; loss about £100,000, 

July 17, " 
Messrs. Broadwood's, piano -forte makers, West- 
minster Aug. 12, " 

Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army accoutrement 
makers, and others, in St. Martin's Lane ; esti- 
mated loss £20,000 Nov. 9, " 

Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm Sta- 
tion June 9,1857 

Gilbert Street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, March 28,1858 
Limehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon's, etc., premi- 
ses destroyed, and Blackwall railway arches ; 

insured July 19, 20, " 

Fresh Wharf; £25,000 worth of silk June 21, " 

London Docks ; great explosion ; mau killed by 

fright ; loss about £150,000 June 29, " 

Great James Street, Marylebone ; six lives lost, 

Feb. 26,1850 
Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime Street; one life 

and a large amount of proi)erty May 20, " 

West KeutWharf and New Hibernia Wharf; de- 
stroyed property valued at £200,000 ; fire lasted 

nearly a month commenced Auc;. 17,1860 

St. Martin's Hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other 

premises, destroyed Aug. 26, " 

Thames iron-works, Blackwall Aug. 31, " 

Kilburn Church, Maida Hill, destroyed . . .Nov. 29, " 
Cotton's Wharf and depot and other wharves near 
Tooley Street, containing oil and other combus- 
tible substances, took fire about half past 4 P.M., 
June 22, and continued Inirning for a month. 
Several persons were killed, including James 
Braidwood, the able superintendent of the Ljin- 
d(m fire-brisrade : the loss of property was esti- 
mated at £2,000,000 18C1 



Fill 



201 



FLE 



Davis's Wharf, Horslcy Do\ni, burnt ; loss about 
-C15,00(i Aui,'. 1,1S61 

Near Paterno.ster Row ; IMossrs. Longman's, book- 
sellcrsi, Messrs. Ktii^'ht's, tallow - melters, and 
others ; loss aljovc xr)ii,()(lO Sept. 4, " 

Mr. Price's, Fountain Court, Strand ; three lives 
lost Jan. 3,1S02 

At Campdcn House, Kensington, jjictures and oth- 
er valuable property of Mr. Woolley destroyed, 

March 23, " 

Mr. Dean's, Berkeley Street, Clerkenwell ; three 
livQs lost May 5, " 

!Mr. Joel's, Pore Street, City; four lives lost. 

May 21, " 

Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate Street ; explo- 
sion ; two lives lost June 7, " 

Great Cumberland Street, Hyde Park; Mr. S. Bar- 
rett and two daughters burnt Aug. 15, " 

Messrs. Price's oil-mills, lilacli-friars, burnt down ; 
great loss of property, but no lives lost, Nov. 20, " 

The ancient Austin Friars Church, City, partially 
destroyed* Nov. 22, " 

Mr. Chard's, Portland Street, Soho ; six lives lost, 

Dec. 26, " 

Messrs. Capel's, Seething Lane, City ; great de- 
struction of iiroperty April 18,1SG3 

Warehouses of I^lessrs. Grant and others, between 
Wood Street and Milk Street; property worth 
about iliii),iioii destroyed Dec. 19, " 

Meritou's Wharf, Doclihead ; immense loss of 
property June T,1SG4 

Royal Savoy Chapel, Strand, destroyed July 7, " 

Haberdashers' Hall and Messrs. Tapling and oth- 
ers' warehouses Sept. 19, " 

Messrs. Barry, Sufl'erance Wharves, Dockhead ; 
great loss Nov. 25, 26, " 

Surrey Theatre destroyed Jan. 30, 31,1865 

Savilfe House (where George IIL was born), Lei- 
cester Square Feb. 2S, 

Poulterers' Arms, Leadeuhall Market; two lives 
lost June 13, " 

Messrs. Meekiug's and Co., Holborn ; damage 
^30,000 June 24, " 

Messrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers ; valuable li- 
brary destroj-ed June 29, " 

Great lire at Beale's Wharf; about X18,000 dam- 
age Oct. 30, " 

Iraiiiense Are at St. Katherine's Docks Jan. 1,1S66 

There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1S57 ; 1114 in 
1858 (3S lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861 ; 1303 in 1862 ; 
1404 in 1803 ; and 1715 in 1864. In but few cases 
were the premises totally destroyed. Several 
fires were occasioned by careless use of coal oils 
in 1801-2. 

FIRE-WORSHIPEES. See Pcirsces. 

FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made a large 
part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First- 
fruits (called Annates, from annus, a year), in the Ro- 
man Church, originally the profits of one year of every 
vacant l.iishopric, afterward of every benefice, were first 
claimed liy Pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collect- 
ed in Enghind in lolO; but chronoiogers difteron this 
point. The exaction was submitted to till the 26th of 
Henry VIII., 1.^)34, when the first-fruits were assigned, 
by act of Parliament, to the king and his successors. 
Jiary gave up the Annates once more to the popes 
(1555), but Elizabeth resumed them (1.559). They were 
granted, toirether with the tenths, to increase the in- 
comes of the poor clergy, by Queen Anne, in 1703. 
The offices of First-fruits, Tenths, and Queen Anne's 
Bounty were consolidated by 1 Vict., c. 20, 1S38. See 
Augyiicntation of J'oor Livw'js. Annates were long re- 
sisted in France, but not totally suppressed till ire9. 

FISH-DAM FORD, Battle at. This is on the Broad 
River, in South Carolina. On the east side of the riv- 
er, in Cliestcr District, the Americans, under General 
Sumter, had a conflict with mounted British and To- 
ries, under Colonel Wemyss, on the ISth of November, 
17sn, at two o'clock in the morning. Wemyss was 
badly wounded, many of his command killed, and the 
remainder dispersed. 

FISHERIES. Laws for their protection were enact- 
ed by Edward I. in 1284, and by his successors. The 
right's of the English and French fishermen were de- 
fined by treaty in 1839. See llerriwj, Whale, and New- 
/inindlaiid Fishenes. 

FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On Feb. 22, 1797, 1400 
Frenchmen landed near this place. On Feb. 24 they 
surrendered to Lord Cawdor, and some countrymen, 
armed .with scythes and pitchforks. 

• Kestored an J reopened, Oct. 1, Iti65. 



FIVE HUNDRED, CotTNcti. of, established by the 
new French Constitution, Aug. 22, 1795, was uncere- 
moniously dissolved by Napoleon Bonaparte, Nov. 10, 
1799. J i- f 1 

FIVE-MILE ACT, an oppressive statute passed in 
the 17th year of Chas. II., Oct., 1665. It obliged Non- 
conformist teachers, who refused to take the non-re- 
sistance oath, not to come within five miles of any cor- 
poration where they had preached since the Act of Ob- 
livion (unless they were traveling), under the penalty 
of £50. They were relieved by Will. III. in 16S9. 

FLAG. The English flag acquired its present form 
in the 6th century, in Spain ; it was previously small 
and square.— .4. s'/u;. It is said to have been introduced 
there by the Saracens, before whose time the ensigns 
of war were extended on cross-pieces of wood.— P«r- 
don. The flag at sea denotes to what country a ship 
belongs, and the rank of its commander. The honor- 
of-thc-jlag salute at sea was exacted by Ensiland from 
very early times ; but it was formally yielded by the 
Dutch in 167,3, at which period they had been defeated 
in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards 
to lower their flag to the Vren^ih, imi). — llenauU. 
After an engagement of three hours between Tour- 
ville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter 
yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French 
flag, June 2, 16SS.— /(to?t. The American flag before 
the Revolution had the thirteen stripes for the colo- 
nies, but had the interwoven St. George's and St. An- 
drew's cross in the corner. After the adoption of the 
Constitution the thirteen stars were placed on a blue 
field for the corner, with an addition of one star for 
every state since admitted to the Union. See Salute 
at Sea and Union Jack. 

FLAGELLANTS. A fatal plague gave rise to this 
fanatic sect. — Henaitlt. They established themselves 
at Perouse about 1268. They maintained that there 
was no remission of sins without flagellation, and pub- 
licly lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
heretics in 1349 ; and 90 of them and their leader, Con- 
rad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, Henry III. of 
France became a flagellant for a short time. 

FLAGEOLET. See Fltite. 

FLAMBEAUX, Feast of. See Argos. 

FLAMMOCK'S REBELLION. See liebelUons, 1497. 

FLANDERS, the principal part of the ancient Bel- 
gium, which was conquered by Julius Cajsar, .51 B.C. 
it became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and 
was governed by counts subject to the king from 862 
till 1369, the first being Baldwin, Bras de Per, who is 
said to have introduced the cloth manufacture. In 
1204, Baldwin IV. became emperor at Constantinople. 
In 1369, Philip, duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, 
the heiress of Count Louis" II. After this, Fhtnders 
was subjected alternately to Burgundy (1384), Austria 
(1477), and Spain (1.55.5). In 15S0"it declared its inde- 
pendence, but afterward returned to its allegiance to 
the house of Austria. In 1713 it was included in the 
empire of Germany. France obtained a part of Flan- 
ders by treaty in 16,59 and 1679. See Burgundy, Neth- 
erlands, and Belgium. 

FLATBUSH, Battle of. See Long Island. 

FLATTERY CAPE (W. coast of North America), so 
named by Captain Cook, because at a distance it had 
the deceptive appearance of a harbor, 1778. 

FLAVIAN C^SARS were the Roman emperors 
Vespasi.an, Titus, and Domitian, who reigned 69-96. 

FLAX was brought from Egypt to Gaul about 1 B. 
C. ; and was ordered to be gro'wn in England by stat- 
ute 24 Hen. VIII., 1.533. For many }-ears the core was 
separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the 
hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods 
of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water- 
mill whicli was invented in Scotland about 1750. See 
Hemp. In 1851, Chevalier Claussen patented a meth- 
od of " cottoning" flax. 

FLEECE. See Golden Fleece. 

FLEET-PRISON MARKET, Etc. (London), were 
built over the small river Fleta, now used as a com- 
mon sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. Ibis river was 
navigable to Holborn Bridge ; and the obelisk in Fleet 
Street denotes the extent of it in 1775. The prison was 
founded in the first year of Richard I., and was allot- 
ted for debtors, 1640, and persons were committed here 
who had incurred the displeasure of the Star-Cham- 
ber, and for contempt of the Court of Chancery. It 
was burnt by the prisoners, June 7, 1780.* It was pui;- 

* Fleet Marriages. — Illicit marriages were celebrated hero to an 



FLE 



202 



FLO 



eel doTTn in 1845 (and the debtors removed to the 
Queen's Bench Prison). The site was sold to the 
Londou, Dover, and Chatham Bailway Company for 
£00,000 on June 2, 1S04. Fleet Market, originally form- 
ed in 1737, was removed, and the site named Farriug- 
don Street in 1820. A new (Parringdou) market was 
opened Nov. 20, 18-29. The granite obelisk in Fleet 
Street, to the memory of Alderman Waithman, was 
erected June 25, 1S33. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said to have 
been brought from heaven by an angel to Clovis, he 
having made a vow that if he proved victorious in a 
peuding battle with the Alemauui, near Cologne, he 
would embrace Christianity, 490. It was the national 
emblem till the Revolution in 1789, when the tri-color 
(white, red, and blue) was adopted. 

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several battles : 
(1.) On Aug. 30, 1022, between the Catholic League un- 
der Gonzales de Cordova and the Protestant Union 
(indecisive). (2.) When the Prince of Waldeck was 
defeated by Luxembourg, July 1, 1690. (3.) Between 
the Allies under the Prince ofCoburg and the French 
Revolutionary army commanded by Jourdan. The 
Allies, with an army of 100,000 men, had for their ob- 
ject the relief of Charleroi, when they were met on 
the plains of Fleurus and signally defeated. Between 
8000 and 10,000 were killed,"wounded, and taken pris- 
oners ; and Jourdan was enabled to form a junction 
with the P>ench armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, 
and the north. In this memorable battle the French 
made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's ar- 
my, an experiment which it is said contributed to the 
success of the da}', June 26, 1794. (4.) The battle of 
Ligny (lohich see) is also called the battle of Fleurus. 

FLIES. There was an extraordinary fall of these 
insects in London, covering the clothes of passengers 
in the .streets, 1707. — Chamberlain. In the United 
States of America, the Hessian jhj, from the notion of 
its having been brought there by the Hessian troops 
in the seiVice of England in the War of Independence, 
ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the se- 
vere attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept., 1853, the 
air was infested with small flies. 

FLINTS, in form like arrow-heads, and considered 
by him to have been shaped by human hands, were 
found in 1847, near Amiens, by M. Boucher de Perthes. 
His theory, which gives a much higher antiquity to 
man than is usually leceived, was much opposed, but 
latterly has been received by some eminent geologists. 
Many have been since discovered in other countries — 
iu Java in 1805. 

FLOATING BATTERIES. See BatUries, and Gib- 
raltar, Siege of, 1781. 

FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The site 
of a battle on Sept. 9, 1513, between the English and 
Scots, iu consequence of James IV. of Scotland having 
taken part with Louis XII. of France against Henry 
"VIII. of England. James, many of his nobles, and 
upward of 10,000 of his army were slain ; while the 
English, who were commanded by the Earl of Surrey, 
lost only persons of small note. 

FLOGGING. Wm. Cobbett iu ISIO, and John Dra- 
kard in ISll, were punished for publishing censures on 
flogging in the army. By orders issued Nov. 9, 1859, 
this mode of punishment was very much diminished 
in the army (see Army) ; and on Dec. following it was 
ordered that first-class seamen should not be flogged 
except after a trial. In 1863, flogging was made a 
punishment for attempts at garroting. 

FLOODS. See Inundations. 

FLORAL HALL, adjoining Covent Garden Theatre, 
London, is a large conservatory 220 feet long, 75 feet 
wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs by Mr. E. 
M. Barry, and was opened with the Volunteers' Ball, 
March 7, ISOO. It was opened as a flower-market, May 
22, 1861. 

FLORALTA, annual games at Rome in honor of 
Flora, instituted about 7.^2, Imt not celebrated with 
regularity till about 174 B.C. 

FLORENCE (Florentia), capital of Tuscany {which 

amazing extent. Between the 19th of October, 1704, and Feb. 12, 1705, 
there were celebrated 2954 marriages in the Fleet, without license or 
certificate of bans. 20 or 30 couple were sometimes joined in one day, 
and their names concealed by private marks, if they chose to pay an ex- 
tra fee. Pennant, at a later period, describes the daring manner in 
which this nefarious traffic w.is carried on. He says that, in walking 
by the prison in his youth, he has often been accosted with, " Sir, will 
you please to walk in and be married?" And he states that painted 
Bigns of a male and female hand conjoined, with the inscription, ** ^lar- 
riiiges performed within," were common along the building. Tliis 
glurjng abuse was put an end to by the Marriage Act iu 1753. 



see). It is said to have been founded by the soldiers 
of Sylla (80 B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman Trium- 
viri. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its 
palaces, universities, academies, churches, and libra- 
ries are to be found the rarest works of sculpture and 
painting in the world. The Florentine Academy and 
Aecadeniia delta Crusca (established 1582) were insti- 
tuted to enrich literature and improve the language 
of Tuscany ; the latter was so named because it rejects 
like bran all words not purely Tuscan : both are now 
united under the former name. 

Destroyed by Totila about 541 

Rebuilt by Charlemagne 781 

Becomes an indepeucleut republic about 1198 

Dante born here May 14,1205 

Savonarola burnt 1498 

The power of the Medici begins about 1420 ; the 

liberty of Florence was lost by the appointment 

of Alexander de' Medici as perpetual governor. .1530 
Cosmo de' Medici created Grand-duke of Tuscany,1.509 

Revolution at Florence April 27,1859 

Annexation to Sardinia voted by the people, March 

11, 12 ; the king enters Florence April 7,1SG0 

The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 

products of Italy Sept. 15,1861 

Florence decreed to be the capital of Italy, Dec. 11,1864 

The king and court remove there May 13,1805 

The DaiUe festival (the 600th anniversary of his 

birth) opened by the king "May 14, " 

Inauguration of a national rifle meeting; the king 

flres the first shot June 18, " 

FLORES, or Isle of Flowees (one of the Azores, 
which see), discovered by Vanderberg iu 1439, and set- 
tled by the Portuguese in 1448. 

FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the Southern states 
of North America, first discovered by Sebastian Cabot 
in 1497. It was visited by Ponce deLeon, the Spanish 
navigator, April 2, 1512, in a voyage he had absurdly 
undertaken to discover a fmintaiu whose waters had 
the property of restoring youth to the aged who tasted 
them ! Florida was conquered by the Spaniards un- 
der Ferdinand de Soto in 1539, but the settlement was 
not fully established until 1565. It was plundered by 
Sir Francis Drake in 1585, and by Davis, a buccaneer, 
in 1605. It was invaded by the British in 1702, and 
again by General Oglethorpe iu 1740; ceded to the 
British crown in 1703 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; 
and guaranteed to them in 1783. Revolution in ISIO, 
when the American government took means for occu- 
pying the country ; and after a tedious negotiation it 
was fiually ceded* by Spain to the United States iu 
1820-21, and admitted into the Union in 1845, from 
which it seceded in Dec, 1860 ; reunited in 1805. See 
United States. 

FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. A 
florin was issued by Edward III. which was current in 
England at the value of 6s. in 1337. — Camden. This 
English coin was called floren after the Florentine 
coin, because the latter was of the best gold. — Ashe. 
The florin of Germany is in value 2|. 4d.; that of Spain, 
4s. 4y.d. ; that of Palermo and Sicily, 2.^. M. ; that of 
Holland, 2s. — Ayliffe. A silver coinage of florins (value 
2s.) was issued by proclamation of Queen Victoria, 
August, 1849. 

FLOWERS. The present common flowers were for 
the most part introduced into England from the reign 
of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485-1603). The 
art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 
1633. A mode of preserving them from the efl'ects of 
frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in sum- 
mer, was invented in America, by Geo. Morris, in 1792. 
A very great number have been introduced from Amer- 
ica, Australia, the Cape, etc., during the present cen- 
tury. 

Acacia, N. America, before 1640 

Allspice shrttb, Carolina 1726 

Aniseed-tree, Florida, about 1766 

Arbor Vitse, Canada, before 1596 

Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 1774 

Auricula, Switzerland 1567 

Azarole, S. Europe, before 1640 

Bay, royal, Madeira 1005 

Bay, sweet, Italy, before 1548 

Camellia, China 1811 

Canary bell-flower. Canaries 1696 

Canary Convolvulus, Canaries 1690 

Carnation, Flanders 1567 

* In ISOl, the American government purchased Louisiana from the 
French, of which they contended West Florida formed a part. On the 
Revolution, and in consequence of this purchase, Spain, unable to de- 
fend the country, ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to 
which it was finally annexed after the negotiation above mentioned. 



FLU 



203 



FON 



Ceanothus, bine, New Spaiu ISIS 

Chastc-trco, Sicily, before 15T0 

Christ's tlioni, Africa, before 15'.i6 

Convolvulus, inaiiy-llowerecl 17T9 

Cornl-trec, Cape 181G 

Coral-trcc, licll-fiowered, Cape 1T91 

Coral-trcc, tremulous. Cape 17S9 

Creeper, Virijiniau, N.America 1003 

Dahlia, Chiiiii 1S03 

Dryiuidria, New Holland 1S03 

Everixreoii, thorn, Italy 1629 

EverlastiiiLT, tireat-lhnvered, CajjC 1781 

Everlastiui:, i^iant, Cape 1793 

Fernbush, sweet, N. America 1714 

Fox-Lrlove, Canaries i 1G9S 

Fuchsia fulirmis, Mexico, about 1835 

Geranium, Flanders 1534 

(Jillvlldwer, Flanders 1567 

Gold-plant, Japan 17S3 

Golden bcll-tlower, Madeira 1777 

Hawthorn, American, before 1683 

Heaths, Cape 1774-1803 

Honeyflower, srreat. Cape 1688 

Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 1806 

Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 175'2 

Honeysuckle, trum])et, N. America 1656 

Hyssop, south of Europe, before 1548 

Jasmine, Circassia, before 1548 

Jasmine, Catahmia, E. Indies 1629 

Judas-tree, south of Europe, before 1596 

Laburnum, Iluntrai-y 1576 

Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before 1713 

Laurustine, south of Europe, before 1596 

Lavender, south of Europe, before 1508 

Lil.v, Italy, before 1460 

Lih', gifjantic, N. South Wales 1800 

Lily, red-colored, S. America 1623 

Loblolly bay, N. America, before 1739 

Lupine-tree, Cape, about 1793 

Magnolia (see Mapiwlia), N. America 1088 

Magnolia, dwarf, China 1786 

Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America 1734 

Maiden-hair, Japan 1714 

Mignonette, Italy 1528 

Miik-wort, great-flowered, Cape 1713 

Milk-wort, showy. Cape 1814 

Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 

Mountain tea, N. America, before 175S 

Myrtle, candleberry, N. America 1699 

Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 

Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before 1590 

Oleander, red, south of Europe 1590 

Olive, Cape, Cape 1730 

Olive, sweet-scented, China 1771 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 

Passion-flower, Brazil 1692 

Passiim-flower, orange, Carolina 1792 

Pigeon-berry, N. America 1730 

Pink, from Italy 1567 

Eanunculus, Alps 1528 

Roses, Netherlands 1522 

Rose, the China, China 1789 

Rose, the damask, south of Europe, about 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China 1793 

Rose, the moss, before 1724 

Rose, the musk, Italy 1522 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders 1507 

Rose, sweet-scented Guelder, from China 1821 

Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon 1629 

Rose without thorns, N. America, before 1726 

Rosemary, south of Europe 1548 

Sage, African, Cape 1731 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico 1724 

Sti Peter's-wort, N. America 1730 

Sassafras-tree, N. America, before 1603 

Savin, s<nith of Europe, before 1584 

Snowdrop, Carolina 1750 

Sorrel-trce, N. America, before 1752 

Sweet bay, south of Europe, before 154S 

Tamarisk |)lant, Germany 1560 

Tea-tree, China, about 1708 

Tooth-ache-trce, from Carolina, before 1739 

Trumpet llower, N. America 1640 

Trumpet flower, Cape 1823 

Tulip, Vienna 157S 

Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1029 

Virgin's bower, Japan 1770 

Wax-tree, China 1794 

Weeping willow, Levant, before 1092 

Winter-berry, Virginia 1730 

Youlan, Chiiia. . . .' 1789 

FLUORESCENCE. When the invisible chemical 
rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are sent 
through uranium glass, or solutions of quinine, horse- 



chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, they become 
luminous. This phenomenon was termed " fluores- 
cence" by its discoverer, Professor Stokes, in 1852. 
See Calorescencc. 

FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from fluor 
spar ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. Its 
property of corroding all vessels is so great that it is 
separated with great difticulty. It was named by Am- 
pere in 1810. Its chemical historv was farther eluci- 
dated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), and succeeding 
chemists. The corroding property of fluoric acid was 
employed in the arts in 1760 by S'chwankhard of Nu- 
remberg.— Ghi(??»i. 

FLUSHING, Siege of. See Walcheren Expedition. 

FLUTE, a most ancient instrument, known to the 
Greeks. It has been improved by Br.hm in German}', 
and in London by Richard Potter, 1785 ; Rudall and 
Rose, 1832, and others. The English flute or flmicolet 
was patented by William Bainbridge in 1803, with im- 
provements in 1810 and 1819. 

FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathematics, 
invented by Newton, 1065, similar to the differential 
calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. Tlie finest ap- 
plications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, La 
Grange, and La Place. The first elementary work on 
fluxions in England is a tract of twenty-two pages in 
A Xi'ir ,sJioif Ti-fiitiae of Alfjcbra, together with a S2)cci- 
mcii ofthi' yntin-c and Alqorithm of Fluxions, by John 
Harris, M.A. London, 1702. 

FLYING, Aktifioiai,, has been attempted in all 
ages.* Friar Bacon maintained the possibility of the 
art of flying, and predicted it would be a general prac- 
tice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651) it will yet be 
as usual to hear a man call for his wings when he is 
going on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for 
his boots! Borelli (about 1070) showed the futilitvof 
these speculations. About 1800, Sir George Cayley ex- 
perimented on the subject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson in- 
vented a flying machine ; but nothing has been devised 
capable of serving a practical purpose. 

FOG SIGNALS. In 1862, much attention was paid to 
the subject by the Royal Commission on Liglit-houses, 
etc. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, a'battery of 
whistles blown by steam, the transmission of sound 
through water, the sirene, etc., were considered. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. The 
royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about 999, 
enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was com- 
pleted by Louis Philippe, 1837^0. Fontainebleau was 
entered by the Austriaus Feb. 17, 1814. Here Napoleon 
resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his 
army, April 5, 1814. 

Peace between France, Denmark, etc 1679 

Treaty between Germany and Holland Nov. 8,1785 

Treaty between Napoleon and Si)ain Oct. 27,180T 

Concordat between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII., 

Jan. 25,1813 

FONTENOY, near Toumay, in Belgium, the site of 
a battle on April 30 (May 11, N.S.), 1745, between the 
French, commanded by Marshal Saxe, and the English, 
Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by 
the Duke of Cumberland, t The battle was fought with 
great obstinacy, and the carnage on both sides was con- 
siderable, the Allies losing 12,000 men, and the French 
nearly an equal number of lives ; but the Allies were 
compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the disorder 
of which he afterward died) was carried about to all 
the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day 
would be their own. 

FONTIIILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 1796, the 
mansion of Wm. Beckford, author of "Vathek," and 
son of Alderman Beckford. He died in 1844. Within 
this edifice (which alone cost £273,000) were collected 
most costly articles of vertu, the rarest works of the old 
masters, and the finest specimens of the arts. The sale 
of the abbey and its contents to Mr. Farquhar took 
place in 1819; 7200 catalogues, at a guinea each, were 
sold in a few days. On Dec. 21, 1825, the lofty tower 
fell, and, in consequence, the remaining buildings were 
sold. 

* In Greek rnvthoIoRy, it is said that Da?dalu3 attached winjrs of 
wax to ttie body of his"snn Icarus, who, neRlectinp the advice of his 
fatlier, flew so liifrh that the sun melted his winps, and he fell into the 
sea which has received his name. (Ovid, Met.,viii., W5.) Archytaa 
is said to have made an artificial flying dove about 400 B.C. 

t The kinfr (Louis XV.) and the dauphin were present at this great 
battle. The success of the British at the commencement of it is still 
quoted by military men as the be?t illustration of the extraordinary- 
power of a column. The ailvancc of the .\u5lrians during several hours 
at the battle of JIarengo (fought Juuc 14, ItjOU) was coujpared to it by 
Bonaparte. 



TON 



20i 



FOR 



FONTS. Formerly the baptistery was a small place 
partitioued off iu a church, withlu which a large fout 
was placed, where the persoDS to be baptized (frequent- 
ly adults) were submerj;ed. Previouslj', lakes aud riv- 
ers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts are said to 
have been set up about 107. 

FOOLS, Festivai-b of, were held at Paris ou the 1st 
of January, where we are told all sorts of absurdities 
aud indecencies were committed, from 119S to 1438. 
Fools or licensed jesters were kept at court iu England 
(and at other courts iu Europe), aud were tolerated up 
to the time of Charles I., 16^15. 

FORCE. See Correlation. 

FOREIGNERS. See A lien. 

FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. IIL, c. 69 
(1819), forbids British subjects to enter the service of a 
foreign state without license from the king or privy 
council, aud also the fitting out or equipping ships for 
any foreign power to be employed against any power 
with which our governmeut is at peace. See Trials, 
18C2, 1863. In 1G()6, Englishmen were forbidden to en- 
ter foreign service without taking an oath not to be 
reconciled to the pope. The act was suspended in 1835 
on behalf of the British Legiun {which see). 

FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently 
been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of the British 
governmeut. See Hessians. An act (18 & 19 Vict, c. 
2) for the formation of a Foreign Legion as a contin- 
gent iu the Russian War (1855) was passed Dec.23,185i.* 
The queen and Prince Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, 
principally Swiss and Germans, at Shorncliffe, Aug. 9, 
1855. Ou the peace in 1850, many were sent to the Cape 
of Good Hope ; but, not prospering, returned. 

FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the re-ar- 
rangement of the duties of secretaries of state in 1782. 
It has the exclusive charge of British interests and sub- 
jects in foreign countries. The secretary for foreign 
affairs negotiates treaties, selects ambassadors, con- 
suls, etc., for foreign countries, and grants passports. 
The new foreign office, building iu the Italian style 
(designed by Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. 

FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is permit- 
ted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign of any 
foreign cotintry, or wear the insignia thereof, without 
her majesty's consent. Regulations published in L(m- 
don Gazette, May 10, 1855. 

FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes (in 1350, 
1562, etc.), all repealed iu 1844. 

FORESTS. There were iu England, even In the last 
century, as many as OS forests, 18 chases, and upward 
of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made 
by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 30 par- 
ishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the 
country for 30 miles round, 1079-85. — Stow. 

FORESTS.CiiAKTER OF Tnv:,Charta de Foresta, grant- 
ed by Henry III. in 1-217, was founded on Magna Ciiarta, 
granted by King John, June 15, 1215. 

FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage from 
Hull to Dundee, was wrecked in a violent gale, and thir- 
ty-eight persons out of tifty-three perished. The Outer- 
Fern Light-house keeper, James Darling, and his hero- 
ic daughter Grace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in 
a coble, and rescued several of the passengers. 

FORGERY. The forging deeds, or giving forged 
deeds in evidence, was made punishable by flue, by 
standing iu the pillory, having both ears cut off, the 
nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and 
perpetual imprisonment, 5 Eliz., 1502. Since the estab- 
lishment of paper credit, a multitude of statutes have 
been enacted. t 

Forgery first punished by death 1034 

Forcing letters of attorney made capital. ..'.'.'.'.'.'. !l722 
Mr. Ward, M.P., a man of wealth, expelled the 

House of Commons for forgery, May 16, 1726, and 

consig ned to the pillory March 17,1727 

* The endeavor to enlist for this legion, in 1864, in the United States, 
gave great offense to the American government. Mr. Crampton, our 
envoy, was dismissed May 28, 185(i, in spite of all the judicious pacific 
efforts of Lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our represent- 
ative in 1857. 

t It appears, from official returns, that the first forger on the Bank of 
England was Richard William Vaughan, a linen-draper of Stafford, in 
1158, before which time, since the establishment of the bank, a period 
of sixty-six years, no attempt at this species of forgery had been made. 
Vaughan employed a number of artists on different parts of the notes 
fabricated, which had all the appearance of being genuine. The crim- 
inal had filled up twenty of the notes, and had deposited them in the 
bands of a young lady of high respectability, whom he was on the point 
of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of substance. Bank-notes 
having been in circulation so long previously, and none having been 
before counterfeited, no suspicion ofthese notes was entertained. One 
of the artists was the informer and accuser. 



Value of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 
nominally £101,601. 

The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the 
uttering of forged notes 1S17 

Thos. Mayuard was the last person executed for 
forgery Dec. 31,1829 

Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as 
shall henceforth be punished with death 1830 

The punishment of forgery with death ceases, ex- 
cept in cases of forging or altering wills or pow- 
ers of attorney to transfer stock 1832 

These cases also reduced to transportable offeuses,lS37 

A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for Ibrg- 
iug numerous drafts on bankers March 5,1857 

The'law respecting forgery amended in 1861 

(See Executions [for forgery], 1770, 1777 ct seq.) 

FORKS were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 
14th centuries. — Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed. 
In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he 
says, "At Venice each per.son was served (besides his 
knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he 
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one 
should touch it with his hand." Thomas Coryaie de- 
scribes with much solemuity the manner of using forks 
in Italy, and adds, " I myself have thought it good to 
imitate the Italian fashion since I came home to En- 
gland," 1008. Two-pronged forks at Shefiield were 
made soon after. Three-pronged forks are much more 
recent. Silver forks came into use in England about 
1814. 

FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a just cause 
of suit, certified as such, yet so poor that he can not 
meet the cost of maintaining it, has an attorney and 
counsel assigned him on his swearing that he is not 
worth X5, by stat. 11 Henry VIL, 1495.— This act has 
been remodeled, and now persons may plead informd 
pauperis iu the courts of law. 

FORMIC ACID. Its artificial production by Pelouze 
in 1S31 is considered an event iu the progress of or- 
ganic chemistry. 

FORT DONELSON, Tennessee. This fort, built by 
the Confederates, near the beginning of the war, on 
the Cumberland River, east of Fort Henry, was design- 
ed, iu connection with the latter, to prevent an ap- 
proach to Nashville and into the interior of the Con- 
federacy. Its importance was not appreciated by the 
Confederates, who expected that the national troops 
would in 1802 advance into East Tennessee. Fort 
Henry was captured February 6, and the surrender of 
Donelson to General Grant took place on the 16th. 
The naval attack made by Commodore Foote on the 
14th was repulsed. A battle was fought on the 15th, 
in which an attempt was made by the garrison to cut 
its way through Grant's line of investment. The at- 
tack was made ou the national right with great suc- 
cess at first, but the advantages gained were not fol- 
lowed up, and on the 10th the fort was surrendered, 
with 10,000 prisoners and 40 guns. The garrison num- 
bered on the 15th about 18,000 men. Of these over 2000 
were killed or wounded, and a large number escaped 
by the river, among them Generals Floyd, Pillow, and 
Forrest. The defense was mismanaged. The nation- 
al loss was about 2000; the Confederate somewhat 
larger. The immediate results of the stirrender of Don- 
elson were the Confederate evacuation of Nashville 
and Columbus. 

FORT HENRY, Tennessee. This fort, situated on 
the Tennessee River, was coptured by General U. S. 
Grant and Commodore A. H. Foote, February 6, 1S62. 
The attacking fleet consisted of seven gun-boats, four 
of which were iron-clad. General Grant, with 11 regi- 
ments, co-operated with Foote by a movement to the 
rear of the fort, which led General Tilghman, com- 
manding the post, to send the main portion of his 
command — about 3000 men — to Fort Donelson, retain- 
ing S3 iu the fort to contend with the gun-boats. Twen- 
ty-one of these were killed or wounded, and the re- 
mainder, including Tilghman, were captured with the 
fort. Seventeen guns were captured. 

FORT SL^MTER in the War of the AMEEtoAN Re- 
bellion. This fort is situated in Charleston Harbor, 
nearly midway between Sullivan and Morris Islands, 
and 3^3 miles from Charleston City. It was original- 
ly a casemated brick work of five fiices, designed to 
mount two tiers of guns in embrasure and c?i barbette. 
In the spring of ISOl Major Robert Anderson com- 
manded the national works in Charleston Harbor. 
Tliis oiflcer, in view of the secession of South Carolina 
(December 20, 18: fl), aud of the preparations being 
made by the military forces in that state to seize the 
forts iu the harbor, evacuated Fort Moultrie ou the 



FOR 



205 



FRA 



night of Decpmber 20, and occupied Fort Snmter with 
liis commaiul. The Star of the West, in nu attempt to 
re-enforce Sumter, was tired upou ofl' Jlorris Island 
(January !•, liUM), and ol)liged to return to New York. 
On the 4th of February the secedini; states met in Con- 
vention at !MontLComery, Alalnima, named tliemselves 
"The Confederate States of America," adopted a Con- 
stitution, and formed a provisional f^overumeut, of 
wliich Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was president, 
and AU'xandei- 11. Stephens, ofCieori^ia, vice-president. 
On tlie 4th of .March Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated 
President of the United States. Commissioners sent 
fronx the Confederate States to negotiate for their rec- 
ognition failed to accomplish their mission ; and on 
the Sth of April, Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, 
was informed that Fort Sumter would be re-enforced, 
peaceably if possible, but by force if necessary. In 
the meaii time an expedition was sent for the purpo.se 
of re-enforcement. For fourmonths preparations were 
made by the Confederate forces at Charleston — num- 
Inning 7000 men, and commanded by General P. G. 
Bcaui-. gard — for an attack on Fort Sumter. On the 
11th of April Beauregard demanded the surrender of 
the fort, which demand was refused by Major Ander- 
son. That night the relieving flotilla reached the of- 
fing, and at 3 20 A.M. on the 12th, Anderson was noti- 
fied that tire would be opened upon him in one hour. 
At the time appointed the bombardment of Fort Sum- 
ter commenced from Fort Moultrie, two batteries at 
Fort Johnson, an iron - clad battery on Cumming's 
Point, anothernearCharleston,andother works, which 
had been constructed within range. The first gun was 
fired by Edmund Kufiin, an aged Virginian. After 
about three hours this fire was'replied to by the gar- 
rison. Three times during the day the quarters were 
set on fire by the shells. At noon the relieving fleet 
was discerned from the fort and saluted. The'bom- 
bardment was continued till dark, and renewed on the 
i;ith. It was impossible for re-enforcements to reach 
the fort. The fires in the quarters again broke out, 
and the fort being untenable. Major Anderson surren- 
dered it to the Confederates, and the next day evacu- 
ated the work, lowering his flag with a salttte, and, 
with the garrison, sailed northw.ard. In this first con- 
flict of the rebellion there were no casualties on either 
side. On the Vth of April, 1S03, an attempt was made 
by Admiral Dupont, with a fleet of monitors, to reduce 
Fort Sumter, but failed on account of obstructions in 
the harbor, which prevented the vessels from reaching 
the weakest side of the fort. In this attack the moni- 
tor Keokuk was sunk, and other vessels of the fleet 
sustained serious injuries. The bombardment was re- 
ne^^•ed by Admiral Dahlgreu after the occupation of 
!Morris Island in the summer of 1S63, and the fort, 
though reduced to an earth-work, and rendered tem- 
porarily harmless as an off'ensive work, was not cap- 
tured. The fort was held by the Confederates until 
CTcneral Hardee evacuated the city of Charleston, Feb- 
ruary 17, 1SC5. On the 14th of April, 1805, the old flag, 
which had been lowered by Major Anderson four years 
before, was again raised above the fort. On this oc- 
casion a masterly oration was delivered on the spot 
by Rev. Henry Ward Beecher. 

FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL was commenced July 
10, 1708, under the direction of Mr. Smeaton, and open- 
ed July 28, 1700. A communication is formed between 
the eastern and western seas on the coast of Scotland. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first 
people to fortify cities. Apollodorus says that Perse- 
us fortified Mycense, where statues were afterward 
erected to him." The modern system was introduced 
about 1.500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science of 
fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were 
made by Vauban (1707) and others. The fortifications 
of Palis, the most recent work claiming notice, were 
comiiletedin 1S46. f^ee Paris. In Aug., 1860, the Brit- 
ish Parliament passed an act for the'expenditure of 
i2,0oo,(iiMi in one year upon the fortifications of 
Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, and Portland, the 
Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, Chatham, Dover, 
and Cork, and on the purchase of a central arsenal es- 
tablishment; the estimated expense being i;9,500,000. 

FORTI'NE-TELLINC; is traced to the early astrol- 
ogers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus were 
supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllre were 
women who flourished in different parts of the world, 
and who were said to have been inspired by Heaven. 
See Sibpls and Gipsien. In Enu'Iand the laws against 
fortune-telling were at one time very severe. A dec- 
laration was published in France, Jan. 11, 1680, of ex- 
ceeding severity against fortune-tellers and poisoners, 
under which several jiersons sufiered death.— //f7?a7</r. 
Fortune-tellers, although liable by the act of 1824 to 



be imprisoned as rogues and vagabonds, still flourish 
in England. 

FOTIIERINGAY CASTLE (Northamptonshire), 
built about 14U0. Here Richard III. of England was 
born in 14f)0 ; and here Mary (^ueen of Scots was tried, 
Oct, 11-14, 1586, and beheaded, Feb. s, l,')87. It was de- 
molished by her son, James I. of England, in 1604. 

FOL'GHARD, near Armagh, N. Ireland. Here Ed- 
ward, brother of Robert Bruce, after invading Ireland 
m 1315, was defeated by Sir John Bermingham in 1318. 
Bruce was killed by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of 
Dundalk. 

FOUiS'DLING HOSPITALS. A species of foundling 
hospital was set up at Milan in 787, and in the Middle 
Ages most of the principal cities of the Continent pos- 
sessed one. The French government in 1790 declared 
foundlings to be the " children of the state." 
Foundling Hospital at Moscow, founded by Catha- 
rine II. in 1703 ; about 12,000 children are re- 
ceived annually. 
Foundling hospitals are recent in England ; none 

existed when Addison wrote in 1713 

Loudon Foundling Hospital, projected by Thomas 
Coram, a sea captain, incorporated by charter in 

Oct., 1739 ; opened June 2,1750 

It succors about 500 infant children ; Coram's stat- 
ue was put up in 1S56 

Foundling Hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 
In this charity there had been received, accord- 
ing to Parliamentary returns, in the thirty years 
preceding Jan., 1825, as many as 52,150 infants: 
of these, 14,613 had died infants— 25,859 were re- 
turned as dead from the country, where they 
were out nursing— 730 died in the infirmary aft- 
er returning — 322 died grown children — total 
deaths, 41,524 ; so that 10,026 only escaped this 
fiite. Owing to this mortality, and from certain 
moral considerations, the internal department 
was closed by order of government . . .March 31,1835 
FOUNTAINS are apparatus, natural or artificial, by 
which water is made to spring upward. The fountain 
of Hero of Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. 
Among the remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fon- 
tana di Trevi, constructed for Pope Clement XII. in 
1735; the Fontana Paolina, erected for Pope Paul V. 
in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua Felice, called also 
the Fountain of Moses. The fountains in the palace 
gardens at Versailles, made for Louis XIV., and the 
Grand Jet d'Eau at St, Cloud, are exceedingly beauti- 
ful. There are above 100 public fountains in Paris, the 
most striking being the Chateau d'Eau on the Boule- 
vard St. Martin (by Girard, 1811), and that at the Palais 
Royal. London is not remarkable for fountains ; the 
largest are those in Trafalgar Square, which were con- 
structed in 1S4.5, after designs by Sir Charles Barry. 
There are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Der- 
byshire, the seat of the Duke of Devonshire. The mag- 
nificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, 
were first publicly exhibited on June 18, 1856, in the 
presence of the queen and twenty thousand specta- 
tors. 

FOURIERISM, a social system devised by M. Chas. 
Fourier (who died in 1837). The Phalanstery (or as- 
sociation of 400 persons living in one edifice) was to 
be so arranged as to give the'highest amount of hap- 
piness at the lowest cost. All attemjits to reali/o the 
system have failed ; caused, it is said, by the smallness 
of the scale on which they were tried. 

FOX-GLOVE. The Canary fos-glove {Dicjitalis Co- 
wtn'ensis), from the Canary Islands, 1098. The Madei- 
ra fox-glove came here in 1777. The fox-grape shrub 
(Vitis Vul2Ana), from Virginia, before 1656. 

FRANCE was known to the Romans by the name 
of Gaul (ii'hich see). In the decline of their power it 
was conquered by the Franks, a peojile of German}', 
then inhabiting Franconia, where they became known 
about 240. These invaders gave the name to the king- 
dom {Franken-rir, Franks' kingdom) ; but the Gauls, 
being by far the most numerous, are the real ancestors 
of tlie modern French. The present Constitution is 
chiefly based u))on the plebiscitums of Dec. 21, 22, 1851 ; 
and Nov. 21, 22, 1S52. For the dynastic changes, see 
list of sovereigns, p. 211. Previous to the Revohition, 
France was divided into 40 governments. In li90 it 
was divided into S3, and subsequently Into 130 depart- 
ments, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other 
places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments 
were reduced to 86 ; in 1860 they were raised to 89 by 
the acquisition of Savoy and Nice.* For details of im- 
portant events, see separate articles. 

« Poinilation of France in 170U, 19,669,320; in 1762, 21,769,163; in 



FRA 



20G 



TEA 



The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 

called Flauders, about 41S 

Clovis, 481 ; defeats Sj'agrius and the Gauls at 
Soissons, 4S6 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiac, 

near Cologne; and embraces Christianity 490 

He kills Alaric the Goth in battle near Poictiers, 
unites his conquests from the Loire to the Pyr&- 

nees, and makes Paris his capital 507 

He proclaims the Salique law , and dies, leaving 

four sous (see p. 211) 511 

The mayors of the palace now assume almost sov- 
ereign authority 5S4 

Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, and 

rules with despotic sway 714 

Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles 

Martel, near Tours Oct. 10, 732 

Reign of Pepin the Short 752 

Charlemagne king, 7GS ; conquers Saxony and 
Lombardy, 773 ; "crowned Emperor of the West, 

Dec. 25, 800 
The Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of which 
is granted to KoUo, as Normandy, by Charles the 

Simple 911 

Reign of Hugh Capet 987 

Paris made the capital of all France 996 

Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns by 

Louis VI 1135 

Louis VII. joins in the Crusades 1146 

Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bouvines,l'214 

Louis VIII., Coexir de Lion, frees his serfs 1224 

Louis IX., called St. Louis, defeats John of En- 
gland ; conducts an army into Palestine ; takes 

Damietta ; and dies before Tunis 1250-70 

Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily 12C6 

His tyranny leads to the massacre called the Sicil- 
ian Vespers {lohich see) 12S2 

Philip the Fair's quarrels with the pope 1801-2 

Knights Templars suppressed 1307-8 

Union of France and Navarre 1314 

English invasion— Philip VI. defeated at Cressv, 

Aug."26,1346 

Calais taken by Edward III Aug. 3^1347 

Dauphiuy annexed to France 1849 

Battle of Poictiers {which see) • King John taken 

and brought prisoner to England 1356 

France laid under an interdict by the pope 1407 

Battle of Agincourt (which see) Oct. 25,1415 

Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 

kingdom 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; the Duke of Bed- 
ford's regency 1422 

Siege of Orleans, May 8 ; battle of Patay ; the En- 
glish defeated by Joan of Arc June 18,1420 

Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen May 30,1431 

England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 

France, between 1434 and 1450 

League of the Public Good formed against Louis 

XL by the nobles Dec, 1464 

Edward IV. of England invades France 1475 

Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it 1496 

League of Cambray against Venice 150S 

Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against 

France '. 1511 

English invasion— Battle of Spurs Aug. 16,1513 

Interview of the Cloth of Oold between Francis I. 

and Henry VIII. of England 1520 

Francis I. defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia, 

Feb. 24,1525 

Peace of Cambray Aug. 5,1529 

Persecution of Protestants begins 1530 

Royal printing-press established, 1531 ; Robert Ste- 
phens prints his Latin Bible 1532 

League of England with the Emperor Charles V. ; 

Henry VIII. invades Prance 1544 

Successful defense of Metz by the Duke of Guise,1552 

He takes Calais (which see) , 155S 

Religious wars ; massacre of Protestants at Vassy, 

March 1,1562 

Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux Dec. 19, " 

Guise killed at the siege of Orleans, Feb. 18 ; tem- 
porary peace March 19,1503 

Huguenots defeated at St. Denis, Nov. 10, 1507 and 

at Jarnac, March 13 ; at Moucoutour Oct. 3,1560 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew Aug. 24,1572 

The " Holy Catholic League" established 1576 

Dnke of Guise assassinated by command of the 
king, Dec. 23 ; and his brother, the cardinal, 

Dec. 24,1588 

1801, 27,349.003; in 1820, 30,451,187; in 1836, 33,640,910; in 1S46, 
35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; in 1861, including the new depart- 
menta, 37,382,223. Population of the tolonies (in Asia, Pnndicherry, 
etc. ; Africa, Alfrerift, etc. ; America, Martinique, Guadaloupe, etc. ; 
Oceanica, the Marquesas, etc.) in 1868, 3,641,226. In May, 1862, the 
Monitcur asserted tne effective army to be 447,000, with a reserve of 
170,000. 



Henry III. murdered by Jacques Clement, a friar, 

Aug. 1,1589 

Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic July 25,1593 

The League leaders submit to him Jan., 1596 

He promulgates the Edict of Nantes April 13,1598 

Silk and other manufactures introduced by him 

and Sully 1006-10 

Quebec in North America settled 1608 

Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac May 14,1610 

Regency of Mary de' Medici 1610-14 

The States-General meet and complain of the man- 
agement of the tinances Oct. 27,1614 

Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; and their fall 1617 

Navarre annexed to France 1620 

Vigorous and successful administration of Riche- 
lieu, begins with finance 1624 

Rochelle taken after a long siege 1628 

Richelieu organizes the Academie de France 1634 

His death (aged 58) Dec. 4,1642 

Accession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anne of 

Austria regent) May 14,1643 

Administration of Mazarine ; victories of Tu- 

lenne 1643-6 

Civil wars of the Fronde 1648, etc. 

Colbert becomes financial minister 1661 

W^ar with Holland, etc 1671 

Canal of Languedoc constructed 1664-81 

Edict of Nantes revoked Oct. 22,1685 

Louis marries Madame de Maintenon 1686 

War with William IIL of England 16S9, etc. 

Peace of Ryswick Sept. 20,1697 

War of the Spanish Succession 1701 

French defeated at Blenheim Aug. 13,1704 

At Ramillies May 23,1706 

Peace of Utrecht (lohich see) 1713 

Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the 

Duke of Orleans Sept. 1, 1715, etc. 

Law's bubble in France (see Laiv) 1716 

French defeated at Dettingen June 16,1743 

Successful campaign of Marshal Sase 1746 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Oct., 1748 

SeTen Years' War begun 1756 

Damiens's attempt on the life of Louis XV., Jan. 5,1757 

Canada lost— battle of Quebec Sept. 13,1759 

The Jesuits banished from France, and their ef- 
fects conliscated 1762 

Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England 1703 

Louis XV, enslaved by Madame du Barry 1769 

Death of Louis XV May 10,1774 

Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its de- 
pendence on England, at first secretly 1778 

Torture abolished in French judicature 1780 

Peace with England Sept. 3,1783 

The diamond necklace affair 1785 

Meeting of the Assembly of Notables, Feb. 22, 1787 ; 

again Nov. 9,17SS 

Opening of the States-General (.^08 ecclesiastics, 

285 nobles, and 621 deputies, tiers etat). . .May 5,1789 
The tiers etat constitute themselves the National 

Assembly June 17, " 

The French Revolution commences with the de- 
struction of the Bastile (lohich see) July 14, " 

The National Assembly decrees that the title of 
the "King of France" shall be changed to that 

of the "King of the French" Oct. 16, " 

The plate and other property of the clergy is con- 
fiscated Nov. 6, " 

Confederation of the Chamj') de Mars; France is 
declared a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. takes 
the oath to maintain the Constitution.. .July 14,1790 
The silver plate used in the churches transferred 

to the mint and coined March 3,1791 

Death of Mirabeau April 2, " 

The king, queen, and royal family arrested at Va- 

rennes, in their flight from Paris June 21, " 

Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the National Con- 
stitution Sept. 15, " 

The Jacobin Club declare their sittings perma- 
nent June 18,1792 

The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of Liberty, 
march to the Tuileries to make demands on the 

king June 20, " 

First coalition against France : commencement of 

the great French War. June, " 

(See Battles, 1792 to 1S15.) 
The royal Swiss Guards cut to pieces ; massacre 

of 5000 persons Aug. 10, " 

Decree of the National Assembly against the 

priests ; 40,000 exiled Aug. 26, •' 

Dreadful massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken 
open, and 1200 persons (100 priests) slain, 

Sept. 2-^, " 
Murder of the Princess de Lambalie* Sept. 3, " 

* The multitude hurried to the Temple bearing the mutilated body 



FRA 



207 



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The National Converitiou opened Sept. 17,1792 

Tlie Convention abolishes royalty and establishes 

a rcpnblic Sept. 'M-2i, " 

The French people declare their fraternity with all 
nations who desire to be free, aud ofl'er help, 

Nov. 19, " 
Decree for the perpetual banishment of the Bour- 
bon family, tho.se coutined iu the Temple except- 
ed Dec. 'iO, " 

Louis iniprisoiu'd in the Temple distinct from the 
quci'n, and broni^'ht to trial, Jan. 19 ; condemned 
to death, Jan. -.'u ; beiieaded in the I'lace de Louis 

Quiiize Jan. 21,1793 

War with England declared Feb. 1, " 

Insurrection iu La Vendee March, " 

Keigu of Terror — proscription of the Girondists, 
May 31 ; establishment of the Convention, 

June 2.'?, " 

Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday July i;i, " 

Tile ijueen 1)ch('adcd Oct. l(i, " 

Pliilij) Eu'alitr, llie Duke of Orleans, who had voted 
for the kiny;'s death, is himself t,'uillotined at Par- 
is (see Orleans), Nov. 6 ; and Madame Roland, 

Nov. 8, " 
Execution of Danton and others, April 5 ; of Ma- 
dame Elizabeth March 10,179-1 

Robesi)ierre and 71 others guillotined July 28, " 

Louis X VIT. dies in prison Juue 8,1795 

French Directory chosen Nov. 1, " 

Bonaparte's successful campaigns iu Italy. . .1790, etc. 

Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed May 12,179(; 

Pichci^ru's conspiracy fails May,17y7 

Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 

who is declared First Consul Nov. 10,1799 

He defeats the Austrians at Marengo June 14,1800 

His life attempted by the infernal machine, Dec. 21, " 
Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Hol- 
land) signed March 27,1802 

Amnesty to the emigrants April, " 

Legion of Honor instituted May 19, " 

Bonaparte made consul for life Aug. 2, " 

The Bank of France established April 14,1803 

Declaration of war against England May 22, " 

Conspiracy of Moreau aud Pichegru against Bona- 
parte, Feb. 15 ; the latter was found strangled iu 

prison (see Georijcs) April 0,1804 

Duke d'Enghien shot March 20, " 

France formed into an empire ; Napoleon pro- 
claimed emperor. May IS, " 

He is crowned King of Italy May 20,1805 

He defeats the Allies at Austerlitz Dec. 2, " 

Aud the Prussians at Jena Oct. 14,1806 

New nobility of France created March 1,1808 

Divorce of "the Emperor and Empress Josephine 

decreed bv the senate Dec. 16,1809 

Holland united to France July 9,1810 

War with Russia declared June 22,1812 

Victory at Borodino Sept. 7, " 

Disastrous retreat Oct., " 

Triple alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia 

against France Sept. 9,1813 

The British pass the Bidassoa, aud enter France, 

Oct. 7, " 
Surrender of Paris (see Battles) to the allied armies, 

March 31,1814 
The constitutional charter established, June 4-10, " 

Abdication of Napoleon April 5, " 

Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. ar- 
rives iu Paris ^lay 3, " 

Napoleon arrives at Elba May 3, " 

Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes ' March 1,1815 

Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, " 

Joined by all the army March 22, " 

The allies sign a treaty for his subjugation, 

March 25, " 

He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, " 

Leaves Paris for the army June 12, " 

Is defeated at Waterloo June 18, " 

Returns to Paris, June 20, and abdicates in favor 

of his infant son June 22, " 

Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 

Rochefort July 3, " 

Louis XVIII. enters Paris July 3, " 

Napoleon surrenders to Captain Maitland, of the 

licUerDphnn July 1.5, " 

Transferred at Torb.iy to the Northumberland, and, 
with Admiral Sir George Cockburn, sails for St. 

Helena Aug. 8, " 

Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life Oct. 15, " 

of Madame de Lamballe, in order to exhibit the "impioua head" of 
their relative to the royal family, the queen and the Princess Eliza- 
beth manifested the deepest emotion and sensibility ; but the kinesaid, 
with assumed apathy (while shrinkinp at the pitrnt), to the person by 
whom it was shown to him, " Vnus nt'tz rni.vin^ Maii-iifttr.'^ — '* You are 
right, sir." These assassins were termed the iSeptembrizers {which see). 



Execution of Marshal Ney. Dec. 7,1815 

The family of Bonaparte excluded forever from 

France by the law of amnesty Jan. 12,1816 

Duke of Berri murdered Feb. 13,18'''0 

Death of Napoleon L (see Wills) May 5,1821 

Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. succeeds. .Sept. 10,1824 

National guard disbanded April 30 1827 

War with Algiers ; the dey's fleet defeated, Nov. 4, " 
Election riots at Paris; barricades; several per- 
sons killed Nov. 19 20 " 

Seventy-six new peers created Nov. 5* " 

The Villdle ministry replaced by the Martignac, 

"Jan. 4,1828 
Borauger condemned and imprisoned forhis songs, 
x. ,. , . . Dec. 10, " 

Polignac administration formed Au"-. 8,1829 

Chamber of Deputies dissolved May 16,1830 

Algiers taken juiy 5' a 

The constitutional charter of July published, 

Aug. 14, " 
The obnoxious ordinances regarding the pi-ess, 
aud reconstruction of the Chamber of Deputies, 

July 26, " 
Revolution commencing with barricades, July 27, " 
Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ultimate- 
ly aided by the national guard) and the army, 

July 28-30, " 
Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of the 

ministry, July 31 ; Charles X. abdicated, Aug. 2, " 
The Duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- 
Philippe I Aug. 7, " 

Charles X. retires to England Aug. 17, " 

Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced 

to perjietual ini])risonment Dec. 21, " 

The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
by both chambers; the peers (36 new peers be- 
ing created) concurring by a majority of 103 to 70, 

Dec. 2T,1S31 
The A. B.C. (abaisses) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed June 5, 0,1832 

Charles X. leaves Holyrood House for the Conti- 
nent Sept. IS, " 

Ministry of Marshal Soult, duke of Dalmatia, 

Oct. 11, " 
Bergeron aud Benoit tried for an attempt on the 

life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted March 18,1833 

The Duchess of Berri, who has been delivered of a 
female child, and asserts her secretmarriage with 
an Italian nobleman, is sent to Palermo, June 9, " 

Death of Lafaj'ette May 20,1834 

Marshal Gerard takes office July 15, " 

M. Dupuytreu dies Feb. 8,1835 

Due de Broglie minister Feb., " 

Fieschi atteinpts the king's* life July 28, " 

He is executed Fe"b. 0,1830 

Louis Alibaud flres at the king on his wav from 

the Tuileries, June 25 ; guillotined July 11, " 

Ministry of Count Mole in room of M. Thiers, 

Septa, " 

Death of Charles X Nov. 0, " 

Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis Na- 
poleon (now emperor), Oct. 30 ; he is sent to 

America Nov. 13, " 

Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from 

Ham, aud sent out of France Nov. 23, " 

Meunier flres at the king on his way to the Freuch 

Chambers Dec. 27, " 

Amnesty for political offenses May 8,1837 

"Idoes Napoluenues," by the present emperor, 

were published 1833 

Talleyrand dies May 17, " 

Marshal Soult at the coronation of the Queen of 

England June 28, " 

Birth of the Count of Paris Aug. 24, " 

Death of the Duchess of Wurtemberg (dauEhlTer of 

Louis-Philippe), a good sculptor ."Jan. 2, 1839 

M. Thiers, minister of foreign aflairs March 1,1840 

The Chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's 
remains from St. Helena to France, t. . ..May 12, " 



* He firod an infernal machine as the king rode alon<; the lines of the 
national guard, on the Boulevard du Temple, accompanied by his three 
sons and suite. The machine consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged 
with various species of missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a train 
of gunpowder. The king and his sons escaped ; but Marshal Mortier, 
dute of Treviso, was shot dead, many officers were dangerously wound- 
ed, and upward of forty persons killed or injured. 

t By the permission of the British government, these were taken 
from the tomb at St. Helena, and embarked on the 16th of October, 
1840, on board the Jielle Pmde French frigate, under the command of 
the Prince de Joinville ; the vessel reached Cherbourg on November 
.Wth, and on December 15th the body was deposited in the Hotel des 
Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 1,000,000 of persons; 
150,000 soldiers assisted in the obsequies; and the royal family and all 
tlie high personages of the realm were jiresent ; but it was remarkable 
that nil the relatives of the emperor were absent, being proscribed, and 
in exile or in prison. The body was finally placed in its crypt on March 
31,1861. 



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208 



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Descent of Prince Louis Napoleon, General Mon- 
tliolou, and 50 followers, at Vimeronx, near Bou- 
logne, Aug. G ; the prince sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life Oct. 6,1S40 

Darnies lires at the king Oct. 15, " 

M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs Oct. 29, " 

Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 
140,000,000 of francs, for erecting the fortitica- 
tions of Paris Dec. 15, " 

The duration of copyright to 30 years after the au- 
thor's death fixed March 30,1841 

Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 
of the Grande Armce, Boulogne Aug. 15, " 

Attempt to assassinate the Duke of Anmale"(sou 
of the king) on his return from Africa.. Sept. 13, " 

The Duke of Orleans heir to the throne, killed by 
a fall from his carriage July 13,1842 

The (^)ueen of England visits the royal family at 
the Chateau d'Eu Sept. 2 to 7,1843 

Extradition treaty signed " 

Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king at 
Foutalnebleau April 10,1840 

Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham May '25, " 

The seventh attempt on the life of the king, by 
Joseph Henri July 2!», " 

Marriage of the Due de Montpeusier with the In- 
fanta of Spain Oct. 10, " 

Disastrous inundations in the south Oct. 18, " 

The Praslin murder (see Pnidm) Aug. 18,1847 

Death of Marshal Oudinot (Duke of Reggio), at 
Paris, in his '.tlst year, Sei)t. 13 ; Soult made gen- 
eral of Prance in his room Sept. 20, " 

Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile 
of 32 years Oct. 10, " 

Death of the Ex-empress Maria Louisa, Dec. 17 ; 
and of Madame Adelaide Dec. 30, " 

The proposed grand reform banquet at Paris sup- 
pressed Feb. 21,1848 

Violent revolutionary tumult in consequence ; im- 
peachment and resignation of Guizot, Feb. 22 ; 
barricades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, 
the prisons opened, and frightful disorders com- 
mitted by the populace Feb. 23, 24, " 

Louis-Philippe abdicates in favor of his infant 
grandson, the Comte dc Paris, who is not ac- 
cepted ; the royal family and ministers escape, 

Feb. 24, " 

A republic proclaimed from the steps of the Hotel 
de Ville Feb. 20, " 

The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven, in 
England March 3, " 

Grand funeral procession in honor of the victims 
of the revolution March 4, " 

The provisional government, which had been 
formed in the great public commotion, resigns 
to an executive commission, elected by the Na- 
tional Assembly of the French Kepublic, May 7, " 

[The members of this new government were MM. 
Dupont de I'Eure, Arago, Garnier-PaL'es, Marie, 
Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, and Cromieux. The 
secretaries, Louis Blanc, Albert Flocou, and 
Marrast.] 

Perpetual banishment of Louis-Philippe and his 
family decreed May 20, " 

Election of Louis-Napoleon for the department of 
the Seine and three other departments to the 
National Assembly June 13, " 

Kise of the Red Republicans ; war against the 
troops and national guard j more than 300 bar- 
ricades thrown up, and tiring continues in all 
parts of Paris during the night June 23, " 

The troops, under Generals Cavaignac and La- 
moriciere, succeed, with immense loss, in driv- 
ing the insurgents from the left bank of the 
Seme June 24, " 

Paris declared in a state of siege June 25, " 

The Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, 
and the insurgents surrender June 20, " 

[The national losses caused by this dreadful ont- 
brea.k were estimated at 30,000,000 francs ; 10,000 
persons killed and wounded, and SOOO prison- 
ers wore taken. The Archbishop of Paris was 
killed.! 

Gen. Cavaignac made President of the Council, 

June 2S, 

Louis-Naiioleon takes his seat in the National As- 
sembly. Sept. 20, 

Paris relif;ved from a state of siege, which had 
continued four month.s Oct. 20, 

Solemn promulgation of the Constitution of Nov. 
4, in front, of the Tuileries Nov. 12, 

Louis-Napolieon elected President of the French 
Republic, Dei-;. 11 ; prrtplaimed Dec. 20, 

[He had 0,048,8 72 votes; Cavaignac, 1,470,121; 



Ledru-Rollin, Raspail, and Lamartine had but 
few.] 

Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- 
surrection Jan. 20,1340 

Death of King Louis-Philippe, at Claremont, in 
England Aug. 20,1850 

Liberty of the press restricted Sept. 20, " 

Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of the 
national guard Jan. 10,1851 

Death of the Duchess of Angoulime, daughter of 
Louis XVI., at Frohsdorf. Oct. 19, " 

Death of Marshal Soult Oct. 20, " 

Electric telegraph between England and France 
opened Nov. 13, " 

Cmq) d'etat; the Legislative Assembly dissolved; 
universal suffrage established, and Paris de- 
clared in a state of siege ; the election of a pres- 
ident for ten years proposed, and a second cham- 
ber or senate Dec. 2, " 

MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- 
moriciere, and Charres arrested, and sent to the 
castle of Vincennes Dec. 2, " 

Over 180 members of the Assembly, with M. 
Berryer at their head, attempting to meet, are 
arrested, and Paris is occupied by troops, Dec. 2, " 

Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victori- 
ous Dec. 3, 4, " 

Consultative commission founded Dec. 12, " 

Voting throughout France for the election of a 
president of the republic for ten years; aflirma- 
tive votes 7,481,231, negative votes 040,737, 

Dec. 21, 22, " 

Installation of the prince-president in the cathe- 
dral of Notre-Dame ; the day observed as a na- 
tional holiday at Paris, and Louis-Napoleon 
takes up his residence at the Tuileries. . .Jan. 1,1852 

Gens. Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others, con- 
ducted to the Belgian frontier Jan. 9, " 

83 members of the "Legislative Assembly banish- 
ed; 575 persons arrested for resistance to the 
covj} d'etat of Dec. 2, and conveyed to Havre for 
transportation to Cayenne Jan. 10, " 

[The inscription " Libertu, Equalitij, Fmterm'ttj," 
ordered to be forthvvith erased throughout 
France, and the old names of streets, public 
buildings, and places of resort to be restored. 
The trees of liberty are every where hewn down 
and burnt.] 

The national guard disbanded, and reorganized 
anew, and placed tinder the control of the ex- 
ecutive, the president appointing the officers, 

Jan. 10, 

A new Constitution published Jan. 14, 

Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their 
real and personal property in France within a 
year Jan. 22, 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made by 
Louis-Philippe upon his family previous to his 
accession in 1830, and annexing the property to 
the domain of the state Jan. 22, 

The birthday of Napoleon I. (Aug. 15) to be the 
only national holiday. Feb. 17, 

The departments of France released from a state 
of siege March 27, 

Installation of the Legislative Chambers, Mar. 29, 

A permanent Crystal Palace authorized to be 
erected in the Champs Elysees at Paris, Mar. 30, 

Plot to assassinate the prince-president discover- 
ed at Paris July 1, 

President's visit to Strasburg July 19, 

M. Thiers and other exiles permitted to return to 
France Aug. 8, 

The French senate prays " the re-establishment of 
the hereditary sovereign power in the Bona- 
parte family" Sept. 13, 

Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president at 
Lyons Sept. 19, 

Infernal machine, intended to destroy the prince- 
president, seized at Marseilles Sept. 23, 

Prince-president visits Toulon, Sept. 27 ; and Bor- 
deaux, where he says "the empire is peace" 
{L'Emfiire c'cat la paix) Oct. 7, 

He releases Abd-el-Kader (see A Igicm) — Oct. 10, 

He convokes the senate for November to deliber- 
ate on a change of government, when a senatus 
considtvm will be proposed for the ratification 
of the French people Oct. 19, 

Protest of Comte de Chambord Oct. 2.5, 

In his message to the senate, the prince-president 
announces^the contemplated restoration of the 
empire, and orders the people to be consulted 
upon this change Nov. 4, 

Votes for the empire, 7,839,552 ; nays, 254,501 ; null, 
03,099 Nov. 21, 



FEA 



209 



The prince-president declared emperor ; assumes 

the title ol Napoleon III . Dgg o is52 

^^'M-'ni^n*^ "f the emperor with Eiij,'cuie, coimtess 

iiv> ? "r'?' '"^, Notre-Damc Jau. 29,1853 

i-m political ofleuders pardoned. . . Feb 2 " 

Bread riots " gept ' " 

Military camp at Satory, near Paris; '.'.'.'.'..'. isept"! " 
iimpcror and empress visit the provinces (many 

political prisoners discharged) Oct " 

Francis Arago, astronomer, etc., died Oct 2 " 

Attempted assassination of the emperor ; ten p'er- 



FRA 




alter his death ou the spot where it occurred, 



Dec 7 ** 
War declared against Eussia (see Russo-Turkish 

v; \ f'fW •■■■■■;•,;••;■•:•,•.•••, March 27,1854 

\I^.lt of Prince Albert at Boulogne Sent 5 " 

Death of JIarshal St. Amaud. ...... Sept "g » 

Ihe emperor and empress visit Loudon, 

Industrial exhibition at Paris opened. '^May'is'^^^^ 
Attempted assassination of the emperor bvPia- 

nori, April 28 ; by Bellemarre Sept 8 " 

Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit France,' ' 

Alio- 1Q 07 tt 

Death of Count Mole Nov ^l' " 

^I'ann"'' v'5 "VJ'*^!'""! P""ce ; amnesty grauted'to 

luoo political prisoners March 16 IS'if, 

Peace with Russia signed March 30 " 

Awful inundation in the south* Jime' " 

Distress in money market : . . ' oct e' " 

Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by Ver- 
ger, a priest i„ oiq„ 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) • 
Gen. Cavaiguac elected deputy, but declines to 

take the oath juae 21, 22, " 

conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris 

detected ThIt, ii u 

Death of Bt-ranger ;:::;: JuiHo " 

Lougwood, the residence of Napoleon I at St' 

Helena, bought for 180,000 francs. . . ' " 
The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transporta- 
tion, etc Auo- 6 7 " 

Emperor and empress visit Eugiaud .'.' .'Au<'''"G-io' " 
The emperor meets the Emperor of Eussia at 

btuttgardt ggpf 25 " 

Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55)' .' .' '. .' .Oct! 28,' " 

Death of Mdlle. Eachel (aged 38) Jan. 4 1858 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by Orsi- 
ni,t Pieri, Eudio, Gomez, etc., by the explosion 
ot three shells (two persons killed, many wound- 

^ed) ; _ •'JJ^^ ^^ „ 

Public Safety Bill passed— bold protest against it 

byOlhyier .^eb. IS, " 

irauce divided into five military departments' 
General Espinasse becomes minister of the in- 
terior -pgi, (( 

''Xcqwlcon III. et Z'iwjrfetej-re" 'p'iibii's'hed,"M'ar ll' " 
Intemperate speeches in France against En"-land 
—misconceptions between the two countries re- 
moved in March 

A Republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed, ' 

March 9 

Orsiui and Pieri executed March I3' 

Simon Bernard tried in London as their accom- 
plice, and acquitted April 12-17 

Marshal Pelissier sent as ambassador to London,' 

•c ■ ^. .. April 15, 

Espinasse retires from the ministry of the interior 

[he was killed at the battle of Magenta, June 4 

1859] June' 

Queen of England meets the emperor ; visits Cher'- 

„H"''S :-^--: Aug. 4, 5, 

Conference at Pans respecting the Dauubian prin- 
cipalities closes Aut)- 19 

Dispute with Portugal respecting the" Charks 'et 
Georges (which see) settled Oct 23 



Pn!'?i"^ 9""^®, ^e Montalemberf Nov 25 IS'iS 

''T^Tl^t^^t'' '' ^'" ^"^'"^'^ ambSo?''' 
*'o?Safo;'^™'=''''^«P°^'-''^'toMBC^ 

On the Austrians invading Sardinia, Frai rp ri^' 
Clares war, and the French enter SardiZ th^" 
arSa'^P"''^''^'^ ^^S^"^^ ^b« empet'^rrivel 

Loan of 20,000,000 franc's' raised'.'.: Mnv2?' " 

Victories of the allies (French niVfl W' 'i-;- '^J.'^H 
Montebello, May 20 ;%'alestro. May 30 s'^tf 

Armistice agreed on.'.'.'.". "^ t? ? 'f' W 

v1lia^r1nl"P"°''' °' ^'"^ '^^"^ ''-^ a't 

Peace agreed on'. ! "l^^'/ |?' '' 

Louis Napoleon returns' to'Pa'r'is: : ! ! ! ! '. ] ' Ji"^ n' » 

Eediictiou of the-army ami 'navy 'ordered. 'aIo-' u 

'r^h^feVi^iK'^^'^ andFrJnchenvoys;fe- _^ 

Amnesty to political oflrende'r's'.'. '.'.'.'.■ Au- U /i' « 

pressed".'.'^! .''"^'^ ^''"'^ P'"'' °" ^"e''^"'^ '•^- .. 

" feTfdfyi'^'^"'''''"''"'^ ' '^'^'OO'O' ^°1^^" '^ 1' 

^''^'^I'^^^^^'^^i ' the' 'fo're'ign 'mi'nis'te'.-; 'resiVns' " 
M. Thouvenel succeeds him ' j'„" 'icfiA 

The emperor announces a free-trade policy'- Mr' 
Cobden at Pans j-mk " 

Commercial treaty with England signed,' Jan 23 « 

L Univers suppressed for publishing the pope's let- 
ter to the emperor ^ '■ Jau 29 " 

Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice 
sigiieu March 24 *' 

The press censured for attacking Eu'g'l'a'n'd Anril 7 " 

The emperor meets the German sovereigis atBa- 

Jerome 'Bonaparte, the'emperor's u'n'c'l'e, dils (a~c4^d " 



70) 



.June 24, 



»The I 



ulp9cription» in London to relieve the sufferers amounted to 
bir Jamsetjee Jejc.:bhoy, of Bombay, gave £500 for the same 



purpos 

t Felii Orsini, a man of talent and energy, intensely devoted to en- 
deavormg to obtain Italian independeuce, was bom Dec, 1819 ; studi- 

1 arrested 
. 184G; 



ed at Bologna in IR37 ; joined a secret society in 18*! „„» 
and condemned to the galleys for life in 1844; was released 
m^L'""'M"l, 'a" ^"1",'"' ^"?'"t!™ '" I8«, when he was elected 
member of the Assemb y ; and on the fall of the republic, fled to Genoa 
in 1849, and came to England m 1853. Entering into fresh conspira- 
cies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan., 1855, and sent to Mantua; he 
escaped thence and came to England in 1856, where ho associated with 
Kossuth, Mapmi, etc. ; delivered lectures, and where he devised the 
giot lor which he suffered. In his will he acknowledged the justice of 



The emperor, in a letter to Count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England "julV 25 '« 

1 he emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, and 
Algiers Sent 1-17 " 

Newtariffcomes into operation.. Oct l' " 

Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden,' and free 
issue of pastoral letters checked.. . Nov " 

Empress visits London, Edinburg, etc.,N"'o'v' Idcc' " 

Important mmisterial changes ; greater liberty of 
speech granted to the Chambers ; two sets of 
ministers appointed— speakers and administra- 
tors ; Pelissier made governor of Alo-eria • Per- 
signy, minister of the interior ; FlahanU^Emriigh 
ambassador. .. Nov. and fiec, " 

Passports for Englishmen to cease after Jan. 1 
.18W Dec le' " 

Six bishoprics vacant D'ec ' " 

Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press,' Dec ll'- 
[but for a short time] Dec 20' " 

The emperor advises the pope to s'ur'r'e'nder his re- 
volted provinces jjgg 3^ « 

''Home et les Eveques" published. . .'.'.'.'.'.'.' " Jan 61861 
Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth 
Paterson, an American ladyt) claims his leo-iti- 
mate rights ; nonsuited after a trial, 

„ . ,.,..,. Jan. 25-Feb. 15, " 

Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000 000 
francs, Feb. 2 ; announced Feb 5 " 

Meeting of French Chambers, Feb. 4 ; stormy de- 
bates in the Chambers Feb. and March " 

"La France, Rome, et I'ltalie" published. . Feb 15 " 

Angry reply to it by the Bishop of Poitiers, who 
compares the emperor to Pilate Feb. 27 " 

Failure of Mirds, a railway banker and loan con- 
tractor, etc.; he is arrested Feb. 17 " 

Many influential persons suspected of participating 
in his frauds ; the government promise a search- 
ing inquiry and strict justice. . .Feb. and March, " 

Eugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged SO). .Feb. 20, " 



* In Oct., 1858, the comte published a pamphlet entitled " Un Ztebat 
mr I Inde," in which he eulogized English institutions and depreciated 
those of France. He was condemned and sentenced to six months' im- 
prisonment and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the emperor 
Dec. 2. The comte appealed against the sentence of the court, and was 
again condemned, but acquitted of a part of the charge. The sentence 
was once more remitted by the emperor (Dec. 21). In Oct., 1869, the 
comte published a pamphlet entitled "Pie IX. et la France en 1849 et 
1859," in which England is severely censured for opposition to popery 

t The marriage took place in America on Dec. 24, 1803, but was an- 
nulled, and Jerome married the Priacesa Catharine of Wurtember" 



TEA 



210 



TEA 



Eloquent speech of Prince Napoleon in favor of 
Italian unity, the English alliance, and against 
the temporal government of the pope. .March 1,1S61 

Strong advocacy of the temporal government of 
the pope in the Chambers ; the French army 
stated to consist of 681,000 men March, " 

Circular forbidding the priests to meddle with pol- 
itics April 11, " 

Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium signed, 

Mayl, " 

Publication in Paris of the Due d'Aumale's severe 
letter to Prince Napoleon, April 13 ; printer and 
publisher fined and imprisoned May, " 

Declaration of neutrality in the American conflict, 

June 11, " 

Official recognition of the kingdom of Italy, 

June 24, " 

Visit of the King of Sweden Aug. 6, " 

Conflict betweenFrench and Swiss soldiers atVille- 
la-Grande Aug. 18, " 

Mir6s, the speculator, sentenced to five years' im- 
prisonment Aug. 29, " 

Pamphlet ''La France, Rome, et I'ltalie" appears, 

Sept., " 

Commercial treaty between France, Great Britain, 
and Belgium comes into operation Oct. 1, " 

Meeting of the emperor and King of Prussia at 
, Compiegne, Oct. 6 ; and King of Holland, Oct. 12, " 

French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- 
land) to prevent an arrest Oct. 27, " 

Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
Spain respecting intervention in Mexico, signed 
(see Mexico) Oct. 31, " 

Embarrassment in the government finances ; Ach- 
ille Fould becomes finance minister, Nov. 14; 
with enlarged powers Dec. 12, " 

The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty " to- 
ward Csesar" Jan. 1,1802 

French army lands at Vera Cruz Jan. 7, " 

The French masters of the province of Bienhoa, 
in Aunam Jan. 20, " 

Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss commis- 
sioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict, 

Feb. 3, " 

Fould announces his finance scheme, includes re- 
duction of 4)4 per cent, stock to 3 per cent., and 
additional taxes and stamp duties Feb. 24, " 

Fierce debate in the Legislative Chamber, in which 
Prince Napoleon takes part Feb. 27, " 

French victories in Cochin-China (six provinces 
ceded to Prance) March 28, " 

The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide 
to quit Mexico ; the French declare war against 
the Mexican government (for the events, see 
Mexico) April 16, " 

Sentence against Mirfes examined and reversed at 
Donai ; he is released April 21, " 

Treaty of peace between France and Annam sign- 
ed June 3, " 

Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) July 5, " 

New commercial treaty with Prussia signed, Aug. 2, " 

Newspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, 
set up by Laguerrouniire Aug., " 

Ship Prince Jerome, containing re-enforcements for 
Mexico, burnt near Gibraltar; crew saved, Aug., " 

Camp at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi's 
movements in Sicily ; broken, when he is taken 
prisoner Aug. 29, " 

Great sympathy for him in Prance Sept., " 

Treaty of commerce with Madagascar. . . . Sept. 12, " 

Drouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in room 
of Thouveuel Oct. 15, " 

Baron Gros becomes ambassador at London in the 
room of the Comte de Flahault, resigned 

Nov. IS, " 

Sergeant Glover brings an action in the Cmn-t of 
Queen's Bench against the Comte de Persigny 
and M. Billault, claiming i;i4,000 for subsidizing 
the Morning Chronicle and other newspapers, 

Nov. 22, " 

The emperor inaugurates Boulevard Prince Eu- 
gene, Paris Dec. 7, " 

Great distress in the manufacturing districts 
through the cotton famine and the Civil War in 

America Dec, " 

Treaty of commerce with Italy signed Jan. 17,1863 

Eevoft in Aunam suppressed Feb. 26, " 

Convention regulating the French and Spanish 

frontiers concluded .' Feb. 27, " 

Resignation of M. Magne, the "speaking minis- 
ter" in the Assembly April 1, " 

Dissolution of the Chambers May 8, " 

Aug. 12, 1807 ; their children are the Pcince Napoleon and the PrincesB 
Mathilde (see p. 212). 



Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors, 

May,1863 

Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition can- 
didates elected in Paris May 31-June 15, " 

Changes in the ministry — resignation of Persigny, 
Walewski, and Rouland June 23, " 

The Empress visits the Queen of Spain at Madrid, 

Oct., " 

Baron Gros resigns, and the Prince Tour d'Au- 
vergne becomes ambassador at London, Oct. 14, " 

Death of M. Billault (born 1805), the "speaking 
minister" in the Legislative Assembly, Oct. 13 ; 
succeeded by M. Rouher Oct. 18, " 

The emperor proposes the convocation of a Euro- 
pean Congress, and invites the sovereigns or 
their deputies by letter Nov. 4, " 

Thiers and his friends form the centre of a new op- 
position Nov. 9, " 

The invitation to the Congress declined by En- 
gland Nov. 25, " 

Thiers speaks in the Chamber Dec. 24, " 

Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against the 
emperor's life, Jan. 3 ; tried and sentenced to 
transportation and imprisonment Feb. 27,1864 

Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portu- 
gal, and Hayti for establishing a telegraphic line 
between Europe and America May 16, " 

Death of Marshal Pelissier, duke of Mahikhoff", 
governor of Algeria (born 1794) May 22, " 

Convention between France and Japan signed by 
Japanese ambassadors at Paris June 20, 

Convention of commerce, etc., between France 
and Switzerland signed June 30, " 

Prince Napoleon Victor, son of Prince Napoleon 
Jerome and Princess Clotilde, born July 16, " 

Convention with Italy respecting the evacuation 
of Rome, etc Sept. 15, " 

Garuier-Pages and 12 others who had met at his 
house for election purposes, convicted as mem- 
bers of a society "of more than 20 members," 

Dec. 7, " 

Death of the emperor's private secretary and old 
friend, Mocquard Dec. 9, " 

Death of Proudhon (born 1809), who said " Propri- 
ete c'est vol" Jan. 19,1865 

The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's en- 
cyclical letter of Dec. 8 in churches ; creates much 
excitement, and the Archbishop of Besancon and 
other prelates disobey .Jan., " 

The Prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-presi- 
dent of the privy council Jan., " 

Decree for an international exhibition of the pro- 
ducts of agriculture and industry, and of the flue 
arts, at Paris, on May 1, 1867 Feb. 1, " 

Treaty with Sweden signed Feb. 15, " 

The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory educa- 
tion rejected by the Assembly March 8, " 

Death of the Due de Morny, said to be half-brother 
of the emperor March 10, " 

Loi des suspects (or of public safety) suflered to 
expire March 31, " 

A secretary at the Russian embassy assassinated 

April 24, " 

The emperor visits Algeria May 3-27, " 

Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at Ajac- 
cio, with an imprudent speech by Prince Napo- 
leon Jerome, May 15 ; censured by the emperor ; 
the prince resigns his oflices June 9, " 

The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
Brest Aug. 15 et seq., " 

The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 

Aug. 29-Sept. 1, " 

Death of General Lamoriciere Sept. 11, " 

The Queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz, 

Sept. 11, " 

Notice given of the abrogation of the extradition 
treaty in six months Dec, " 

Riots of Republican students at Paris ; several ex- 
pelled from the Academy of Medicine Dec, " 

Emperor opens the Chambers with a pacific speech, 

Jan. 22,1866 

The emperor produces a great sensation through- 
out Europe by a speech at Auxerre, declaring his 
detestation of the treaties of 1815 May 6, " 

He invites (in conjunction with England and Rus- 
sia) Austria, Prussia, and Italy to a peace confer- 
ence to be held in Paris May 24, " 

Declares that in consequence of the reserve of Aus- 
tria the conference is impossible June 3, " 

He announces a policy of "watchful neutrality" 
as to the German Italian War June 11, " 

The Prussian government refuses to accede to 
Napoleon's demand for a cession of part of the 
Rhine Provinces Aug. 15, " 



TEA 



211 



840. 



428 

447. 
45S, 
4S1. 



534 
54S 
558 



6T5. 
584. 
596. 

613. 
623. 



638 



656 
670, 



French occupation of Rome terminated. . .Dec. 11,1866 
rim Exposition Uuiverselle opened at Paris, 
rp.„ T , . April 1,1SC7 
The Liixembnrp; question settled by the Great 
Powers in Loudon May 7 " 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 
MEKOVINGIAN RACE. 

Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 
Clodion the Hairy, his supposed son; kin"- of 
the Salic Pranks. 
. MerovKus, or Mcrovce, son-in-law of Clodion. 
. Childeric, son of Morovce. 

. Ulovis the Great, his son, and the real founder 
of the monarchy. He left four sous, who di- 
vided the empire : 
. Childebert, Paris. 
Clodomir, Orleans. 
Thierry, Metz ; and 
Clotaire, Soissons. 
Theodebert, Metz. 
Theodebald, succeeded in Metz. 
Clotaire, now sole ruler of France. Upon his 
death the kingdom was again divided between 
his four sons, viz., 
Charibert, ruled at Paris. 
Gontram, iu Orleans and Burgundy 
Sigebert, at Metz, and) ^ ^, • . , 

Chilperic, at Soissons. f ^'^^°- assassinated. 
Childebert II. 
Clotaire II., Soissons. 
Thieriy II., sou of Childebert, iu Orleans. 
Theodebert II., Metz. 
Clotaire II. became sole king. 
Dagobert the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; he di- 
vided the kingdom, of which he had become 
sole monarch, between his two sons : 
Clovis II. has Burgundy and Neustria, 
Sigebert II. has Austrasia. 
Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 
Childeric II. ; he became king of the whole 
realm of France; assassinatecf, with his queen 
and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri — 
Henaulf^ 

[At this time Thierry III. rules in Burtrnndy 
and Neustria, aud Dagobert II., son of Sic^e- 
'"''",'^'r,',?.^'^"®''''^'^*'^- Dagobert is assassinated, 
and ihierry reigns aXonQ.—Henault. 
Clovis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules 
the kingdom in the name of this sovereign 
who IS succeeded by his brother, IISO 

Childebert HI., surnamed the Just ; in this rei'Ti 

Pepin also exercises the royal power. 
Dagobert III., sou of Childebert. I203 

Chilperic II. (Daniel) ; he is governed, and at 1226" 
length deposed, by Charles Martel, mayor of 
the palace, whose sway is now unbounded. 
Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles 
JMartel to the throne; dies soon after, and 
Chilperic is recalled from Aquitaine, whither 
he had fled for re^xxge.—Henault. 
Chilperic II. restored ; he shortly afterward dies 

at Noyon, and is succeeded by 
Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed ch 
Chelks; died in 737. Charles Martel now 
reigns under the new title of "Duke of the 1316. 
French."— »■«««?<. 
Interregnum till the death of Charles Martel in 

i41 ; and until 
Childeric III., son of Chilperic H., surnamed the 1322 
stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons of 
Charles Martel, share the government of the 
kingdom in this reign. 



FRA 



877. 
879. 

884. 

SS7. 
898. 

922. 
923. 
936. 

954. 

986. 

9S7. 
996. 



691 



695 



711, 
716, 



719. 



720. 



737. 
742. 



1031. 
1060. 



1103. 
1137. 



1270. 
1285. 
1314. 



THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel • he is 
succeeded by his two sons, 

70S. *Charlemagne and Carloman ; the former, sur- 
named the Great, crowned Empeeoe of the 
\Vest by Leo IIL in 800. Carloman rei^-ned 
but three year.s. ° 

814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, E.mpekor ; dethroned, but 
restored to his dominions. 



• This great prince wore only a plain doublet in wtnter, made of an 
^er, ,ktn, a woolen tume fringed with nlk, and a blue coat or cateoek ■ 
h,ho,e conu^edoftrann'me band, or fillet, of different col,„,. He 
would march with the neatest rapidity from the Vfr^^^e^ MountaSs 
into Germany, and from Germany into Italy. The whole world echo! 
ed h,9 name. He was the tallest and the strongest man of h s Ume 
In this respect he resembled the heroes of fabulous story : but he differ' 

.1."' V'^'"' ^ ^^ thought that force was of use alone to conquer" 
era! law, nft" rTh" ?'"'"^,'>' '0 ^?y"l- Accordingly, he enacted sev- 
eral laws after the form observed m those days, that is in mLicd as 

th?na't?„'n.-i;?:Aart.'' ""'"'"' "''''"'"''' '^^ "■" ^'"^^^^^ '"'^^ "'^ 



1328 

1350, 

1364. 

13S0. 
1422. 
1401. 
1483. 
1498. 

1515. 

1547. 



Charles, surnamed the Bald, King; Empeeok in 

cian P'^'*°"^'^ ^y Zedechias, a Jewish physi- 

^"bIiw! Kil'^G^ Stammerer, son of Charles the 

^"sio "^»"d Carloman IL ; the former died in 
8S2 and Carloman reigned alone. 

Ch!frie"tiie^to^lV' "^^"P^-"- ^" P'-^J'^'^'^^ '» 
Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 
Charles HI. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and 

^ nl'ift P"TS ?" ^^^ = ^"^ ^^'^ married Edgfvl, 
daughter of Edward the Elder, of England bv 
whom he had a son, who was afterwnrrt bi'iicr 

""tT'charl'f "' ""^"r ^"™l al Rhe\mf : 

i .t-.harles marched an army against hun 

p.fn'l''"^!^ ^™. '^ battle.-ffi«L;<? ' 

hi if"'''' °^ Burgundy; elected king, but 

SS^ce'^s!l^AS^^'^^^^'^ "y ^^« -'^^^-- 
Louis_ IV d'OM,«reTO«r, or Transmarine (from 
having been conveyed by his mother into En- 
gland , son of Charles III. (or IV.) and Edo-i- 
ya ; died by a fall from his horse. ° 

hic^'rlv'^^'' f'^^ ' ^^ ^^'^ reigned jointly with 
his father from 9.52, and succeeds him, at 15 
years of age, under the protection of Hu'^h 
the Great ; poisoned. ° 

Louis v., the Indolent, son of Lothaire ; also 
poisoned, It is supposed by his queen, Blanche 
Iu this prince ended the race of Charlemagne. 

the CAPETS. 

■Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, etc eld- 
est son of Hugh the Abbot, July 3 ; he seizes 
the crown, m prejudice to Charles of Lor- 
raine, uncle of Louis Transmarine. From him 
this race of kings is called Capevingians aud 
Capetians. He dies Oct. 24. 

""mente" JurylT'^' *'^ ^''''^ ^"'^ = ^^'^ '- 
Henry L, son ; dies Aug. 29. 
Philip L, the Fair, and I'Avioureux; succeeded 
at 8 years of age, aud ruled at 14 ; son ; dies 

Louis VL, surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son- 
dies Aug. 1. ' 

Louis yiL, sou, surnamed the Young, to distin- 
guish him from his father, with whom he was 
tor some years associated on the throne ; dies 

Philip II. (Augustus), son; succeeds at 15- 
crowned at Eheims in his father's lifetune • 
dies July 14. 

Louis yill., Cosur de Lion; son ; dies Nov. 8 

Louis IX., son ; called St. Louis ; ascended the 
throne at 15, under the guardianship of his 
mother. Who was also regent; died in his 
camp before Tunis, Aug. 25. 

Philip IIL, the Hardy ; son ; died at Perpignan, 

Philip ly the Fair; son; ascended the throne 

m his lith year; dies Nov. 29. 
Louis X., son ; .surnamed Ilutin, an old French 

word signifying headstrong, or mutinous- 

died June 5. ' 

John, a posthumous sou of Louis X. ; born Nov 

15 ; died Nov. 19. 
Philip v., the Long (on account of his stature) • 

brother of Louis ; died Jan. 3. ' 

Charles IV., the Handsome ; brother; died Jan. 

ol, 1328. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

, Philip VL, de Valois, grandson of Philip the 

Hardy (called the Fortunate) ; died Aug. 23. 

John IL, the Good; son; died suddenly in the 

Savoy iu London, April S. 
Charles V., surnamed the Wise ; son ; died Sept. 

Charles VL, the Beloved; son ; died Oct. 21. 

Charles VII., the Victorious ; son ; died July 22. 

Louis XL, son ; able but cruel ; died Aug. 30. 

Charles VIIL, the Affable ; son ; died April 7. 

Louis XIL, Duke of Orleans, the Father of his 
People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 
Jan. 1. 

Francis I. of AnxjouUme, called the Father of 
Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles Y ■ 
died March 31. , ' ' 

Henry IL, son; died of a wound received at a 
tournament when celebrating the nuptials of 
his sister with the Duke of Savoy, accident- 
ally intli&ted by the Comte de Montmorencv 
July 10. •" 



FEA 



212 



FRA 



1559. Francis II., son; married Mary Stnart, after- 

ward Queen of Scots ; died Dec. 5. 

1560. Charles IX., brother; Catharine of Medicis, his 

mother, obtained the regency ; died May 30. 
1574. Henry III., brother ; elected King of Poland ; 
last of the house of Valois, murdered by 
Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, Aug. 1, 
1589. 

HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of Na- 
varre ; son-in-law of Heury II. ; murdered by 
Francis Ravaillac, May 14. 

1610. Louis XIII., the Just; son; died May 14. 

1643. Louis XIV., the Great, styled Dieudonne; son; 
died 8ept. 1. 

1715. Louis XV., the Well-beloved; great-grandson; 
died May 20. 

1774. Louis XVI., his grandson; ascended the throne 
in his 20th year; married the Archduchess 
Marie-Antoinette, of Austria, in May, 1770; 
dethroned July 14, 17S9 ; guillotined Jan. 21, 
1793,* and his queen, Oct. 10 following. 

1703. Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI. Though num- 
bered with the kings, this prince never reign- 
ed ; he died in prison, supposed by poison, 
June 8, 17t)5, aged 10 years 2 months. 

THE EEPTTBLIO. 

1792. The National Convention (750 members), first 

sitting, Sept. 21. 
1795. The Dikeotoky (Lareveillere L6paus, Letour- 

neur, Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated 

Nov. 1 ; abolished, and BonaTJarte, Ducas, and 

Siiiyis appointed an executive commission, 

Nov., 1799. 
1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- 

ceres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, Dec. 24. 

Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years, May 

6, 1802 ; for life, Aug. 2, 1802. 

FKENOn EMPIRE.t 

[Established by the senate May 18, 1804.] 
1S04. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born Aug. 15, 1769. 
He married, tirst, Josephine, widow of Alexis, 
vicomte de Beauharnais, March 8, 1796 (who 
was divorced Dec. 16, 1809, and died May 29, 
1814) ; 2d, Maria-Louisa of Austria, April 2, 
1810 (she died Dec. 17, 1847). He renounced 
the thrones of France and Italy, and accepted 
the Isle of Elba for his retreat, April 5, 1814 ; 
again appeared in France, March 1, 1815 ; was 



* On Monday, the 2l8t of January, 1793, at eight o'clock in the 
morning, thia unfortunate monarch was summoned to his fate. He as- 
cended the scaffold with a firm air and step ; and raising his voice, he 
said, '* Frenchmen, I die innocent of the offenses imputed to me. I 
pardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven that my beloved 
France — " At this instant the inhuman Santerre ordered the drums 
to beat, and the executioners to perform their office. When the guillo- 
tine descended, the priest exclaimed, "Son of St. Louis ! ascend to 
heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a few of the popu- 
lace shouted " Vive la RepuUique !" The body was interred in a grave 
that was Immediately afterward filled up with quick-lime, and a strong 
guard was placed around until it should be consumed. — Hist. French 
Itevolutiml. 

t THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. 

[The name appears at Florence and Genoa in the 13th century ; in the 

15th a branch settles in Corsica.] 
Charles Bonaparte, born March 29, 1746, died Feb. 24, 1785. He 
married in 1767 Letitia Ramolina (born Aug. 24, 1750, died Feb., 
1836); ISSUE, 
Joseph, born Jan. 7, 1768, made King of Two Sicilies, 1805 ; of Naples 
alone, 1806 ; of Spain, 1808 ; resides in United States, 1815 ; comes to 
England, 1832 ; settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, July 28, 1844. 
Napoleon I., emperor, born Aug. 15, 1769 (see above). 
LuciEN, prince ol Canino, born 1775 : at first aided his brother Napo- 
leon, but opposed hia progress toward universal monarchy. He was 
taken by the English on his way to America, and resided in England 
till 1814. He died at VUerbo, June 30, 1840. His son Charles (bom 
1803, died 1857) was an eminent naturalist. 
LoDis, bom Sept. 2, 1778 ; made King of Holland, 1806 ; died July 15, 
1846. By his marriage with Hortense Beauharnaia (daughter of the 
Empress Josephine), in 1802, he had three sons: Napoleon Louis 
(born 1803, died 1807) ; Louis Napoleon (born 1804, died 1831) ; and 
Chables-Louis-Napoleon, born April 20, 1808 ; educated under 
the care of his mother at Aremberg, Switzerland, and at Thun, 
under General Dufour ; took part in the Carbonari insurrection 
in the Papal States in March, 1831 ; attempted a revolt at Stras- 
burg, Oct. 30, 1836 ; sent to America, Nov. 13, 1838; repairs to 
London, Oct. 14, 1838 ; lands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 
Aug. 6, 1840 ; condemned to imprisonment for life, Oct. 6, 1840 ; 
escapes from Ham, May 25, 1846 ; arrives at Boulogne, March 2, 
1848 ; elected deputy, June 8 ; and takes his seat, Aug. 27 ; his 
cmp d'etat, Dec. 2, 1851 ; elected president of the republic, Dec. 
10; for 10 years, Dec. 21, 22, 1851 ; elected emperor, Nov. 21, 
1852 ; declared emperor, as Napoleon III., Dec. 2, 1852. 
Jerome, born Nov. 15, 1784; King of Westphalia, Dec. 1, 1807-1814; 
made governor of the Invalides, 1848 ; and marshal, 1850 ; died June 
24, 1860 : his children are 
Napoleon, born Sept. 9, 1822 ; married Princess Clotilde of Savoy, 
Jan. 30, 1859 : issue, Napoleon-Victor-Jerome, born July 18, 1862 ; 
Napoleon-Louis-Joseph, born July 16, 1864. 
Mathilde, bom May 27, 1820 ; married to Prince A. Demidoff in 
1841. 



defeated at Waterloo ; finally abdicated in fii- 
vor of his infant son, June 22, 1815; banished 
to St. Helena, where he dies, May 5, 1S21. (See 
Tiote, p. 207.) 

BOURBONS EEStOEED. 

1814. Louis XVIII. {Comte de Provence), brother of 
Louis XVI. ; born November 17, 1755; married 
Marie- Josephine -Louise of Savoy; entered 
Paris, and took possession of the throne. May 
3, 1814; obliged to flee, March 20, 1815; re- 
turned July 8, same year ; died without issue, 
Sept. 16. 

1824. Charles X. {Comte d'Artois), his brother; born 
Oct. 9, 1757 ; married Marie-Therose of Savoy ; 
deposed July 30, 1830. He resided in Britain 
till 1832, and died at Gratz, in Hungary, Nov. 
6, 1836. 
IHdr: Henry, due de Bordeaux, called Comte 
de Chambord, sou of the Due de Berri; bom 
Sept. 29, 1820.] 

HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (Sco Orlcaiis.) 
1830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Egalite, descended from Phil- 
ippe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. ; 
born Oct. 6, 1773 ; married Nov. 25, 1809, Ma- 
ria-Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.), 
king of the Two Sicilies. Raised to the throne 
as King of the French, Aug. 9, 1830 ; abdicated 
Feb. 24, 1848. Died in exile, in England, Aug. 
26, 1850. 

NEW REPUBI.I0, 1S4S. 

The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection 
at Paris, Feb. 22, 1848. The royal family escaped 
by flight to England, a provisional government was 
established, monarchy abolished, and France de- 
clared a republic. 

Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte declared by the 
National Assembly (Dec. 19) PKEs^)E^T of the re- 
public of France, and proclaimed next day, Dec. 20 ; 
elected for ten years, Jan. 15, 1852. 

FRENCH EMPIRE BEVIVED. 

[1821. Napoleon II.* (Napoleon- Joseph), son of Napo- 
leon I. and Maria-Louisa, archduchess of Aus- 
tria ; born March 20, 1811 ; created King of 
Rome. On the abdication of his father he 
was made Duke of Reichstadt, in Austria ; 
and died at the palace of Schoenbrunn July 
22, 1832, aged 21.] 
1852. Napoleon (Charles-Louis) III., Dec. 2 (formerly 
president), the present (1869) Emperor of the 
French. (See note t, first col.) 

Emx>rcss: Eugenie -Marie (a Spaniard, formerly 
Countess of Tcba), born May 5, 1826 ; married 
Jan. 29, 1853. 

Uc-ir : Napoleon - Eugune - Louis - Jean - Joseph, 
born March IG, 1856. 

[On Dec. 18, 1S52, the succession, in default of 
issue from the emperor, was determined in fa- 
vor of Prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs 
male.] 
FRANCE, Isle of. See Mauritius. 

FRANCHE COMTE, successively part of the king- 
dom and duchy of Burgundy and the kingdom of 
France, was given to Philip IL of Spain as the dowry 
of Isabella of France, whom he married in 15.')9. It 
was conquered and retained by Louis XIV. in 1674. 

FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption from or- 
dinary jurisdiction ; and anciently an asylum or sanc- 
tuary where the person was secure. In Spain, church- 
es and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for 
criminals, as they were formerly in England. See 
Sanctuaries. In 1429 the Elective franchise for 
counties was restricted to persons having at least 40s. 
a year in land, and resident. See Reform. 

FRANCIS'S Assault on the Queen. John Francis, 
a youth, fired a pistol at Queen Victoria as she was 
riding down Constitution Hill in an open barouche, 
accompanied by Prince Albert, May 30, 1842. The 
queen was uninjured. Previous intimation having 
reached the palace of the intention of the criminal, 
her majesty had commanded that none of the ladies 
of her court should attend her. Francis was con- 
demned to death June 17 following, but was after- 
ward transported for life. 

FRANCISCANS, Roman Catholic friars,- called also 
Grav friars, founded bv Francis de Assisi about 1209 
or 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, 
and very austere regimen. In 1226 they appeared in 



■ Decreed to be bo termed by the present emperor on his accession. 



FRA 



213 



FRA 



England, where, at the time of the clissohition ofmon- 
astencs l)y Ilonry VIII., they had flfty-live abbeys or 
other houses, irjoC-SS. 

FRANKFORT -ON -THE -Main (Central Germany), 
many ages a free city ; was taken and retaken several 
times during the French wars, and held by Bonaparte 
from 1S03 to ISIS, when its independence was guaran- 
teed by the allied sovereigns. 
The Diet of the Princes of Germany established 

here by the Rhenish Confederation 1S06 

Appointed capital of the Germanic Confederation, 1S15 
The Frankfort Diet publish a federative Constitu- 

^,t">" ■ • -. March 30,1848 

The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, 
Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg, etc., here 
constitute themselves the council of the Ger- 
manic Diet Sept. 1,1850 

The German sovereigns (excepting the Kint^ of 
Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation of 
the Emperor of Austria) to consider a plan of 
federal reform, Aug. IT ; the plan was not ac- 

cepted by Prussia Sept. 22,1SG3 

Population m 1859, GT,9T5. See Germany. 

FRANKFORT-on-tue-Odee (N. Germany) • a mem- 
ber of the Ilauseatic League, suffered much from ma- 
rauders in the Middle Ages and in the Thirty Years' 
\\ ar. The University was founded in 1506, and incor- 
porated with the Breslaii in 1811. Near Frankfort on 
Aug. 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated' by 
the Russians and Austrians. See Cunnersdorf. 

FRANKING LETTERS, passing letters free of 
postage, was claimed by Parliament about IGGO The 
privilege was restricted in 1S3T, and abolished on the 
introduction of the uniform penny postage Jan 10 
1840. The queen was among the first to" relinquish 
her privilege. In the United States, the President is 
allowed the franking privilege during life, and mem- 
bers of the Senate and House of Representatives dur- 
ing their term of office. 

FRANKLIN, the English freeholder in the Middle 
Ages. See " the Franklin's Tale," in Chaucer's Can- 
terbury Tales (written about 1364). 

FRANKLIN'S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Sir John 
Franklin, with Captains Crozier and Fitzjames, in 
H.M. ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 13S per- 
sons), sailed on an arctic expedition of discovery and 
survey, from Greenhithe, on Mav 24, 1845. Their last 
dispatches were from the Whalefish Islands, dated 
July 12, 1S45. Their protracted absence caused in- 
teuse_ anxiety throughout Europe, and numerous ex- 
peditions were sent from England and elsewhere in 
search of them to various parts of the polar re<^ions 
Quantities of coals, provisions, clothing, and other 
necessaries, were deposited in such places in the Arc- 
tic Seas as the crews of the Erehns and Terror discov- 
ery ships might visit, so as to afford them immediate 
rehef, by our own and by the American government, 
by Lady Franklin, and numerous private persons 
The Truelove, Captain Parker, which arrived at Hull 
Oct. 4, 1849, from Davis's Straits, brought intelligence 
(not afterward confirmed) that the natives had seen 
bir John Franklin's ships as late as the previous 
March, beset or frozen up by the ice in Prince Regent's 
Inlet. Other accounts M-ere equally illusorv.° Her 
majesty's government, on March T, 1850, offered a re- 
ward of £'_'n,(l0O to any party of any country that 
should render efficient assistance to the crews of the 
missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were 
ffiund at Beechy Island by Captains Ommauuey and 
Penny. •' 

1. H.M.S. Plover, Capt. Moore (afterward under 
Caiit. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Beh- 
ring's Straits in search jan 1 184S 

2. Land expedition under Pir John Richardson 
and Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, left 
E'l^'lniid. March 25, " 

[Sir .Ii.hn Richardson returned to England in 
1^49, and Dr. Rae continued his search till 
1851.] 

3. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and Investi- 
gator (June 12, 1848), having also sailed in search 
to Barrow's Straits, returned to England (Scar- 
borough) Nov. 3,1849 

4. Ihe Enterprise, Capt. Collinson, and Investi- 
(jator, Commander M'Clure, sailed from Plvm- 
outh for Behring's Straits Jan." 20,1850 

[Both of these ships proceeded through to the 
eastward.] 

5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz., Resolvte, Capt. 
Austin, C.B. ; Assistance, Capt. Ommaunev; I/i- 
treind, Lieut. Bertie Cator ; and Pioneer, Lieut. 



rowl^ s'lr?ffc°™' ^^'^""^ ^'■°"i England for Bar- 

;:j^^i^^.,i:,^^ ^p"'^^'is5o 

V. ^ ef"^'' -P'™"^-'"!- Capt. Penny, and Sovhia 
r'^slS^' ''^^' ^-- ^^-^^een for*. 

[Returned Sept.^'issi.'] ^''" ^^' 

T. The Amebioan expedition in the Advawe and 
Reseue under Lieut. De Haven and Dr Kane 
rscribed ^So'Sol' i'r\\''"'\''' Mr. Gdnnefl 

l&UiSr^d.^.^^' *^^ ^^^P^ -- -l^e^dll ^^ 
8. The /.K^-a;, Sir JohnRoss; fiUedourchS l; 
loc'anty !°".'.''.'^ '^^'^P'""^' sailed to the sami 
[Returiied 'in issi'.]" ^ay 22, " 

°' h^d^^slle'd'' frolfrir^^T"'?"'"'*''" Saunders, which 
naa sailed tiom England m 1849, wintered in 
Wolstenholme Sound, and returned to Sphhead^ 

8S,"anrr'etufi$lVln!? ^°^^""^^ *° ^'^"""^'^ssi 
tw ni-? '''""^^ *° ^^- Petersbui-gwith the inten- 
^fiZ\^^^''^'l^^^'''''P^ S'l^«"a to the mouth 
o the River Kolyma, hut was dissuaded from 
pioceeding by the Russian government, Nov. 18 " 
[ibe Enterprise and Investigator (see No 4 

above) not having been heard of for two 

years. ] 
11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting 
of— Assistance, Sir Edward Belcher, C.B • Peso- 
lute, Capt. Kellett, C.B. ; Korth Star, Capt. Pul- 
len; {fwP'f?, Capt. M'CIintock; and Pioneer, 
Capt. bherard Osboru, sailed from Woolwich, 

rmi,- T.- , April 15,1852 

[This expedition had arrived at Beechy Island 
Aug. 14, 1852. The Assistance and Pioneer 
proceeded through Wellington Channel, and 
the Pesohite and Intrejnd to Melville Island- 
the ^orth Star remaining at Beechy Island.] 

LADY FKANKLIn's EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady Franklin, from her own resources, aided by 
'\ .yinv'^"'^^® (and by the "Tasmanian Tribute" 
ot £1500), equipped four separate private exne- 
ditions: ^ i- y^ 

12 The Prince Albert, Capt. Forsyth, sailed from 
Aberdeen to Barrow's Straits June 5,1850 

[Returned Oct. 1, 1850.] 

13 The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied 
by Lieut. Bellot, of the French Navy, and John 
Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to Prince Re- 
gent's Inlet juug 4 -.g^H 

[Returned Oct., 1852.] Juue4,io.i 

^\J^\^ i«fl6e?. Commander Inglefleld, sailed for 
the head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and the 
■t^ \^ '?^^*''^ Channel, July 6, and returned Nov.,lS52 
15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a 

1 n^^^^Z'^^ ^^^'^'^^ ^° Behring's Straits 1S53 

10. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, Commander Trollope dis- 
patched to assist the Plover, Capt. Maguire (who 
succeeded Capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in 

April ; met with it j^^c, u 

IT. The second American expedition, " the J^d- 

wncc, under Dr. Kane, early in.... June " 
18. The Phoenix (Avith the Breadalbane transport)'. 
Commander InHefleld, accompanied by Lieut 
Bellot, sailed in May; he returned, bringing dis- 
patches from Sir E. Belcher, etc Oct " 

The Investigator and Sir E. Belcher's squadron 
were safe, but no traces of Franklin's party had 
been met with. Lieut. Bellot* was unfortunate- 
ly drowned in August while voluntarily convey- 
ing dispatches to Sir E. Belcher. Capt.M'Clure 
had left the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, July 
31, 1850. On Oct. 8 the ship was frozen in, and 
so continued for nine months. On Oct. 26, 1850, 
while on an excursion party, the captain discov- 
ered an entrance into Barrow's Straits, and thus 
established the existence of a N.E.— N.W. pas- 
sage. In Sept., 1851, the ship was acain fixed iu 
ice, and so remained till Lieut. Pim'and a party 
from Capt, Kellett's ship, the Resolute (11), fell in 
with them in April, 1853. The position of the 
Enterprise (4) was still unknown. 
Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded to- 
ward the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, he 
reported to the Admiralty that he had purchased 
from a party of Esquimaux a number of articles 



lumen t to his 
' was published 



iiemory was erected at Greenwich, 
n 1854. 



His 



FEA 



214 



FEE 



which had belonged to Sir J. Franklin and his 
party, namely, Sir John's star or order, part of a 
watch, silver spoons, and forks with crests, etc. 
He also reported the statement of the natives 
that they had met with a party of white men 
aboiit four winters previous, and had sold them 
a seal ; and that four months later, in the same 
season, they had found the bodies of thirty men 
(some buried), who had evidently perished by 
starvation ; the place appears, from the descrip- 
tion, to have been in the neighborhood of the 
Great Fish River of Back. i)r. Rae arrived in 
England on Oct.22, ]S54,with the melancholy rel- 
ics, which have since been deposited in Green- 
wich Hospital. He and his companions were 
awarded £10,000 for their discovery. 

19. The Phccnix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
command of Capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and 
returned in Oct. ,1854 

Sir E. Belcher (No. 11), after mature deliberation, 
in April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, 
and gave orders to that eilect to all the captains 
under his command : and Capt. Kellett gave sim- 
ilar orders to Capt. M'Clure, of the Investigator. 
The vessels had been abandoned in June* when 
the crews of the Phoenix and Talbot (under Capt. 
lugletield) arrived (19). On their return to En- 
gland the captains were all tried by court-mar- 
tial and honorably acquitted Oct. 17-19, " 

Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, when 
intelligence came, in Feb., 1855, that he had met 
the Rattlesnake (lO) at Fort Clarence in Aug. 21, 
1854, and had sailed immediately, in hopes of 
getting up with Capt. Maguire in the Plover (1), 
which had sailed two days previously. Capt. 
Collinson, having failed in getting through the 
ice in 1850 with Capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong- 
Kong to winter. In 1851 he passed through 
Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the 
Arctic regions without obtaining any intelli- 
gence of'Franklin till July, 1854, when, being 
once more released from the ice, he sailed for 
Fort Clarence, where he arrived as above men- 
tioned. Captains Collinson and Maguire ar- 
rived in England in May,1855 

20. The third American expedition in search of 
Dr. Kane, in the Advanee, consisted of the Re- 
lease and the steamer Arctic, the barque Eringo, 
and another vessel, under the command of Lieut. 
H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of Dr. 
Kane as surgeon May 31, " 

[On May 17, 1S55, Dr. Kane and his party quitted 
the Advance, and journeyed over the ice, 1300 
miles, to the Danish settlement ; on their way 
home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with Lieut. 
Hartstene, Sept. 18, and arrived with him at New 
York, Oct. 11, 1855. Dr. Kane visited England in 

' 1856; he died in 185T.] 

The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of Dr. 
Kae and Sir G.Back, sent out an overland expe- 
dition, June, 1855, which returned Sept. follow- 
ing. Some more remains of Franklin's party 
were discovered. 

21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by Lady 
Franklin and her friends, the government hav- 
ing declined to fit out another)— the Fox, screw 
steamer, under Capt. (since Sir) F. L.M'Clintock, 
E.N. (see No. 11)— sailed from Aberdeen July 1, 
1857 ; returned Sept. 22,1859 

On May 6, 1859, Lieut. Hobson found at Point Vic- 
tory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin 
case, containing a paper, signed April 2.5, 1848, 
by Captain Fitzjames, which certitied that the 
ships Erebus and Terror, on Sept. 12, 1846, were 
beset in lat. 70° 05' N., and long. 98° 23' W. ; that 
Sir John Franklin died June 11, 1847 ; and that 
the ships were deserted April 22, 1848. Captain 
M'Clintock continued the search, and discover- 
ed skeletons and other relics. His journal was 
published in Dec, 1859; and on May 28, 1860, 

fold medals were given to him and to Lady 
ranklin by the Royal Geographical Society. 
Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in August, 
1865, circumstances that led him to hope that 
Capt. Crozier and others were surviving. 



* Capt. Kellett's ship, the TJeso/iief, was found adrift lOOO miles dis- 
tant from where she was left by a Mr. C^eorge Henry, commanding an 
American whaler, who brought her to New York. The British Eovern- 
ment having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was bought by or- 
der of the American Congress, thoroughly repaired and equipped, and 
intrusted to Capt. H. J. Hartstene, to be presented to Queen Victoria. 
It arrived at Southampton Dec. 12, 1856, was visited by her majesty 
on the 16th, and formally surrendered on the 30tb. 



FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combina- 
tion of the Northwestern German tribes about 240, 
which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire 
soon after with various success. See Gaul and France. 

FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of the Mid- 
dle Ages, originally Franciscan monks of the stricter 
sort. Their numbers increased, and they were con- 
demned by a papal bull in 1317, and sufl'ered persecu- 
tion, but were not extinct till the 16th century. They 
resembled the "Brethren of the Free Spirit." 

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 21 Vict, c. 
54, was passed in 1857, in consequence of the delin- 
quencies of Sir John D. Paul, the British Bank frauds, 
etc. It was brought in by Sir R. Bethell, then attor- 
ney general, and is very stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES. See Spectrum. 

FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia), Battle op. Fred- 
ericksburg lies on the south bank of the Rappahan- 
nock, 65 miles north of Richmond, and on the short- 
est railroad route to that city from Washington. Be- 
sides this fact, the vicinity of Acquia Creek, on the 
Potomac — furnishing an excellent base of supplies — 
made movement on Richmond via Fredericksburg 
more feasible than that via Culpepper and Gordons- 
ville, which involved transportation over twice the 
distance, or 150 miles. General Burnside, on the 7th 
of November, received an order which instructed 
him to relieve M'Clellan of the command of the Ar- 
my of the Potomac. He immediately planned and 
carried into execution the Fredericksburg campaign, 
which came to a speedy termination with the nation- 
al defeat of December 18. The national army was 
100,000 strong, that of the Confederates 80,000. On 
Dec. 11-12, 1862, General Burnside, with the Army of 
the Potomac, crossed the small deep river Rappahan- 
nock, and Fredericksburg was bombarded. On the 
13th commenced a series of most desperate yet un- 
successful attacks on the Confederate works, defended 
by Generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. On 
Dec. 15 and 16 the national army recrossed the Rappa- 
hannock. The battle was one of the most severe in 
the war. The Confederate loss was 4600, the national 
10,500. 

FREDERICKSHALD (Norway), memorable by 
Charles XII. of Sweden being killed by a cannon-shot 
before its walls while examining the works. He was 
found with his hand upon his sword, and a Prayer- 
book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. 

FREE CHURCH (of Scotland*) was formed by an 
act of secession of nearlv half the bodv from the na- 
tional church of Scotland, May 18, 1843. The differ- 
ence arose on the question of the right of patrons to 
nominate to livings. The Free Church claims for the 
parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was 
endured the lirst year by the ministers of the new 
church, although £306,719 14s. 3(f. had been subscribed. 
In 1853 there were 850 congregations. A large college 
was founded in 1846. In 1856 the snstentation fund 
amounted to X108,638, from which was paid the sum 
of £138 each to 700 ministers. 

FREEHOLDERS. Those iinder forty shillings per 
annum were not qualified to vote for members of Par- 
liament by 8 Hen. VI., c. 7, 1429. Various acts have 
been passed for the regulation of the franchise at dif- 
ferent periods. The more recent were the act to regu- 
late polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828; act for the disqualifica- 
tion of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived those 
of forty shillings of this privilege, passed April 13, 
1829 ; Reform Bill, 2 & 3 Will; IV., 1832. County elec- 
tions act, 7 Will. I\^, 1836. See Chandos Clause. 

FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam 
Smith in his "Wealth of Nations" (1776), triumphed 
in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1840, 
and the commercial treaty with France was adopted 
in 1860. Mr. Richard Cobden, who was very instru- 
mental in passing these measures, has been termed 
"The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the exports 
have been tripled. 

FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, themseK-es 
masons, affirm that it has had a being "ever since sym- 
metry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It 
is traced by some to the building of Solomon's Tem- 
ple ; and it is said the architects from the African 
coast, Mohammedans, brought it into Spain, about the 
6th century. Its introduction into Britain has been 



* The Rev. H. Hampton, one of the curates of Islington, having been 
dismissed, a part of his congregation erected a temporary church. The 
Bishop of London, after inquiry, refused to license it. On this the con- 
gregation declared itself to be the Free Church of Eiifjjand. Eventual- 
ly he left the neighborhood and re-entered the establishment. 



FEE 



2n 



FRI 



fixed at C74 ; many of onr Gothic cathedrals are attrib- 
uted to freemasous. The Grand Lodge at York was 
founded 9'J(!. Freeniasoury was interdicted in En- 
gland, 14'24. In 1717 tlie Grand Lodge of England was 
established ; that of Ireland in 1T3U ; and that of Scot- 
land in 17o6. Freemasons were excommunicated by 
the pope iu 173S ; again condemned, Sept. 30, 1SG5. 
The Freemasons' Hall, Loudon, was Inult 1775 ; the 
charity was instituted 17SS. The order is in a very 
flourishing condition in the LTuited States. The ma- 
sons have just tinished a most beautiful masonic hall 
iu Boston, Mass., built of white granite, which is al- 
most unequaled for architectural beauty. It was com- 
pleted at a cost of nearly a million. It was dedicated 
by the President of the L'nited States June 27, 1SG7. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude 
Latin which prevailed in the nations subjugated by 
the Romans. German was introduced by the Franks 
in the Sth century. In the 9lh the Gallo-Romanic dia- 
lect became divided into the Lamjue d'oc of the south 
and the Lanijua Wuil of the north. The French lan- 
guage as written by Froissart assimilates more to the 
modern French, and its development was almost com- 
pleted when the Acadumie Franraise, established by 
Richelieu in lGo4, published a dictionary of the lan- 
guage iu 1074. The French language, laws, and cus- 
toms were introduced iuto England by William I., 
1066. Law pleadings were changed from French to 
English iu the reigu of Edward liI.,l\X2.—Stuw. 

PEINOIPAL FKKNOU AnilOES. 

Born Died 

Joinville, thirteenth century. 

Froissart 1347-1400 ? 

Monstrelet 14.53 

Comines l.'iog 

Marot 14G.5 1544 

Rabelais 1483 1553 

Montaigne 1553 1592 

Malherbe 1556 1628 

Des Cartes 1596 1650 

Pascal 1G23 16G2 

Mollere 1622 1673 

Rochefoucalt 1613 1680 

Comeille 1606 16S4 

La Fontaiue 1621 1695 

La Bruyiire 1644 1696 

Racine 1639 1699 

Bossuet 1627 1704 

Bayle 1647 1706 

Boileau 1636 1711 

Fenelon 1G51 1715 

Rollin 1661 1741 

Le Sage 166S 1747 

Montesquieu 1689 1755 

Voltaire 1694 1778 

J. J. Rousseau 1712 1778 

D'Alembert 1717 1783 

Buffou 1707 17SS 

Marmoutel 1723 1799 

De Stac'l 1766 1817 

De Geulis 1746 1830 

Sismondi 1778 1842 

Chateaubriand 1769 1S48 

Augustin Thierry 1795 1856 

Beranger 1780 1857 

Eugene Sue, aged 53 1857 

Eugene Scribe, aged 80 1SG2 

A. G. De Baraute 1782 

F. Gui/.ot 1787 

A. F. Villemain 1T90 

A. De la Martine 1790 

Victor Cousin 1792 

Amed 'e Thierry 1797 

L. A. Thiers 1797 

Jules Michelet 1798 

Victor Hugo 1803 

P. Mcrimee 1803 

Louis Blanc 1813 

FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR. Iu 

1792 the French nation adopted a new calendar, pro- 
fessedly founded i)n iihilosojjhical principles. The 
tirst year of the era of the republic began at midnight, 
between ."^ept. 21 and 22, 1792; but its establishment 
was not decreed until the 4th F'rimaire of the year II., 
Nov. 24, 1793. The calendar existed until the 10th 
Nivose, year of the republic XIV., Dec. 31, 180."), when 
the Gregorian mode of calculation was restored by 
Napoleon. 

AUTr.MN. 

Vendemiaire Vintage mouth. . .Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. 

Brnmairc Fog mouth Oct. 22 to Nov. 20. 

Frimaire SIcet mouth Nov. 21 to Dec. 20, 



WINTKK. 

Nivose Snow month Dec. 21 to Jan. 19. 

Pluvio.se Rain mouth Jan. 20 to Feb. 18. 

Ventose Wind month Feb. 19 to Mar. 20. 

fiPEING. 

Germinal Sprouts' month. . .Mar. 21 to April 19. 

Floreal Flowers' month. .April 20 to May 19. 

Prairial Pasture mouth. . .May 20 to June 18. 

eUMMEE. 

Messidor Harvest mouth. . .June 19 to July 13. 

Fervidor, or 

Thermidor Hot mouth July 19 to Aug. 17. 

Fructidor Fruit month Aug. IS to Sept. 10. 

SAN80ULOTIDE8, OE FEASTS DEDICATED TO 

Les Vertus The Virtues Sept. 17. 

Le Genie Genius Sept. 18. 

Le Travail Labor Sept. 19. 

L'Opiniou Opinion Sept. 20. 

Les Recompenses. .Rewards Sept. 21. 

FRENCHTOWN, on the River Raisin, was the scene 
of a conflict on the ISth of Jan., 1813. A force of 100 
British and 400 Indiaus was attacked by Colonels Al- 
len and Lewis with about 600 Americans, defeated, and 
routed. The Americans lost 13 killed and 54 wound- 
ed ; the enemy lost 38 killed and 50 wounded. 

FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the treaty 
of commerce between Great Britain and France, sign- 
ed Jau. 23, 18G0, at Paris by Lord Cowley and Mr. Rich- 
ard Cobden, and by the ministers MM. Baroche and 
Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compen- 
sated for the depression of trade occasioned by the 
Civil War iu North America (1861-5). 

FRENCH WARS in A.meeica, between the French 
and English colonists. 

The first broke out in 1689 

Casco aud Schenectada burnt 1690 

"Queen Anne's War" 1702 

French aud Indiaus ravage Maine 1703 

French and Spauiards invade South Carolina 1706 

Expedition against Port Royal 1707 

" against Canada 1711 

Peace of Utrecht 1713 

"King George's War" 1744 

Louisburg aud Cape Breton taken by the English 

colonists 1745 

Peace 1 749 

French and Indian War 1753^ 

Washington assailed at Fort Necessity 1754 

Braddock's Defeat 1755 

Oswego taken by Montcalm 1756 

Fort William Henry, by same commander 1757 

Louisburg taken by Amherst, and Du Quesne by 

Washington 1758 

Battle of 'I'iconderoga, and defeat of the English, " 

Froutenac taken by the American Provincials " 

Defeat of the English " 

Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec 

taken 1759 

Canada surrendered to Great Britaiu, 1700 ; aud se- 
cured to her by the treaty at Paris in 17G3 

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while 
fresh. Very ancient ones exist in Egypt and Italy, 
and modern ones iu the British houses of Parliament, 
at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by 
Giotto aud others at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at 
Pisa, executed in the 13th century, are justly celebra- 
ted. See Stereochromy. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called from 
Friga, the Scandinavian Venus. She was the wife of 
Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, aud riches ; and 
with Thor and Odin composed the supreme council of 
the gods. See Good Frulay. 

FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied Russians 
and Prussians were beateu bv the French, commanded 
by Napoleon, on June 14, 1807. The Allies lost eighty 
pieces of cannon aud about 18,000 men ; the French 
about 10,000 men. The peace of Tilsit followed, by 
which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half 
her dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist 
of a group of more than 150 islands, forming an archi- 
pelago of very considerable extent. These islands 
were discovered by Tasman in 1642, and visited by 
Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767, and by 
Captain Cook, who gave them their present name on 
account of the friendly disposition of the natives, 1773. 
Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious. 

FRIENDS. See qimkers. 



FRI 



216 



FUG 



FRIESLAND: East (N. Germany), formerly gov- 
erned by its owu counts. On the death of its Prince 
Charles Edward in 1744, it became subject to the King 
of Prussia ; Hanover disputed its possession, but Prus- 
sia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bona- 
parte in 1S06, and afterward to the French Empire, but 
was awarded to Hanover in 1S14. The English lan- 
guage is said to be mainly derived from the ofd Frisian 
dialect.— Feieslani>, West, in Holland, was part of 
Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the 
Counts of Holland about 936, and was one of the seven 
provinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 15S0. 
The term Chevaux de Frise (sometimes, though rarely, 
written Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived 
from Friesland, where it was invented. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by Sir Martin 
Frobisher, who tried to find a northwest passage to 
China, and, after exploring the coast of New Green- 
land, entered this strait Aug. 11, 15TG. He returned to 
England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, 
supposed to contain gold, which induced Queen Eliza- 
beth to patronize a second voyage. The delusion led 
to a third fruitless expedition. He was killed at the 
taking of Brest in 1594. 

FRONDE, Civil Waes of the, in France, in the 
minority of Louis XIV. (1G4S-53), during the govern- 
ment of Queen Anne of Austria and CarclinalMazarin, 
between the followers of the court and the nobility, 
and the Parliament and the citizens. The latter were 
called Frondeurs {ulinriers), it is said, from an incident 
in a street quarrel. In a riot on Aug. 2T, 1648, barri- 
cades were erected in Paris. 

FROSTS, 
markable : 



The following are some of the most re- 



The Eiixine Sea frozen over for 20 days 401 

A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas' tliere 

Avere frozen a hundred miles from the shore, 
A f f • T. , ■, ,,. , Oct., 763-Feb., 764 

A Irost m England on Midsummer day is said to 
have destroyed the fruits of the earth. . . 1035 

Thames frozen for 14 weeks 1003 

Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April'. ' .' 'l07G 

The Categat entirely frozen 1294 

Baltic passable to travelers for six week's! ....... 1.323 

The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark. 1402 
In England, when all the small birds perished. 1407 
The ice bore riding upon it from Liibeck to Prus- 

Sift -I J.OC 

Severe frost, when the large fowl 'of the air s'ou'<^ht 

shelter in the towns of Germany. . " 1433 

The river frozen below London Bridge to 'dravesl 

end, from Nov. 24 to Feb. 10 I434 

The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 

from Denmark to Sweden 14(30 

The winter so severe in Flanders that' the' wiiie 

distributed was cut by hatchets 14GS 

Carriages passed over from Lambeth to 'We'stmiu- 

ster 151,5 

Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps.' .' .' 1544 

Sledges drawn by oxen traveled on the sea from 

Rostock to Denmark 154c 

^hl^'^'ihM'u'i "''^ Thanies. . . . .'.'.'.'.'.'d'c'c'. '2l','etc'.;i5G4 
The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 

wagons -,p.„~ 

The Rhine, Scheldt, and Venice 'frozen'..'! i5<u 

Fires and diversions on the Thames. . . I607 

The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee'fr'oz'e'n'- 

ice covers the Hellespont '1 goo 

Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Lit't'le'i?'e'lt'ovei- ' 
the ice from Holstein to Deumark,with his whole 
army, horse and foot, with large trains of artil- 
lery and baggage If 59 

The forest trees, and even the oaks'i'u'Eni^iaud 
split by the frost ; most of the hollies were kill- 
ed ; the Thames was covered with ice eleven inch- 
es thick ; and nearly all the birds perished*. . 1GS4 
The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna' 

and attacked the cattle, and even men ifioi 

Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from 'Dec" 

to March, 8 Anne 1 -no 

Afair held on the Thames, and 'oxen roasted-' this 

trost continued from Nov. 24 to Feb. 9 1710 

One which lasted nine weeks, when coaches' plied 
upon the Thames, and festivities and diver.^ions 
01 all kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. This 
season was called the "hard winter". 1740 

From Dec. 25 to Jan. 16, and from Jan. is'to'2-^ • 
most terrible in its effect " '1756 



■n». SS '^l* """ J'*''"' ''•"' 'en-ible. It began 
i^ T^ci ; . "°* people kept trades on the Thames 
1 ' H n >!"' u^' <=°'"='>«3 dai'y P'ied on the 



the hecinning of 

in afair till Feb. 

n„„„k» ti.- '(. -,---■• ""1 i-ucu uii lue Thames as on drye 

Thames ^^^pLt,,'^- ,7 "' " ^^"F "Pon the ice in the middle of the 

iJiames. ~i.ntry m the memoranda of a CUizen, 



One general throughout Europe. The Thames was 
passable opposite the Custom-house from Nov. 
to Jan i7gg 

One from Dec. 24, 1794, to Feb. 14, 1795','with'the in- 
termission of one day's thaw Jan. 23,1795 

Intense frosts all December !l796 

Severe frost in Russia* '. .'.!!!'.!!. !l812 

Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter 'very 
severe in Ireland Jan., 1814 

The frost so intense in parts of Norway that quick- 
silver freezes, and persons exposed to the atmo- 
sphere lose their breath Jan. 2,1849 

Very severe frost in London, Jan. 14 to Feb. 24; 
and very cold weather up to June 2Gt 1855 

Very severe frost from Dec. 20, 18G0, to Jan. 5, 1861. t 
See CM. 

FROST'S INSURRECTION. See Keu-2wrt. 

FRUITS. Several varieties of fruit are said to have 
been introduced into Ital}', 70 B.C. ct seq. Exotic fruits 
and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in 
England, were brought thither between the years 1500 
and 1578. See Gardening and Flowers. 

Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 

Apples, Syria 1522 

Apple, custard. North America 1736 

Apple, Osage, ditto 1S18 

Apricots, Epirus 1540 

Cherry-trees, Pontus lOO 

Cherries, Flanders 1540 

Cornelian cherry, Austria 1595 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 1705 

Fig-tree, S. Europe, before 1543 

Gooseberries, Flanders, before 1540 

Grapes, Portugal 152s 

Lemons, Spain 1554 

Limes, Portugal 1554 

Lime, American, before 1752 

Melons, before 1540 

Mulberry, Italy .!l520 

Mulberry, white, China, about 1596 

Mulberry, the red, North America, before 1629 

Mulberry, the paper, Japan, before 1754 

Nectarine, Persia 1562 

Olive, Cape 1730 

Olive, the sweet scented, China 1771 

Oranges ] 595 

Peaches, Persia I5e2 

Pears, uncertain * * 

Pine-apple, Brazils 1568 

Pippins, Netherlands 1525 

Plums, Italy 1522 

Pomegranate, Spain, before 1,543 

Quince, Austria 1573 

Quince, Japan 1796 

Raspberry, the Virginian, before 1696 

Strawberry, Flanders 1530 

Strawberry, the Oriental, Levant 1724 

Walnut, the black. North America, before 1629 

FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the Ger- 
man botanist, Leonard Fnchs, about 1542. The fuchsia 
lulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced 
from Mexico about 1830. 

FUENTES D'ONORE (Central Spain). On May 2, 
1811, Masseua crossed the Agueda with 40,000 infant- 
ry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to re- 
lieve Almeida. He expected every day to be super- 
seded in his command, and wished to make a last ef- 
fort for his own military character. Wellington could 
muster no more than 32,000 men, of which only 1200 
were cavalry. He, however, determined to fight rather 
than give up the blockade of Almeida. After much 
flghtiu":, night came on and put an end to the battle. 
Next day Massena was joined by Bessii'-res with a 
body of the Imperial Guard, and on May 5 the enemy 
made his grand attack. In all the war"there was not 
a more dangerous hour for England. The fight lasted 
until evening, when the lower part of the town was 
abandoned by both parties— the British maintaining 
the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a can- 
non-shot from the stream. — Napier. 

FUGGER, an illustrious German family (the present 



* The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any 
^yinter in that country for many preceding years, and was very destruc- 
tive to the French army in its retreat from "Moscow, at the close of that 
memorable year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th of Nov., 
when the frost covered the (ground, and the men perished in battalions, 
and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with the loss in 
battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost 
in the campaign of this year more than 400,000 men. 

t On Feb. ii, fires were made on the Serpentine, Hyde Park. A traf- 
fic on the ice of 35 miles long was established in Lincolnshire.— During 
the frost of 18fiO-l, bonfires were lit on the Serpentine, dancing took 
place, fire-works were let off, etc. 



FUG 



217 



GAL 



head being Prince Leopold Piigger Babcnhauser), de- 
rives its origin from John Fuggcr, a master weaver in 
Augsburg ill 1370; and its wealth by trade, aud by 
moucy-leuding to mouarchs, especially the emperors. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, passed by the American 
Legislature in 1S50. It imposed a fine of $1000 and 
eix months' imprisonment on any person harboring 
fugitive slaves or aiding in their escape. This law 
was declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of 
the Superior Court on Feb. 3, 1S5.'5. It was carried 
into eftect with great dilliculty, and was not received 
by Massachusetts. It was repealed June 13, lSO-1. See 
Slaveri/ in America. 

FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, found- 
ed by St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, in 74-1. It 
was made a bishopric in 1752, and a principality in 
ISOH. Napoleon incorporated it with Frankfort in 
ISIO, but in 1S15 it was ceded to Hesse-Cassel. 

FUMIGATION. Aeron, a physician of Agrigentum, 
is said to have first caused great fires to be lighted ancl 
aroniatics to be thrown into them to purify the air, 
and thus to have stopped the plague at Athens and 
other places in Greece, about 473 B.C. 

FUNDS. See Stocks aud Sinking Fund. 

FUNERALS. A tax was laid on funerals in En- 
gland, 1793. The Romans pronounced harangues over 
their dead, when eminent for rank, great deeds, and 
virtues. Theopompus obtained a prize for the best 
Funeral Oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Po- 
pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration 
pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her 



son, Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius 
Cresar did the like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cor- 
nelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced 
a funeral oration, according to Herodotus, .580 B C 
David lamented over Saul and Jonathan, 105G B C 
and over Abuer, 104S B.C. (2 Sam. i. and m.).— Funeral 
Games, among the Greeks, were chiefly horse-races • 
and among the Romans, processions, and mortal com- 
bats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These 
games were aboUshed by the Emperor Claudius, A. 
D. 47. 

Puhlio Fttneeam voted by the British Parliament: 

Duke of Rutland, in Ireland Nov. 17 1787 

Lord Nelson (see Xelaon) ',, . Jaii. 9 1806 

William Pitt Yeb. 22* " 

Charles James Fox .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. .Oct' lo' " 

Richard Briusley Sheridan .' ...Julv 13'lS16 

George Canning Aug. 16,1827 

Duke of Wellington Nov. 18,1852 

Viscount Palmerston (at her majesty's request), 

Oct. 27,1SG5 

FURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province acquired 
by the East India Company in June, 1S02. Near the 
capital of the same name, on Nov. 17, 1804, Lord Lake 
totally defeated the Mahratta chief Ilolkar and about 
60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and about 20 
wounded. 

FURS were worn by Henry L about 1125. Edward 
III. enacted that all persons who could not spend i;i00 
a year should be prohibited this species of finery, 
March 2S, 1336-7. 



G. 



GABELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term applied to va- 
rious taxes, but afterward restricted to the old duty 
upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on the 
Frenp h in 12S0. — Durwj. Edward III., termed Philip 
of Valois, who first levied the tax, was the author of 
the Salic law (from sal, salt). The assessments were 
unequal, being very heavy in some provinces aud 
light in others, owing to privileges aud exemptions 
purchased from the sovereigns in'early periods. The 
tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign of 
Louis XVI. It was a grievous burden, and tended to 
hasten the revolution, during which it was abolished 
(1790). 

GAELIC is the northern branch of the Celtic lan- 
guages, Irish, Erse, or Highland Scotch, aud Manx. 
The" "Dean of Lismore's book" (written 1511-51) con- 
tains Gaelic poetry ; specimens were published, with 
translations, in 1862, by Rev. T. M'Lachlau. 

GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a strongly fortified 
Neapolitan sea-port, has undergone several remarka- 
ble sieges. It was taken by the French in 1799 and 
1806, and by the Austriaus in 1S15 aud 1821. Here the 
pope, Pius IX., took refuge in 1S48, and resided more 
than a year. Here also Francis II. of Naples, with his 
queen and court, fled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 
Sept. 7,1860; and here he remained till the city was 
taken by the Sardinian General Cialdini, Feb. 1.3", 1S61, 
after a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French 
fleet remaining in the harbor. Cialdini was created 
Duke of Gaeta. 

GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United States by 
Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, French, and other 
powers protesting against it. 

GALATIA, an ancient province of Asia Minor. In 
the 3d century B.C., the Gauls under Brenuus invaded 
Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the 
Troas, 27S ; were checked by Attains in a battle about 
239 ; and theu settled in what was called afterward 
Gallogi-.-ecia and Galatia. The country was annexed 
to the Rcmiau Empire B.C. 2.5, on the death of the 
King Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians was 
probably written A.D. 58. 

GALICI.\, a province, N.W. Spain, was conquered 
by D. Junius Brutus 136 B.C., and by the Vandals A.D. 
419, and was fiequently subdued by successive inva- 
ders. In 106.'), on the death of Ferdinand I., king of 
Castile and Leon, when his dominions were divided, 
his son Garcia became King of Galicia. Ruling ty- 
rannically, he was expelled by his brother Sancho ; 
returned "at his death in 1072; was again expelled by 
his brother Alfonso, 1073, and died in prison in 1091. 
Alfonso, sou of Urraca, queen of Castile, was made 



King of Galicia by her in 1109. He defended his moth- 
er, a dissolute woman, against her husband, Alfonso 
VII., and at her death in 1126 acquired Castile, and ' 
once more reunited the kingdoms. — Galicia in Po- 
land. East Galicia was acquired by the Emperor of 
Germany at the partition iu 1772, and West Galicia at 
that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand-duchy 
of Warsaw iu 1809, but recovered by Austria iu 1815. 
See Poland, note. 

GALLERIES. See National, Louvre, and Versailles. 

CiALL, St. (iu Switzerland). The abbey was found- 
ed in the 7th century, aud was surrounded by a town 
in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the Swiss 
Confederation in 1815. 

GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, triremes, were 
invented by the Coriuthiaus, 756 B.C. — Blair. The 
terms " galley slave" and "condemned to the galleys" 
arose from these sea vessels having from 25 to" 30 
benches on each side, manned by four or five slaves 
to each bench. In France they had a general of gal- 
levs, of whom the Baron de la Garde was the first, 
l6u.—Uenault. 

GALLIPOLI, a sea-port in Turkey in Europe, 123 
miles west of Constantinople. It was taken by the 
Turks in 1357, and fortified by Bajazct L The first 
division of the Freuch and English armies proceeding 
against the Russians lauded here iu March and April, 
1854. 

GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly of leath- 
er, but since 1S43 made of vulcanized India-rubber. 
The importation of Galoclws was prohibited by 3 Edw. 
IV., c. 4 (1463). 

GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLASTICS. See un- 
der Electricity. 

GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers here 
were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction not yet 
forgotten. It was taken by Richard de Burgo in 1232. 
Iu 1C90 Galway declared for King James, but it was 
invested and taken by General Ginckel immediately 
after the decisive ba"ttle of Aughrim, July 12,1691. 
Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by govern- 
ment for the advancement of learning iu Ireland, pur- 
suant to act 8 & 9 Vict., c. 66 (1845), inaugurated Oct 
30, 1849. See CoUeocs.* 



* In 1858 the eailinfr of mail steam-packeta from Galway to America 
boKun ; but the subsidy ceased in May, IStil, through the company's 
breach of contract, which occasioned much discussion in Parliament. 
In Julv, 1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from CJalway 
to America was renewed, .£"5,000 having been voted for the purpose. 
The scheme was not successful. On Nov. 9 the steamer Anplia struck 
on the Black Rock, and the mails were taken to Dublin. The last 
packet sailed in Feb., 1864. 



GAM 



218 



GAS 



GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought from 
India by the Uutcii about 1600. 'Hermann in 1G77 an- 
nounced that it was derived from two trees of Ceylon, 
since ascertained to belong to the order Guttiferse. 

GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest laws im- 
posed by William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his 
game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild 
beast ; and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. The 
clergy protested against ameliorations of these laws, 
under Henry III. The first Game Act passed in 1496. 
Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784. 
Several statutes to prevent the destruction of game 
have been passed. The Game Act (1 & 2 Will. IV., c. 
32), greatly modifying all previous laws, was passed in 
1S31. By it the sale of game is legalized at certain 
seasons. By the Game Poaching Preventive Act, pass- 
ed in 1862, greatly increased powers were given to the 
county police. 

GAJVIES. The candidates for athletic games in 
Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and 
boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
games were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrest- 
ling, and boxing. See Capitoline, Isthinian, Olympic, 
Pythian, Secular Games, etc. 
Gaming was introduced into England by the Sax- 
ons ; the loser was often made a slave to the win- 
ner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. 
— Camden. 
Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and in- 
terdicting tenuis, cards, dice, bowls, etc., to in- 
ferior people, except at Christmas time), 33 Hen, 

Vm .1541 

Gaming-houses licensed in London 1620 

Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
when all private lotteries and the games of faro, 
basset, and hazard were suppressed, 13 Geo. 11. ,1790 
The profits of a well-known gaming-house in Lon- 
don for a single season have been estimated at 
X150,000. In one night a million of money is 
said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. 
The lord chancellor refused a bankrupt his cer- 
tificate because he had lost £5 at one time in 

gaming July 17, 17SS 

Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 

£50 each for playing at faro March 11, 1797 

Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until 1S3G 

Any person losing, by betting or playing, more 
than £100 at any one time, is not compellable to 

pay the same, 16 Chas. II 1663 

Bonds or other securities given for money won at 
play not recoverable ; and any person losing 
more than XIO may sue the winner to recover it 

back, 9 Anne 1710 

Amended laws respecting games and waarers, 8 & 
9 Vict, c. 109 (1S45) ; by 3 Geo. IV., c. 114, a gam- 
ing-house keeper is to be imprisoned with hard 
labor ; and by 2 & 3 Vict., gaming-houses may be 
entered by the police, aud all persons present 
taken into custody. 

Betting-houses suppressed 1S53 

Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wiesbaden 

and other places in Germany lSCl-2 

GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical in- 
tervals (commonly termed do or ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to 
which si was added afterward), for which the first sev- 
en letters of the alphabet are now employed, is men- 
tioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 

GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the couutry be- 
tween the Ganges and the Jumna. The main line 
(525 miles long) was opened April 8, 1854. When com- 
pleted, it will be 900 miles in length, and will irrigate 
not less than 1,470,000 acres. It is the greatest work of 
the kind in the world. Its estimated cost is £1,555,548. 
The immense difficulties in its execution were over- 
come by the skill and perseverance of its engineer. Sir 
Proby Cautley. In Oct., 1864, Sir Arthur Cotton as- 
serted that the work was badly done, and the invest- 
ment only paid 3 per cent. 

GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, was plant- 
ed by God. See Gen. ii. Gardening was one of the 

first arts that succeeded the art of bliildiug houses. 

Walpole. Gardens were highly valued by the ancients. 
The Scriptures abound with allusions to them, partic- 
ularly the Song of Solomon and the Prophets ; and 
Christ's agony took place in a garden. Xenophou de- 
scribes the gardens at Sardis ; and Epicurus and Plato 
taught in gardens. Theophrastus's History of Plants 
was written about 322 B.C. Horace, Vu-gil, and Ovid 
derive many images from the garden (50~B.C. to A.D. 
50) ; and Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially de- 
scribed (about A.D. 100). The Romans doubtless in- 
troduced gardening into Britain (about A.D, 100), and 



it was kept up afterward by the various religious or- 
ders. Its cultivation as an art in England is dated 
from the commencement of the 10th century, when 
many Flemings came to England in consequence of 
the persecutions of Philip II. Miller's valuable dic- 
tionary was published in 1724; the Horticultural So- 
ciety {which see) was established in 1804 ; Loudon's val- 
uable Encyclopedia of Gardening was first published 
in 1S22, and his Encyclopedia of Plants in 1829. See 
Botany, Flowers, Fruits. An act for the protection of 
gardens and ornamental grounds in cities was passed 
in 1863. 

GARROTE, a machine for strangling criminals, used 
in Spain. The term "garroters" was applied to the 
attempts to strangle made by thieves, very prevalent 
in the winter of 1862-63. An act was passed in 1863 
to punish these acts by flogging. 

GARTER, Okbee of the, owes its origin to Edward 
III., who, with a view of recovering France, was eager 
to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, 
and thereupon, projecting the revival of King Arthur's 
round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite 
foreigners and others of quality and courage to the ex- 
ercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, pub- 
lished royal letters of protection for the safe coming 
and returuing of such foreign knights as had a miud 
to venture their reputation at the joust and tourna- 
ments about to be held. A table was erected iu Wind- 
sor Castle of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were 
entertained at the kind's expense. In 1346 Edward 
gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been 
crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and be- 
ing victorious on sea and land, and having David, king 
of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory'of these ex- 
ploits, is said to have instituted this order, April 23, 
1349. The following were the 



OEIOINAl, KNIGUT8, 1350. 

Edward, prince of Wales 
(called the BlackPrince). 

Henry, duke of Lancaster. 

Thomas, earl of Warwick. 

Piers, captal de Buch. 

Ralph, earl of Staflbrd. 

William, earl of Salisbury. 

Roger, earl of Mortimer. 

Sir John Lisle. 

Barth, lord Burghersh. 

John, lord Beauchamp. 

John, lord Mohuu, of Dun- 
star. 



Hugh, lord Courtenay. 
Thomas, lord Holland. 
Lord Grey, of Codnore. 
Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 
Sir Miles Stapleton. 
Sir Thomas Wale. 
Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
Sir Nefe Lorin. 
John, lord Chandos. 
Sir James Audley. 
Sir Otho Holland. 
Sir Henry Eam. 
Sir San Daubrichcourt. 
Sir Walter Paveley. 



Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the en- 
signs of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with 
gold, with the inscription in old French, '■'■ Iloni soit 
qui mal y pense" — Evil be to him who evil thinks. 
The knights are installed at Windsor, and were styled 
Equites aurcce Periscclidis, knights of the golden gar- 
ter. — Bcatson. The honor was conferred on the Sultan 
of Turkey in 1856. The oflice of Garter King at Arms 
was instituted by Henry V. in 1420, and is one of con- 
siderable honor ; he carries the rod and sceptre at ev- 
ery feast of St. George.* — Spelman. The Order of the 
Garter in Ireland was instituted in imitation of that 
of England, by Edward IV., iu 1466, but was abolished 
by an act of Parliament, 10 Hen. VIII., 1494.— Ashjnole's 
Instit. The number of knights was increased iu 1786. 
Many knights were admitted in 1814. 

GASCONY (S. W. France), a duchy, part of Aqui- 

taine {which see). 

GAS-LIGHTS : the inflammable aeriform fluid, car- 
bureted hydrogen, evolved by the combustion of coal, 
was described "by Dr. Clayton iu 1739. — Phil. Trans. 
Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumi- 
nation tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall 1792 

Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's fouud- 

ery in Birmingham in 179S 

Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 

and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) 1805 

Introduced in London, at Golden Laiie, Aug. 16, 

1807; Pall Mall, 1809; generally through Loudon, 1814 
Mr. David Pollock, father of the chief baron, was 

governor of the first "chartered" gas company, 1812 
Lvceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment by 

Mr. Winsor, 1803 ; the Haymarket not till 1853 



» The patron saint of England. The order, until King Edward VI.'s 
time, was called the Order of St. George. His figure on horseback, pre- 
sented as holding a spear and killing tlie dragon, was first worn by the 
knights of the institution. It is suspended by a blue ribbon across the 
body from the shoulder. — St. George was a tribune in the reign of Dio- 
cletian, and, being a man of great courage, was a favorite ; but com- 
plaining to the emperor of his severities toward the Christians, and ar- 
guing in their defense, he was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 
290.— On that day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 



GAS 



219 



GEN 



Introduced into New York City 1S23-4 

Oas first used in Dublin, IslS ; the streets general- 
ly lighted Oct., 1825 

Gas-Ii;;htin'j; introduced in Paris, 1819; ten gas 
coniijuuies in Paris July,lS65 

Syducy, iu Australiu, was lit with gas ISIay 2.'),lS-tl 

The gas-pipt's in and around Loudon extend up- 
ward ol'iiiXKl miles, and are daily increasing. It 
was said in ISCO, that of the gas supply of Lon- 
doij a leakage of!) per ceut. took place through 
the faulty joints of the pipes. — The sale of gas 
is regulated by acts passed in ISGO 

Processes to obtain illuminating gas from water 
have been patented by C'ruickshanks (1839), 
White (18-19), and others. 

Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), SirW. 
Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathau 
Defiles (1S3S), and others. 

Explosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- 
lightCompany's works at Nine Elms: lOpersous 
killed, and many injured (first accident of the 
kind) Oct. 31,1805 

GASES, iu chemistry, permanently elastic aeriform 
fluids. See Oxygen, Uydrogen, siud Xitrogcn. Professor 
Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the difl'usiou of 
gases appeared iu 1S34. Furnaces in which gases are 
used as fuel were devised by Mr. C. W. Siemens, and 
emjiloyed in glass works, etc., in ISGl. Lenoir's gas- 
engine, iu which the motive power is obtained by the 
ignition of combined gases by electricity, was patented 
by him iu 1801. In Dec, 1804, 143 of these engines 
were working iu Paris. They were introduced into 
England in 1864. 

GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion 
between Austria aud Prussia respecting the disposal 
of the duchies conquered from Denmark was closed by 
a provisional convention signed here by their minis- 
ters (Blum for Austria and Bismarck for Prussia), 
Aug. 14, 1805.* This convention was severely cen- 
sured by the other powers. 

GATESHEAD, a borough iu Durham, on the Tyne, 
opposite Newcastle. At (iateshcad-fell William l". de- 
feated Edgar Atheling in 106S. It was made a Parlia- 
mentary borough by the Reform Bill in 1832. Between 
twelve and one o'clock, Oct. 6, 1S54, a fire broke out iu 
a worsted manufactory here, which shortly after set flre 
to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of 
nitre, sulphur, etc., causing a terrific explosion, felt at 
nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying 
many buildings, and burying many persons in the 
ruins. Abontfifty lives were lost, and very many per- 
sons were seriously wounded. The damf.ge was es- 
timated at about a million pounds. 

GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed 
"the battle of the gauges") began among engineers 
about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved of the^broad, 
adopted on the Great Western Railway ; aud Mr. R. 
Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, of the narrow, 
that now almost universally adopted, even by the Great 
W^estern. 

GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of 
capacitv, with respect to wine and other liquids, was 
established by a law 27 Edw. III., 1352. 

GAL^L, Gallia, the ancient name of France aud Bel- 
gium. The natives, termed by the Greeks Galatre, by 
the Romans Galli or Celts', came originally from Asia, 
and, invading Eastern Europe, were'driveu westward, 
and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia 
Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Trausalpiua), 
and the British Isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). 
The Phocceans found Massilia, now Marseilles, 

B.C. 600 
The Gauls under Brennus defeat the Romans at 
the River AUia, and sack Rome; are defeated 

and expelled by Camillus July 13, 390 

The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are 
beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Sosthenes, king of 

Macedon 277 

They assist Hannibal 218, etc. 

The Romans lonquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade 

Gallia Transalpina, with various success 121-58 

They coloni/.e Aix (123 B.C.) ; audNarbonne 118 

Julius C:csar subdues Gaul iu 8 campaigns 58-50 

Lyons founded 41 

Druids' reliirion proscribed by Claudius A.D. 43 

Adrian visits and favors Gaul, hence called Re- 
storer of the Gauls 120 

* Austria wns to have the temporary poverninont of Holstein, and 
Prussia that of Sihleswij; ; the establishment of a German fleet was 
proposed, witli Kiel as a federal harbor, lield by Prussia; Lauenburj? 
was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a 
coaipensation*2,5UU,000 Danish dollars. 



Introduction of Christianity iso 

Christians persecuted 177, 202, 257, 286, 28S 

The Franks aud others defeated by Aurelian 241 

And by Probus 275, 277 

Who introduces the culture of the vine 280 

Maximian defeats the Franks .' .' 281 

Constantine proclaimed emperor in Gaul. .. .. 300 
Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by barba- 
rians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg 357 

Juhau proclaimed emperor at Paris, 300 ; dies.... 3G3 

Gaul harassed by the Alemanni 365-377 

Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 

Franks, Visigoths, etc 378-450 

Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul • 

is defeated by Aetius ' 447 

The Huns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 

Chalons 451 

^gidius, the Roman commander, murdered.. ...'. 464 

Childeric, the Frank, takes Paris " 

All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visigoths, 475 
End of the Roman Empire of the West, and estab- 
lishment of the kingdom of the Franks 476 

(See France.) 
GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in the 
13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was a part of the 
full suit of armor, being the armor for the hand. It 
was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an ad- 
versary. 

GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the Roman 
people. "Brocades, and damasks, and tabbies, and 
gauzes have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). — 
Dean Swift iu 1698. The manufacture of gauze and 
articles of a like fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, was 
commenced about 1759. 

GAVEL-KIND. The custom of dividing paternal 
estates in laud equally among male children, without 
any distinction, is derived from the Saxons about 550. 
This usage is almost uuiversal in Kent, where it was 
first practiced. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
bastards inherited. — Davics. Not only the lands of 
the father were equally divided among all his sons, 
but the lands of the brother also among all his breth- 
ren, if he had no issue of his own. — Law Diet. 

GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson 
carried ofi" the gates about 1120 B.C. {.Judges svi.). It 
was taken by Alexauder after a long siege, 332 ; and 
near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Pofiorcetes, 312 
B.C. It was taken by Saladin A.D. 1170, and by Bona- 
parte, March, 1799. 

GEMS. The ancient Greeks excelled in cutting 
precious stones, of which many specimens are extant. 
The art was successfully revived in Italy in the 15th 
century. In Feb., ISOO, "llerz's collection of gems was 
sold for £10,000. The Rev. C. King published his 
"Antique Gems" in 1800, and the "Natural History of 
Precious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Artificial gems 
have been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, 
Deville, Wohler, and others), 1858-65. 

GENEALOGY (from the Greek t/enc«, birth, descent), 
the art of tracing pedigrees, etc. The earliest pedi- 
grees are those contained in the 5th, 10th, and 11th 
chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles con- 
tains many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is 
given in 3fatt. i. and Ltike iii. Many books on the sub- 
ject have been published in all European countries ; 
one at Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Heu- 
ninges, in 1.598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 
1732. — Sims's Manual for the Genealogist, etc., 1856, 
will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins 
(1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825 
and 1S57) on the British peerage, are highly esteemed. 
The Genealogical Society, Loudon, was established iu 
1853. 

GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency was the 
first ofticer honored with the title of general of the 
French armies, 1203.— Henault. It is observed by M. 
Balzac that Cardinal Richelieu first coined the word 
Oeneralissivio, upon his taking the supreme command 
of the French armies in Italy, iu 1629. See Command- 
ers-in-Chief. 

GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe, 
58 B.C. ; became part of the empire of Charlemagne, 
about A.D. 800, aud capital of the kingdom of Bur- 
gundy 426. 

The republic founded in 1512 

Emancipated from Savoy 1526 

Allied to the Swiss cantons in 1584 

Calvin settling here, and obtainingmuch influence, 

Geneva was termed the "Rome of Calvinism" 

about 1533 

Through him Servetus burnt for heresy 1553 



GEN 



220 



GEO 



Insurrection, Feb., 17S1 ; about 1000 Geuevese, in 
consequence, applied, in 17S2, to Earl Temple, 
lord lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to set- 
tle in that country ; the Irish Parliameut voted 
£50,000 to defray the expense of their journey, 
and to purchase them lands near Waterford. 
Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 
17S3, but they soon after abandoned it ; many 

Geuevese settled in England 17S4 

Another revolution July,1794 

Geneva incorporated with France April 2G,17!iS 

Admitted into the Swiss Confederation. . .Dec. 30,1813 
Kevoliition, through an endeavor of the Catholic 
cantons to iutrocluce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- 
visional government set up Oct. 7,1S4S 

[The scheme was withdrawn.] 
Election riots, with loss of life, through the indis- 
cretion of M. Pazy Aug. 22,1864 

49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of Nat- 
ural Sciences held Aug. 21-23,1865 

GENOA (N. Italy). Its ancient inhabitants were 
the Ligures, who submitted to the Romans 115 B.C. 
It underwent the revolutions of the Roman Empire till 
A.D. 950. 

Genoa becomes a free commercial state about 1000 

Wars with Pisa 1119-1284 

Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- 
sieges Genoa 1241 

The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascend- 
ency about 1270 

The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 

Melora Aug. 13,1284 

War with Venice 1293-99 

Eafaele Doria and Galeotto Spuiola appointed 

captaius 1335 

Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 ; set 

aside by the nobles, 1344 ; reappointed 1356 

Great discord ; many doges appointed 1394 

Genoa successively under the protection of France, 
139G ; of Naples, 1410 ; of Milan, 1419 ; it loses 

and regains its freedom frequently 1421-1512 

Taken and sacked by the Spaniards and Italians 

under Prosper Colonna 1522 

Andrew Doria, with the fleet, restores the inde- 
pendence of his country 1628 

Genoa bombarded by the French, 1684; by the 
British, 1745; taken by the Imperialists, who 
are soon after expelled, Nov. 9, 1746 ; another 

siege raised June 10,1747 

The celebrated bank failed 17.50 

Genoa made the Ligurian republic 1796 

The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian 
army until literally starved, was evacuated by 
capitulation. May and June ; but it was surren- 
dered to the French soon after their victory at 

Marengo June 14,1800 

Genoa annexed to the French empire, June, 1805 ; 
surrenders to the English and Sicilians,April 18,1814 

United to the kingdom of Sardinia Dec, " 

The city seized by insurgents, who, after a mur- 
derous struggle, drove out the garrison, and pro- 
claimed the Ligurian republic, April 8, but sur- 
rendered to General La Marmora April 11,1849 

GENS D'ARMES were anciently the king's horse- 
guards only, but afterward the king's gardcs-du-c(jr2}S ; 
the musqueteers and light-horse were reckoned among 
them. There was also a company of gentlemen (whose 
number was about 250) bearing this name. Scots 
guards were about the person of the kings of France 
from the time of St. Louis, who reigned in 1226. They 
■were organized as a royal corps byX'harles VII. about 
1441. The younger sons of Scottish nobles were usu- 
ally the captains of this guard. The name gens- 
d'armes was afterward given to the police, but, be- 
coming obnoxious, was changed to "municipal guard" 
in 1830. 

GENTLEMAN (from gentiles, of a genu, a race or 
clan). The Gauls, observing that during the empire 
of the Romans the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best 
appointments of all the soldiers, applied to them the 
terms ecuyers a.nd gentilsJwmtnes. This distinction of 
gentlemen was much in use in England, and was giv- 
en to the well descended about 1430.— .?irf?icj/. Gen- 
tlemen by blood were those who could show four de- 
scents from a gentleman who had been created by the 
king by letters-patent. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS (formerly styled the Band 
of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest corps in En- 
gland, with the exception of the Yeomen of the Guard. 
The band was instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and 
was originally composed eritirely of gentlemen of no- 
ble blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. 



William IV. commanded that it should be called his 
Majesty's Honorable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, 
March 7, 1SZ4:.— Curling. 

GEOGRAPHY. The first records we have of geo- 

fraphical knowledge are in the Pentateuch and in the 
ook of Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achil- 
les as representing the earth surrounded by the sea, 
and also the countl-ies of Greece, islands of the Archi- 
pelago, and site of Troy. — Iliad. The priests taitght 
that'the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre 
of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the in- 
ventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. Hip- 
parchus attempted to reduce geography to a mathe- 
matical basis, about 135 B.C. It was first brought to 
Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about A. 
D. 1201. — Lengkt. The invention of the mariner's com- 
pass is the important connecting link between ancient 
and modern geography. The modern maps and charts 
were introduced into England by Bartholomew Co- 
lumbus to illustrate his brother's" theory respecting a 
Western continent, A.D. 1489. Geography is now di- 
vided iuto mathematical, physical, and political. The 
study has been greatly promoted during the present 
century by expeditions at the expense of various gov- 
ernments and societies. The Royal Geographicar So- 
ciety of Loudon was established in 1830 ; that of Paris 
in 1821. 

GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, has been the 
subject of philosophical speculations from the time 
of Homer ; and it is said to have been cultivated in 
China many years before the Christian era. It occu- 
pied the attention of Pliny, Aviceuna, and the Arabian 
writers. 

In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the 
pope's museum : Cesalpinl, Majoli, and others (1597), 
Steno (1609), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lis- 
ter (1678), Leibnitz (1680), recorded observations and 
put forth theories on the various changes in the 
crust of the earth. 
Hooke (166S), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
fossils, "as monuments of nature, were more cer- 
tain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and, 
though diflicult, it would not be impossible to raise 
a chronology out of them." 
Burnet's "Theory of the Earth" appeared in 1690, 

Whiston's in 1696. 
Bufibn's geological views (1749) were censured by the 
Sorbonne in 1751, and recanted in consequence. 
The principle he renounced was that the present 
condition of the earth is due to secondary causes, 
and that these same causes will produce farther 
changes. His more eminent fellow-laborers and 
successors were Gesner (1758), Michell (1760), Easpe 
(1762-73), Pallas and Saussure (1793-1800). 
Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
and even denied the existence of volcanoes in prim- 
itive geological times, aud had many followers, Kir- 
wan, De Luc, etc. — Hutton (1788), supported by Play- 
fair (1801), warmly opposed Werner's views, and as- 
serted that the principal changes in the earth's critst 
are due to the energy of fire. The rival parties were 
hence termed Neptunists and Volcanists. 
William Smith, the father of British geology (who had 
walked over a large part of England, drew up a Tab- 
ular View of British Strata in 1799, and published it 
and his Geolog. Map of England aud Wales, 1812-15. 
In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geo- 
logical collection in Loudon, collected by H. Davy, 
C. Hatchett, and others ; the proposal of Sir John 
St. Anbyn, Sir Abraham Hume, and the Right Hon. 
C. P. Greville, to aid the government in establishing 
a school of mines there iu 1804-7, was declined. 
In 1S07 the Geological Society of London was estab- 
lished, which, by collecting a great mass of new 
data, greatly tended to check the disposition to the- 
orize, and led to the introduction of views midway 
between those of Werner and Hutton. 
In 1855 Mr. (afterward Sir Henry) De la Beche sug- 
gested the establishment of the present Museum of 
Geology, which began at Craig's Court, aud which 
was removed to its present position in Jermyn 
Street. To him is also due the valuable geological 
maps formed on the ordnance survey. The build- 
ing was erected by Mr. Pennethorue, and opened in 
1851. Attached to the musenm are the Mining Rec- 
ords Oflice, a lecture theatre, laboratories, etc. Sir 
H. De la Beche, the first director, died April 13, 1855, 
and was succeeded by Sir R. I. Murchison. A simi- 
lar institution was established at Calcutta, in 1840, 
by the East India Company. 
The English standard works on Geology at the pres- 
ent time are those of Lyell, Phillips, De la Beche, 
Murchison, Mantell, and Austed (1865). 



GEO 



221 



D. 



The strata comprising the earth's crust may be di- 
yulcd luto two great classes: 1st, those generally at- 
tributed to the agency of water ; 2d, to the action of 
fire, which may be subdivided as follows : 

. , ( Sedimentary or Fossilifer- 

Aqueous formation, strat- J ous rocks. 

itied, rarely crystalline, 1 Metamorphic or Unfossil- 
- , ( iferous. 

Igneous formations, un- ( Volcanic, as Basalt etc 

stratified, crystalline, ( Plutonic, as Granite, etc. 
Possiliferous, or Sedimentary rocks, are divided into 
three great series : 

The Palieozoic (most ancient forms of life), or Pri- 
mary. 

The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 

Tlie Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of 
life), or Tertiary. 

TABULAR VIEW OF FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA. 
NEOZOIC. 

I. Post-Tbetiaey : 

A. Post- Pliocene: 

1. Jii'nmt: Marine strata, with human remains- 

Danish peat: kitchen-middens; bronze and 
stone implements : Swiss lake-dwellings • tem- 
ple of Serapis at Puzzuoli. ' 

2. Post-Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint knives, 

and bones of living and extinct quadrupeds • 
ancient valley gravels ; glacial drift ; ancient 
Nile mud : post-glacial N. American deposits • 
remains of il/«s«odow; Australian breccias. ' 

II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Seiues : 

B. Pliocoic: 

3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene): Mammalian 
. ^P.eus, Norwich crag. Warine Shells.-i 

4. Older Pliocene ; Ked and coralline crag (Suffolk 

Antwerp). ^ ' 

C. 5, 6, Miocene: Upper and lower; Bordeaux- Vir- 

ginia sands and Zouraine beds ; Pikerme de- 
posits near Athens ; volcanic tufa and lime- 
stone of the Azores, etc. ; brown coal of Ger- 
many, etc. [Mastodon, gigantic. Elk, Sal- 
amander, etc.] 
7, S, 9, Eocene: Upper, middle, and lower- fresh 
water and marine beds ; Barton clays ; Brack- 
lesham sands; Paris gypsum; London plastic, 
and Thauet clays. [Pahns, Birds, etc.] 

III. Secondary or Mesozoio Series : 
E. 10. Cretaceous: Upper; British chalk; Maestricht 

beds.— Chalk with and without flints, chalk 
marl, upper green sand, gault, lower green 
sand. IMesosaurus, Pish, iVollusks, etc ] 
11. Lower (or Acocomian or Wealdcn) : Kentish rao- • 
Weald clay ; Hastings sand. Uguanod o »,' 
Uylceosaurus, etc.] 
r. 12. Oolite : Upper ; Purbeck beds, Portland stone 
and sand, Kimmeridge clay ; lithographic 
stone of Solenhofeu with Archceontervx 
[_Fish.;\ ^ ' 

13. Middle : Calcareous grit, coral rag, Oxford clay 
Kelloway rock. IBelemnites and .4 mm o- 
mtes.'] 
14 Lower : Combrash, forest marble, Bradford 
clay, great oolite, Stonesfleld slate, fuller's 
earth, inferior oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, Ple- 
siosaxirus, Pterodactyl.^ 
G. 15. Lias : Lias clay and marl stone. [Ammonites 
TT -fP „,^^.1"'^'^f^^'''>ni^m2)hibia,Labyrinthodon^ 
n. IC. 2 nas.- Upper; white lias, red clay, with salt in 
Cheshire, coal-tields in Virginia, N. A. [Fish 
Drnmatkerium.'i ' 

17. Middle or muschelkalk (wanting in Ent^land) 

[Encrinus, Placodus gigas'.j 
IS. Lower: New red sandstone of Lancashire and 
Cheshire. [Lahyrinthodon : Footprints 
of llirds and Reptiles.'i 
rv. Primary or Pal/rozoio Series: 
I. 19. Permian: Magncsian limest(me, marl slates red 
sandstone and shale, dolomite; kupferschie- 
fer. [hirs, Fishes, A^nphibia.'] 
K. 20, 2L Caj-6on?/c/-o«.s, Upper and lower: coal mea*?- 
ures, millstone grit, mountain limestone 
[Fcrtis, Calamitcs, CoaL-^ 
L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, middle, and lower - 
tilestones, cornstones, and marls, quartzose 
Tvr o.. „i^"""'^^."^*^"*^^V [•''''"■"•s, Pish, Trilobites.] 
M. 25, 2G, 27. hdurian, Ujjper, middle, and lower : Lud- 
low shales, Aymestrv limestone, Wenlock 
limestone, ■\\'enlock shale, Caradoc sandstone 
Llandcilo flags; Niagara limestone. [Spon- 
fft'-'', Corals, Trilobites, Shells.^ 
N. 2S, 29. Cambrian, Ui>per and lower; Bala lime- 
stone, Festiniog slates, Bangor slates and 



GEO 



s^erie^ Yf &r''^V°'''^'*^ ^rits, Huronian 
Fern, ilfnlii. ^^ " "l. ''. Z^ < « «- ^ ' n g u I a, 
mites\n/ri\''V''' ^^^^omaria, Cala- 

r\ on T J-^^^^ "^yP^ogantia.-\ 

O. „0. Laurentmm, Upper gneiss of the Hebrides (?) • 
Labradorite series, north of the S^LawrPuce- 
Adirondack Mountains, New York '^''""'"'^^ ' 

S^r^e^^Sxifsjr--^- 

ticfn''toSurin^°thre"rth'''T*'^- °-"^^"^^ «PP'=<=^- 
ihr, T?„„ Z- ", eaitn. Its oriffin is a'^rribprl tr> 

havinF|\!^S^ii4'lo' u"w^ ^""'^'^^^^"'^ °' 'he^N^ 
marks' ina'VeMZ^^u'^, o' "ffi 'Wll'Ltt 
duced geometry into. Greece about 600 b'c End ™s 

vented by Nicomedes, 220 BC. The cienlof^e'om" 
etry was taught in Europe in the 13tl cent BoolsTu 
geometry and astronomy were destroyed in FnH.^rt 
as infected with magic, 7 Edw VI 1552 s^o^^qI^,*^ 
son's celebrated edition of Euclid first app"i;reTin mT 



■ in the reign 

mmifh°o?t?p^'; ^"'^V^ *^^ ^'''"^^^^ ^'^^e, near the 
mouth ot the Niagara River, was captured by the Amer- 
^'''"^""t^er General Dearborn, nearly 4000 stronf on 

about =000 '^h^f^A ^'J^ ^'■"'/'^ g'^^-"^"" nuTnfered 
about oOOO. The Americans lost 33 killed and SS 
wounded ; the British lost 108 killed, 1G3 wSed and 
622 made prisoners. On the Sth of July following an 
American foraging party near Fort George •«■!' at^ 

Mnnf n^nf ^''"''"y '''r'^-P' f"^-^'^ of BriSsh and In- 
dians. Only a corporal and 9 men escaped to the fort • 

-fh'n?]?;""^"' ^^^> '^'"■'^ "^"'^l OJ- poinded. On the 
l.th of the same month the outworks of Fort Georee 
were attacked by 200 British and Indians. They were 
f.f!^^^l^ defended by a detachment from the carr!/on 
field Scot°fTL*f''"''>""^ Lieutenant General) Win^ 
field Scott. The Americans lost 4 killed and 4 wound- 
ed. Again, on the 24th of August, these oiitworko 
were attacked by a British party? They were "cpiihel 
by a detachment under Captain Davenport. The loss 
on both sides was inconsiderable. -^"cxusa 

GEORGE, St., the tutelary saint of England arid 

wStt''^?'T °-^ '^^ ^''^'' «f ^be Garter by Ed- 
waul IIL His day IS April 23. 8ee Knighthood. 

vP^f P^*^^^; CONSPIRACY, in France. General Mo- 
reau, General Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was 
commonly known by the nami of Georges, and otheis 
were arrested at Paris, charged with a consp racy 
against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restorit on 
of Louis XyilL, Feb., 1804. Pichegruwalfou id st an° 
gled in prison, April 6. The conspirators were tried 
dune 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death and 
many to imprisonment. Moreau was sufl^ered to leave 
Fiaiice, and was escorted from the Temple to embark 

£res^le^n";Sl™!)f ^- '" '''' ^^ ^^ ^"^^'^ ^^^-e 
GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province of 
fi?R n''"''," wl"''' Caucasus, submitted to Alexander 
323 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his successors It 
was subjugated to Rome by Pompey 65 B.C., but re- 

\Taft'\l ThP IT'^^'F^- Christianity was introduced 
into it in the 3d century. In the 8th century, after a 
severe struggle, Georgia was subdued by the Arab 
caliphs ; by the Turkish Sultan Alp-Arslan, IOCS; and 
by theTartar hordes, 1235. From the 14th to the ISth 
eentiines, Georgia was successively held by the Persian 
and Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah establish- 
ed part of Georgia as a principality, of which the last 
ruler, Heracliiis, surrendered his territories to the czar 
in 1799, and in 1S02 Georgia was declared to be a Rus- 
sian province.— Georgia, in tue United States, was 
settled by Gen. Oglethorpe in 1732. Separating from 
the Congress of America, it surrendered to the British 
Dec, 1778, and its possession was of vast importance 
to the Royalists in the then war. Count d'Estaine 
joined the American General Lincoln, and made a des- 
perate attack on Georgia, which failed, and the French 
fleet returned home ; the colony was given up to the 
Lnion by the British in 1783. It seceded from the 
L nion, by ordinance, Jan. 18, 1861, and was overrun bv 
Sherman in 1864-5. See United States. -Georgia in 
the Pacific, was visited by Captain Cook in 17T5. 

GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the planet 
Uranus {which sec). ^ 



GER 



222 



GER 



GERMAIN'S, St., near Paris, where James II. of 
England resided in state after his abdication in 16S9, 
and where he died, Sept. 16, 1701. 

GERMAN-ITALIAN WAR. In 1860, as a result of 
the German-Italian War, the confederation of 1815 was 
broken up, and Austria was excluded. The events of 
this revolution, which promises to consummate the 
union of Germany as a Protestant power, under the 
leadership of Prussia, followed each other in this chron- 
ological order : 

Opinion of the Prussian government, through her 
crown jurists, against the hereditary right of the 
Prince of Augusteuburg to the government of 

Schleswig-Holstein Oct.,lSG5 

Count Bismarck presses this opinion upon the no- 
tice of the Austrian government Jan. 20,1866 

Austria claims absolute freedom in the provisional 

administration of Holsteiu Feb. 7, " 

Austria, fearing aggression from Prussia, begins 
to arm (February). Prussia announces to the 
minor German states her necessity of preparing 

for the defense of Silesia March 24, " 

Prussia orders her first armaments. . .March 27, 29, " 
Prussian troops enter Holstein to prevent the con- 
vocation of Holstein Estates ordered by Austria, 

June 7, " 

Austria, in the Diet at Frankfort, charges Prussia 

with a disturbance of the federal peace, and 

moves the mobilization of the federal army (June 

11). Motion carried nominally 9 to 0, but really 

by a bare majority June 14, " 

Prussia declares the Confederation unable to pro- 
tect its members, and declares her readiness to 
enter into a new confederation on a reformed 
basis. Virtually a declaration of war. .June 14, " 
Immediately war follows. Prussia has (employ- 
ing the landwehr of the second call) 380,000 in- 
fantry, 37,000 cavalry, and 804 guns. She can 
also depend upon 30,000 men from her allies — 
Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg-Gotiia, Saxe-Alten- 
burg, Brunswick, the two Mecklenburgs, Olden- 
burg, Anhalt, the two Schwarzburgs, Lippe- 
Detmold, Schaumburg-Lippe, Waldeck, Reuss 
Schleiz, Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck. Italy, 
in alliance with Prussia, is able to furnish 200,000 
men and 480 guns. Austria, on the other hand, 
can bring into the field 310,000 infantry, 30,000 
cavalry, and 1000 guns ; and from her allies (Ba- 
varia, Wurtembcrg, and Hesse-Darmstadt) she 
can depend upon 100,000 men and 234 gnna. 
From Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, 
Saxe-Weiningen, Reuss Greitz, and Frankfort, 
she may also expect 65,000 men and 135 guns. 
Prussia occupies Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, and Han- 
over June 10-25, " 

Italy declares war against Prussia June 20, " 

Archduke Albrecht, commanding the Austriaus, 
defeats the Italians at Custoza. Austrian loss, 
900 killed, 3090 wounded, 1000 captured ; Italian, 
T20 killed, 3112 wounded, 4315 captured, June 24, " 
Battle of Sadowa or Koniggriitz, Bohemia ; Aus- 
trians under Field-marshal Benedek defeated by 
the Prussians. Prussian loss 10,000 ; Austrian, 
40,000, of whom 18,000 were unwounded prison- 
ers July 8, " 

The Italian fleet under Admiral Persaud defeated 
ofi" Lissa by the Austrian under Tegethoff. Re 

d'ltalia sunk July 20, " 

Treaty of peace agreed upon at Nicholsburg, by 
the conditions of which Austria retires from the 
German Confederation, recognize^ anew confed- 
eration of the German states north of the Main, 
and the possible union with them of the south- 
ern German states Aug. 26, " 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, constituted by 
the Allies, 1815, in place of the Confederation of the 
Rhine {which see), was destroyed by the German-Italian 
War of 1866. 

It consisted of the empire of Austria ; the kingdoms of 
Prussia, Hanover, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wnrtem- 
berg; 7 grand-duchies (Baden, Hesse, etc.) ; 8 duch- 
ies (Brunswick, etc.) ; 12 principalities and 1 lord- 
ship ; 4 free cities (Frankfort, Hamburg, Bremen, 
and Liibeck ; the late Danish duchies (Schleswig 
and Holsteiu) ; the duchies of Luxemburg and Lem- 
burg belonging to Holland. Population of the whole, 
in 1853, about 43,':^ millions. — 13aron Kubeck, Presi- 
dent since May 29, 1859. 

After the war of 1866 Germany was reconstructed, 
and what is known as the North German Confed- 
eration was formed, consisting of the states north of 
the Main, viz. : 



Prussia, Saxony, Mecklenburg - Schwerin, Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Saxe-Weimar, Brunswick, 
Anhalt, Saxe-Meiningeu, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- 
Altenburg, Lippe-Detmold, Waldeck, Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Reuss 
Younger Line, Schaumburg-Lippe, Reuss Elder Line, 
Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, Upper Uesse, of Hesse- 
Darmstadt. 

These countries cover an area of 159,940 square miles, 
and have a population of 29,220,802, of which 23,590,543 
belong to Prussia. About seven tenths of the popula- 
tion are Protestants. The states south of the Main 
(Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and 
Lichtenstein) were permitted, by the terms of the treaty 
of Nicholsburg between Austria and Prussia, to unite 
in a SouTU German Confederation, or unite with the 
states north of the Main, according to their own op- 
tion. 

GERMANTOWN, Battle of, was fought within 
six miles of Philadelphia, on the 4th of October, 1777. 
The Americans were commanded by Washington, the 
British by General Howe. The morning was foggy, 
the battle severe, and, unable, on account of the mist, 
to discern the exact position of friend and foe, the 
Americans gave way, and lost the battle, when, as they 
afterward ascertained, victory was within their grasp. 
The Americans lost, in killed, wounded, and prison- 
ers, about 1000 ; the British lost about 000. 

GERMANY (Ge7-vmniaAlemania),a.uc\e,utty, as now, 
divided into several independent states. TheGermans 
long M'ithstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue 
thein ; and although that people conquered some parts 
of the country, they were expelled before the close of 
the 3d century. In the 5th century the arms of the 
Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater por- 
tion of Germany. They were subjugated by Charle- 
magne in the latter part of the Sth century. He took 
the title of emperor, entailing the dignity upon his 
family ; but after his race became extinct in 911, the 
rank was made elective. A member of the house of 
Austria was elected (almost uninterruptedly) from 1437 
until 1804. Germany was divided into circles in 1512 ; 
formed into the Confederation of the Jihine in 1804, and 
into the Germanic Confederation in 1815, See both ar- 
ticles, Austria, etc. 
The Teutones, united with the Cymry, defeat the 

Romans in Illyria B.C. 113 

After varying success are defeated by Marius 102 

Hermann or Armiuius, the German hero, destroys 

the Roman legion under Varus A.D. 9 

Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul, 450, etc. 
Charlemagne, after a long contest, subdues the 

Saxons, who become Christians 772-785 

He is crowned Emperor of the West at Rome 800 

He adds a second head to the eagle to denote that 
the empires of Rome and Germany are united in 

him 802 

Louis {le Debonnairc) separates Germany from 

France S39-S40 

The German princes assert their independence, 

and Conrad I. of Fraucouia reigns 911 

[The electoral character assumed about this time. 

See Electors.^ 
Reign of Henry I. [king!, suruamed the Fowler; 
he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and 

Bohemians 918-934 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned em- 
peror by the pope 902 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia 1042 

Contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII 1075 

Henry's humiliation at Canossa {which see) 1077 

He takes Rome, 1804 ; and Gregory dies in exile 

at Salerno 1085 

Disputes relating to ecclesiastical investitures with 

the pope 1073-1123 

The Guelph and the Ghibelline feuds begin 1140 

Conrad III. leads an army to the Holy Ware ; It was 

destroyed by Greek treachery 1147 

Frederick Barbarossa's wars with the Italian re- 
publics 1154-77 

He destroys Milan 1162 

He ruins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) 1180 

He is dro^vned during the crusade in Syria 1190 

Teutonic order of knighthood " 

Hanseatic League established 1245 

Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by 

tlie electors 1273 

The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by 

Charles IV 1356 

Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He 
betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who 
are burned alive (see Bohemia) 1414-16 



GER 



223 



GER 



Si^ismuiid beinp; driven from the throne, Albert 

II., duke of Austria, succeeds 1437 

Era of the KefDrinatioii (see Lutlicr) 151T 

German Bilile and LitiiiL'v iiublislied by Luther,152'J-46 
Luther excomuuuiicated by the Diet at Worms, 

April 17,1521 
War with the pope — the Germans storm Kome. . .15'.'7 

Diet at Spires 1529 

Confession of Augsburg published Jan. 25,1530 

Prolcstant League of Snialcalde 1531 

Tlic Anabaptists seize Miinster, 15.'i4 ; but are sup- 
pressed, and John of Leyden slain 1536 

Death of Luther 1540 

War with Protestants 1646-52 

Who are helped bv Ilenry II. of France— Peace of 

KeliL'ion at I'assau July 31,1.552 

Abdication of Cliarles V Aug. 27,1556 

The Tliirty Years' War begins between the Evan- 
gelic Union under the elector palatine, and the 

"Catholic League under the Duke of Bavaria lOlS 

Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector pala- 
tine Nov. 8,1620 

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, 

June, 1630 
Death of Gustavus Adolphus, victor at Lutzen, 

Nov. 16,1632 
End of the Thirty Tears' War ; treaty of Westpha- 
lia, establishing religious toleration Oct. 24,1648 

John Sohieski, king ot Poland, after defeating the 
Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, 

Sept. 12,1683 
The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks), Jan. 26,1699 
War with Prance, etc. ; Marlborough's victory at 

Blenheim Aug. 13.1704 

Peace of Utrecht : April 11,1713 

The Pragmatic Sanction {which see) 1722 

Francis 1., duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress 
of Austria, Maria - Theresa, queen of Hungary 
(1736). She succeeds her father, and becomes 

Queen of Hungary Oct. 20,1740 

The Elector of BavaiWa elected emperor as Charles 
VII., Jan. 22, 1742; he dies, Jan. 20; Francis I., 

duke of Lorraine, elected emperor Sept. 15,1745 

The Seven Years' War between Austria and Prus- 
sia and their respective allies begins, Attg.,1756; 

ends with the peace of Hubertsburg Feb. 15,1703 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- 
berment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms 

and liberal changes 17S2 

Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland,1795 
[In the ruinous wars bet ween Germany and France, 
the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his terri- 
tories west of the Khiue, and his states in Italy, 
17<Metseq.-i 
Francis II. assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, 

Aug. 11,1S04 
Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and 
Wurtemberg, 1S05; and of Westphalia, 1S07; dis- 
solution of "the German Empire ; formation of 

the Confederation of the Khiue July 12,1806 

Commencement of the War of Independence, 

March, 1813 

Congress of Vienna Nov. 1,1814-May 25,1815 

The Germanic Confederation {which sec) formed, 

Junes, " 

The ZoUverein {which see) formed 1S18 

Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany 

(see Austria, Ilunr/anj, etc.) 184S 

The King of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, 
to promote the reconsolidatiou of the German 

Empire by a proclamation March 27, " 

German National Assembly meet at Frankfort, 

May 18, " 
Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmm-k), 

March, " 
German National Assembly elects the King of 

Prussia Emperor of Germany March 28,1849 

He declines the honor April 3, " 

He recalls the Prussian members of the Assembly, 

May 14, " 
The Frankfort Assembly transfers its sittings to 

Stuttgardt May 30, " 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for 
the formation of a new central power for a lim- 
ited time ; appeal to be made to the governments 

of Germany Sept. 30, " 

Protest of .'Vustria against the alliance of Prussia 

with some of the smaller German states, Nov. 12, " 
Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wurtemberg, for a revision of the German Union, 

Feb. 27,18.'50 

P.arliament meets at Erfurt March, " 

The King of Wurtemberg denounces the insidious 
ambition of Prussia..." March 15, " 



German Diet meets at Frankfort May 10,1350 

Ilesse-Cassel refuses to send a representative to 

„Erfurt^ Juue7, " 

Hesse -Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
League June 20, " 

Austria calls an assembly of the German Confed- 
eration at Frankfort July 19 " 

Which meets at Frankfort Sept. 2', " 

Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 
Hesse-Casscl (see Ilcsse-Cassel) Nov. 12 " 

Conferences on German aflairs at Dresden, ' ' 

„ , , Dec. 23, 1850, to May 15,1851 

Conference of the Diet of Nuremberg relative to a 
general code of commerce for Germany, Jan. 1.5,1857 

Great excitement in Germany at the Freuch suc- 
cesses in Lombardy ; warlike preparations in Ba- 
varia, etc May and Juue,lS59 

Meeting of a new Liberal party in Eisenach, in 
Saxe-Weimar. Seven resolutions put forth rec- 
ommending that the imperfect federal Consti- 
tution be changed ; that the German Diet be re- 
placed by a strong central government ; that a 
National Assembly be summoned; and that Prus- 
sia be invited to take the initiative Aug. 14, " 

This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and warm- 
ly opposed by Hanover Sept., " 

The Austrian minister, Eechberg, severely censur- 
ing the Duke of Saxe-Gotha fur a liberal speech, 
Sept. 4, and accusing the Prussian government 
of favoring the Liberals, meets with cutting re- 
torts Sept., ' ' 

The federal Diet maintain the Hesse-Cassel Con- 
stitution of 1S52 against Prussia March 24,1800 

Meeting of the French emperor and the German 
sovereigns at Baden, June 16, 17 ; and of the czar 
and the Emperor of Austria and the Regent of 
Prussia atToplitz July 20, etc., " 

Meeting at Coburg in favor of German unity against 
French aggression Sept. 5, " 

Dispute with Denmark respecting the rights of 
Holstein and Schleswig Nov., " 

First meeting of a German national shooting match 
at Gotha July 8-11,1861 

Meeting of the German National Association at 
Heidelberg : it decides to form a German fleet, 

Aug. 23, " 

Subscriptions received for the fleet, Sept. and Oct., " 

TheNational Association meet at Berlin ; they rec- 
ommend the formation of a united federal gov- 
ernment, with a central executive, under'the 
leadership of Prussia March 13,1862 

Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states 
respecting federal reform July 8-Aug. 10, " 

Deputies from the German states meet at Weimar, 
and declare that the greatest want of Germany 
is its formation into one federal state, Sept. 28,29, " 

Congress of deputies from German states on na- 
tional reform Aug. 22,1803 

The Emperor of Austria invites the German sov- 
ereigns to a congress at Frankfort, July 31 ; King 
of Prussia declines, Aug. 4 ; nearly all the sov- 
ereigns meet, Aug. 16, 17 ; they definitively ap- 
prove the Austrian plan of federal reform, Sept. 
1 ; which is rejectee! by Prussia Sept. 22, " 

The Diet determine to have recourse to federal ex- 
ecuti(m in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfill 
her obligations. Oct. 1, " 

50th anniversary of the battle of Leipzig celebrated, 

Oct. 18, " 

Death of Frederick VII., king of Denmark, Nov. 15, " 

German troops enter Holstein as " federal execu- 
tion" (see Drmiiark for following events), Dec. 23, " 

Death of Maximilian IL, kingof Bavaria,March 10,1804 

Prussia retains the duchies; discussion between 
Austria and Prussia; the Diet adopt the resolu- 
tion of Bavaria and Saxony requesting Austria 
and Prussia to give up Holstein to the Duke of 
Augustenburg ; rejected April 6,1865 

The Gastein convention {lohich see) signed, Aug.l4, " 

Severely censured by the Diet at Frankfort, 

Sept. 14, " 
(See Austria, Denmark, Frtt^sia, etc.) 

KINGS AND EMPERORS OF GERJIANY. 
OARI.OVINGIAN RACE. 

800. Charlemagne. 

814. Louis Ic Debonnaire, king of France. 

840. Lothaire, or Lother, sou of Louis ; died in a mon- 
astery at Treves. 

8.15. Louis IL, son of Lothaire. 

875. Charles II. , called the Bald, king of France, poi- 
soned by his physician, Zedechias, a Jew. — Hi- 
vnidt. 

877. [Interregnum.] 



GER 



224 



GET 



880. Charles III., Ze (?>'os, crowned King of Italy; de- 
posed ; succeeded by 

887. Arnulf, or Aruoul ; crowned Emperor at Kome in 
896. 

899. Louis III., called IV. ; the last of the Carlovin- 
giau race in Germany. 

SAXON DYNASTY. 

911. Otho, duke of Saxony, refuses the dignity on ac- 
count of his age. 
" Conrad I., duke of Franconia. 

918. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, son of Otho, 
duke of Saxouy ; king. 

936. Otho I., styled the Great, son of Henry. Many 
writers withhold the imperial title from him 
until crowned by Pope John XII. in 902. 
973. Otho II., the Bloody, so stigmatized for his 
cruelties ; massacred his chief nobility at an 
entertainment to which he had invited them; 
wounded by a poisoned arrow. 
983. Otho III., surnamed the Red, his son, yet in his 
minority; poisoned. 

1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy 
and the Lame. 

1024. Conrad II., surnamed the Salique. 

1039. Henry III., the Black, son of Conrad II. 

1056. Henry IV., sou of the preceding ; a minor, under 
the regency of his mother Agnes; deposed 
by his sou and successor. (Several emperors 
nominated by the Pope.) 

1106. Henry v.; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of 
Henry I. of England. 

1125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 

1138. [Interregnum.] 

HOUSE OF nonENSTATTTEN, OR OF BTTABIA. 

1138. Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 

1152. Frederick I., Barbarossa; one of the most splen- 
did reigns in the German annals ; drowned 
by his horse throwing him into the River Sa- 
leph. 

1190. Henry VI., his son, surnamed Asper, or the 
Sharp : it was this emperor that detained Rich- 
ard I. of England a prisoner in his dominions ; 
died 1197. Interregnum and contest for the 
throne between Philip of Suabia and Otho of 
Brunswick. 

1193. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- 
berg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 

1208. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb, recognized as 
King of Germany, and crowned as emperor the 
next year ; excommunicated and deposed. 

1215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, the son of Henry 
VI. ; deposed by his subjects, who elected Hen- 
ry, landgrave of Thurins;ia. Frederick died 
in 1250, naming his son Conrad his successor, 
but the pope gave the imperial title to Wil- 
liam, earl of Holland. 

1250. Conrad IV.,* son of Frederick. 

1256. [Interregnum.] 

1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso of Cas- 

tile, nominated emperors. 

HOUSES OF HAPSBUKG, LUXEMEUEG, AND BATAEIA. 

1273. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg. 

1291. [Interregnum.] 

1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion of 

Albert, son of Rodolph ; deposed ; slain at the 

battle of Spires. 
1298. Albert, duke of Austria, Rodolph's son; killed by 

his nephew at Rheinfels, May 1, 1308. 
1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 

1313. [Interregnum.] 

1314. Louis IV. (III.) of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of 

Austria, son of Albert, rival emperors; Fred- 
erick died in 1330. 

1330. Louis reisns aloue. 

1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. In this reign was 
given at Nuremburg, in 1356, the famous G(jld- 
en Bull, which became the fundamental law of 
the German Empire. 

1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son of Charles; 
twice imprisoned, and at length forced to re- 
sign ; but continued to reignin Bohemia. 

1400. Frederick III., duke of Brunswick; assassinated 
Immediately after his election, and seldom 
placed in the list of emperors. 
" Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crovraed at 
Cologne ; died in 1410. 



1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a party 
of the electors ; died the next year. 
" Sigismuud, king of Hungary ; elected by another 
party. On the death of Jossus he is recog- 
nized by all parties ; King of Bohemia in 1419. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 

Albert II., surnamed the Great, duke of Austria, 

and king of Hungary and Bohemia ; died Oct. 

27, 1439. 
[Interregnum.] 
Frederick IV. (or III.), surnamed the Pacific ; 

elected emperor Feb. 2, but not crowned until 

June, 1442. 
Maximilian I., son of Frederick; died in 1519. In 

1477 he married Mary of Burgundy. Francis 

I. of France and Charles I. of Spain became 

competitors for the empire. 
Charles V. (I. of Spain), son of Joan of Castile 

and Philip of Austria, elected; resigned both 

crowns 1.556, and retired to a monastery, where 

he died soon after. 
Ferdinand I., brother to Charles ; succeeded by 

his son, 
Maximilian II., king of Himgary and Bohemia ; 

succeeded by his son, 
Rodolph IL 

Matthias, brother of Rodolph. 
Ferdinand II., his cousin, son of the Archduke 

Charles, king of Hungary. 
Ferdinand III., son of the preceding emperor; 

succeeded by his son, 
Leopold I. 

Joseph I., son of the Emperor Leopold. 
Charles VI., brother to Joseph, succeeded by his 

daughter, 
Maria-Theresa, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, 

whose right to the empire' was sustained by 

England. 
Charles VII., elector of Bavaria, whose claim was 

supported by France ; rival emperor, and con- 
tested succession. 
[This competition for the throne of Germany 

gave rise to an almost general war. Charles 

died in Jan., 1745.] 
Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 

consort of Maria-Theresa. 
Joseph II. , son of the Emperor Francis and of 

Maria-Theresa. 
Leopold II. , brother to Joseph ; succeeded by his 

son, 
Francis II. In 1804 this prince became Emperor 

oi Austria only, as Francis I. 
(See Austria.) 



1438. 



1439. 
1440. 



1493. 

1519. 

155G. 

1564. 

1.576. 
1612. 
1619. 



1058. 
1705. 
1711. 

1740. 



1742. 



1745. 
1765. 
1790. 
1792. 



rUINOIPAI. GEK.MAN AUTHORS. 



Born 



* His son Conradin waa proclaimed Kinf; of Sicily, which was, how- 
ever, surrendered to his uncle Manfred, 1254, on whose death it was 
given by the pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the invi- 
tation of the Ghibelline party, entered Italy with a large anny, and was 
defeated at Tagliacozzo, Aus. 23, 1 268, and beheaded at Naples Oct. 29, 
thus ending the Hohenstaufen family. 



ITlfilas (Gothic Bible) about A.D. 360. 

Martin Luther (Germ. Bible, etc, 1522-34), 1483 

Hans Sachs 1494 

Godf. Leibnitz 1646 

G. F. Gellert 1715 

G. E. Lessing 1729 

G. A. Biirger 1748 

J. G. Von Herder 1744 

Fred. T. Klopstock 1724 

Immanuel Kant 1724 

J. 0. Fred, von Schiller 1759 

Ch. M. Weiland 1733 

C. T. KiJrner 1791 

Jean Paul Richter 1763 

J. H. Voss 1751 

F. Schlesel 1772 

B. G. Niebuhr 1776 

J. W. von Gotthe 1749 

Wm. von Humboldt 1767 

A. Wm. Schlegel 1767 

L. Tieck 1773 

H. Heine 1797 

Alex, von Humboldt 1769 

Chr. Carl J. Buusen 1791 

F. C. Schlosser 1776 

GERONA (N.E. Spain), an ancient city, frequently 
besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it successfully re- 
sisted the French, but, after suffering much by famine, 
surrendered Dec. 12, 1809. 

GETTYSBURG (Pennsylvania), Battle or, fought 
July 1-3, 1803. The Confederate victory at Chancel- 
lorsville led to a universal clamor in the South for an 
invasion of the Northern States by Lee's army. As 
early as May movements were made indicating that 
Lee contemplated such an invasion. Early in June 
his entire army was concentrated at Culpepper, except 
A. P. Hill's division, which was left at Fredericksburg. 



Died 

1546 
1578 
1716 
1769 
1781 
1794 
1803 
1803 
1804 
1805 
1813 
1813 
1825 
1826 
1829 
1831 
1832 
1835 
1845 
1853 
1856 
1859 
1800 
1861 



GHE i 

Political reasons, sn-sested by the vigorous opposition 

lo, hH," V"T"'"'l''!' "f ^^"^ 1'^="^'^ P="'ty '" "le North, 
doubtless had much to do with Lee's northward move- 
ment m the Miunner of ISO:!. At the middle of June, 
when the movrnieut was fairly commeuced, Lee's ar- 
my numbered lully UH\im men. On the 12th of June 
l^^^n^w^r-'"' I" '-'" '^-^^-k ,t>oni the Kappahannock to 
n M,o i'A',""r-*^'"- L^« ■^.' vanced to Winchester, and 

-.la " \ '''"If ■'=.'''1 i^Iib-oy's force at Winchester 

(.000 St ion-), captuiin-_2yoo prisoners. He then cross- 
eel the I ntoniac with his main force (June 24-25), and 
advan,.ed to Chainbcrsburg. Hooker also cSsse'd on 
the 20tli and the next day was relieved by Gen. Meade 
Lee in the mean time was pushing forward into the in- 
tciior ot I cnnsylvama. The national army moved in 
a parallel direction on the east side of the Blue Rid-e 
Lee was coiisidei-aljly iu the advance, and serioully 

is^s^ n"''^ "'"'''"I""-- ^^ '" the former invasion 
(1S02), the passes of South Mountain attbrded access to 
the Confederate rear. Meade took advanta"-e of^liis 
fact,_and (June 2S) Lee saw that he must Salt SndstakI 
the issue of the campaign upon a battle with the na- 
tional army. The battle of Gettysburg ensued. The 
time and place of thisbattle were detei-mined more by 
accident and the physical character of the re-ion than 
by any purpose on the part of either commaiuler. Lee 
ordered the concentration of his army at Gettysbui-o- 
to which point Ewell marched south^vardly from C u-- 
hsle and Lougstreet and Hill eastwardly froni ChVm 
bcrsburg. Meade's right wing (June .?0) wa^^ear Ge ^ 
tysbui-, and General Fleasont^n, detect ngthelmpo? - 

mtTn°H^^"r'''f?' ^'I'^'^'l^ ^""^ occupi'ed it Zic- 
pating the Confederates, who were advancing on the 
same point. On July 1 there was a collision of the op! 
posing forcesin which Gen. Reynolds was killed • but 
after losing K^000 men, the national forces s in held a 

Su'lhTsrrwV''"' ^'^'i'^''-^ *^f ^^,« «^'^^ of operations 
On the 2d ^both armies being well up and in position) 
there was a second battle, in which the loss^on bo 1 
sides was severe. In this action Sickles was driven bu 
froma position ,yhich was of no material importance 
At night the Union forces still held Cemetirv Ridcfe 
from Culp's Hill to Round Top. On the 3d aftefa bom 
bardinent of Cemetery from Seminary RiS Lee a<^^dn 
assaulted. The assaulting column, undeiVickett Md 
Heth, numbered 1S,000. It was almost annihila ed 
After this decisive repulse Lee retreated from the field 
His army might have been utterly demoralized ami 
dispersed by prompt and relentless pursuit. The forces 
^'onn"^°.n IZ'^ '?' Gettysburg, each numbering from 
i 0,000 to 80,000 infantry and artillery. The national 
loss was 23,190, of whom nearly TOOO we"e mSS 
1 he Confederate loss was about 30.000, of whom 13 7.S3 
wounded or uuwounded, remained as prisoners. Lee's 
en ire loss, from the commencement to the close of the 
invasion, was nearly 00,000 men. 

GHENT, an ancient city in Belgium, built about the 
1^X^^T7- .,?"i"'^= *^« Middle A^.e.s it became very 
nch. John, third son of Edward IIL of England, was 
born here in 1340 (hence nnmed John of Gaimt), dirin' 
the revolt under Van Artevelde, a brewer, aga nst the 
Earl Louis 13T9-S3. Ghent rebelled against the Em- 



^ GIB 

=l^ii^^^aS!^^^S^- (^^^^) ^as been 
^'ww" of Bashan, of the remnant of the Hants • hiq 

?i^MCTfl%'i)^^^'"'^ '-^^ (^-^-t i6^^S,Ka 

^^f^^:i^;;S!l:^-«-bitsanaaspan." 
i he Emperor Masiiuin (A.D. 2.S5) was 8V fppt in 

"tlJs^^l^^lSchS^h^? ^^•^^^^'-' ^°™ - 1^^8. 

Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish rfant born in I7fii 
was 8 feet 7 inches in heitrht • h s himi frn^ i^^ . ' 
mencement of the palmlo the exfi^^fnUjTf ^t^I S 
die huger, measured 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 
inches long; he died in Sept. 1806, in his 46th year 

PaCl' vasTe'ar S°fL'?? .Prince of Wales at CaXn 
wtit'i^ ^ ^^.^^ ^^SK and performed as a ei- 

whi ?thf rom'-iiice of "Cymon,"at the Opera Houfe 
theatre unHinf •^•'"' Company had the use of ha 
tneatie until their own was rebuilt in 1809. 

""isS^fV^et^^^K^ 'l!l^.h^-^Ses, in London, in Sept., 
Robert Hales, the NorfSlk giant, died at Great Yar- 

nT iQc/ rTf^"?'^.\'''='^' exhibited in London, 
Nov., 1865. [It IS stated that M. Brice is Anak.] 

GIAOUR, Turkish for infidel, a term apnlied to all 

D'oen/''Tr.V-'"'^"^. '"^ Moha'mmedaniZ^-Byron" 
poem, The Giaour," was published in 1813. 

GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which with 
Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the 
name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town on a rockl^ 
South Spain, on which is placed a British fortress 
considered impregnable. The height of the rock lei 
cording to Cuvier, is 1437 English feet. It wis ' aken 
by the Saracens under Tarik, whence its present name 
(derived from Oibel-el-Tarik), in 711 ^^^-^^^ ^^^^ 



peror Charles V^, 1539, for which it was" severely pun- 
ched m 1540. The "Pacification of Ghent" (when ™e 
n^n ,,c?"g '°"!^ provinces of the Ketherlands united 
against Sp.ain) was proclaimed Nov. 8, 1576, and bro- 
ken up in 1579. Ghent was taken by Louis XIV of 
France, March 9, 1678, and by the Duke of Marlborot^gh 

an Mhn -^,iT«fi'S? ?" ^"'^''T' between Great Britain 
ana the L nited btates, was signed Dec. 24, 1814 

GHIBELLINES. See G^ulx>lis. 

th?r^^^'^M' "'^ GHUZNEE (East Persia), the seat of 
the G iznevides, who founded the city, 969 They were 
expelled by the Seljuk Tartars iu lasS. The BriUsh 

wo'o'HoH- -^'fr' '"^""^'^"^ *^« "'■•^^lel of Ghiznee at 
t« o o c ock in the morning, July 23, 1839 ; it was one 
of the strongest fortresses in Asia, and was command^ 
ed by a son of the ex-king of Cabul. At hree o"k 
the gate^ were blown inby the artillery, and, under 
fntn fh^*^ ? heavy fire, the infantry forced thdr way 
the RH?i h n^^i' =""^ «>ljceeded at five o'clock in fixing 
Afthans Mnr .ri'^'Jo o t«Yers.-It capitulated to the 
AlgUans March 1, 1842, who were defeated Sept. 6 
1842, and General Nott re-entered Ghiznee next day. 

Di?^?-?^^!/'? "iT- P'""'1"ced by optical science. Mr. 
Dircks described his method at the British Associa- 
tion meeting in is.'is. Dr. John Tavlor exhibited sci- 
entific ghosts in March, 1803. See CncMam Ghost 

GIANTS. Giants' bones, 17, IS, 20, and 30 feet hirrh 
were once reported to have been found; but geolo- 
gists now prove them to be the remains of colossal 



It was taken from the Moors in 1309 ; retaken bv 

,.,, w' ^f^n' 'l'?!^ ^'''^"y ta^«" from them by Heu- 
ly IV. of Castile in ■' -,-»„ 

R ^,vf ^tt'-i^ked by the British underslr George 
Rooke, the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, Sir John 

on 'tht' 9li ^^'""''^^ ^y"-' J"'y 21st, and taken 
on the 24th h».„. 

Besieged by the Spanish' ami FreuchV 'the;' lose 
10,000 men, and the victorious English but 400, 

Ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht?' " 

The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, and are rel^'^^ 
pulsed with great loss 1720 

They again attack it with a force 'of 20,obbmen; 
nnlV?nn ^°''°' '"^"^ ''^^ ^°«« of the English ?s 

Memorable siege by 'the ■Spaniards 'ami 'French 

Encragement between the French and English 
loTt '" ^^' ^•*^-^- Hannibal, 74 gims. 

The _ Royal Carlos ' aii'd "st. JJerTOem-aiWo,'Spams'll''^''^ 
ships, each of 212 gnus, blew up, with t heir 

* It is reported that one of the Irelands took him to London, and in- 
troduced him, dressed up in a very fantastic style, to King James the 
First. On liis return from London a portrait was tal;en of him, which 
13 preserved m the library of Brazenoze College at Oxford ; and Dr. 
Plot gives the following account of him : " John Middleton, commonly 
called the child of Hale, whose hand, from the carpus to the end of hia 
middle finger, was 17 inches long; his palm S^i inches broad; and hia 
w-nole neight 9 feet 3 inches, wanting but 6 inches of the size of Goli- 
" ri *'• "f Sfiffordshire, p. 295. 

I In one night their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot 
balls, and their whole line of works annihilated by k sortie from the 
garrison, commanded by General Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's 
.,.!,"„?""''"'"' "f ■""'■• ™ '!>'S nifrht alone, was estimated at upward 
ot £2 000 000 sterling. The army Amounted to 40,000 men. But tlldr 
grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British occurred Sept. 13, 178? 
7V,nA ■ of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France 
111(10 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides 
which there were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers; 10 great floatinir 
batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns ; innumerable frigates, 
xebeques, bomb -ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats- while 
small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks ttv 
gether 6000 shells were daily thrown into the townTknd on a ^ngk 
occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were expended by the enemy. 



GIL 



226 



GLA 



crews, at night-time, in the Straits here, and all 

on board perished July 12,1801 

A malignant disease caused a great mortality here 

in 1804 

A dreadful plague raged 1805 

A malignant fever raged Au^^.,1814 

Again, when a proclamation issued for closing the 

courts of justice and places of public worship, 

Sept. 5,1828 
The fatal epidemic ceased Jan. 12,1829 

GILDING was practiced at Rome about 145 B.C. 
The Capitol was the first building on which this en- 
richment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Romans made but 700 leaves, four inches 
square, out of a whole ounce. —Pliny. It consequently 
was more like our plating. — Truster. A single grain 
of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer 
into a leaf that vnU cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gild- 
ing with leaf gold on hole ammoniac was first intro- 
duced by Margaritone in 1273. Gilding on wood form- 
ed part of the decorations of the Jewish tabernacle 
(Exod. XXV., 11), and was improved in 1680. See Elec- 
trotype. 

GIN, ardent spirit ilavored with the essential oil of 
the juniper berry. The " Gin Act," laying an excise 
of 5.S. per gallon upon it, passed July 14, 1736, when it 
had been found, in the preceding year, that in London 
alone 7044 houses sold gin by retail ; and it was so 
cheap that the poor could intoxicate themselves for 
one -penny.— Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops were sup- 
pressed in London in 1750. — Clarke. 

GIPSIES, or Egyptians (French, BoMmes; Italian, 
Zingari; Spanish, Gitanos; Gern^sm, ZigeMner) ; va- 
grants, supposed to be descendants of Hindoos expel- 
led by Timour about 1399. They are said to have en- 
tered Paris in 1427. They appeared in Germany and 
Italy early in the 15th century. In England an act 
was made against their itinerancy in 1530; and in the 
reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were executed at 
one assizes for having associated with gipsies for 
about a month, contrary to the statute. "The gipsy 
settlement at Norwood was broken up, and they were 
treated as vagrants. May, 1797. There were in Spain 
alone, previously to 1800, more than 120,000 gipsies, 
and many communities of them yet exist in England. 
Notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, 
they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, 
visage, and appearance, almost wholly unchanged, and' 
their pretended knowledge of futurity still gives them 
power over the superstitious. Esther Paa was crown- 
ed queen of the gipsies at Blyth on Nov. 18, 1860. The 
Bible has been translated into gipsy dialects. 

GIRAFFE, or Camelopaed, a native of the interior 
of Africa, was well known to the ancients. In 1827 
one was brought to England for the first time as a 
present to George IV. It died in 1829. On May 25, 
1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. Thibaut, were intro- 
duced into the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, 
where a young one was born in 1839. 

GIRONDISTS, an important party during the 
French Revolution, principally composed of deputies 
from the Giroude. At first they were ardent Repub- 
licans, but after the cruelties of Aug. and Sept., 1792, 
they labored to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain 
party, to which they succumbed. Their leaders, Bris- 
eot, Vergniaud, and many others, were guillotined Oct. 
31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre. Lamar- 
tine's "Histoire des Girondins," published in 1847, 
tended to hasten the Revolution in 1S4S. 

GISORS, Battle of (France), on Sept. 20, 28, or Oct. 
10, 1198, between the armies of France and England. 
The former was signally defeated by Richard I., who 
commanded the English, and his parole for the day, 
" Dieu et vion droit" — " God and my right," afterward 
became the motto to the arms of England. 

GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, who 
fought for their lives, or captives who fought for free- 
dom. They were exhibited at the funeral ceremonies 
of the Romans, 263 B.C., probably following the Greek 
custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warri- 
ors the prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights aft- 
erward exhibited at festivals, about 215 B.C. When 
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought 
at Rome in celebration of his triumph for 123 daysJ^A. 
D. 103. These combats were suppressed in the East 
by Constantine the Great, A.D. 325, and in the West by 
Theodoric in 500.— Leiiglet. 

GLANDELAGH, Bishopuio of (Ireland), has been 
united to the arch-prelacy of Dublin since the year 
1214. St. Keiven seems to have been the founder of 
this see , he resigned in 612. Glandelagh is now com- 1 



monly known by the name of the Seven Churches, 
from the remains of so many buildings contiguous to 
the cathedral. 

GLASGOW (Lanarkshire"), the largest city in Scot- 
land. Its prosperity was immensely increased after 
the union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some 
of the American trade. Population in 1707 about 
12,000; in 1861, 394,857. 
The cathedral or high church dedicated to St. Keu- 

tigern or Mungo, was built in the 11th century. 

Erected into a burg 1180 

Charter was obtained from James II 1451 

University founded by Bisho]) Turnbull about 1454 

Made a royal burg by James VI 1011 

Town wasted by a great fire 1652 

Charter of William and Mary 1690 

Glasgow Courant published 1715 

First vessel sailed to America for its still great im- 
port, tobacco 1718 

Great Shawfield riot 1725 

Calico printing begun 1742 

Plundered by rebels 1745 

Power-loom introduced 1773 

Spinning machinery by steam introdu.ced 1795 

New college buildings erected _. .1811 

Great popular commotion April, " 

Trials for treason followed July, " 

Wellington's statue erected Oct. 8,1844 

False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 persons 

were crushed to death Feb. 17,1849 

New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by the 

queen - Oct. 14,1859 

[To supply 50,000,000 gallons daily : engineer, J. F. 

Bateman ; cost about £1,000,000, independent of 

the price paid for old works.] 
Industrial exhibition opened Dec. 12,1865 

GLASITES (in Scotland) and Sanbemanians (in En- 
gland), names given to asmall body of Christians, whose 
tenets (professedly derived from the Holy Scriptures 
alone) are set forth in the "Testimony of the King of 
Martyrs" published by John Glas, a minister of the 
Church of Scotland in 1727, and in his son-in-law, Rob- 
ert Sandeman's "Letters on Theron and Aspasio" 
(1755). Churches were first formed by them on what 
were considered the primitive models, in Scotland, 
about 1728, and in England about 1755, some of which 
still exist. They hold that true faith is the gift of God, 
and not to be taught or acquired by man ; and that it 
produces love to God and good works. They partake 
weekly of the Lord's Supper and love-feasts (see Aga- 
poE), and avoid eating blood, and maintain the primi- 
tive discipline. They erected a new meeting-house at 
Barnsbury, London, N., in 1802. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught 
the art of making glass by Hermes. The discovei-y"of 
glass took place In Syria.— Pimy. Glass-houses were 
erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture 
for many ages. This article is mentioned among the 
Romans in'the time of Tiberius ; and we know from 
the ruins of Pompeii that windows were formed of 
glass before 79. Italy had the first glass windows; 
next France, whence they came to England. Some of 
the most beautiful glass now in use is manufactured 
by the Sandwich Glass Co., Sandwich, Mass., and the 
New England Glass Co., East Cambridge, Mass. They 
export a great quantity to England and other parts of 
Europe. The glass is remarkable for its clearness and 
colorlessness. 
Glass is said to have been brought to England by 

Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in 676 

The manufacture established in England at Crutch- j 

ed Friars, and in Savoy in {Stow) 1557 I 

Great improvements have been made in the man- " 

ufacture, through the immense increase of chem- 
ical knowledge in the present century. Pro- 
fessor Faraday published his researches on the 

manufacture of glass for optical purposes in 1830 

The duties on glass, first imposed 1695, were final- 
ly remitted 1S45 

Painting on Glass, a very early art, was practiced , 

at Marseilles in a beautiful style about 1500 j 

It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530 '! 

Glass Plate, for coach-windows, mirrors, etc., 
made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the 

patronage of Villiers, duke of Buckingham 1673 

The manufacture was improved by the French, who 
made very large plates; and farther improve- 
ments in it were made in Lancashire in 1773, 
when the British Plate Glass Company was es- 
tablished. 
Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced by 
Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . 1832 



GLA 



227 



GLASTONBURI, said to have been the residence 
Of Joseph ot Anmathea, and the site of the first Chris- 
tian church in Britain, about 60. A church was built 
here by Ina about 71S. The town and abbey were 
burnt, lls-t An carthqualce did great damage in 1276. 
Itichard W luting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks 
and 400 domestics, was hanged on Tor Hill in his nou- 
tincals, with the abbots of Heading and Colchester, for 
reuismg to take the oath of supremacy to Henry VIII 
Nov., 153!). J > 

GLENCOE MASSACRE of the unsuspecting inhab- 
itants, the Macdoualds, merely for not surrendering 
before the time stated in King William's proclamation 
Dec. 31, 161)1 Sir John Halrymple, the master, after- 
ward Earl of Stair, their inveterate enemy, obtained a 
decree "to extirpate that set of thieves," which the 
king IS said to have signed without perusing. Everv 
man under TO was to be slain. This mandate was ex- 
ecuted with the blackest treachery. The 120 soldiers 
were hospitably received by the Highlanders. On Feb 
13, 1092, the massacre began. About 60 men were 
Drutally slam ; and many women and children, their 
wives and oflspring, were turned out naked in a dark 
and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger. 
Ihis black deed was perpetrated by a part of the Earl 
of Argy e s regiment. It excited great indignation in 
Jingiaud ; and an mqnn-y was set on foot in 1095, but 
no capital punishment followed. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five 
zones, some of the principal circles of the sphere, the 
opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar 
^*i !.'?f' ' fTA ?'■'"»¥' ""'^ ''^'i <^clipse predicted, by 
1.^}^% "/ ^^''•'^".l' •'i^out.^^O B.C. Pythagoras dem- 
onstiated, from the varying altitudes of the stars by 
change ot place, that the earth must be round : that 
inere might be antipodes on the opposite side of the 
globe ; that ) enus was the morning and evening star • 
that the universe consisted of twelve spheres'— the 
sphere of the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere 
of the air, the sphere of lire, the spheres of the moon 
the sun; \enus. Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and 
the sphere of the stars ; about 506 B.C. Aristarchus, 
ot hamos, maintained that the earth turned on its own 
axis, and revolved about the sun, which doctrine was 
held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- 
losopher nearly lost his life by his theory, 2S0 B C To 
determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude 
has been measured in different parts of the world bv 
eminent philosophers; for this purpose Bouguer and 
La Coudanaiue were sent to Peru, andMaupe?tuis and 
others to Lapland, m 1735. France and Spain were 
measured byMechain, Delambre, Blot, and Arao-o be- 
tween 1792 and 1S21. Measurements were made-in In- 
ici?n ^^'''- ^""^^ ^"' George) Everest, and published in 
ibdO. Experiments have been made by pendulums to 
demonstrate the rotation of the earth by Foucault in 
1S51 ; and to determine its density by Maskelyne, Bail- 
ly, and others ; and in 1826, 1S2S, and 1854, by Mr G B 
Airy, the astronomer royal. See Cimmmakigators. 
ARTirioiAL Globes — It is said that a celestial globe 
was brouEcht to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C.. and that 
Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 

The globe of Gottorp is a concave sphere, eleven feet 
in diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve 
persons, and the inside representing the visible sur- 
lace of the heavens, the stars and constellations all 
distinguished according to their respective magni- 
tudes, and, being turned by means of curious mech- 
anism, their true position, rising, and setting are 
shown. The outside is a terrestrial globe. "This 
machine is called the globe of Gottorp, from the 
original one of that name, which, at the expense of 
Frederick II., duke of Holstein, was erected at Got- 
torj), under the direction of Adam Olearius, and was 
planned after a design found among the paiiers of 
the celebrated Tycho Brahe. Frederick IV of Den- 
mark presented it to Peter the Great in 1713. It was 
nearly destroyed by fire in 175T ; but it was afterward 
reconstructed. — Coxe. 

The globe at Pembroke Hall was erected by Dr. Lono- . 
It far surpasses the other, being eighteen feet in di- 
ameter, and thirty persons can sit conveniently with- 
in it while it is in motion. 

In 1^51 .Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester Square, for 
Mr. W yld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit 
from the centre by day and by gas at night. It was 
closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, and the 
building eventually taken down. 

GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside (Loudon). Sec Shak- 
Kjmire'ii Theatre. 

GLOIRE, French steam frigate. See Kavy, French. 



GOD 



heads o^N^ in t« n™'',"^ '^'?1™, ''y P^''^t«"'« ^""'J the 
rnv. m, In, ' ''"",''^*' ""^"^ h^'y men, and the circle of 
lays on images, adopted from the Ciesars and their 
flatterers, were used in the 1st century. The doxoWv 
l\'^fJ'J'^^\Gl"riaPatri was ordained in the Churfh 

wit&V.t.S?'"'"' '°"°'<'^y ^^<=^-« " ^-^^ 

AiTh-a?u^s^4?™' ? R°'°'''" colony (Glevum), built by 
dauihtlrhP !',,".''""?'', of Claudius CEesar, whose 
fflofcPste, Jnl ™"""'f '3- In 1278-9 the statutes of 
^'Xr^Jf'e. passed at a Parliament held by Ed- 
r^ V \-i ,®, city was incorporated by Henrv lil • it 
T ^^^^'^^'^ ^y "" ^''■'^"S wall, which was c einoUshed 
l anunls^im^n;^""?,' "^ Z*"^-''' ^^^ "''^cr of Charles II.T 
to ChailLtl /n irii^'' obstinate resistance of the city 
to unaiies 1 m 1043, under Col. Massey. The Gloii- 
T^}^'- ^.^ Bf'-keley Canal was completed in ij?!, 
182. Gross bribery took place here at the electiori 
for the Parliament in lS59.-It was one of the «ix bish 
oprics erected by Henry VIII. in ]541?and was formed 

in ^ll^6°^ T^TT'''\ ".^\^ r^t^'i t" that of BrStoi 
and in' J-lnn?"'*'^' '''^""^ belonged to the abbey, 
and its revenues, were appropriated to the mainte- 
Kln'o.'w.V']" ''\ ^^^ abbey,\vhich was founded by 
?n^?9 7" ?'"^l''' "'^''^'l^ ™'^' ^'as '^"™t m 1102, and again 
in 1122. In It are the tombs of Robert, duke of Nor- 
mandy, and Edward II. In the king's books th°s bish- 
opric IS valued at X315 17s. M. per annum. Present 
income £5000. ^leseni 

GLOVES. In the Middle Ages, the giving a glove 
was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing llndl and 
dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of 
their sees by each receiving a glove, 1002. In England 
in the reign of Edward it, the deprivation of g oves 
.V.^fv^fT"'?"^ °^ degradation. The Glovers' Com- 
pany ot London was incorporated in 1556. Embroi- 
dered gloves were introduced into England in 1580 
and are still presented to judges at maiden assizes. 

GLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). In 1798 Vauaue- 
Im discovered the earth glucina (so termed from the 
sweet taste of its salts). It is found in the beryl and 
other crystals. From glucina Wiihler and Bussy ob- 
tained the rare metal glucinum in 182S.-Gi7ielin. 

GLUTEN, an important ingredient of grain, partic- 
,"i^oY ^^ '■^'''S containing nitrogen, and termed the 
\egeto-animal principle. Its discovery is attributed 
to Beccana m the ISth century. ^"uieu 

GLYCERINE,_ discovered by Scheele about 1T79 
and termed by him the "sweet principle of fats," and 
ferther studied by Chevreul, termed the "father of the 
latiy acids. It is obtained pure by saponifying olive 
oil or animal fat with oxide of lead, or litharge G vc- 
erine is now much employed in medicine and the arts. 

GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, kuowledo-e) a 
sect who, soon after the preaching of Christianity 
endeavored to combine its principles with the Greek 
philosophies. Among their teachers were Saturuius 
111; Basihdes, 134 ; and Valentine, 140. Priscillian a 
Spaniard, was burnt at Thebes as a heretic, in 384 for 
endeavoring to revive Gnosticism. 

GOA (S. W. Hindostan), was taken by the Portu- 
guese under Albuquerque iu 1510, and made their In- 
dian capital. 

GOBELIN TAPESTRY, so called from a house at 
u-'' f '/i^^M™'^^'y, possessed by wool-dyers, whereof the 
chief (Giles Gobelm), m the reign of Francis I., is said 
to have found the secret of dyeing scarlet. This house 
was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufiictorv of 
works for adorning palaces, under the direction of 
Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were 
drawn by Le Bruu, about 1666. 

"GOD BLESS YOU!" We are told that in the 
time of Pope Pelagius IL a plague raged at Rome of 
so tatal a nature that persons seized with it died 
sneezing and gaping; whence came the custom of 
sa.Vjng " Ood bless you .'" when a person sneezes, and 
of Roman Catholics making the sign of the cross upon 
the mouth when any one gapes ; 582.— iVo?/w. Diet. 

" GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody is said 
to have been composed by John Bull, Mus. D"., iu 1606 
for a dinner given at Merchant Tavlors' Hall ; others 
ascribe it to Henry Carey, about "l743. It has been 
claimed by the French. The controversy on the sub- 
ject is summed up in Chappell's "Popular Music of 
the Olden Times" (1859). 

. GODERICH ADMINISTRATION. Viscount Gode- 
rich* (afterward Earl of Ripou) became first minister 



* Born 17S2; held various inferior appointments from 1809 to 1S18 
hen iio became president of the Board of Trade ; was Chancellor of 



GOD 



228 



GOL 



on the cleath of Mr. Canning, Aug. 8, 1827 ; resigned 

Jan. S, 1823. 

Viscount Goderich, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Duke of Portland, President of the Council. 

Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Chancellor. 

Earl of Carlisle, Lord Prioij Seal. 

Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the Marquess of 

Lansdowue, Foreign, Colonial, and Home Secretaries. 
Lord Palmerston, Secretary at War. 
Mr. Wyun, President of the India Board. 
Mr. Charles Grant (afterward Lord Glenelg), Board of 

Trade. 
Mr. Herries, Chaticellor of the Exchequer. 
Mr. Tierney, Master of the Mint, etc. 

GODFATHERS and Godmothers. The Jews are 
said to have had godfathers in the circumcision of 
their sons; but there is no mention of them in Scrip- 
ture. The custom was first ordained, according to 
some by Pope Alexander ; according to others by Six- 
tus ; others refer it to Telesphorus about 130, and oth- 
ers to Hyginus about 140. In Roman Catholic coun- 
tries bells have godfathers and godmothers at their 
baptism. 

GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS, 16S4 and 1G90. 
The Earl of Godolphin became prime minister to 
Queen Anne, May 8, 1702 ; received the treasurer's 
staff two days afterward ; resigned Aug. 8, 1710 ; and 
died 1712. See Administrations. 
Sidney, lord (afterwaixl earl) Godolphin, Treasury. 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, Lord 

President. 
John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby (afterward 

Duke of Normanby and Buckingham), Privy Seal. 
Hon. Heury Boyle, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Sir Charles Hedges and the Earl of Nottingham (the 

latter succeeded by the Right. Hon. Robert Harley, 

created Earl of Oxford in 1704), Secretaries of State, 

etc. 

GODWIN'S OATH. " Take care you are not swear- 
iug Godwin's oath." This caution, to a person taking 
a voluntary and intemperate oath, or making violent 
protestations, had its rise in the following circum- 
stance related by the monks: Godwin, earl of Kent, 
was tried for the murder of Prince Alfred, brother of 
Edward the Confessor, and pardoned, but died at the 
king's table while protesting with oaths his innocence 
of the murder ; supposed by the historians of those 
times to have been choked with a piece of bread, as a 
judgment from Heaven, having prayed it might stick 
in his throat if he were guilty of the murder ; 1053. 

GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east coast of 
Kent, occupy laud which belonged to Godwin, earl of 
Kent, the father of King Harold II. This ground was 
afterward given to the monastery of St. Augustin at 
Canterbury; but the abbot neglecting to keep in re- 
pair the wall that defended it from the sea, the tract 
was submerged in 1100, leaving these sands, upon 
which many ships have been wrecked.— Salmon. 

GOLD.* The purest and most ductile of all the 
metals, for which reason it has, from the earliest ages, 
been considered by almost all nations as the most val- 
uable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it 
it is alloyed with copper or silver ; the English coin 
consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold and two of 
capper. lu the early a^es no metals were used but 
those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. By 17 
& 18 Vict., c. 96 (1854), gold wares are allowed to be 
manufactured at a lower standard than formerly; 
wedding rings excepted, by 18 & 19 Vict., c. 60 (1S55). 
The present stated price is X3 17s. 10}^d. per oz. See 
Coin of England and Guineas. 

GOLD COIN. 

First certain record of gold coined in England. . .1257 

First regular gold pieces struck iM-i 

The florin struck, and the method of assaying gold 

established, 1354 ; the standard altered 1527 

All the gold money called in and recoined, and the 

first window-tax imposed to defray the expense 

and deficiency in the recoinage, 7 Will. Ill 1695 

Guineas first coined in 1673; reduced in currency 

value from 22s. to 21s. in 1717 

the Exchequer from 1818 to April, 1827, when he became Colonial Sec- 
retary, which office he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov., 1830 : created 
Earl of Ripon, 1833 ; died 1859. 

* The amalgamation of jrold is described by Pliny (about 77) and'Vi- 
truvius (about B.C. 27). The alchemist Basil Valentine (in the 15th 
century) was acquainted with the solution of the chloride of gold and 
fulminating gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, described the preparation 
of gold purp/e, which was then adapted by Kunkel to make red glass, 
and to other purposes. — Gmelin. Gold (ias been suhjected to the re- 
searches of eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday, up to the 
present day. 



Broad pieces called in, and recoined into guineas,1732 
The gold coin brought into the Mint by proclama- 
tion in 1773-6 amounted to about i;i5,563,593 ; 
the expense of collecting, melting, and recoiu- 
ing it was X754,019. 

Act for weighing gold coin passed June 13,1774 

Proclamation for issuing gold 7s. pieces.. Nov. 20,1797 
" The quantity of gold that passed through the Mint 
since the accession of Queen Elizabeth to the throne 
in 1558, to the beginning of 1840, is 3,3.53,561 pounds' 
weight, troy. Of this nearly one half was coined in 
the reign of George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds' 
weight, troy. The value of the gold coined in tlie 
reign of that sovereign was £'4,501,556."— Professor 
Faraday. 
The weight of gold coined in Victoria's reign, from 
June, 1837, to Jan., 1848, was 746,4.52 lbs. ; the value 
of this amount coined was £29,886,457. Gold coined 
in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), £12,664,125 ; 
in 1854, £4,354,201; in 1855, £9,245,264; in 1856, 
£6,476,060. 
Gold Mines. — Gold was found most abundantly in 
Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold 
was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which 
time to 1731 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- 
sively of what were unregistered. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
was found near La Paz, a town of Pern,"l7S0. 

Gold was discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New 
Andalusia in 1785 ; in Ceylon, 1800 ; 2887 oz. of gold, 
value £9991, obtained from mines iu Britain and Ire- 
land in 1864 ; has been found in Cornwall, and in the 
county of Wicklow in Ireland. 

The Ural or Oural Mountains of Russia long pro- 
duced gold in large quantity. 

Gold discovered in California, 1847 ; and in Austra- 
lia, 1851. On April 28, 1S5S, a nugget, said to Aveigh 
146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is estimated 
that between 1851 and 1859 gold to the value of 
£88,889,435 was exported from Victoria alone. See 
California and Australia severally. 

Gold discovered in what is now termed New Co- 
lumbia in 1856 ; much emigration there in 1858. 

Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Sco- 
tia in 1861. 
Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 
1,300 miles in length ; aud such is its tenacity, that a 
wire the one eighteenth part of an inch will bear the 
weight of 500 ll3s. without breaking. — Fuurcroy. 

A single grain of gold maybe expended into a leaf 
of fifty-six square inches, aud gold leaf can be re- 
duced to the 300,000 part of an inch, and gilding tO' 
the ten millionth part. — Kelly's Cambiat. 
Gold Robbery. — Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- 
taining gold in bars and coin to the value of between 
£18,000 and £20,000, were sent from London, May 15, 
1855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that in- 
gots to the value of £12,000 had been abstracted, and 
shot substituted, although the boxes bore no marks 
of violence. Many persons were apprehended ou 
suspicion ; but the police obtained no trace till Nov., 
1850. Three men, named Pierce, Burgess, and Tes- 
ter, were tried and convicted Jan. 13-15, 1857, on the 
evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They had 
been preparing for the robbery for eighteen months 
previous to its perpetration. 

GOLD FISH. Brought to England from China in 
1691, but not common till 1723. 

GOLDEN FLEECE (see Arfjonauts). Philip the 
Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, instituted the mili- 
tary order of " Toison d'or," or "golden fleece." The 
number of knights was thirty-one. The King of Spain 
afterward became grand master of the order as Duke 
of Burgundy. It was said to have been instituted on 
account of the immense profit the duke made by wool. 
The first solemnities were performed at Burgos," at this 
duke's marriage with Isaliel of Portugal. The knights 
wore a scarlet cloak lined with ermine, with a collar 
opened, and the duke's cipher, iu the form of a B, to 
signify Burguudy, together with flints striking fire, 
with the motto "■ Ante ferit, quam flamma micaf." At 
the end of the collar hung a golden fleece, with this 
device, ^^Pretium non vile laborum." The order after- 
ward became common to all the princes of the house 
of Austria, as being descended from Mary, daughter of 
Charles the Bold, last Duke of Burgundy. The order 
now belongs to both Austria aud Spain, in conformity 
with a treaty made in 1725. 

GOLDEN HORDE, a name given to the Mongolian 
Tartars, who established an empire iu Kaptchak (or 



GOL 



229 



K bzalv), now S. E. Russia, about 1224, their raler being 
R .^ ; f;;V"'"V' ff Genghis Khan. They invadea 
A It ho ', \ '"-'•'le A exauder Ne wski grand-duke, 1252. 
hvTv.?,, TTT ° "f ^!«l«wisch in 1481, they were crushed 
by Ivan III. and his allies, the Nogai Tartars. 

GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen years, or 
the number which shows the years of the moon's cy- 
nfn'„f it^'R?"^";'.]-'* a*'cril)ed to Metou, of Athens, 
S„?, i„ ^■*-—Il">!l- To (ind the golden number or 
)w'^ ;° , '''"m ="■ '^•l'"''-'' "'^'^ ""e to the date and divide 
Dy nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles 
since Christ, and the remainder is the golden number. 
C . fo^-'r •'" i'""^^^'" f"»' 1S*^5 is 4 ; for 1866, 5 ; for 1867, 

.GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) be-au about 
132( and incorporated 16 Rich. IL, 1392. The mark 
or date of the Goldsmiths' Company wherewith to 
stamp standard silver and gold wares is made by let- 
ters from A to U, changed every year, commenced in 
li9o. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and the 
present magmlicent edifice was opened in 1S35. See 
smUhsf "^ '^■'^""'"'■f'- The first bankers were gold- 

GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday). From 
early times this has been held as a solemn fiist, in re- 
AnHi 'i' ^r o'^i'^e.crncifixion of our Savior on Friday, 
tlJ. t' ' °'" "^"'I'i' ^^' 2^- "^ fiPPellation of qood -A- 
peais to be peculiar to the Church of Englaiid; our 
baxon forefathers denominated it Lonq Fridav on ac- 
count of the great length of the offices obsei4d and 
fostings enjoined on this day. Good Friday, 1866 
March 30; 1S67, April 19 ; 1868, April 10. ' 

GOODWIN. See Godwin. 
.^^OOJERAT (N. India). Near this place on Feb. 21, 
1849, Lord Gongh totally defeated the Sikhs after a 
very s^evere confiict. Some of the enemy's guns, and 
the whole of their ammunition and camp equfpage, fell 
nto the hands of the British. Shere Singh escaped 
with only SOOO men. Goojerat was taken. '^"'"'^''''^ 
GOOSE. See Michaelmas. 



GOV 



fs Von'sil^er^rf tV'l^''-^ *?•' f ^P^^"* ^'^^ a club. It 
f.oiw?r n •f'' "i® 'clentical with the hairy neoole 

s dus nml i-nn ""'m^""'^"" -• ^^^ i" 1S61 several 
vier. ^^® gorilla was not known to Cu- 

13.T. Wicklifle opposed the authority of the i cmrthe 

a-';f/t^.^Krat'i^f '^°p^' ^^^'^^^ ^"^^ 

o^^S^r^f f ® ^^'^^°° .'70f7-.yj('H, good story). Matthew's 

tween A D%|'a'„r^^'T"f 1 '°..*'=^"? '''^ writefbe- 
tween A.D.38and65; Luke's, .55 and 65; John's, about 

«L;.* > *u '^1,^'''^^ W'"^* o"e of the authors of the 
Socie y for the Propagation of the Gospel in ForeiVn 
Countries incorporated in ITOl. A '^body termed 
"Brays Associates" still exists, its objects bef™ to 
assist m forming and supporting clericarparocWal li^ 
thf^spe^^^';;\?'n^^. ^'^'^ '' ^^"^-•^' -^-' '- -^^ 'f 



rr,?,!*!^?/,-'^?, ^^'^^I- .^^^ •^"ot 's ^aid to have been 
f A ,• '^® thongs that served as harness to the wa"-ou 
of Gordms, a husbandman, afterward King of Phrv^ia 
W hosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were 
not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler 
of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot 
with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus 
330 Bc'^'""^ ^^"^^ ^* ^^^^^' i^'^^'Pi^eted the oracle| 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, occasioned by 
the zeal of Lord George Gordon, June 2-5, ITSC* 

GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast of Africa 
p anted by the Dutch, 161T. It was taken by the En- 
glish Admiral Holmes in 1063, and was ceded to France 
by the treaty of Nimeguen in 1678. Goree was again 
taken by the British in 1T.5S, 17T9, 1800, and 1804 Gov- 
ernor ^\ all, f.n-merly governor of this island, was 
hanged in Loudon, -Jan. 23, 1S02, for the murder of Ser- 
geant Armstrong, committed while at Goree iu 1782. 

GOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king's troops 
under Colonel Walpole were defeated, and their leader 
slam, by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798. 

GORGET, the ancient breastplate, was verv lam-e 
varying in size and weight. The present diminutFve 
breastplate came into use about 1660. Washino-ton 
wore a small silver gorget when he was a Viro-inia'col- 
on_eI. _ It appears in the first portrait of him by Prate in 
1 . 1 2, m which he appears iu military dress. See Ar- 
moi: 

GORILLA, a powerful ape of West Africa, from about 
nve feet six, seven, or eight inches high. It is a match 

* On Jan 4, 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant As«)da- 
t.on to Lord North, and on .June 2 headed a mob of 40,000 persons wl^o 
assembled m St. GeorRe's Fields, under the name of tlie Protestant As 
socation, to carry up a petition to Parliament for the repeal of the act 
which granted certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob 
once raised, could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the most daring 
outraste, pdlnpng burnmg, and puIIinK down the houses of the Roman 
Catholics first, but afterward of several other persons ; breaking open 
prisons and setting the prisoners free; even attempting the Ba^iKf 
Eng and ; and, id a word, totally overcoming the civil power for nearly 
811 days. On June 3d, the Roman Catholic chapels and numerous man 
Bions were destroyed, the Bank attempted, th^e jails openenmong 
in tL%th M,i ^'"? ^f^"^''' ^^wgate Fleet, and Bridewell prisons'^ 
on the 5th thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At length 
by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, the horse and foot 
guards and the mi itia of several counties, then embodied and marched 
to London, the not was quelled. In the end, 210 of the rioters were 
killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 died afterward in the hospitals! 
Many were tried, convirtetl, and executed. Lord George was tried fo^ 



GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 
•Here 1.S published the celebrated Almanack deGotha 
which first appeared in 1764, in German ' 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about the 9th 
century after Christ, and spread ove? Europe Its treat 
feature IS the_ pointed arch ; hence it h.^s been sii- 
psted to call it the pointed style. " Gothic" was or^- 
inallyaterm of reproach given to this style by tfe 
Rennaissance architects of the 16th centui-y. Its in- 
vention has been claimed for several nations, particu- 
larly for the Saracens. The following list is from God- 
win's Chronological Table of Euglisg Architecture- 

^r*I.'n';.;?.''p''*r^-^- ^^ '° ^'^^^^ ^•»- 250-St. Martin's 
Church, Canterbury. 

'^S;if-'^^'?Vt'^-P-T^-''° to 106G- Earl's Barton 
cmiich; St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 
nlT f ^'fi-o-RoMAN-A.D. 1066 to 113.5-Rochester 
Cathedral nave; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield • St 
Cross, Hants, etc. ' 

Eakly English, or Pointed— A.D. 1135 to 1272— Tem- 
ple C hurch, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells 
Salisbury, and Durham Cathedrals, and Westmiul 
ster Abbey. 

Pointed, called Pure Gothic— A.D. 1272 to 1.^77— Evp 
ter Cathedral, Waltham Cross, etc., St. Stephen's, 
Westminster. i " -i 

Flokid Pointed-AD. 1377 to 1.509- Westminster 
ni 'i .xr"--? College, Cambridge; St. George's 
Chapel, Windsor; Henry VIL's Chapel, Westmin- 

Elizabethan- A.D. 1509 to lG25-Northumberland 
House, Strand ; Windsor Castle, Hatfield House, 
schools at Oxford. ' 

Revival of Grecian architecture about 1G25, Banquet- 
ing House, Whitehall, etc. 

Tlie revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Puo-in 
^^g°e controversy as to its expediency was rife iu 

GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic Sea, was conquer- 
ed by the Teutonic knights, 1397-S; given up to the 
Danes, 1524 ; to Sweden, 1645 ; conquered by the Danes, 
1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. 

GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the coun- 
try between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic 
Seas. They entered Moesia, took Philippoiiolis, mas- 
sacring thousands of its inhabitants; defeated and 
killed the Emperor Declus, 251 ; but were defeated bv 
Claudius, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded Da- 
cia to them in 272; but thev long troubled the empire 
After the destruction of the Roman Empire by the 
Heruli, the Ostrognths, under Theodoric, became mas- 
ters of the greater part of Italy, where thev retained 
their dominion till 553, when they were tihallv con- 
quered by Narses, Justinian's general. The Vlnaoths 
settled m Spam, and founded a kingdom, which 'con- 
tinued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 
GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION 



GOW 



230 



GRA 



was established in 1843, and incorporated in 1S4S. It 
affoi'ds to aged governesses annuities and an asylum ; 
and to governesses in distress a temporary home and 
assistance. 

GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. A young Scotch noble- 
man, John, earl of Govvrie, in 1600, reckoning on the 
support of the burgs and the kirk, conspired to de- 
throne James VI. and seize the government. For this 
purpose he decoyed the king into Gowrie House, in 
Perth, on Aug. 6, 1600. The plot was frustrated, and 
the earl and" his brother, Alexander Ruthveu, were 
slain on the spot. At the time, many persons believed 
that the young men were rather the victims than the 
authors of a plot. Their father, William, was treach- 
erously executed in 1534 for his share in the Raid of 
Euthven in 1582; and he and his father, Patrick, were 
among the assassins of Rizzio in 1506. 

GRACE AT Meat. The ancient Greeks would not 
partake of any meat until they had first oflered part 
of it, as the flrst-fruits, to their gods. The short pray- 
er said before, and by some persons after meat, in all 
Christian countries, from the earliest times, is in con- 
formity with Christ's example, John vi., 11, etc. 

GRACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of England 
on his accession in 1399. Excellent Orace was as- 
sumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the time of 
James I., 1003, the king was addressed by that title, 
but afterward by the title ot Majesty only. "Your 
Grace" is the manner of addressing an archbishop and 
a duke in this realm. — The term " Orace of God" is 
said to have been taken by bishops at Ephesus, 431 
(probably from 1 Cor. xv., 10), by the Carlovingian 
princes in the 9th century, by popes in the 13th cen- 
tury ; and about 1440 it was assumed by kings as sig- 
nifying their divine right. It was taken by the King 
of Prussia in Oct., 1861, and created much adverse 
comment. 

GR^CIA, MAGNA, colonies planted by the Greeks, 
9T4-T4S B.C. See Ittdy. 

GRAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings found 
on the walls of Pompeii and other Roman ruins ; se- 
lections were published by Wordsworth in 1S3T, and 
by Garrucci in 1856. 

GRAFTON'S, Duke of, Administkation, succeeded 
that of Lord Chatham, Dec, 1T67. Terminated by 
Lord North becoming prime minister in 1770. See 
North's Administration. 
Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, First Lord of the 

treasiiry [born, 1735, died, 1811]. 
Frederick, lord North, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Earl Gower, Lord President. 
Earl of Chatham, Lord Privy Seal. 
Earl of Shelburne and Viscount Weymouth, Secretaries 

of State. 
Sir Edward Hawke, First Lord of the Admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, Master-General of the Ordnance. 
Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint Postmasters 

General. 
Lords Hertford, Duke of Ancaster, Thomas Town- 

shend, etc. 
Lord Camden, Lord Chancellor. 

GRAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland). A wall built in 209 
by Severus Septimins, the Roman emperor, or, as oth- 
ers say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from the Frith 
of Forth to the Clyde. The eminent historian Bu- 
chanan relates that there were considerable remains 
of this wall in his time, and some vestiges of it are to 
be seen even to this day. 

GRAIN. Henry HI. is said to have ordered a grain 
of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear to be the 
original standard of weight; 12 grains to be a penny- 
weight ; 12 pennyweights one ounce, and 12 ounces a 
pound troy. — Lawson. 

GRAMMARIANS. Anciently, the most eminent 
men in literature were denominated grammarians. 
A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so 
early as 276 B.C.— Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, 
Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Cresar, Nicias, .^Elius 
Donatus, Remmius, Palemon, Tyranniou of Pontus, 
Athenseus, and other distinguished men, were of this 
class. A Greek grammar was printed at Milan in 
1476; Lily's Latin Grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513 ; 
Lindley Murray's English Grammar, 1795 ; Cobbett's 
English Grammar, 1818. — Harris's Hermes was pub- 
lished in 1750, Home Tooke's Eped Pteroenta, or the 
"Diversions of Purley," in 1786, both excellent trea- 
tises on the philosophy of language and grammar. 
Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to have been the only 
purely grammatical orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, 
speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, "We threw 



our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not 
discover one error." 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. See Education. 

GRAMME. See Metrical System. 

GRAJVIPIAN HILLS (Central Scotland). At Ar- 
doch, near the Mons Orampius of Tacitus, the Scots 
and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the Ro- 
mans under Agricola, 84. 

GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by the 
Moors in the Sth century, and formed at tirst part of 
the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236 Mohammed-al-Ha- 
mar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Gran- 
ada, which was highly prosperous till its subjugation 
by the "great captain," Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. 
In 1609 and 1610, the industrious Moors were expelled 
from Spain by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting in- 
jury of his country. Granada was taken by Marshal 
Soult in 1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 

GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in Egypt, 1715 
B.C. (Genesis xii., 48). There were three hundred and 
twenty-seven granaries in Rome. — Univ. Hist. Twelve 
new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to 
hold 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dear- 
uess of these articles by great increase of inhabitants, 
7 James I., 1610 Stow. 

GRAND ALLIANCE between England, the emper- 
or, and the States-General (principally to prevent the 
union of the French and Spanish monarchies in one 
person), signed at Vienna, May 12, 1089, to which Spain 
and the Duke of Savoy afterward acceded. 

GRANDEES. See Spanish Grandees. 

GRANICUS (a river, N. W. Asia Minor), near which, 
on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the Great signally de- 
feated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 
foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in the foce 
of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse).— 
Justin. The victors lost fifty-five foot soldiers and 
sixty-horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicar- 
nassus were taken by storm, and other great towns 
submitted to the conqueror. 

GRANSON, near the Lake of Neufchatel, Switzer- 
land, where Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was 
defeated by the Swiss, April 5, 1476. 

. GRANT'S VIRGINIA CAMPAIGN (May 4, 1864- 
April 9, 1805). The grade of lieutenant general was 
revived March 2, auct on the 9th Grant received this 
rank, thus becoming, under the President, the com- 
mander of all the armies of the United States. He 
had left the Western field under Sherman's control, 
and a plan had been agreed upon between these offi- 
cers for a simultaneous advance in May against the 
armies of Johnston and Lee. The Army of the Poto- 
mac at the commencement of Grant's Virginia Cam- 
paign numbered (including Burnside's corps, which 
acted and was .soon incorporated with it) 140,000 men. 
In and around Washington were 42,000 ; in West Vir- 
ginia, 31,000; and in the Department of Virginia and 
North Carolina General Butler had 25,000 available 
men. The Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, 
under Lee, had lain in winter quarters on the south 
bank of the Rapidan. By May 1st this army number- 
ed about 60,000. Grant began his campaign against 
Lee May 4, 1864. It had two distinct periods : 1st, that 
of the advance from the Rapidan to the James; and, 
2d, that of the siege of Petersburg, terminating finally 
in the capture of Lee's army. The events of these two 
periods we will give in their chronological order. 
Grant crossed the Rapidan and encamped in the 

Wilderness May 4,1864 

Battles of the Wilderness, in which Lee failed in 
his attempt to intercept and defeat Grant's col- 
umns. General Wadsworth killed. National 
loss about 20,000 ; Confederate 10,000. .jNIay 5-6, " 

Butler attacked Petersburg May 10, " 

Battle of Spottsylvania. Grautmade a movement 
on this place to flank Lee. The latter reached 
Spottsylvania first. Sedgwick killed (May 9). 
Hancock captured Johnson's division. ..May 11, " 

Grant moved to the North Anna May 21, " 

Butler occupied City Point on the James (May 0) ; 
made an unsuccessful attack on Fort Darling 
(May 13) ; vpas attacked by Beauregard, who, aft- 
er a partial success, was repulsed May 20, " 

Battle of Cold Harbor. Grant recrossed the North 
Anna (M;iy 20), and moved to and across the Pa- 
munkey (May 28) ; after a severe conflict Grant 
secured a position at Cold Harbor (June 1). 
Grant attacked Lee, and, after a loss of 7000 men, 
was repulsed June 3, " 



GRA 



231 



Grant crossed the James River June 14,18G4 

Second attack on Petersburg June 16 " 

Investment of Petersburg began June 19,' " 

Attack on the Weldon KailVoad by Birney and 
Wright repulsed with a loss of from HOUO to 4000 

_ ro«u June 21-22, " 

Early made a movement up the Shenandoah, 

threatening Washington June 2S-July 4, " 

Assault on the Petersburg lines. Explosion of 

mine. National loss 4000 July 30 " 

Warren's attack on the Weldon Railroad succeed- 
ed, with national loss of 4400 men . . .Aug. 18-21 " 
Battle of Winchester. Sheridan defeated'Early, ' 
„,_ ., Sept. 19, " 

Sheridan routed Early at Fisher's Creek.. Sept. 22 " 
Ord and Birney attacked the Confederate works 
north ofthe James, and captured Port Harrison, 

Sept. 28 '* 
Warren and Parke repulsed in an attack on Lee's 
right at Peebles's Farm. National loss 2685, 

Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan, after the' re- 
pulse of his army in the morning, attacked and 
defeated Early, capturing 54 guns and a large 

number of prisoners Oct 19 " 

National repulse at Hatcher's Run (Lee's left),' ' 
o 1 .- , , Oct. 27, " 

Second national repulse at Hatcher's Run, Feb. 5 1865 
Lee attacked Grant and captured Fort Steadman 

which Avas afterward retaken March 25' " 

Sheridan, after bis destructive raid on the James 

River Canal, joined Grant at City PointMch. '^6 " 
Battle of Five Porks. Sheridan and Warren turn- 
ed Lee's right, capturing 4000 prisoners, 
„ , , , , . March 31-April 1, " 

Grant assaulted and earned the Petersburg lines 

Richmond evacuated April 2' " 

Pursuit and capture of Lee's army April 3-9 " 

Capture of Jefiersou Davis May lo' " 

GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward VI 
grapes were brought to England in large quantitie^^ 
from Flanders, where they were first cultivated about 
12i6. The vine was introduced into England in 1552 
being tirst planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk'. In the "-ar- 
dens of Hampton Court palace is a vine stated to sur- 
pass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, and has in one 
season produced 2272 bunches of grapes, weighino- IS 
cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches in girth ; it was planted in 
liC9. — Leiijh. 

GRAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to write), a 
peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a trace of iron 
improperiy termed black lead and plumbago. In 1800 
Sir Humphry Davy investigated into the relations of 
three forms of carbon, the diamond, graphite, and 
charcoal. A rude kind of black-lead pencil is men- 
tioned by Gesner in 1565. Interesting results of Sir 
B. C. Brodie's researches on graphite appeared in the 
International Exhibition of 1862. 

GRAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining blocks 
tor surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De Witt Clin- 
ton Hitchcock in 1800. It was described by Mr. Fitz- 
Cook at the Society of Arts, Dec. 6, 1865. Drawing's 
are made on blocks of chalk with a silicious ink- 
when dried, the soft parts are brushed away, and the 
drawing remains in relief; stereotypes are then taken 
from the block. 

GRATES. There were arched hearths among the 
Anglo-Saxons, and chafing-dishes were most in use 
nntil the general introduction of chimneys about 1200. 
See Cluiiincys and Stoves. 

GRAVELINES (N. Prance). Here the Spaniards, 
aided by an English fleet, defeated the French on July 
13, \^m. ■' 

GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, was 
noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks 
ofthe moon attracting the waters about 38. Kepler 
investigated the subject about 1015 ; and Hooke de- 
vised a system of gravitation about 1674. The princi- 
ples of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo, at Flor- 
ence, about 1633 ; but the great law on this subject 
was laid down by Newton in his "Principia" in 1687. 

GREAT BRIDGE, Battle of, was fought on the 
9th of Dcceml)er, 1775, between some roval troops sent 
out from Norfolk to attack Virginians under Colon.-! 
Woodford. The British were repulsed with a loss of 
sixty-two men in killed and wounded, while the Vir- 
ginians had not a single man slain in the engagement. 
The Great Bridge is over the Elizabeth River, iiear the 
northern verge of the Dismal Swamp, a few miles from 
Norfolk. » 

GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1004 to En- 



GRE 



ffland, Wales, and Scotland (ivMch seeV-The stunen- 

by CaZif Ho", '''''f' ""A^^ E«"^'^' commaifded 
oy »-apcaiu Hosken, formeriy a naval oflicer sailp^ 
from the Mersey, Liverpool, July 26, 1845!lnd an ived 
fn New^ork, Aug. 10. "^She sailed o the svame E 
in the forenoon of Sept. 22, 1846, with a larrre car<io of 
goods and 185 passengers the greatest n^mber"?hat 
had ever sailed to America'by steam. The "a e even- 
cuts on ^^%TfT/' ^^'e'-e /"ddenly alarmed b^ a con- 
cussion, as If the vessel had struck unou a rock nmi 

tTn '/her'off ?lf.T"^' '''' ^>^gi'^eers,Vucceeded fn^el" 

le^shock or l^nJ'.T ^ii'^t-'^ined little damage from 

nearly a yea?. ^ '''^''^^ ™"">- over her for 

GREAT EASTERN, etc. See under Sfmm. 

GREAT SEAL OP ENGLAND. The first seal used 

nL^nffi^'V^ Confessor was called the broad seah 

and aflixed to grants of the crown, l048.-£aler's 

Chron The most ancient seal with arms on it is that 

of Richard I. James II., when fleeing from London in 

1688, dropped the great seal in the Thames. The great 

rhn.f if^^^'rS!?'^ ,^'i« ftolen from the house oflord 

Chancellor Thuriow in Great Ormond Street, into 

which some thieves broke, and carried it away with 

b tinn'ofT'l^'' *^"T^ •!*• ^"^' ^ '^^y ^^^°'^ the disso- 
lution of Parliament ; it was never recovered. It was 
i^placed on the next day. A new seal was brought 
into use on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1 1801 A 
new seal for Ireland was brought into use and the old 
one defticed, Jan. 21, 1832. 



GREAT SEAL OP THE UNITED STATES was 
adopted on the 20th of June, 1782. Immediately after 
the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, on 
the 4th of July, 1, <6, a committee was appointed to 
prepare a device for a seal, but the matter was not 
consuinmated until the date above mentioned The 
device IS, op one side, a spread eagle, with a shield 
with 13 stripes paleways, and a chief azure ; in one 
talon a biindle of arrows, in the other an olive branch. 
In Its beak a scroll with the motto E plueibus unum- 
and over Us head a glory breaking from the clouds 
surrounding 18 stars. On the reverse is an unfinished 
pyramid, symboling the growth and strength of the 
states ; over it the All-seeing Eye in a triangle, sur- 
rounded by a glory, and around the rim the words 
Annuit C.eptis (God has favored the uudertakino-) 
and JSovuB oedo secloeum (a new order of thina?) 
This seal has never been changed, and is in charge of 
the Secretary of State. ° 

GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The Greeks are 
said to have been the progeny of Javan, fourth son of 
dapheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient 
king named Grsecus ; and from another kino-, Hdlen 
the son of Deucalion, the people were called Hellenes! 
lirom Hellen s sons, Dorus and ^olus, comes the Do- 
rians and uEolians ; another son (Xuthus) was father 
of Ache-ens and Ion, the progenitors of the Achfeans 
and lonians Homer calls the inhabitants indiffer- 
ently Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were 
termed Danai, from Dauaus, king of Argos 1474 B C 
Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the 
Peloponnesus Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, 
Thessaly, and the islands. The principal states of 
Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Arcadia 
and afterward Macedon {all ivhich see). The limits of 
modern Greece are much more confined. Greece be- 
came subject to the Turkish Empire in the 15th cen- 
tury. The population of the kingdom, established in 
1829, C6,S10 ; in 1861, with the Ionian Isles (added in 
1864), 1,326,000. 

Sicyou founded {EuscMus) B C "089 

Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) ' '2042 

Revolt of the Titans ; War of'the Giants * * 

Inachus king of the Argives 1910 

Kingdom of Argos begun {Eusehius) 1856 

Reign of Ogyges in Bceotia (Euscbius) 1796 

Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in Greece by 

Phoroneus 1773 

The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550 • suc- 
ceeded by the Hellenes 1550-1300 

According to some authors, Sicyon was now be- 
gun (Le7inlet) 1773 

Deluge of Ogyges {which see) ....'. .1764 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 
(Enotrns ; the country first called (Enotria, aft- 
erward Manna Oro'iia {Etisehivs) ^^720 

Chronology ofthe Aruudelian Marbles commences 
(Eusehius) 2552 



GRE 



GEE 



Cecrops arrives from Egypt about 1550 

Deluge of Deucaliou {Eusebiua) 1503 

Paualheuseau games instituted 1493 

Cadmus with tlie Phoeuician letters settles in Bob- 

otia, aud founds Thebes about 1494 

Lelex, first kiug of Lacouia, afterward called Spar- 
ta 1490 

Danaus said to have brought the first ship iuto 
Greece, aud to have introduced pumps (see Ar- 

gos) 14S5 

Reign of Helleu {Eusebius) 1469 

First Olympic games celebrated at Elis by the 
Idcei DactijU, 1453, who are said to have discov- 
ered iron 1406 

Corinth rebuilt and so named 13S4 

Eleusiuian Mysteries instituted by Eumolpus (1356) 

and Isthmian games 1326 

Kingdom of Mycenpe created out of Argos 1313 

Pelops, from Lydia, settles in South Greece about 1283 

Argonautic Expedition (which see) 1203 

The Pythian games begun by Adrastus " 

War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes,1225 

The Amazonian War 1213 

Eape of Helen by Theseus " 

Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 

Commeucemeut of the Trojan War 1193 

Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th 
of the month Thargelion (2Tth of May, or 11th 

of June) 1184 

^neas said to arrive in Italy about 1182 

Migration of yBolians, who build Smyrna, etc 1123 

Return of the Heraclidte about 1103 

Settlement of the lonians in Asia Minor 1044 

The Rhodians begin navigation laws 916 

Lycurgus flourishes 924-840 

Olympic games revived at Elis, SS4 ; the first Olym- 
piad 7T6 

The Messeuian Wars 743-669 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- 
thians aud the inhabitants of Corcyra 604 

Byzantine built 657 

Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, 

Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, aud Bias) flourish 593 

Persian conquests in Ionia 544 

Sybaris in Magna Grajcia destroyed: 100,000 Cro- 

tonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites 508 

Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the 
Persian invasion, 504; Thrace and Macedonia 

conquered 496 

Athens aud Sparta resist the demands of the King 

of Persia 491 

The Persians defeated at Marathon (which see), 

Sept. 28, 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Ther- 
mopylae by Leonidas Aug., 480 

Battle of Salamis {which see) Oct. 20, " 

Mardonius defeated and slain at Platsea ; Persian 

fleet destroyed at Mycale Sept. 22, 4T9 

Battle of Eurymedou (end of Persian War) 466 

Athens begins to tyrannize over Greece 459 

The first Sacred War begun 443 

War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra 435 

Leads to the Peloponnesian War 431_404 

Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse... 415-41 3 

Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon 400 

Death of Socrates 399 

The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 

The peace of Autalcidas \ 3S7 

Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece . .370-360 

Battle ofMantinea; death of Epaminondas 362 

Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon ..', 353 

Sacred War ended by Philip, who takes all the 

cities of the Phocasans 345 

Battle of Chferonea {which see) '..'.".'.". 238 

Philip assassinated by Pausauias .'..'..'.'.' 335 

Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece'; "sub- 
dues the Athenians, and destroys the c'itv of 

Thebes u 

Alexander conquers the Persian Empire. . ... .334-331 

Greece harassed by his successors ; the .^Etoiinn 

and Achaian leagues revived 2S4-''S0 

Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are defeat- " 

ed at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled 277 

Dissensions lead to the intervention of the Ro- " 

mans 200 

Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Ro- ' 
man province 147-146 

Greece visited and favored by Augustus, B.C. 21 ■ 

aud Hadrian A.D.122-133 

Invaded by Alaric 3<)'6 

Plundered by the Normans of Sicil.y 1140 

Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 
small governments 1204 



The Turks under Mohammed II. conquer Athens 

aud part of Greece 1456 

The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea 1466 

All Greece subject to the Turks 1540 

Great struggle for independence with Russian 
help ; fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes, 1770-1803 

Secret Society, the Hetairia, established 1815 

Insurrection in Moldavia aud Wallachia, in which 

the Greeks join, suppressed 1821 

Proclamation of Prince Alexander to shake ofl" the 
Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the stand- 
ard of the Cross against the Crescent, and the 

War of Independence began April 6, " 

The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantino- 
ple April 23, " 

Independence of Greece proclaimed Jan. 27,1822 

Siege of Corinth by the Turks Jan., " 

Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible 
massacre recorded in modern history (see Chios), 

April, " 

The Greeks victors at Thermopylre, etc July, " 

Massacre at Cyprus Jnlji " 

National Congress at Argos April 10,1823 

Victories of Marco Botzaris June, " 

Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to 

its cause Aug., " 

First Greek loan Feb., 1824 

Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi April 19, " 

Defeat of the Capitan Pacha at Saraos Aug. 16, " 

Provisional government of Greece set up, Oct. 12, " 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, Feb. 25 ; takes Navarino and 

ravages Greece May,lS25 

The Greek fleet defeats the Capitan Pacha.. June, " 
The provisional government invite the protection 

of England July, " 

Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after 

a long heroic defense April 23,1826 

£70,000 raised in Europe for the Greeks " 

Reschid Pacha takes Athens June 2,1827 

Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, 

and France, on behalf of Greece, signed. .July 6, " 
Turkish fieet destroyed at Navarino {ivhich see), 

Oct. 20, " 
Count Capo d'Istria President of Greece. .Jan. 18,1828 
The Panhelleuion, or Grand Council of State, es- 
tablished Feb. 2, " 

National Bank founded Feb. 14, " 

Convention of the Viceroy of Egypt with Sir Ed- 
ward Codrington for the evacuation of the Mo- 
rea and delivery of captives Aug. 6, " 

Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to "the 

French Oct. 6, " 

The Turks evacuate the Morea Oct., " 

Missolonghi surrenders May 16,18-9 

Greek National Assembly commences its sittings 

at Argos July 23, " 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece in the treaty of Adrianople Sept. 14, " 

Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty.. May 21,1830 
Count Capo d'Istria, President of Greece, assassin- 
ated by the brother and sou of Mavromichaelis, 
a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned,* 

Oct. 9,1831 

Otho of Bavaria elected King of Greece May 7,1832 

Colocotroni's conspiracy Sept., " 

Otho I. assumes the government 1835 

University at Athens established, 1837 ; building 

commenced 1839 

A bloodless revolution at Athens is consummated, 
establishing a new Constitution, enforcing min- 
isterial responsibility and national representa- 
tion Sept. 14,1843 

The king accepts the new Constitution March, 1844 

Admiral Parker, in command of the British Med- 
iterranean fleet, blockades the harbor of the Pi- 
roeus, the Greek government having refused the 
payment of moneys due to British subjects, and 
to surrender the islands of Sapieuza and Caprera, 

Jan. 18,1850 
France interposes her good ofiices, aud the block- 
ade is discontinited March 1, " 

Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of Ath- 
ens is renewed April 25, " 

Dispute with France accommodated June 21, " 

Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- 
rus, favored by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; 
lead to a rupture between Greece aud Turkey, 

March 28,1854 
After many remonstrances, the English and 
French governments send troops which arrive 
at the Pirfeus ; change of ministry ensues, and 

* The wretched assassins (Oct. S9, 1S31) were immured within cinae 
lirick walls, built around them up to their chius, aud supplied with Ibod 
ia this liiigeriug torture until they died. 



GRE 



233 



GRE 



the king promises to observe a strict nentrali- 

. '■y : May 25, 2G,1S54 

A newspaper lu the modem Greek laugiiai^e print- 
ed in London, beginning ". .July !» ISGO 

Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its debts, 
« -x X- . Oct. IS, " 

Agitation in the Ionian Isles for annexation to 

Greece ; the Parliament prorogued March,lS61 

The king retires to Bavaria July, " 

Attempted assassination of the queen by Darius' 

an insane student Sept. IS " 

Great earthquake iu the Peloponnesus Dec. 2o| " 

Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, 
,,.,.^ , , . Jan. ,1862 

Military revolt begms at Nauplia Feb. 13 " 

Blockade of the coast decreed March 9 " 

The insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- 
sion to the throne April " 

The royal troops enter the citadel of Naiipiia • in- 
surgents transported to other stations, April 25, " 
Change of ministry; Colocotroui becomes pre- 

mier....... June T, " 

Insurrection begms at Patras and Missolonghi, 
Oct. IT ; a provisional government, established 
at Athens, deposes the king, Oct. 22 • he and the 
queen fly ; arrive at Corfu Oct. 27 ; the great Eu- 
ropean powers neutral ; general submission to 

the provisional government Oct. 31 " 

Great demonstrations in favor of Prince Alfred' 
who is proclaimed king at Lamia in PhthiotisI 
Nov. 22 ; great excitement iu his favor at Ath- 
ens.... ..... . Nov. 23, " 

ihe provisional government establish universal 

suftVage X)ec 4 " 

The National Assembly meets at Athens. .Dec w' " 
The National Assembly elects M. Balbis president' 
Jan. 29; and declares Prince Alfred of England 
elecled King of Greece by 230,016 out of 241,202 

votes Feb. 3 1863 

Military revolt of Lieut. Cauaris against BuVaris 

and others, who resign, Feb. 20 ; the Assembly 

appoint a new ministry under Balbis. . .Feb 23 " 

The Assembly decides to ofter the crown to Prince 

William of Schleswig-Holsteiu, March 18, and 

proclaim him as King George I March 30 " 

Protocol between the three protecting powers' 
France, England, and Russia, signed at London, 
consenting to the ofler of the crown on condi- 
tion of the annexation of the Ionian Isles to 

Greece June 5 " 

The King of Denmark accepts from the' aged Ad- 
miral Canaris the Greek crown for Prince Wil- 
liam, and advises him to adhere to the Constitu- 
tion and endeavor to gain and preserve the love 

of his people j^ue 6, " 

Military revolt at Athens quelled June 30, July 9, " 
The king arrives at Athens Oct. 30 ; takes the oath 

to the Constitution Oct. 31 " 

The Balbis ministry formed . . . .' .'.'.'.'.".. Aprrl'l864 

Protocol annexing the Ionian Isles to Greece sign- 
ed by M. Zaimis and Sir II. Storks, May 28; the 
Greek troops occupy Corfu, June 2 ; the king 

arrives there June 6, " 

New ministry under Canaris formed An<T T " 

The Assembly recognizes the debt of 1S24-5, Sept., " 
After much delay, and a remonstrance from the 
king, Oct. 19, a new Constitution (with no upper 
house) IS passed by the Assembly, Nov. 1, and 

accepted by the king Nov. 28 " 

New ministry formed'under Coumouudouros," ' 
„, . , , , March 29,1865 

The anniversary of the beginning of the war of in- 
dependence (April 6, 1821) kept with enthusiasm, 
_ . . April (?, " 

Ihe king visits the eastern provinces; general 

tranquillity April 20, 

The king opens the Chamber of Deputies, June 9, 
Death of Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the 

early patriots Aug. 18, 

The king gives up one third of his civil list to re- 

licve the treasury Sept. 25, 

An ecoiitimieal financial policy proposed; a new 

ministry formed Nov. 

Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial'changes 
under Deligeorges, Comoundouros, Bulgaris, 
Oct., Nov. ; Roufos becomes minister. ..Dec. 10, 



1868. George I., king of the Hellenes, bora Dec. 24, 
1S45; accepted the crown June 6,1863; de- 
clared of age, June 27. 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE. See Architecture. 

orU^af usiwVif.S"' "'■ ^'-^^.t^™ Church, claims pri- 
fi4t nmmn "?tP^ language in which the Gospel vvas 

a -fs m^lTt?, hi. ^??l'' "i'^' ^°™« »"'^ ceremonies 
aie siniUai to those of the Roman Church • but it dis- 
owns the supremacy of the pope, and is s'tron-v on- 
posed to many of the doctrin^es\iiKl practices o'lTsii 
val. It IS the established relig on of RusMa The 

^el^ASS?.^ a^^r "'^^^'^ ^^^^^^ i«'^- 

*^' ens^ltcT^ ^''^°°^ ''' Alexandria (Origen, Clem- 
Rise of Monacbism.V.V. ■.■.■.". Vhnn^i,^ 

""aoS^'of Ceotn 'n ^^«'-«.l^«'«"ofAmenia;abou '"' 
duu ; ot Georgia, or Iberia oio 

First Council of Nice (see Cormc'ils).'.'. toi 

Ulphilas preaches to the Goths. ........ ' ' "^bout 376 

Mm!n,T\-?''''^"'?'''^ ""^ ^^^ Coui^cil of Ephesus. 431 
Mouophysite controversy; churches of E'rynt 
byna, and Armenia separate from the Churcll 

ot Constantinople 4g-. 

Close of the school of Athens;' extinction 'of 'the 

Platonic theology 529 

The Jacobite sect established in'Syria by jacobus 

BaradiBus _ g^-. 

The struggle with the Mohammedans begins'.'.'.''. 634 

I he Maronite sect begins to prevail about 676 

ihe Fauhciaus severely persecuted 690 

Iconoclastic controversy begins about 726 

Pope Gregory IL excommunicates the Emperor 
Leo, which leads to the separation of the East- 
ern (Greek) and Western (Roman) churches ... 729 
l^oiiudation of the Church in Russia; conversion 

of Princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir gss 

Ihe Maronites join the Roman Church . .. 1182 

Reunion of the churches at the Council of Lyons' 

1274 ; again separated '1277 

The Patriarchate of Moscow established, '1582"- 

suppressed in '2--g2 

The Archimandrite Nilos, represent'i'ug'eoii's't'a'nti'- 
uople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- 
halt of the Greek clergy iu the Danubian Princi- 
palities in j,5g3 

GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition (now un- 
known, but thought to have been principally naph- 
tha), thrown from engines, said to have been invented 
by Calhuicus, an ingenious engineer oflleliopolis iu 
Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the Sara- 
cens' ships, which was effected by the general of the 
fleet of Coustautiue Pogoiiatus, aud 30,000 men were 
killed. A so-called "Greek Fire," probablv a solution 
of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of carbon, was employed 
at the siege of Charleston, U. S., in Sept., 1863. 

GREEK LANGUAGE. It was first studied in Eu- 
rope about 1450 ; in France, 1473 ; William Grocyn or 
Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this langua'^'-e 
traveled to acquire its true pronunciation, and^'intro- 
duced It at Oxford about 1491, where he had the honor 
to teach Erasmus, who himself taught it at Cambrido-e 
m 1510.— iroof/'s Athen. Oxon. England has produced 
many eminent Greek scholar.s, of whom may be men- 
tioned Richard Beutley, died 1742 ; Professor Porson 
who died in 1S08 ; Dr. Parr, who died iu 1825 ; and Dr 
C. Biirney, who died iu 1817. 

EMINENT GKEEE ATJTnoRS. (See ftlso Fathers and 

PhiloHophy .) 

Honier fl. abt. B.C..962-927 1 Theocritus, about B.C. 272 



KINGS OP GREECE. 



1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria, born June 1, 1815 • 
elected king May 7, 1832 ; under a regency till 
June 1, 1835; married Nov. 22, lS3r>,to IStaria 
Frederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Ol- 
denburg ; deposed Oct. 23, 1862. 



Hesiod about 

.lEsop , 

Anacreon about 559 

.lEschylus 525-45G 

Herodotus... .about 443 

Pindar 522-4.39 

Aristophanes 427 

Euripides 480-406 

Sophocles 495-405 

Thucydides 470-404 

Xenophon 443-359 

Plato 429-347 

Isocrates 436-838 

Aristotle 384-322 

Demosthenes 382-322 

Menander about 321 

.^schines 389-314 



850 Epicurus 342-270 

572 I Theophrastus 287 

Archimedes 287-212 

Polybius 207-122 

Diodoriis.B.C.50-A.D. 13 

Strabo 10 

Dionysius Halicar- 
nassns about 



Plutarch. 
Epictetus.. 
Appian . . . . 
Arrian .... 
Athenteus. 

Lucian 

Herodian . . 



SO 
96 

118 
147 
14S 
194 
120-200 
204 



Longinus dies 273 

Julian, emperor.. ..331-363 



(See Fathers of the Church.) 

GREENBACKS, a name given, from the color of 

some, to the paper currency lirst issued by the United 

States government in 1862. They represented sums 



GEE 



234 



GRE 



as low as five cents and upward ; the smaller bills 
were called stamps. 

GREEN -BAG INQUIRY took its name from a 
Green Baq, full of documents of alleged seditious, laid 
before Parliament by Lord Sidmouth, Feb., 1817. Se- 
cret committees presented their reports, Feb. 19 ; and 
bills were brought in on the 21st to suspend the Habeas 
Corpus Act, and prohibit seditious meetings then fre- 
quent. 

GREENLAND (an extensive Danish colony in N. 
America) was discovered by some Icelanders, itnder 
Eric Raude, about 980, and so named from its verdure, 
superior to that of Iceland. It was visited by Fro- 
bisher in 15T6. The first ship from England to Green- 
laud was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy 
Company, 2 James I., 1004. In a voyage performed in 
163U, eight men were left behind by accident, who suf- 
fered incredible hardships till the following year, when 
the Company's ships brought them home.— Tindal. 
The Greenland Fishing Companjr was incorporated in 
1693.— Hans E^ede, a Danish missionary, founded a 
new colony, called Gudhaab, or Good Hope, in 1720-3 ; 
and other missionary stations have since been estab- 
lished. Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821, and 
Captain Graah, by order of the King of Denmark, in 
1829-00. 

GREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were grant- 
ed in 1C35 and 1G70 to John Shaw, of the barony of 
Greenock. Prior to 1097 it was an inconsiderable fish- 
ing station ; but during that year the Scottish Indian 
and African Company resolved to erect salt-works in 
the Firth, and thus drew the attention of Sir John 
Shaw, its superior, to the maritime advantages of its 
situation. It was made a bur" of barony in 1757, and 
a Parliamentary burg in 1832. The erection of the new 
quay was intrusted, about 1773, to James Watt, who 
was born here in 1736. The East India Harbor was 
built 1805-19, and Victoria Harbor 1840-50. 

GREEN PARK (near Buckingham Palace, London) 
forms a part of the gronnd inclosed by Henry VIII. in 
1530, and is united to St. James's and Hyde Parks by 
the road named Constitution Hill. Over the arch at 
the entrance the Wellington statue was placed in 1846. 
On the north side was a reservoir of the Chelsea Wa- 
ter-works, which was filled up in 1856. 

GREENWICH HOSPITAL stands on the site of a 
royal residence in the time of Edward I. (1300), much 
enlarged by his successors. Here were born Henry 
VIII. and his daughters Mary and Elizabeth, and here 
his son Edward VI. died. The palace was the favorite 
summer residence of Queen Elizabeth, and Charles II. 
intended to build a new palace here on a very grand 
scale, and accordingly erected one wing of this grand 
edifice, but died before any other part of the design 
was finished. In this state it remained till Mary and 
William III. formed the plan of making the palace 
useful to the kingdom as a hospital, which was insti- 
tuted in 1694. 100 disabled seamen were admitted in 
1705. The forfeited estate of the attainted Earl of 
Derweutwater (beheaded in 171G) was bestowed upon 
it. Sixpence per month was to be contributed by ev- 
ery seaman, and the payment was advanced to one 
shilling from June, 1797. The payment was abolished 
inl829, andthat of "the Merchant Seamen's" sixpence 
also in 1834. This hospital lodged 2710 in 1853, and 
possessed a revenue of about £150,000 per annum.* A 
charter was granted to it in Dec, 1775. The chapel, 
the great dinmg-hall, and a large portion of the build- 
ings appropriated to the pensioners, were destroyed 
by^flre Jan. 2, 1779. The chapel was rebuilt in 1789.— 
Greenwich fair was discontinued, April, 1S57. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY was built at. the 
solicitation of Sir Jonas Moore and Sir Christopher 
Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamsteed 
Hill, so called from the great astronomer of that name, 
the first astronomer royal here. The English began 
to compute the longitude from the meridian of this 
place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observa- 
tory contains among other instruments a transept 
circle by Troughtou ; a transit instrument of eight 
feet by IJird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and 
Bradley's zenith sector. The telescopes are forty and 
sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet refiector. In 
1852, an electric telegraph signal-ball in the Strand 
was completed, and put in couuection with Greenwich 
Observatory. 



* Important chanpeH were made in October, 1865, in consequence of 
an act of Parliament passed in that j'ear, based upon the report of a 
commission. About 900 of the in-door pensioners received additions 
to their pay, and were permitted to reside wherever they pleased out- 
side the nospital, which, in future, will be rather an infirmary tlian a 
residence. 



ASTEONOMEKS EOYAL. 



John Flamsteed 1675 

Dr.Halley 1719 

Dr. Bradley 1742 

Dr. N. Bliss 1762 

Dr. Nevil Maskelyne..l764 
John Pond 1811 



George Biddell Airy. .1835 
(the PRESENT astronomer 
royal, under whose able 
superintendence the appa- 
ratus have been greatly in- 
creased and improved). 

See Calendar and 



GREGORIAN CALENDAR. 
New Style. 

GREGORIAN CHANT received its name from Pope 
Gregory I., who improved the Ambrosian Chant about 
590. 

GRENADA. See Granada and New Granada. 

GRENADES, a powerful missile of war, so named 
from Granada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a small 
hollow globe or ball of iron, about two inches in diam- 
eter, which being filled with fine powder and set on 
fire by a fusee at a touch-hole, the case flies into shat- 
ters, to the damage of all who stand near. 

GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a com- 
pany armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, establish- 
ed in France in 1607, and in England in 1685. — Brmvn. 

GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. The first 
succeeded the Bute administration in April, 1763, and 
resigned in July, 1765. 
George Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), First Lord of 

the Treamiry and Chancellor of the Excheijuer. 
Earl Granville (succeeded by the Duke of Bedford), 

Lord President. 
Duke of Marlborough, Privy Seal. 
Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, Secretaries of State. 
Earl Gower, Lord Chamberlain. 
Lord Egmont, Admiralty. 
Marquess of Grauby, Ordjiance. 
Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), Paymaster. 
Welbore Ellis, Secretary at IVar. 
Viscount Barrington, Treasurer of the Navy. 
Lord Hillsborough, First Lord of Trade. 
Lord Henley (afterward Earl of Northington), Lord 

Chancellor. 
Duke of Rutland, Lords North, Trevor, Hyde, etc. 
The second Grenville administration was formed after 
the death of Mr. Pitt, on Jan. 23, 1S06. From the abil- 
ity of many of its members, their friends said it con- 
tained " j4H the Talents," a term which was afterward 
applied to it derisively by its opponents. The death 
of Mr. Fox, Sept. 13, 1806, led to changes, and eventu- 
ally the cabinet resigned, March 25, 1806. 
Lord Grenville, First Lord of the Treasury. 
Lord Henry Petty (afterward Marquess of Lausdowne), 

Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Earl Fitzwilliam, Lord President. 
Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addingtou), Privy Seal. 
Charles James Fox, Foreign Secretary. 
Earl Spencer, Home Secretary. 
William Windham, Colonial Secretary. 
Lord Erskine, Lord Chancellor. 
Sir Charles Grey (afterward Viscount Howick and 

Earl Grey), Admiralty. 
Lord Minto, Board of Control. 
Lord Auclvland, Z>oard of Trade. 
Lord Moira, Master-general of the Ordnance, 
R. B. Sheridan, Treasurer of the Navy. 
Richard Fitzpatrick, etc. 
Lord Elleuborough {Lord Chief Justice) had a seat in 

the cabinet. 

GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), founded by Sir 
Thomas Gresham in 1575. He was the founder of the 
Royal Exchange, and left a portion of his property in 
trust to the City and the Mercers' Company to endow 
this college for, among other uses, lectures in divinity, 
astronomy, music, and geometry, and readers in civil 
law, physic, and rhetoric, and to promote general in- 
struction ; he died 1579. The lectures commenced in 
Gresham's house, near Broad Street, June, 1597 (where 
the Royal Society first met in 1645), and continued, 
with interruption, till 1710. The buildings were pull- 
ed down in 1768, and the Excise Oflice erected on its 
site. The lectures were then read in a room over the 
Royal Exchange for many years: on the rebuilding 
of the present Exchange, the Gresham committee 
erected the present building in Basiughall Street, 
which was designed by G. Smith, and opened for lec- 
tures Nov. 2, 1842. It cost above XTOOO. 

GRETNA-GREEN MARRIAGES. Gretna is the 
nearest and most accessible point in Scotland from 
the sister kingdom, and in its neighborhood fugitive 
marriages were long contracted. The practice was 
begun by a tobacconist named John Paisley, who lived 
to "a great age, and died in 1814. His first residence 



GRE 



235 



GUI 



was at Mepjg's Hill, on the common or green betwixt 
Gretua aiurspringtielcl, to the hist of which villages 
her einovod iu Mi?->. A man named Elliot was lately 
tlie ijrincipal otUciatiug person. The General Assem- 
bly, iu 18-'G, vainly attempted to suppress this system, 
but an act, passed in 185G, made these marriages ille- 
gal after that year, unless one of the persons married 
had lived in Scotland 21 days. 

GREY ADMINISTKATION succeeded the Welling- 
ton administration iu Nov., 1S30. It carried the Ite- 
form Bill {wlrich sec), and terminated July, 1834. 
Earl Grey,* First Lord of the Trcasuri;. 
Lord Brougham, Lord Chancellor. 
Viscount .'Clthorpe, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Marquess of Lansdowue, President of the Council. 
Earl of Durham, I'l-ivrj Seal. 
Viscouuts^k'lbc mine, Palmerston, and GoderichjZfoiJie, 

Forei'in, an.il Colmiial Secretaries. 
Sir James Graham, Admiralty. 
Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterward, 

1S30, Lord Gleuclg), Board of Trade and Control. 
Lord Holland, Duchy of Lancaster. 
Lord John liussell. Paymaster of the Forces. 
Duke of Richmond, Earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, etc. 

GREYTOWN. See Mosquito Coast. 

GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of fourpence, 
was the largest silver coin in England until after 1351. 
Fourpenny'pieces were coined in 1836 to the value of 
X70,884 ; iu 1S3T, £16,088. None have been coined 
since 1801. 

GROCERS anciently meant " ingrossers or monop- 
olizers," as appears by a statute"3T Edw. IIL, 1303 : 
"Les Marchauutz nomez engi-osseut totes maners de 
merchandises vendables." The Grocers' Company, 
one of the twelve chief companies of Loudon, was es- 
tablished in 1345, and incorporated in 1429. 

GROCIIOW, Battle of, near Praga, a suburb of 
Wai-saw, between the Poles and Russians, Feb. 25,1831. 
After au obstinate contest, continuing the whole of 
one day and great part of the next, the Poles remain- 
ed masters of the held of battle. The Russians shortly 
after retreated, having been foiled iu their attempt to 
take Warsaw. They are said to have lost 7000 men, 
and the Poles 2000. See Poland, 1861. 

GROG, sea-term for rum and water, derived its name 
from Admiral Edward Vernon, who \vore grogram 
breeches, and was hence called "Old Grog." About 
1745 he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with 
water, t 

GUADALOUPE, a West India island, discovered by 
Columbus iu 1493. The French took possession of it 
in 1635, and colonized it in 1004. Taken by the En- 
glish in 1T.59, and restored in 1763. Again taken by 
the EuLTlish in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The Allies, in or- 
der to allure the Swedes into the late coalition against 
France, gave them this island. It was, however, by 
the consent of Sweden, restored to France at the peace 
in 1814. 

GUADALUPE HIDALGO, a city of San Luis Po- 
tosi, Mexico, where, on the 2d of February, 1848, the 
Mexican Congress and United States commissioners 
concluded a treaty of i)cace between the two countries. 
See Mexican War. By that treaty. New Mexico and 
Upper California became territories of the United 
States, for which the latter government paid the for- 
mer *15,oon,000, and assumed the payment of $3,500,000 
due from Mexico to Americans for property destroyed. 

GUAD-EL-RAS CX.W. Africa). Here the Spaniards 
signally defeated the Moors, jNIarch '23, ISOO, after a se- 
vere conflict: General Prim manifested creat bravery, 
for which he was ennobled. The preliminaries of 
peace were signed on the 25th. 

GUANO, or IIctano (the Peruvian term for manure), 
the excrement of sea-birds that swarm along the coasts 
of Peru and Bolivia, and also of Africa and Australia. 
Humboldt was one of the tirst by whom it was brought 
to Europe, in order to ascertain its value in agricul- 
ture. The importation of guano into the United King- 
dom apjiears to have commenced in 1S39. 283,000 tons 
were imported in 1845 (of which 207,079 tons came from 
the Western Coast of Africa) ; 243,016 tons iu 1851 (of 



• Born Mnrrh 13,1764; M.P. m Cliarlea Grey in 1786; First Lord 
of tlie Admirnlty aiul afterward Foreicii Secretary in 1806 ; resifciied in 
1806 on account of his favoring Roman Catliolic emancipation; died 
July 17, 1845. 

t"He did great service in the West Indies by takinc Porto Belto, C!(fi- 
' pre, etc. ; but, by his disagreement with the coniniander of the land 
forces, tlie expedition against Cartliairena in 1741 is said to Iiave failed. 
He was disin'sseil the service for writing two ])nniidilet3 attacking the 
Admiralty ; he died Oct. 30, 1757. 



which 6522 tons came from Western Australia), and 
131,358 tons in 1804. 

GUARDS. The custom of having guards is said to 
have been introduced by Saul, 1093 BTC. 
Bofly-guards were appointed to attend the kinsrs of 

England, 2 Hen. VII., 1485. 
Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI., 1.5.50 
The three regiments, 1st, 2d, and 3d Foot Guards, were 
raised in 1600, and the command of them given to 
Colonel Russell, General Monk, and Lord Linlith- 
gow. Tlie 2d regiment, or Coldstream, was the first 
raised. See Coldstream. These guards were the be- 
ginning of our standing army. 
The Horse Grenadier Guards, first troop, raised iu 
1093, was commanded by General Cholmoudeley ; 
the second troop was raised in 1702, and was com- 
manded by Lord Forbes ; this corps was reduced iu 
li83, the officers retiring on full pay. 
(See Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, rmpcrial Guards, 
and Washington's Life Guard.) 
GUATEMALA. A republic m Central America, de- 
clared independent March 21, 1847. President (1862), 
General Raphael Carrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for 
life (1854). A war between Guatemala and San Salva- 
dor broke out in Jau., 1863, and on June 16 the troops 
of the latter were totally defeated. Population about 
850,000. 
GUEBRES. SeeParsecs. 

GUELPHIC ORDER of knighthood was instituted 
for Hanover by the prince regent, afterward George 
IV., Aug. 12, 1S15. The King'' of Hanover is graud 
master. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names given to the 
Papal and Imperial factions whose conflicts destroyed 
the peace of Italy from the I'ith to the end of the 15th 
century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 
1495). The origin of the names is uncertain ; but it is 
ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between 
Conrad of Ilohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord ofWib- 
liugen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry, nephew ofWelf, 
or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, iu 1138. The former was 
successful ; but the popes and many of the Italian 
cities took the side of his rival. Hie Guelf and Hie 
Gibelin are said to have been used as war-cries in 1139. 
The Ghibelines were almost totally expelled from It- 
aly in 1267, when Conradiu, the last of theHohenstau- 
feus, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is 
the name of the present royal family of England. See 
Brunsu'ick. 

GUERNSEY. See Jersey. 

GLTEUX (l^eggars), a name giveu by the Comte de 
Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant deputies from the 
Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode and 
Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, governess 
of the Low Countries, to abolish the ruquisition, April 
5, 1506. The deputies at once assumed the name as 
honorable, and immediately organized au armed re- 
sistance to the government. See Holland. 

GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), was visited 
by the Spaniards in the 10th centurv ; explored by Sir 
Walter Raleigh iu 1590 and 1617. The French settle- 
ments here were formed in 16-26-43; and the Dutch, 
1027-67. Denierara and Essequibo were ceded to 
Great Britain in 1814. See Demerara. 

GUIENNE, a French province, was part of the do- 
minions of Henry II. after his wife Eleanor, 1152. 
Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. 
It was alternately held by England and France till 
1453, when John Talbot, earl ol' Shrewsbury, iu vaiu 
attempted to retake it from the latter. 

GUILDHALL (London) was built iu 1411. When it 
was rebuilt (in 1069), after the great fire of 1666, no 
part of the ancient building remaiued except the inte- 
rior of the porch and the walls of the hall. The front 
was not erected until 1789 ; a new roof was built iu 
1864-5. Beneath the west window are the colossal fig- 
ures of Gog and Magog, said to represent a Saxon and 
an ancient Briton.* The hall can contain 7000 persons, 
and is used for city feasts. Here were entertained the 
allied sovereigns In 1S14, and Napoleon III., April 19, 
1855. 

GUILDS (of Saxon origin), associations of inhabit- 
ants of towns for mutual benefit, resembling our friend- 
ly societies, chartered bv the sovereign since the time 
of Henry II. The "Guild of Literature and Art" (in- 
cluding Sir E.B. Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) found- 
ed an institution (on irrouud triven by Sir E. B. Lytton, 
at Stevenage), consistim.' of thirteen dwellings, re- 
treats for au artist, scholar, and man of letters, whicli 
were completed iu July, lb65. 



GUI 



236 



GYR 



GUILFORD COURT-HOUSE, Battle at. General 
Greene retreated from the Catawba Kiver, in South 
Carolina, into Virginia, before pursuing; Cornwallis in 
the winter of 17Sl'. He soon returned, and at Guilford 
Court-house, in North Carolina, he, with his army, 
fought Cornwallis and the British for more than two 
hours desperately. The Americans were repulsed, 
and the British took possession of the field, but at a 
cost that made the victory a sad disaster. "Another 
such victory," said Fox, iu the British Parliament, 
"will ruin the British army." The British lost over 
600 men ; the Americans about 40O iu killed and 
wounded, and 1000 who deserted to their homes. 

GUILLOTINE, invented (about 1785) by Joseph Ig- 
natius Guillotiu (an eminent physician and senator, 
esteemed for his humanity), designed to render capi- 
tal punishment less painful by decapitation. Duriu^ 
the Revolution he ran some hazard of being subjected 
to its deadly operation ; but (contrary to a prevailing 
opinion) escaped, and lived to be one of the founders 
of the Academy of Medicine at Paris, and died in 1S14, 
greatly respected. — A somewhat similar instrument 
may be seeu iu an engraving accompanying the Sym- 
bolicoe Qiiestiones (called the Mannaia). It is said to 
have been used iu Italy, at Halifax in England (see 
Halifax), and iu Scotland, there called the Maiden and 
the Widow. 

GUINEA (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by the 
Portuguese about 14G0. From their trade with the 
Moors originated the slave-trade. Sir John Hawkins 
was the first Englishman who made a merchandise of 
the humau species. — Bell. He was assisted in his en- 
terprise by a number of English gentlemen, who sub- 
scribed money for the purpose. He sailed from En- 
gland in Oct., 1562, with three ships, proceeded to the 
coast of Guinea, purchased or forcibly seized 300 ne- 
groes, sold them profitably at Hispauiola, and return- 
ed home richly laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and 
other merchandise, in Sept., 1563. This voyage led to 
similar enterprises. — Raklwjt. See Slave-trade. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from having 
been first coined of gold brought by the African com- 
pany from the coast of Guinea iu 1003, valued then at 
20s., but worth 30s. in 1695. Reduced at various times : 
iu ITIT to 21s. In 1810 guineas were sold for 22s. 6d. ; 
in 1S16, for 2Ts. In ISll an act was passed forbidding 
their exportation, and their sale at a price above the 
current value, 21s. The first guineas bore the impres- 
sion of au elephant, having been coined of this Afri- 
can gold. Siuce the issue of sovereigns iu July 1, 1S17, 
guineas have not been coined. 

GUINEGATE, Battle of. See S2mrs. 
GUISE, a French ducal family : 
Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, fa- 
vored by Francis I. ; died April, 1550 

Francis, the great general, born 1519 ; assassina- 
ted Feb. 24,1563 

Henry, head of the Catholic league ; born 1550 ; 
revenged his fether's death ; assassinated by 

Henry III Dec. 23,1588 

Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, Hen- 
ry IV. ; died 1040 

Henry, died without issue 1064 

GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, in- 
vented by Professor Schijnbein, of Basel, and made 
known in 1S4G. It is purified cotton, steeped in a mix- 
ture of equal parts of nitric acid and sulphuric acid, 
and afterward dried, retaining the appearance of cot- 
ton wool. Dr. BoBttger and others also claim the dis- 
covery.* See Collodion. 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is 
generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael Schwartz, 
a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in 
Germany, about 1320. But many writers maintain that 
it was known much earlier in various parts of the 

* The Diet of Frankfort voted, Oct. S, 1846, a recompense of 100,0(10 
florins to Professor Schbnbein and Dr. Btettjjer as tlie inventors of the 
cotton powder, provided tlie authorities of Mayence, after seeing it 
tried, pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive ; but its use, 
as a substitute for gunpowder, in gunnery, is still a matter of uncer- 
tainty, as the ignition of the cotton is not under the same control. Of 
its utility, however, in blasting and mining operations, not the slightest 
doubt can exist. Improvements were made in the manufacture of gun- 
cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron Von Lenk, about 1852, and it was 
tried by a part of the Austrian army in 1855, but did not obtain favor. 
In 1862 details of the manufacture were communicated by the Austrian 
government to the English government, and Mr. Abel, our war-otfice 
chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitution and desirability 
of gun-cotton. The British Association also appointed a scientific com- 
mittee to consider its merits. A complete decision has not been arrived 
at. The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in the spring 
of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowmarket, Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 



world.* Some say that the Chinese possessed it a 
number of centuries before. Its composition, more- 
over, is expressly mentioned by Roger Bacon, in his 
treatise JDe Xullitate Magice. He died in 1292 or 1294. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT. The memorable conspiracy 
known by this name, for springing a mine under the 
houses of Parliament, and destroying the three estates 
of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there assem- 
bled, was discovered on Nov. 4, 1605. It was projected 
by Robert Catesby, and several Roman Catholic per- 
sons of rank were leagued in the enterprise. Guy 
Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of 
Lords preparing the train for being fired on the next 
day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northum- 
berland) were killed ; Guy Faux, Sir Everard Digby, 
Rockwood, Winter, and others, died by the hands of 
the executioner, Jan. 30, 31, 1606. Henry Garnet, a 
Jesuit, was executed as au accomplice. May 3, follow- 
ing. Au anonymous letter sent to Lord Mouteagle led 
to the discovery. It contained the following words: 
" Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say 
they shall receive a terrible blow this Parliament, and 
yet they shall not see who hurts them." The vault, 
called Guy Faux's cellar, iu which the conspirators 
lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the late 
houses of Parliament till 1825, when it was converted 
into offices. 

GUNS. See Artillery. 

GUNTER'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, in- 
vented by Edmund Guuter in 1606. 

GUTTA-PERCHA. This highly useful substance is 
procured from the sap of the Isouaudra Gutta, a large 
forest-tree growing iu the Malayan Peninsula and on 
the islands near it. It was made known in Englaud 
by Drs. D.Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of 
Arts, in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it has 
become an invaluable aid iu constructing the subma- 
rine telegraph. 

GUZERAT, a state in India, founded by Mahmoud 
the Gaznevide about 1020, was conqueredby Akbar in 
1572, and became subject to the Mahrattas 1732 or 1752. 

GWALIOR, a state in Central India ; since 1803, un- 
der British protection. The maharajah remained 
faithful during the revolt of 1857. 

GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks performed 
public exercises, and where also philosophers, poets, 
and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. Iu 
wrestling and boxing the athletes were often naked 
{qyinnos), whence the name. A Loudon Gymnastic 
Society, formed 1S26, did not flourish. Iu'lS62, M. 
Ravenstein set up another fjymnastic association. 
The German Gymnastic Institution, in St. Pancras 
Road, London, was opened on Jan. 29, 1865, and a large 
and perfect gymnasium at Liverpool was inaugurated 
by Lord Stanley, Nov. 6, 1865. 

GYMNOSOPHIST^, a sect of philosophers iu In- 
dia, who lived naked, as their name implies. Alexan- 
der (about 324 B.C.) was astonished at the sight of 
men who seemed to despise bodily pain, and who in- 
ured themselves to the greatest tortures without ut- 
tering a groan or expressing any fear. — Plinij. 

GYPSIES. See Gipsies. 

GYROSCOPE (from gyrere, to revolve), the name of 
a rotatory apparatus popular in 1859, invented by Fes- 
sel of Cologne (1852), and improved by Prof. Wheat- 
stone, and M. Foucault, of Paris. It is similar iu prin- 
ciple to the rotatory apparatus of Bohneuberger of 
Tiibingeu (born 1765, died 1831). — The gyroscope ex- 
hibits the combined effects of the centrifugal and cen- 
tripetal forces, and the remarkable results of the ces- 
sation of either, aud thus illustrates the great law of 
gravitation. 



* A scientific inquirer, W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the 
question in 1847, thus states the result: "July and August, 1346, may 
tlierefore be safely assumed to be the time when the explosive forcf of 
gunpowder was first brought to bear on the military operations of the 
English nation." On Jan. 16, 1864, above 11 tons* oi^gunpowder on 
board the Lottie Sleigh, in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage was 
done in Liverpool and Birkenhead, but no lives were lost. On Oct. I, 
1864, about 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belvedere powder 
magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at Plumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 per- 
sons perished, and the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance. Searching 
inquiries were made into the circumstances, and new regulations for 
the keeping and transmission of powder issued in November. See Dart- 
ford. Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on June '22, 1865, pat- 
ented his method of rendering gunpovpder inflammable by combining 
with it finely-powdered glass, which can be readily separated by a sieve 
when the powder is required for use. Successful public experiments 
were made, and Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed 
(Oct., 1865). Mr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at Wind- 
sor, Nov. 10. 1865, The attainment of perfect security is still doubted. 



HAA 



237 



HAM 



H. 



tv A ^■'^^^'^' '"*" nncient tomn, once the residence of 
the C ount;; of Ilollaud, was taken by the Duke of Alva 
in Jiii_v, 15,:;, attcr a siege of seven months. He viola- 
ted the caijituhuiou by butchering half the iuhabit- 
auts. I he lake was drained iu 1849-51. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, 
passed " for the better securing the liberty of the sub- 
ject." 31 Charles II., c. 2, May 2T, 1679.* This act 
(founded on the old common law) is nest in import- 
ance to Manna Cliarta, for so long as the statute re- 
mains in force no subject of England can be detained 
in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is 
shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus 
Act can alone be suspended by the authority of Par- 
liament, and then for a short time only, and when the 
emergency is extreme. In such a case the nation 
parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own 
permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then 
be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned 



HAINAULT, a province in Bel 






fortunes of Flanders. 



died 

^„„.it of 

henceforth partook of the 



. HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), a celebrated fovP«t 

was inflicted as a punishment among theljmli^ ThP 
royal family of France held it as a pafticular mak- Tnl 
fn7;^:tla«,li^"l«.^^"d prince^^fSfo^ 



loSf"^"*='.''^-'1^""^ dressed and curled^ 
lensi 



}?^''t-' ^?^on^i-^^tA^v^isil^::^j:^ 



Act suspended for a short time in 16S9 1696 ITOS 

Suspended for Scots' rebellion 1715-16 

Suspended for twelve months " " 1700 

Suspended for Scots' rebellion iu '. iiii'5 

Suspended for American War 1777-9 

Again by Mr. Pitr, owing to French Revolution... 1794 
buspended in Ireland on account of the Great Re- 



bellion. 



1798 



Suspended iu England, Aug. 28, 1799 ; and April 14 ISOl 

Again, on account of Irish insurrection 'iS03 

Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green 

.^".'/) Feb. 21 1817 

Bill to restore the habeas corpus brought into Par- 
liament . . Jan. 28,1818 

Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) Julv 24 1848 

Restored there. . . March i;iS49 

Habeas Corpus Act was suspended by Abraham Lin- 
coln, President of the United States, Sept. 24 1S6'> to 
prevent the release of military and state prisoners 
In Ai)nl, 1863, Congress upheld President Lincoln's 
right to suspend the habeas corpus. Again iu Sent 
1863, President Lincoln suspended the habeas corpus 
lor the retention of recruits whose parents on false 
oaths, tried to reclaim them as being under' ao-e in 
May, 1864, the President, by the hand of Edwin M 
Stanton, Secretary of War, ordered all prisoners held 
iiuder tlie suspension of the writ of habeas corpus to 
be discharged. ^ 

HACKNEY-COACHES (probably from the French 
cochc-a-haquenee, a vehicle with a hired horse, Itaqtie- 
nee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, near London 
is a vulgar error. See Cabriolets and Omnibuses. 

HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, once 
called the finest viUagem Europe; the place ofmeet- 
uig of the States-General, and residence of the former 
Earls of Holland since 1250, when William IL built the 
palace here. 

Here the States abrogated the authority of Philip 
IL of Spain, 15S0, and held a conference upon the 
Hve articles of the Remonstrants, which occa- 
sioned the Synod of Dort IGlo 

Treaty of^the Hague (to preserve the equiiilirium 
of the North), signed by England, Prance, and 

Holland..... May21,lG,'59 

Witt torn in pieces here Au'^ 20 1762 

The French took possession of the Hague, Jan ' 
iJ"'?,' ^'■^^'^'^'^^ by a hard frost, they marched into 
Holland, where the inhabitants and troops de- 
clared 111 their favor; a general revolution en- 
sued, and the Stadtholder and his family were 
compelled to leave the country and escape to 

England _ _ ^j-pg 

The Hague evacuated in .'.'...'.' Nov 1813 

The Stadtholder returned here '. .'.'.'. Dec' " 



haifin-f Tnt"'r •''' ^"'■'''''^''' t'^^ cl'^'-g-y to wear l5n 
nan, 155. Long hair was out of ftishion dur 



the 

rm Ilovncl- 

powdercameino 



protectorate of Cromwell, aud hencVthe te 

uS i59o'''.,Vf • 'fi?.^ ''?'• Hair-powder .„,.. ,u,o 
n^f,,.;? i'- '?^d in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons 
Ti P^t V^''''^'' y'^'?^^ ''^* o'^e time £20,000 per iunum! 

.vp^^^^^'^^?7 COLLEGE (Herts),wherein students 
thP wf'fF^'r 'U*"'" '®''^'^? ^" I"^^ia: it^^as founded by 
tbe iiast India Company m 1806, aud was closed in 1858. 

HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor), the reput- 
tih'nr'Af^ of Herodotus, 484 B.C.; the 'site of the 
tomb of Mausolus, erected 352; taken by Alexander, 
od4. feee iMaiisoleum. 

on-^^.y^*-*^HILL, near Berwick, where, on July 19- 
20, lo33, the English defeated the Scots, the latter los- 
ing upward of 14,000 slain, among whom were the re- 
gent Douglas and a large number of the nobility, while 
a comparatively small number of the English sufl-ered. 
Edward in. placed Edward Baliol on the throne of 
Scotland. 

HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woolen manufactory 
was established here in the 15th century, prodigious 
quantities of cloth, etc., being on the tenters. The 
town, at its incorporation, was empowered to iniuish 
capitally (by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the 
oflender m a moment) any criminal convicted of steal- 
ing to the value of upward of thirteen pence halfpen- 
ny. King James L in 1620 took this power away. See 
Gmllotine. 

HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. The Earl of Hal- 
ifax became minister, Oct., 1714, and died in 1715 This 
ministry was succeeded by Robert Walpole's. 
Charles, earl of Halifax, First Lord of the Trcasnn/ 

(succeeded on his death by the Earl of Carlisle) 
William, lord Cowper, afterward Earl Cowper, Lord 

Chancellor. 
Daniel, earl of Nottingham, Xord President. 
Thomas, marquess of Wharton, Privy Seal. 
Edward, earl of Oxford, Admiraltv. 
Jas. Stanhope, afterward Earl Stanhope, and Charles, 

viscount Townshend, Secretaries of State. 
Sir Richard Onslow, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Dukes of Montrose aud Marlborough, Lord Berke 

Robert Walpole, Mr. Pulteuey, etc. 



. Berkeley, 



i act, if anv person be imprisoned bv the act of any court or 
, he may have a writ of habeas r ' '■ ' ■ 



» By thi 
of the"queen herself, ne may nave a writ of habeas corpus, to'brinj; him 
before the Court of Queen's Bench or Common Pleas, which shall de- 
termine whether his committal he just. The Constitution of the Unit- 
ed States provides that " the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety 
may require it ;" but does not specify the department of the govern- 
ment having the power of suspension. A series of contests on this sub- 
ject between the legal and military authorities began in Maryland 
May, 1861. In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see /Slaver'/ 
in mgland, nnte), an act was passed in 1862 enacting that no writ of 
Aabeaa corpus should issue out of England into any colony, etc., havin" 
a court with authority to grant such writ. ' ■ a 



HALL, principal apartment in medireval mansions. 
Westminster aud Eltham Halls are tine examples. 
See Westminster Hall. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN {Praise the Lord, and 
So be it), expressions used in the Hebrew hymns ; said 
to have been introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 
520 B.C. Their introduction into the Christian Church 
is ascribed to St. Jerome, about A.D. 390. 

HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a battle 
was fought between the Lydiaus and Medes. It was 
interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, 
which occasioned a conclusion of the war between the 
two kingdoms. May 28, 585 B.C. (the fourth vear of the 
4Sth Olympiad).— K;???/, Kat. Hist., ii. Others give the 
date 584, 603, and 610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have 
been predicted many years before by Thales of Mile- 
tus. — Herodotus, 1., 75. 

HAMBURG, a free city, N.W. Germany, founded 
by Charlemagne about 809. It joined the'llanseatic 
League in the 13th century, and became a flourishing 
commercial city. Population iu 1800, 229,941. 



HAM 



238 



HAN 



It obtained the title of a free imperial cityby per- 
missiou of the Dukes of Holstein, 1296 ; was sub- 
ject to them till 1G18 ; purchased its total exemp- 
tion from their claims 1768 

France declared war upon Hamburg for its treach- 
ery iu g-iviug up Napper Tandy (see Tandij), Oct. ,1799 

British property sequestrated March, 1801 

Hamburg taken by the French after the battle of 

Jena iu 1806 

Incorporated with France 1810 

Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 

Russians into Germany 1813 

Restored to independence by the allied sovereigns, 

May, 1814 
An awful lire here, which destroyed numerous 
churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; 

it continued for three days May 4, 1842 

Half the city inundated by the Elbe Jan. 1,1855 

A new Constitution demanded by the citizens and 

granted by the senate July,lS60 

The new assembly (of 191 members^ first met, 

Dec. 6, " 

The Constitution began Jan. 1,1861 

HAMPTON-COURT PALACE (Middlesex), built by 
Cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the 
knights-hospitalers, and in 1525 presented to Henry 
VIIl. ; perhaps the most splendid oflTering ever made 
by a subject to a sovereign. Here Edward VI. was 
born, Oct. 12, 1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, 
died, Oct. 24 following; and here Mary, Elizabeth, 
Charles, and other English sovereigns, resided. Much 
was pulled down, and the grand inner court built by 
William III. in 1094, when the gardens, occupying 40 
acres, were laid out. Here was held, Jan. 14-16, 1604, 
the conference between the Puritans and the Estab- 
lished Church, which led to a new translation of the 
Bible. See Conference. 

HAMPTON, Defense of. Hampton, near Old Point 
Comfort, Virginia, was invaded by 2500 British troops 
under Sir Sidney Beckwith. These were confronted 
by 436 Virginia militia, under Major Crutchfleld, and 
were repulsed. The Americans lost only 1 man made 
prisoner. The British had 200 killed and wounded. 

HAMPTON ROADS (Virginia), Conflict between 
THE Monitor and the Meeki.m,\c. The Merrimac, 
which had been sunk when the Norfolk navy yard 
was abandoned by national vessels, was subsequently 
raise>d by the Confederates, converted into a formida- 
ble irou-clad ram, and named the Virginia. John 
Ericsson received his contract for building the Moni- 
tor October 5, 1801, and this vessel was completed 
early in the following January. On the 5th of March 
she was dispatched to Fortress Monroe. Just before 
she reached her destination the Virginia had come 
out (March S) and attacked the national vessels in 
Hampton Roads. She was commanded by Franklin 
Buchanan. She had sunk the Cumberland, captured 
the Congress, and pushed the Minnesota aground. At 
night she returned to Norfolk. The next morning she 
reappeared ; but the Monitor, commanded by Lieuten- 
ant John L. Worden, had arrived. After a short con- 
flict with this new antagonist, the Virginia, finding the 
odds against her, again retired. After the evacuation 
of Norfolk by the Confederates, she was blown up by 
her commander, Josiah Tattnall, May 11, 1862. The 
Monitor sunk on her passage to Charleston, December 
31, 1862. 

HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), where a division of the 
combined armies of Austria and Bavaria, of 30,000 
men, uuder General Wrede, encountered the French, 
70,000 strong, uuder Napoleon I., on their retreat from 
Leipsic, Oct. 30, 1813. The French suflered very se- 
verely, though the Allies were compelled to retire. 

HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. The firxt was 
held in Westminster Abbey, May 20, 1784 ; King George 
III. and Queen Charlotte, and above 8000 persons, be- 
ing present. The band contained 2GS vocal and 246 
instrumental performers, and the receipts of three suc- 
cessive davs were £12,746. These concerts were re- 
peated in 1785, 1786, 1790, and 1791. 
Second great commemoration, iu the presence of King 
William IV. and Queen Adelaide, when there were 
644 performers, June 24, 26, and 28, 1834. This com- 
memoration led to the formation of the Sacred Har- 
monic Society at Exeter Hall. 
This society, in conjunction with the Crystal Palace 

Company, projected the Festival of 18.59. 
Grand rehearsal at the Crystal Palace, June 15, 17, 19, 

1857, and on July 2, 1858. 
Great Handel Festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the 
centenary of his death. Performances: Messiah, 
June 20 ; Selections, 22 ; Israel iu Egypt, 24, 1859, 



when the prince consort, the King of the Belgians, 
and 26,827 persons were present. There were 2765 
vocal and 393 instrumental performers, and the 
performance was highly successful. The receipts 
amounted to about i;33,000, from which there were 
deducted i;i8,000 for expenses ; of the remainder 
(£15,000), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace 
Company, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic So- 
ciety. Handel's harpsichord, original scores of his 
oratorios, and other interesting relics, were exhib- 
ited. 

Handel Festival (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 perform- 
ers ; highly successful ; June 23, 25, 27, 1862. 

Handel Festival (at the Crystal Pcvlace) : very success- 
ful ; June 26, 28, 30, 1865. 

The Handel Festival in the Music Hall at Boston, 
Mass., April, 1866, was very successful. 

HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged with gold, 
used to be worn in England by gentlemen in their 
hats, as favors from young ladies, the value of them 
being from five to twelve pence for each in the reign 
of Elizabeth, 1558. — Stow's Ckron. Paisley handker- 
chiefs were first made iu 1743. 

HANGING, Drawing, and Quakteking, said to 
have been first inflicted upon William Marise, a pi- 
rate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 1241. Five gen- 
tlemen attached to the Duke of Gloucester were ar- 
raigned and condemned for treason, and at the place 
of execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, 
stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quarter- 
ing, and then pardoned, 25 Hen. VI., 1447. — Stow. Nich- 
olas Bayard, of New York, who was tried for hi^h trea- 
son and found guilty in 1702, was sentenced to be 
hanged, drawn, and quartered. The sentence, how- 
ever, was not carried into execution. The last execu- 
tion in this manner in England was that of the Cato 
Street conspirators {which see), May 1, 1820. Hanging 
iu chains was abolished in 1834. See Death. 

HANGING ROCK, Battle at. A few miles east- 
ward of Rocky Mount {which see), on the Catawba Riv- 
er, is a large boulder on the verge of a high bank, call- 
ed Haugiiig Rock. It gives the name to the place. 
There a large body of British and Tories were attack- 
ed and dispersed by General Sumter on the 6th of Au- 
gust, 17S0. There was an engagement of about four 
hours, and Sumter lost 12 meii killed and 41 wounded. 
It was one of the most desperate battles of the war, 
considering the number engaged. 

HANOVER, a kingdom, formerly an electorate, N. 
W. Germany. Hanover is composed of territories 
which formerly belouged to the Dukes of Brunswick 
(which see). Populatigu iu 1859, 1,850,000; in 1801, 
1,888,070. 

Hanover became the ninth electorate A.D.1092 

Suflered much during the Seven Years' War... 1756-63 

Seized by Prussia April 3,1801 

Occupied by the Freuch June 5,1803 

Delivered to Prussia in 1805 

Part of it annexed to Westphalia 1810 

Regained for England by Bernadotte Nov. 6,1813 

Erected into a kingdom Oct. 12,1814 

The Duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant gov- 
ernor, aud a representative government estab- 
lished Nov., 1816 

Visited bv George IV Oct., 1821 

Ernest, diike of Cumberland, king June 20,1837 

He granted a Constitution with electoral rights, 
1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to the 

decree of the Federal Diet April 12,1855 

The king claims from England crown jewels 
which "belonged to George III. (value about 

£120,000) 1857 

Arbitration : the jewels given up Jan., 1853 

The Stade dues given up for compensation, June 12,1861 

ELECTORS AND KINGS OF HANOVER. 

1602. Ernest- AuEfustns, youngest son of George, third 
son of William, duke' of Brunswick-Branden- 
burg, who obtained by lot the right to marry 
(see Brunswick). He became Bishop of Osna- 
burg in 1662, aud in 1079 inherited the posses- 
sions of his uncle John, duke of Calenberg ; 
created Elector of Hanover in 1602. 
[He married, iu 16.59, the Princess Sophia, daugh- 
ter of Frederick, elector palatine, and of Eliz- 
abeth, the daughter of James I. of Eugland. 
In 1701, Sophia'was declared next heir to the 
British crown, after William III., Anne aud 
their descendants.] 

1638. George-Lewis, son of the preceding; married his 
cousin Sophia, the heiress of the Duke of 
Bruuswick-Zell. Became King of Great Brit- 
ain, Aug. 1, 1714, as Geoesb I. 



IIAN 



239 



HAR 



1727. George-Augustus, hia sou (George II. of En- 

ghuul), June 11. 
17G0. Geoi-ge-Winiiiin-Frec'';rick,liisgraudsou(GEOKGE 

III. ofEnghiu(l),Oct.25. 

KINGS OF lIANOVrU. ScC AcCCSSiOTl. 

1S14. George-Willuiin-Frcdcrick (the preceding sover- 
eign), lirst king nl' ILuiuver, Oct. 12. 
1S20. George-August u;^-Frederick, his sou (George 

IV. of Euglaud), Jan. 21). 

1S30. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of En- 
gland), June 20. 
[Hanover separated from the crowu of Great 
Britain.] 

1S37. Eruest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother 
to William IV. of England, on whose demise 
he succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to the 
throne of Hanover, June 20. 

1S51. George V. (born May 27, 1S19), sou of Ernest; 
ascended the throne on the death of his fa- 
ther, Nov. 18. The i-kesent (1S65) King of 
Ilauover. 

lEcir: Prince Ernest- Augustus, born Sept. 21, 1S45.] 

HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic League (from 
hansa, association), formed by a number of port towns 
iu Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and 
Danes, began about 1140 ; the league was signed 1241. 
At flrst it consisted ouly of towns situate on "the coasts 
of the Baltic Sea, but iu 1370 it was composed of six- 
t.y-six cities and forty-four confederates. They pro- 
claimed war against" Waldemar, king of Denmark, 
about the year 134S, and against Eric Iu 1428, with 
forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. 
This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered 
the merchants of their respective kingdoms to with- 
draw their effects. The Thirty Years' War iu Germa- 
ny (1618-48) broke up the strength of the association. 
In 1630 the ouly towns of uote of this once powerful 
league, retaining the name, were Liibeck, Hamburg, 
aud Bremen. The league suffered also by the rise of 
the commerce of the Low Countries in the 15th cen- 
tury. The many privileges they eujoyed by treaty in 
England were abolished by Elizabeth iu 157S. 

IIAPSBLTRG (or IIabshueg), House of, the family 
from which the imperial house of Austria sprang iu 
the Tth ccnturv. llapsburg was au ancient castle of 
Switzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schintzuach. 
Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, became Archduke of 
Austria aud Emperor of Germany, 1273. See Austria 
and Germany. 

HARFLELTR (sea-port, N.W. France) was besieged 
by Henry V., aud taken Sept. 22, 1415. 

HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a desperate 
indecisive battle between the Earl of Mar, with the 
royal army, and Donald, the Lord of the Isles, July 24, 
1411. This conflict was very disastrous to the nobili- 
ty, some houses losing all their males. 

IIARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing 7000 raaut;- 
scripts, bought by Secretary Ilarley, afterward Earl of 
Oxford and Mortimer, is now in the British Museum. 
A large portion of his life aud wealth was spent on the 
collection. He died May 21, 17'_'4. The Harleian Mis- 
cellany, a selection from the MSS. and Tracts of his li- 
brary, was published in 1744 and 18U8. 

IIARLEJr PL.\INS, Battle on. This was a severe 
skirmish. It occurred on the IGth of September, 1776, 
between Americau troops, under Colonel Kuowlton 
aud Major Leitch, and detachments of the British 
army, which was then in possession of New York city 
and the lower part of Jlanhattau Island. Kuowlton 
and Leitch were killed, but the Americans were victo- 
rious. Of Kuowltou, Washington said, "He was au 
honor to any country." 

IIAR:S[0NIC strings, said to have been invent- 
ed by Pythagoras through hearing four blacksmiths 
working with hammers in harmony, whose weights 
he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve; or rather 
by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and 
oiie hundred and forty-four. — The Hakmomoa, or mu- 
sical glasses, were first " arranged" by an Irish gentle- 
man named Puckeridge, aud improved by Dr. Frank- 
lin in 1700. 

nAR:MOXISTS, a sect, founded iu Wiirtemburg by 
Rap]) abotit 1T80. Not much is known of their tenets, 
but they held their projierty in common, aud consid- 
ered marriage a civil contract. Not finding tolera- 
tion, they emigrated to America, and built New Har- 
mony, iu Indiana, in 1815. Robert Owen purchased 
this "town about 1823, but failed in his scheme of a 
"social" community, and returned to England. See 



Socialist.'^. The Harmonists removed to Pittsburg, in 
Pennsylvania, iu 1S22. 

HARMONIUM, a keyed wind instrument, resem- 
bling the acciirdidu in the tones being generated by 
the actum of wind ui)ou metallic reeds. The Chinese 
were well acquainted with the eftects produced by vi- 
brating tongues of metal. M. Biot stated in 1810 tliat 
they were used musically by M. Greuie ; and in 1827- 
29, free reed stops were employed in organs at Beau- 
vais and Paris. The harmoniums best known in En- 
gland are those of Alexaudre and Debaiu, the latter 
claiming to be the original maker of the French iu- 
strumeut. In 1841, however, Mr. W. E. Evans, of Chel- 
tenham, produced his English harmonium, then term- 
ed the Organ Harmonica. By a succession of improve- 
ments he has produced a flue instrument, with diapa- 
son quality, aud great rapidity of speech, without loss 
of power.— English Ciiclupeedia. 

HARNESS, the leathern dressings used for horses 
to draw chariots, and also chariots, are said to have 
beeu the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who 
was made a constcllati(m after his death, under the 
name oi Bol'tcs, about 14S7 B.C. 

HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. {Gen. iv., 21). 
David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. (1 Sam. 
XVI., 23). The Cimbri, or English Saxous, had this in- 
strument. The celebrated Welsh harp was strung 
with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient 
harps, with wire.* Erard's improved harps were flrst 
patented in 1795. 

HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia), in the War of the 
American Rebellion. This place is situated at the 
outlet of the Shenandoah Valley, at the junction of the 
Shenandoah with the Potomac. The town iu 1800 had 
a population of 10,000. On the 18th of April, ISOl, the 
day after the secession of Virginia, a Confederate force 
marched upon the town. Lieutenant Roger Jones, uu- 
able to bold the post, abandoned it, after destroying 
the arsenal and workshops. The place was held by 
General Patterson just before and during the battle 
of Bull Run. Ou September 15, 1862, it was surround- 
ed and captured by " Stonewall" Jackson. General 
Miles, commanding the post, was killed ; about 10,000 
men fell into the bauds of the Confederates. 

HARRISON, FORT, DfeFENSE of. Fort Harrison, 
in Indiana, under the command of Captain Zachary 
Taylor, was attacked by 300 Indians on the 4th of 
September, 1812. Taylor had only 15 efl'ective men, 
but defended the fort aud drove off' the Indians, after 
losing 2 killed aud 2 wounded. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. John Harrison, 
of Foulby, near Pontefracf, was the inventor. In 1714 
the government oftered rewards for methods of deter- 
mining the longitude at sea ; Harrison came to Lou- 
don, aud produced his flrst time-piece iu 1735 ; his sec- 
oud in 1739; his third iu 1749; and his fourth, which 
procured him the reward of £20,000 oftered by the 
Board of Longitude, a few years after. He obtaiued 
£10,000 of his reward in 1764, and other sums, more 
than £24,000 iu all, for farther improvements in fol- 
lowing years. 

HARROWGATE (Yorkshire). The flrst or old spa 
iu Kuaresborough forest was discovered by Captain 
Sliugsby iu 1571 : a dome was erected over the well at 
the expense of Lord Rosslyu iu 1786. There are two 
other chalybeate spriugs, called the Alum Well and 
the Towit Spa. The noted sulphureous well was dis- 
covered in 1783. The theatre was erected in 17SS. 
The Bath Hospital was erected by subscription in 1825. 

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL (IWiddlesext), 
founded aud endowed by Johu Lyon iu 1571. To en- 
courage archery, the founder instituted a prize of a sil- 
ver arrow to be shot for annually ou the 4th of Au- 
gust ; but the custom has beeu abolished. Lord Pal- 
inerston, Sir R. Peel, the statesman, aud Lord Byron, 
the poet, were educated here. 

HARTFORD CONVENTION. Delegates from the 
several New England States, politically opposed to the 



* One of tlie most ancient harps existing is that of Brian lioroihme, 
monarch of Ireland ; it was given by his son Donaph to Pope John 
XVIII., together with the crown and other regalia ol his father, in or- 
drr to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Teijr. Adrian 
IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to the kingdom of 
Ireland in his bull transferring it to Henry II. This harp was given by 
Leo X. to Henry VIII., vvlio presented it to the first Earl of Clanricarde ; 
it then came into possession of the family of De Burgh ; next into that 
of MacMahon of C'lenagh, county of Clare ; afterward into that of Mac- 
Xamara of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the Right Hon. 
William Convngham in the College Jluseum, Dublin, in 1782." 

t Charles II. cut short some theological discussion relative to the 
claims for the title of the visible Church by declaring that it "was the 
parish church of Harrow, which could he seen every where." 



HAR 



240 



HEA 



aclministration of Presiclent Madison, and deprecating 
the then existing war between the United States and 
Great Britain, asserableci at Hartford in December, 
1S14, to take into consideration the state of public af- 
fairs. Peace that soon followed made farther action 
on their part unnecessary. 

HARTLEY COAL-MINE (Northnmberland). On 
Jan. 16, 1802, one of the beams at the mouth of the 
ventilating shaft broke, and a mass of iron weighing 
12 tons fell down the shaft, destroyed the brattice, di- 
vided the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to 
kill two men who were ascending the shaft, and bur- 
ied alive 202 persons, men and T)oys. Several days 
elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much 
sympathy was shown by the public, from the queen to 
the humblest classes ; and about ^50,000 were collect- 
ed on behalf of the bereaved families. The coroner's 
verdict expressed the necessity of there being two 
shafts to coal-mines, and recommended that the 
beams should be of malleable instead of cast iron. 

HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat of 
Louis XVIIL, king of France, 1807-14. He lauded at 
Yarmouth, Oct. G, ISOT, took up his residence at Gos- 
field Hall, in Essex, and afterward came to Hartwell 
as the Couut de Lille. His consort died here in 1810. 
On his restoration, he embarked at Dover for France, 
April 24, 1814. See France. 

HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan 
origin, who told events from observing entrails of an- 
imals. They were introduced to Rome by Romtilus 
(about 750 B.C.), and abolished by Coustantiue, A.D. 
337, at which time they were seventy in number. 

HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts,!^. America) 
was founded by the General Court at Boston on Oct. 
28, 1630. It derived its name from John Harvard, who 
bequeathed to it a library and a sum of money ifi 1638. 

HASTINGS (Sussex). At Battle, near this place, 
more than 30,000 were slain in the conflict between 
Harold II. of England and William, duke of Norman- 
dy, the former losing his life and kingdom, Oct. 14, 
1066. The day of this battle was also the anniversary 
of Harold's birth. lie and his two brothers were in- 
terred at Waltham Abbey, Essex. 

HASTINGS'S TRIAL. Warren Hastings,* govern- 
or general of India, was tried by the peers of Great 
Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors. Among 
other charges was his acceptance of a present of 
^100,000 from the Nabob of Oude. See Chunar, Trea- 
ty of. The trial lasted seven years and three months ; 
commencing Feb. 13, 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 
April 25, 17V5. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeach- 
ment excited great admiration. 

HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT on the Life of Geoege 
in. On May 11, ISOO, during a review in Hyde Park, 
a shot from an undiscovered hand was fired, which 
wounded a young gentleman who stood near the king. 
In the evening, when his majesty was at Drury Lane 
Theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him ; upon his trial 
he was sentenced to be confined as a lunatic dm'ing 
his life. He died Jan. 23, 1841, aged 69 years. 

HATS. See Ccqis. First made by a Swiss at Paris, 
1404. When Charles VII. made his triumphal entry 
into Rouen in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red vel- 
vet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. 
Henceforward hats and caps, at least in France, began 
to take place of chaperons and hoods. — Henault. Hats 
were first manufactured in England by Spaniards in 
1510. — Htow. Very high-crowned hats were worn by 
Queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns were 
again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty laid upon 
hats in 1784 and in 1796, was repealed in 1811. Silk 
hats began to supersede beaver about 1820. 

HATTERAS EXPEDITION. This expedition (Au- 
gust 26-30, 1861) was undertaken for the purpose of re- 
ducing Forts Hatteras and Clark, which the Confeder- 
ates had built on the point north of Hatteras Inlet. 
The fleet, under Commodore S. H. Stringham, consist- 
ed of six vessels and two transports. "The military 
force, numbering 900, was under General B. F. Butler, 
who had the general command of the expedition. 

HAU-HAU FANATICS. See Neio Zealand, 1865. 

HAVANA (capital of Cuba, West Indies). Founded 
by Velasquez, 1511 ; was taken by Lord Albemarle, 
Aug. 14, 1762 ; restored, 17U3 ; the remains of Colum- 

* He was born in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in 1750 ; became 
povernoi; general of Bengal in 1772; of India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, 
it is said, unscrupulously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The 
expenses of his trial (£70,000) were paid by the East Judia Company. 
He died a privy councillor in 1818. 



bus were brought from St. Domingo and deposited in 
the Cathedral here, 1795. 

HAVRE DE GRACE (N.W. France) was defended 
for the Huguenots by the English in 1562, who, how- 
ever, were expelled in 1563. It was bombarded by 
Rodney, July 6 to 9, 1759 ; by Sir Richard Strachau, 
May 25, 1798; and blockaded, Sept. 6, 1803. The at- 
tempts of the British to burn the shipping here failed, 
Aug. 7, 1804. 

HAVRE DE GRACE (Maryland), ravaged by the 
British under Admiral Cockburn in the spring of 1813. 

HAWAIL See Owhyhee. 

HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 1664, was 
removed to Cumberland Market, Jan. 1, 1831. The 
Haymarket Theatre was opened in 1702. See Theatres. 
HAYTI, OK Haiti, Indian name of St. Domingo, a 
West Indian island, discovered by Columbus in Dec, 
1492, and named Hispauiola. Before the Spaniards 
fully conquered it, they are said to have destroyed, iu 
battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, in- 
cluding women and children. General Fabre Gefl'rard 
became president of the republic of Hay ti, Jan. 15, 1859. 
Population in 1859 about 572,000. 
Hayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca- 
neers 1630 

The French government took possession of the 

whole colony 1677 

The negroes revolt against France Aug. 23,1791 

And massacre nearly all the whites 1793 

The French Directory recognize Toussaint I'Ou- 

verture as general-in-chief 1794 

The eastern part of the island ceded to France by 

Spain 1795 

Toussaint establishes au independent republic in 

St. Domingo May 9,1801 

He surrenders to the French May 7,1802 

And is conducted to France, where he dies 1S03 

A new insurrection, under the command of Dessa- 

lines ; the French quit the island Nov.,18D3 

Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the 
whites, March 29 ; crowned emperor as Jacques 

I Oct. 8,1804 

He is assassinated, and the isle is divided, Oct. 17,1806 
Henry Christophe, a man of color, president in 
Feb., 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title of Hen- 
ry I., while Pethion rules as president at Port- 
au-Prince March,1811 

Numerous black nobility_ and prelates created — " 
Pethion dies, and Boj'er is elected president, Maj',181S 
Christophe commits suicide, Oct., 1820 ; the two 
states united under Boyer as regent for life, 

Nov., 1820 ; who is recognized by France in 1825 

Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843 

St. Domingo declares itself an independent repub- 
lic, Feb., 1844 ; recognized by Prance 1848 

Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late presi- 
dent Soulouque, who takes the title of Faustin 

I., Aug. 26, 1849 ; crowned April 18,1852 

Faustin, attacking the republic of St. Domingo, 

repulsed Feb. 1,1856 

Revolution in Hayti : General Gefl'rard proclaim- 
ed president of the republic of Hayti Dec. 22,1858 

Faustin abdicates Jan.,1859 

Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy against 

Gefl'rard Oct.,1859 

Great fire at Port-au-Priuce ; 600 houses destroy- 
ed Feb. 23,1865 

President Gefl'rard compelled to resign . . .Sept. 2, " 
Military insurrection under Salnave against Gef- 

frard. May 7 ; Cape Hayti seized May 9,1865 

Valorogue, a rebel vessel, fires into a British Ja- 
maica packet near Acul, St. Domingo, Oct. 22 ; 
H.M.S.ZJ?(Hdo5f threatens Valorogue; Salnave or- 
ders the removal of refugees from British con- 
sulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, and destroys 
the building. The Bulldog, failing to obtain sat- 
isfiiction, shells the fort, sinks the Valorogue, 
but gets on a reef, and the crew is taken out 
and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and Lili/ 
take the other forts and give them up to Gef- 

frard ; the rebels flee inland Nov. 9,1865 

(See Domingo.) 
HEARTH, OR CHIMNEY TAX, on every fireplace 
or hearth iu England, was imposed by Charles II. iu 
1662, when it produced about £200,000 a year. It vv^as 
abolished by William and Mary at the Revolution iu 
1680, but was imposed again, and again abolished. 

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). Little 
progress had been made in the study of the phenome- 
na of heat till about 1757, when Joseph Black put 
forth his theory of latent heat (which heat he said was 



HEB 



241 



Pmi?J^r ''^ "'''^*''°" j'^^^' ^"'J °f specific ''eat. Cav- 
le\rches s!',.'T''i """/^ 'J^'^'^'''' couthuied Black's re- 
JiVJ'f I , ■'■ '^"''" Leslie put forth his views ou r;i- 

oiy that heat consists in motion amouff the particles 
of matter, which view he supported by expe^HmeiUs 
on friction (recorded in 1S02)/ This theory (now call- 
ed the dynamical, or mechanical theory of heat and 
used to explain all the phenomena of physics an 
chemistry) has been farther substantiated by the in- 
dei cudent researches of Dr. J. Mayer, of Ileilbroun 
«er f°h tV'- '^J""^' Of Manchester (about 1840), who as! 
Pmfe l^ u '' n",^ «q>'ivalent of work done!' In 1S54, 
Piofessor Wm. Thomson, of Glasgow, published his 
researches on the dynamical powe?- of the 8 u's ravs 
The minds of philosophers are still engaged on thfs 
subject* See Caloreseence. Thermo-electdcity? p?o- 

dPrf,i tJin''""^ P'^*",-' "^ ^"PP^^'" '''"cl bismuth sol- 
(icied together, was discovered by Seebeck in 1S2=? 

HEBREWS. See Jews. 

of^PHn^^uv^/i''^ f6«(?es of Ptolemy and the Hehudes 
ot Pliny), Western Isles of Scotland, long subject to 
Norway; ceded to Scotland in 1204, and annexed to 
the Scottish crown iu 1540 by James V. ''"'^®^^" '° 

lsK?°^, (m Palestine). Here Abraham resided, 
wll RP • n '^i'^M P^^''^ '^'''^ ™'''de king of Judah 
104S B.C. On April 7, 1862, the Prince of Wales visit 
ed the reputed caveof Machpelah, near Hebron, said 
to contain the remains of Abraham and his descend 



HEM 



de Nova Castilla, on the festival nf^'f«? ""''?r -^"'i^^ 

until 1673, when Charles II UI)e^1^^'' -""^ ?l''ch 
the company once more '«;^ ti ? ^^' "^signed it to 
place of Napoleon's Mnt?;itv n .''l^'i^'i "''^^ made the 
death, May^5, ?S21 i?h -i^?^"^' ^^^^'^ ^nd of his 
1S40, and interred at the \jn^ f ^V" ''emoved in 
See 'France, mo The hou e .^^^//'"T"^''''' P'-^^^- 
piirchased by the French government?"''' ^'^' ^'''' 

from^"^Date''s''by'the'BriHih° '^' ?'''''' ^''' t^k^n 
rock, it is aniiportlit p'o°-sltslon'- ^''°"-* " "^"'^ 



,inltf.n^?, ^?' ^° ^^J^^^^i sacrifice of a hundred oxen, 
paiticularly observed by the Lacedemonians when 
they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice was 
subsequently reduced to twenty-three oxen, and goats 
and lambs were substituted. .auu^oais 

HECLA, MOITNT. Its first eraption is recorded as 

have"t",l°nn"T''^ ^""■*- ,^^°'^' tvvinty-two enijuons 
have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson 
The most dreadful and muTtiplied convulsions of tMs 
f vis t^tn ?hpf "^.°""^"'" occurred in 1T66, since when 
r^iffi u "^e 'op m summer is not attended with great 
difticulty. For particulars of an eruption in lfs4-5 
see Iceland The mount was in a state of violent eruo 
tiou from Sept. 2, 1845, to April, 1S46. Three new cra- 
ters were formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the 
erifbirs^'f;i'"''"S»^h feet.^ The lava formed sev^ 
rwf .^!h ?u '^ P'*=ces of pumice stone and scoria? of 2 
cwt.were thrown to a distance of a league and a half- 
the ice and snow which had covered thi mountain foi- 
centuries melted into prodigious floods. """''^ ^'^' 

HEGIRA Era op the, dates from the flight (Arabic 
nW "f ^^'^hammed from Mecca to Mec&a on the 
night of Thursday, the 15th of July, 022. The era com- 
T-^Vh'ul^r ^^f ^"f^- ®"™'^ ^°™P°t<^ this era from the 
d ,v ' li 9-^";""'' P''°''cs "^'i' ^^^ l*5th was the first 
t ;Jv„i I® luuar years were equalto 32 of those of 

• ■^•l-'^^Po?^'?.^^® (Germany) was capital of the Palat- 
inate, 1362-1719. _ The Protestant electoral house le- 
coming extinct in 1603, a war ensued, in which he 
castle was rumed, and the elector removed his res^ 
1802'^ Hpvp^'"""''" ;."• ^ 7^' '-^""^^cd to Baden iL 
iqSKvh.n if'"'''^ ^? celebrated tun, constructed in 
1343 when It contained twenty- one pipes of wine 
Another was made in 1064, whi4 held 600 hogshlac s" 
It was destroyed by the French in 1088; but alTO 
one, fobrica ed m 1600, which held 800 hogsheads, jfnd 
was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine^fe 
now mouldering in a damp vault, quite empty. 

HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and the 
Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to thi 
British under the Duke of York and Sir Rah h Aber- 
crombie for the Prince of Orange; .'.40 Bd sh wei-e 

ISk ""■ ^'"' p'''"' ''^' ''" '" ^''- ^'^ 

HELEN, a Grecian princess, according to mytholo- 
fml Poilnl"' li"P^'C'-,'-'"d Leda, and silter ofl'astor 
and 1 olhix. She was demanded in marriage by sev- 

&^'"°f''fP',''""'fv ^^^ chose Menelaustking of 
Sparta; but eloped from him with Paris, son of Pri- 
am king of Troy. This led to the Trojan War, which 
lasted 1193 to 1183 B.C. ' *^"'cn 



cault and Duboscq was exhibited at Paris In October, 

I HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hellenes nnd 
he iti^vf ^ 'l^^'^^^l'^ supplanted the Pel"4ians fiom 
the 15tli to the 11th century B.C., derived their ivimp 
from Helen, king of Phthiotis, about JeoOBC Th^v 

separated into the Dorians,'^oIians, louians and 
^ftlfi'^^lheL^^?l^fS°^«'--i-alle^^V.'^-^^ 

E™7e^JesrAr^nr SMie^Ao^plXs* 
,?nJt? °f Marmora, northward, and the ^-ean Sea' 
now the Archipelago, southward. The preVent name 
IS the S rait of the Dardanelles. The He'^espont took 
kin°"n?Th ^™' {™"^ Helle, daughter of itSamas 
tei f^^'l'"'','''■'^°'^''^■^ drowned here. It s cek'- 
brated for the loves of Hero of Sestus and Leander 
of Abydos: Leander was drowned in a temDestuou« 
night as he attempted to swim across tLlleflespont 
Kc'^'iferf^^'''' '^'•'^^^ ^^'-^clf into the 86^.627 

HELMETS, among the Romans, were provided with 
a visor of grated bars, to raise above the ey^ Tnd 
wT7round th,^^'?^^^^^^ the helmet of thTcrefks 

T?,,^i^ 1 ' ^^ ,-^ Romans square. Richard I of 
En^ f^h kT;°J« h^^i'^'" '■°^^"? ^<^'^^ct ; but nios of the 
iinglish kings had crowns above their helmets Alex- 
ander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a fiat helmet wtth a 
square grated visor, and the helmet of Robert I was 
surmounted by a crown, im—GwUlim. 

HELOTS, captives, derived by some from thp f}rpp> 
Me^n, to take ; by others from HeIo.s;lcTy which the 

thi T?H . i^ ' ^' '^ ^'^''^' I'umed the c ty, and reduced 
the Helots to slavery, and called all their slaves and 
the prisoners of war Helotm. The number of the He 
lots was much enlarged by the conquest of Ken^a, 
008 B.C., and is considered to have been four fifths of 

thi JM^^\'^T ° fSP?/;''-^- In the Peloponnesian War 
the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were 
rewarded with their liberty, 431 B.C. ; but the sudden 
dL?appearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attrib- 
uted to the Lacedemonian treachery.— jETerodo^ts. 

HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland having 
been conquered by the French iu 1797, a republic wal 
established m 1798 with this title. See Sicitzerland. 



Ih^ ^ P,' Er.csson roBBtructed a ship, in which caloric, or heat, was 
Vn.t . . V P°"-"- On Jan. 4, 1853, it sailed down the Bay of New 
Kh "? ""' °VA ""K^ ■"■ '«'"' " i^ S"!-" "t » cost of 80 per cenr 
less than 8te.irn. A though caloric engines were not successful Cant 
£ S? contmued h.s experiment., and patented an improved 'eng&e 

Q 



HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who inhabit- 
I ^1 o J^^t l** "°^^ called Switzerland. Invading Gaul 
io •^i'.cy were opposed and beaten by Julius Ca3- 
sar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 

HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in En- 
gland, when It was directed to be sown for fishino-- 
nets, 1533. " Bounties were paid to encourage its ciil- 
tiv.ation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made 
by the government and Legislature to accomplish such 
a national good In 17SS there were imported from 
Russia, in British ships, 17,095 tons of hemp and flax '• 
— ^_ir John Sinclair. The annual importation of these 
articles now amounts to about 100,000 tons. The cul- 



HEP 



242 



HES 



tivation of flax was revived at the dearth of cottou 
during the American Civil War, 18C1^. More than 
180,000 lbs. of rough hemp were used in the cordage 
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 
HEPTARCHY* (or government of seven kings) in 
England was gradually formed from 455, when Hen- 
gist became the King of Kent. It terminated in 828, 
when Egbert became sole monarch of England. See 
Britain and Octarchy. 

HERACLID.<®, descendants of Hercules, who were 
expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 B.C., but 
reconquered it in 1103^ or 1109 B.C., a noted epoch 
in chronology, all the history preceding being account- 
ed fabulous. 

HERALDRY. Marks of honor were used in the 
first ages.— xVi'sftef. The Phrygians had a sow; the 
Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle ; the Goths, a 
bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and 
the ancient French, a lion, and afterward the fleur-de- 
lis {which see). Heraldry, as an art, is ascribed first 
'to Charlemagne, about 800; and next to Frederick 
Barbarossa, about 1152 ; it began and grew with the 
feudal \a,w.— Mackenzie. The great English works on 
heraldry are those of Barcham or Barkham, published 
by Gwillim (1610) and Edmondson (ITSO). 

HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong city 
called the key of Afghanistan, capital of a state form- 
ed by Shah Mahmoud in 1818. Population in 1830, 
100,000. The Persians were hafiled in an attempt to 
take it in 1838, but took it Oct. 25, 1856, in violation of 
a treaty made in 1853. In consequence, war ensued 
between Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made 
in April, 1857. See Persia. Herat was restored July 
27 following. See Afghanistan. 

HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Campania, 
overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an eruption 
of lava from Vesuvius, Aug. 23 or 24, 79. Successive 
eruptions laid them still deeper under the surface, and 
all traces of them were lost until excavations began 
in 1711 ; in 1713 many antiquities were found. In 1738 
excavations were resumed, and works of art, and 
moniiments, and memorials of civilized life were dis- 
covered. 150 volumes of MSS. were found in a chest 
in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by Sir 
William Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, 
where they are deposited : but the principal relics are 
preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Antichita 
di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by the Nea- 
politan government, 1757-92. 

HERERA (Aragou). Here Don Carlos, of Spain, in 
his struggle for his hereditary right to the throne of 
that kingdom, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered 
and defeated General Buereus, who had not much 
above half that number of the Queen of Spain's troops. 
Buerens lost about 1000 in killed and wounded, Aug. 
24, 1837. 

HERETICS (from the Greek hainsis, choice). Paul 
says, "After the way they call heresy, so worship I the 
God of my fathers," 60 {Acts xxiv., 14). Heresy was 
unkuo\vn to the Gieek and Roman religions. Simon 
Magus is said to have broached the Gnostic heresy 
abolit 41. This was followed by the Manichees, Nes- 
torians, Arians, etc. Formerly the term heresy de- 
noted a particular sect ; now, heretics are those who 
propagate their private opinions in opposition to the 
Roman Catholic Church. — Burnet. See Inqxdsition. 
Thirty heretics came from Germany to England 
to propagate their opinions, and were branded 
in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into 
the streets in the depth of winter, where, none 
daring to relieve them, they died of hunger and 

cold {S2xcd) 1100 

Certain laws against heretics were repealed, 25 

Hen. VIII 1534-5 

The last person executed for heresy in Britain was 

Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburg 1696 

[The orthodox Mohammedans are Sonnites ; the 
heretics are Shiites, Druses, etc.] 
HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS {i.e., feudal rights) 
in Scotland, valued at X164,232, were boughii up in 
1747 (20 Geo. II., c. 43) and restored to the crown.— 
Heritable and Movable Rights, in the Scottish law, de- 
note what in England is meant by real and personal 
property ; real property in England answering nearly 
to the heritable rights in Scotland, and personal prop- 
erty to the movable rights. 
HERMANDAD (Spanish for brotherhood), associa- 



tions of the chief cities of Castile and Aragon for the 
defense of their liberties in times of trouble ; began 
about the middle of the 13th century. The brother- 
hood was disorganized in 1498, public order having 
been firmly established. 

HERMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a Christian 
apocryphal book, supposed to have been written 
about 131. Some believe Hermas to be mentioned in 
Romans xvi., 14. 
HERMITS. See Monachism. 
HERO, BiuTiBu Man-of-War. See WrecTcs, 1811. 
HERRING -FISHERY was largely encouraged by 
the English and Scotch so early as the 8th century. 
The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of 
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 
IZ^l.— Anderson. The British Herring -fishery Com- 
pany was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. A scientific com- 
mission in relation to the fishery was appointed in 
1862. 

HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought Feb. 12, 1429, 
when the English were besieging Orleans, obtained 
its name from the Due de Bourbon attempting to in- 
tercept a convoy of salt fish on the road to the English 
camp before Orleans ; he was beaten. 

HERSCHEL TELESCOPE. Sir William Herschel's 
seven, ten, and twenty-feet reflectors were made about 
1799. He discovered the planet Uranus {which see) 
March 21, 1781, and a volcanic mountain in the moon 
in 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great 
forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1789, when 
he discovered two other volcanic mountains. In 1802, 
by means of his telescopes, he was enabled to lay be- 
fore the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 nebulse and 
clusters of stars. The great telescope was taken down 
in 1822, and one of 20 feet focal length erected by Sir 
John Herschel, who afterward took it to the Cape of 
Good Hope and with it made his observations. 

HERULI, a German tribe, which ravaged Greece 
and Asia Minor in the 3d century after Christ. Odo- 
acer, their leader, overwhelmed the Western Empire 
and became King of Italy, 476. He was defeated and 
put to death by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 491-3. 

HERZEGOVINA, a province of European Turkey, 
N. of Montenegro. In December, 1861, an insurrection 
against the Turks broke out, fostered by the Prince 
of Montenegro. It was subdued ; and on September 
23, 1862, Vucalovitch, chief of the insurgents, surren- 
dered on behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid Pasha, 
and an amnesty was granted. 

HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, formed 
part of the empire of Charlemagne ; from the rulers 
of it in his time the present are descended. It was 
joined to Thuringia till about 1263, when Henry I. 
(son of a Duke of Brabant, and Sophia, daughter of 
the Landgrave of Thuringia) became Landgrave of 
Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was 
Philip the Magnanimous (1509), an eminent warrior 
and energetic supporter of the Reformation, who 
signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, and the 
League of Smalcald m 1531. At his death in 1567, 
Hesse was divided into Hebse-Cassel and Hesse- 
Daemstatit, under his sons William and George. 
Their descendants played an eminent part in the con- 
vulsions of Germany during the 17th and 18th cen- 
tury.* In 1803 Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, 
and in 1800 Hesse-Darmstadt a grand-duchy, which 
titles were retained in 1814. In 1806 Hesse-Cassel 
was incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia, 
Imt in 1814 the electorate was re-established. The 
Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and other German princes 
lent a"lare:e number of soldiers (over 7000) to the Brit- 
ish government to serve aE;ainst the Americans in 
1775. The Germans who came to America and en- 
caged in the war were all called Hessians. 
Hesse-Cassel. (Population, Dec, 1801, 738,470.) 
1847. The Elector Frederick-Wilham L,t Nov. 20 (born 
Aug. 20, 1802). 



* There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, hut Middlesex s( 
ceased to exist, and Bernicia and Deira were -generally governed by ( 
lu'er, a3 Northumberland. 



*Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of 
an invasion being expected in 1756. The sum of £471,000 three per 
cent, stock was transferred to the Landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian 
auxiliaries lost in the American War, at £30 per man, Nov., 1788. 
The Hessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the close of 
the last century, and served in Ireland during the rebellion in 1798. 

t The Elector of Hesse had, in 1860, remodeled the Constitution 
given to his people in 1831 (by which the Chamber had the exrlusive 
right of voting the taxes), and did not convene the Chamber until the 
usual time for closing the session had arrived, when his demand for 
money for the ensuing year, 1S51, was laid before it. The Chamber 
called, unanimously, for a regular budget, that it might examine into 
and discuss its items. The elector dissolved the Chamber, and de- 
clared the whole of his dominions in a state of siege and subject to 
martial law, Sept. 7, 1850. In the end he was obliged to flee to Han- 
over, and subsequently to Frankfort; and on Oct. 14 he formally ap- 



HES 



243 



LTTeir: his son, Angustus, Ijorn Sept. 21, 1859 1 

?i5f %?''^"''''\"'^- , (I'^Pi'l^itiou, bee, ISCl, 856,907.) 

[iZeir: his brother Charles (born April 23, 1R09), whose 
Ju?y^°lS62"'''"""'"' ^^^ ^'""^'^^^ Alice; of England, 

^^^'t'hi/'^''""''''"^!^'^''*''''''"™ April 5,1SC3; and an- 
other princess, Nov. 1, 1SU4.] , u au 

th?^f ^""^^^•'^^^^^'•''i 'aiidgraviate, established in 
the person ot Frederick, sou of Geirge of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, m 15%. His descendant, Augustas Fred- 
erick, niarned May 7, 1818, Elizabeth, daughter of 
George III. of England, who had no issue, f he land- 
graviate was absorbed into the grand-diichv of Hpssp 

^^' ^«' r?'"'',"^'^'^^^ >" ^^^^ ^vith adculionlf ter- 
rUoiies. The Landgrave Ferdinand (born April 26, 

(Dec., ricirltsn! "'' ^'P'- ^' ^^^- Population 

in?fJn'^m.^'^c^»'f!^ measxires or feet, each contain- 
ing two long syllables a spondee), or a loup- one and 
two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which Homer 
wrote his Iliad and Odyssey. ^lomer 

HEXHAM (Northumberland). The see of Hexham 
Za fpn"f?V" "'"^ infancy of the Saxon Churchfu 
had ten bishops successively, but by reason of the 
spoil and rapme of the Danes, it was discontinued 
the last pre ate appointed SlO.-The Battle op Hex! 
HAM, in which the Yorkist army of Edward IV ob- 
tained a complete victory over the Lancastrian army 
of Henry VI., was fought May 15, 1464. ^ 

HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and lerne a mmA 
given to Ireland by classical writers (Aristotle Ptol- 
emy etc.). See Irela^uL The ship //)6.rn)«, cAptaiL 
with o'o °'""^ *^''°"' Liverpool to New South Wales 
with 2.,2 persons on board, of whom 208 were pas«eu 
gers going out as s^ettlers, was destroyed at s^a by 
fire kmdled through the negligence of the second 
ma e-m \V. long. 22° and S.^lat. 4°. 150 lives were 

more tha'if'?, ^y.lT'l^^'"''"'^ °.^'^^ ^°ats to contlin 
moie than a third of the people on board: Feb. 15, 



HOC 



in that of -liSv '• iouTs Yn/"7?^"'^ absorbed 
title of Hi^hnefslJ-the pK" Oran 'if in'lS''ti'-" 

^^:^^Hfc^S^;---c.£ 

enacted that where there was a tda ■^., V^^^^h '; '^ ''''' 
in which the overt act wirfrifvl.f !?' ""^^ treason 
life of the soverein-n s ichtHn ^"^ attempt upon the 
in the samrmanrer'as h tha /''°"'? ^^e conducted 
for murder." &™.;«Ln^ ^' '"'^ °^^" indictment 
HIGHWAYS. See Roads. 

Alabaim Tho 7^ft„„i* ,° '"^ Tallapoosa, in 

vembe?l81R <?;lf ""^ ''''''' ^-'^'^'^ °° ^he ISth of No- 
vemoei , 1813. Sixty-one warriors were killed and 2'WJ 
made prisoners, without the loss of a man 

HIMEEA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Theron and 
Ge on of Agrigentum defeated the Cartha ™nians 
310 B.C.' *"' ^^"'' '^'^'''''"^ Agathocles of Syraaise; 
qi?i^^-^r?^ ^°L?\'"'''/) '^^^ (see Cali.yuna) beo-an 



HJEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), pictnre- 
wri ing, the expression of ideas by represfntotion of 
visible objects, used chiefly by the Egyptiansfs^d to 
have been mvented by Athotes, 2112 B.C -Usher 
lonng, Champollion, Rosellini, and others (in the 
present century), have done much to elucidate Eo-vd- 
tian hieroglyphics. See Rosctta Stone. °^^ 

r^}2^ ^^ ^P^. CHLTICH. These sections in the 
Chuich of England began in the reign of Anne, and 
still continue. Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Sav- 
ior s, SouthwaA, was prosecuted for two seditious 
sermons (preached Aug. 14 and Nov. 9, 1709), to rouse 
the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the 
Church, and to excite hostility against the Dissenters. 
His friends were called High-Church, and his oppo- 
nents Low -Church, or moderate men, 17'>0 The 
queen, who favored Sacheverel, presented him with 
died 7 1-2 '"'^^^°''y °^ St. Andrew's, Holborn. He 

J^l^^ S^I^^^^SP^' CoiniT OF, an ecclesiastical 
court, erected by 1 Eliz., c. 1, 1.559, by which all spirit- 
ual .)un.^diction was vested in the crown. It ono-in- 
ally had no power to fine or imprison; but under 
Charles L and Archbishop Laud it assumed illegal 
C' abol7shedTl64t"' '' ^^ '^' Parliament, and 
HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by semi-bar- 
barous clans, were greatly improved bv the construc- 
tion of military roads by General Wade about 1725-6 • 
andby the abolition of heritable jurisdiction of feudal 
rights in 1,4S, and by the establishment of the ni<^h- 
land and Agricultural Society in 1784. See Regiments. 
HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to 
llenry \ IL : and this, and sometimes Your Grace was 
th e manner of addressing Henry Vi n^^JmtjibonV the 
plied to the Frankfort Diet for assistance to re-establish his auth^HW 
m"yUh <Sl-^rt:J f"}"^'"^' r Austro-Bavarian force of K,IZ 
^ZlZfv ■ ' Ti "f "'ll'^fy' entered Hesse-Clssel, under the com- 
Z, „, 1 ?J Thurn-und-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Ha- 
nau , and on the next day a Prussian force entered Cnesel. The elect- 
or returned to h.s capital. Dec. 27, 1850, the taies having been prev - 
ouslv collected under threat, of imprisonment. The Austro BnvarTan 
and Prussian troops nfterwar.l evacuated the electorate. In 1852. the 
Sc.nl.'""^^-''^^*' r" '»'"' »""1. «nd a new one established.-The 
elector and hm Chamber are still in a state of disaRreement. Althouffh 
W ISfin™,r ^fT^ Diet affirme,] the Constitution of IS52 on Mar?h 
14, I860, the elector pranted a new one on May 30. This, however 
Old not K>vo satisfaction. Farther contests ensued. In May I862' 
inere was danper of an armed Prussian intervention, the kin^'havin" 
been insulted by the Hesse ministry. In June a n^w miniJtrv was 
formed, and the Le-islative Chambers assembled on Oct. 27? ^ 



HIPPOPOTAMUS (Gree]^, river-horse), a native of 
Afnca, known to, but incorrectly described by ancient 
writers. Hijipopotami were exhibited at Rome bv 
Antoninus Commodus and others about 138 ll^, and 
1«?^ ^^''.fli'st brought to England arrived MaV°5 
1850, and IS now in the Zoological Gardens, Ee<ient'3 
Park, London; another, a female, four months old 

HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. 
HISPANIOLA. See Hayti. 

tr^l^'^Sn^?^ (from 7«sfcs, a web), the science which 
treats of the tissues which enter into the formation of 
animals and vegetables ; mainly prosecu™! bv thP 
aid of the microscope. Schwann, Valentin, KaTiker 
and Eobm are celebrated for their researches Pro! 
ed1"llrS5^4!<='"" °" ^^^'°^°^^ --« P^'^Sh- 
HISTORY The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, the 
Hnn^pl"' °f Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of 
Homer, are the foundations of early «««enV history 
Later ancient history is considered as ending with the 
des ruction of the Roman Empire in Italyr476 and 

VhnT^J^''^T7 ^""^^^ ^^"^ '^« ^Se of Charlema-Tne, 
about 800. There was not a professorship of modern 

vear°s '172! ^Id iT.f ^If ^"t?'^'> umversitfes until the 
years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professorships were 
established by George L and George IL 

Co^wi^™^'^ ??V^^' ?>''''^-^ "^^ Al^out a mile from 
Hrk'i Hii" Ti""' ^:f°l'»"' i« a ridge known as Hob- 
kirk s Hill. There General Greene and his army were 
encamped, in April, 17S1. The British, unde/ Lord 
Kawdon, who were encamped at Camden, attacked 
him there on the morning of the 25th. Greene was 
defeated, and withdrew to Sanders's Creek, and Raw- 
1 ^ ni;^.'"''^^! ^° ^^^ intrenchments. The Americans 
lost 260 men, the British 2.58. Only 18 Americans and 
38 British were killed on the field. 
^, HOCHKIRCHEN (Saxony), where, on Oct. 14, 1758 
the Prussian army, commanded by Frederick IL, was 
surprised and defeated by the Austrians commanded 
by Count Daun. Marshal Keith, a Scotsman in the 



i..-,^ J!'' '"'" '^''"^' of persons executed for high treason were 1st 
W illiam Cundell, a/ms Connell, and John Smith. They were tried on 
a special commission, Feb. 6, 1SI2, being two of fourteen British sub- 
Mr Ahh? '",; " ""iT^'j ^^"•''^«i° the isles of France and Bourbon. 
Mr. Abbot, afterward Lord Tenterden and chief justice, and Sir Vicarv 
(jibbs, attorney general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr Brouch 
!'?''wu"' ,r/^ Brougham, defended the prisoners. The defense was 
that they (the prisoners) had assumed the French uniform for the nrr! 
pose of aiding their escape to England. The two above-mentioned 
were hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger Lane iail on 
March 16, I8I2 All the other convicts were pardoned%on conditio^ 



HOC 



2U 



HOL 



Pi-ussian service, was killed. The Austrian generals 
shed tears, and ordered his interment with military 
honors. 

HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in Bavaria, 
near which several important battles have been 
fought: (1.) Sept. '20, 17H3, when the Imperialists were 
defeated by the French and Bavarians, under Marshal 
Villars and the Elector of Bavaria. (2.) Aug. Id, 1704, 
called the battle of Blenheim {which see). (3.) June 
19, ISOO, when Moreau totally defeated the Austrians, 
and avenged the defeat of the French at Blenheim. 

HOGUE. See La Hogue. 

HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria), Battle of, Dec. 3, ISOO, 
between the Austrians commanded by Archduke 
John, and the French commanded by General Mo- 
reau. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss 
in this hard-fought battle, their killed and wounded 
amouutiug to 10,000 meu, and their loss in prisoners 
to 10,000 more. The forces opposed were nearly equal 
in numljers. The peace of Luneville followed. 

HOHENSTAUFEN. See Germany and Guclfs. 

HOIIENZOLLERN. See Prussia. 

HOLLAND {Hollow land, or, some say, Wooded land), 
a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the chief part of the north- 
ern Netherlands, is composed of land rescued from 
the sea, and defended by immense dikes. It was in- 
habited by the Batavi in the time of Csesar, who made 
a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, 
and afterward of the kingdom of Austrasia. From 
the 10th to the 15th century it was governed by counts 
under the German emperors. In 1861 the population 
of the kingdom in Europe was 3,.521,41G; of the colo- 
nies, 18,175,910 ; of both in 1S63, 21,805,007. 

Thierry (or Dieterich) I., first count 930 

The parties termed Hooks (followers of Margaret, 
countess of Holland) and Codfish (supporters of 
her son William, who endeavored to supplant 
her) create a civil war, which lasts many years, 1347 

Holland united to Haiuault, 1299 ; and Brabant, 
1410 ; anuexed to Burgundy by Duke Philip, 
who wrests it from his niece Jaqueline, of Hol- 
land, daughter of the last count, 1436; annexed 
to Austria through the marriage of Mary of Bur- 
gundy with the Archduke Maximilian 1477 

Government of Philip of Austria, 1495 ; of Mar- 
garet of Austria and Charles V., 1506 ; of Philip 
II 1555 

Philip II. establishes the Inquisition, the Holland- 
ers having zealously embraced the reformed 
doctrines: the Confederacy ofGueux (Beggars) 
formed by the nobles against it 1506 

Commencement of the revolt under William, 
priuce of Orange 1572 

.The pacification of Ghent — union of the north and 
south provinces 1570 

The seven northern provinces contract the League 
of Utrecht 1579 

And declare their independence Sept. 29,1580 

Assassination of William of Orange July 10 

(June 30), 1584 

The ten southern provinces conquered by the 
Prince of Parma 1585 

The provinces solicit help from England and 
France; expedition of the Earl of Leicester ; 
English and Dutch disai^ree 1585-7 

Battle of Zutphen— Sir Philip Sidney killed, 

Sept. 22,1586 

Prince Maurice appointed Stadth older 15S7 

Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes the 
Netherlands to Albert of Austria and the In- 
fanta Isabella 1.59S 

Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola 1599-1604 

Maurice defeats the Archduke at Nieuport, July 2,1000 

The independence of the United Provinces recog- 
nized ; truce for twelve years, April 9 (Mar. 30), 1009 

Batavia in Java built 1610 

Fierce religious dissensions between the Armin- 
ians and Gomarists 1610-19 

Maurice favors the latter, and intrigues for royal 
power 1616 

Synod of Dort ; persecution of the Arminians, 1618-19 

Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt. . .May 13,1619 

Renewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op- 
Zoom 1622 

His tyrannical government; plot against him; 
sixteen persons executed 1623 

His death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him, 
and annuls the persecution 1625 

Manhattan, now New York, North America, 
founded ; massacre of English at Amboyua, 
East Indies 1624 



Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish 

fleets oft" the Downs Sept. 16 and Oct. 21,1039 

Peace of Westphalia; the republic recognized bv 

Europe '.1043 

War with England — naval actions — Blake defeats 
De Ruyter,"Oct. 22 ; but is surprised by Van 
Tromp, who takes some English ships and sails 
through the Channel with a broom at his mast- 
head Nov. 29,1052 

Indecisive sea-fights, June 12-14; death of Van 

Tromp, July 21 ; peace follows 1653 

Victorious war with Sweden 1659 

Another war with England 1665 

Indecisive sea-fights, June 1-4; victory of Monk 

over De Ruyter July 25,1666 

Triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden 

against France 1668 

Charles II. basely deserts Holland and unites with 

France 1670 

The French overrun Holland 1671 

Desperate condition of the States— the populace 
massacre the De Witts— William III. made 

Stadtholder 1072 

The French repelled by the sluices being opened, " 

Indecisive campaigns 1673-7 

William marries Princess Mary of England 1677 

Peace with France (Nimeguen) 1078 

William becomes King of England 1689 

Sanguinary war with Prance 1689-96 

Peace of Ryswick signed Sept. 11,1697 

Death of William March 8,1702 

No Stadtholder appointed— administration of He- 

iusius 1702 

War against France and Spain ; campaigns of 

Marlborough 1702-13 

Peace of Utrecht March 30,1714 

Holland supports the Empress Maria-Theresa.. 174."-S 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Oct.,1748 

War with England for naval supremacy— Holland 

loses colonies 1781^ 

Civil wars in the Low Coitntries 1787-9 

The French Republican army march into Holland ; 

the people declare in their favor 1793 

Unsuccessful campaign of the Duke of York 1794 

The Batavian republic established in alliance with 

Frauce 1795 

Battle of Camperdown ; Duncan signally defeats 

the Dutch Oct. 11,1707 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with 
thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the British ad- 
miral, Duncan, without firing a gun Aug. 28,1799 

A new Constitution is given to the Batavian re- 
public ; the chief oflicer (R. J. Schimmelpeu- 
uiuck) takes the title of Grand Pensiouarv, 

April 26,1805 
Holland erected into a kingdom, and Louis Bona- 
parte declared king June 5,1806 

The ill-fated Walcheren expedition 1809 

Louis abdicates July 1,1810 

Holland united to France July 9, " 

Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium an- 
nexed to its dominions \ ' tNov. 17,1813 

The Prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign prince 

of the united Netherlands Dec. 6, " 

Religious discord between Holland and the south- 

erii provinces 1817, etc. 

The revolution in Belgium Aug. 25,1830 

Belgiuin separated from Holland July 12,1831 

Holland makes war against Belgium Aug. 3, " 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium signed in 

London April 19,1839 

Abdication of William I Oct. 7-10,1840 

i Death of the ex-king William I Dec. 12,1844 

Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of Hol- 
land, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn July 25,1846 

The king agrees to political reform, March ; a new 

Constitut'ion granted April 17,1848 

Death of William II March 17,1849 

Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 

announced ; March 12,1853 

Great inundations: 40,000 acres stibmerged, near- 
ly 30,000 villagers made destitute, Jan. 'and Feb. 1861 
Great Fire at Endschede, the Manchester of Hol- 
land ; loss about a million pounds May 7,1862 

The States-General pass a law for the abolition of 

slavery in the Dutch West Indies Aug. 0, " 

[To commence July 1, 1863.] 
Treaty for capitalizing the Scheldt dues signed 

May 12,1863 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies. . .July 1, " 
50th anniversary of the deliverance from the 

French kept Nov. 17, " 

Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam 
with the North Sea March 8,1865 



noL 



245 



HOL 



The firovernmcnt undertake a canal to connect 
Kotlcrtlaiu with the sea March, 1S65 

PRINCES OF ORANGE (aeo Orange) STADTHOLDERS. 

1502. Philibert de Chalons. 

15;io. Houo lie Nassau, his nephew. 

1644. \\ illiam of Nassau, stjled the Great, cousin to 
RouC', recovers the [uincipality of Orange in 
1559. Nominated Stadtuoldkr in 1579 ; kill- 
ed by an assassin hired by Philip II. of Spain, 
July 10, 15S4. 

15S4. Philip-William, his sou ; stolen away from the 
University of Louvaiu; the Dutch would nev- 
er suft'cr him to reside in their provinces : died 
in 1618. 

1618. Maurice, the renowned general ; became Stadt- 
noLDEK in 15S7 ; he was a younger son of 
William by a second marriage. 

1625. Frederick-Henry (brother) Stadtuolpek. 

1647. William II., STADTnoLUER : married Mary, 
daughter of Charles I. of England, by whom 
he had a son, who succeeded ni 1672. 

[1C50-72. The States govern without a Stadtholder.] 

1060. William-IIenry : Stadtuolder iu 1672; married 
Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of Eugland, 
1677. 

1702-47. No Stadtholder. 

1702. Johu-William, nephew of William III., loses the 
principality of Orange, which is annexed to 
France. 

1747. William -Henry becomes hereditauy Stadt- 
holder. He married Princess Anne of En- 
gland: succeeded by his son. 

1751. William IV. : retired on the invasion of the 
French in 1705 ; died iu 1800. 

1795. [Holland and Belgium uuited to the French re- 
public] 

1SC6. William-Frederick succeeded his father. 

KINGS OF HOLLAND ANT) THE NETHERLANDS. 
1806. Louis Bonaparte, made King of Holland by his 
. brother Napoleon, June 5, 1S06 ; abdicated 

July 1, 1810. 
ISIO. [Holland again united to France.] 
1813. House of Orange restored. William-Frederick, 

prince of Orange, bom 1772 ; proclaimed Dec. 

6,1813; took the oath of fidelity as sovereign 

prince, March 30, 1S14 ; assumed the style of 

Iviug of the Netherlands, March 16, 1815 ; 

formallv abdicated in favor of his son, Oct. 7, 

1840 ; d"ied Dec. 12, 1S43. 
1S40. William II. ; born Dec. 6, 1702 ; succeeded on his 

father's abdication ; died March 17, 1849. 
1S49. William III., son of the preceding ; born Feb. 

19, 1S17. The present (186.5) king. 
lUcir: Prince William, born Sept. 4, 1840.] 
HOLLAND, New. See Australia and Australasia. 
HOLMFIRTH FLOOD. On Feb. 5, 1852, the Bil- 
bmy reservoir above Holmfirth, near Huddersfleld, in 
Yorkshire, burst its banks, and leveled four mills and 
many ranges of other buildings, destroying the lives 
of more than 90 persons, and devastating property es- 
timated at from half a million to £800,000. 

HOLSTEIN AND SCULESWIG (N.W. Germany), 
duchies once belonging to Denmark. The country, 
inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by Charlemagne iu 
the beginning of the 9th century, and afterwardform- 
ed part of the duchy of Saxony. Iu 1106 or 1110, Adol- 
phus of Schaucnberg became Count of Ilolstein : his 
descendants ruled till 1459, when Adolphus VII. died 
without issue, and the states of Ilolstein and Schles- 
wig elected Christian, king of Denmark, his nephew, 
as their duke, through fear of his arms. In 1544, his 
grandson. Christian II., divided his states among his 
brothers, with the condition that the duchies should 
remain subject to Denmark. The eldest branch of the 
family reiu'ued iu Denmark till the decease of Freder- 
ick V'll., Nov. 15, 1863. From a ynuuger branch (the 
Dukes of IIolstein-Gottorp) descended, through mar- 
riafjo, the kings of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the 
reiguinir family iu Russia since 1702, when the duke, 
as the husband of Anne, became Czar. In 1773, Cath- 
arine II. of Russia ceded IIolstein-Gottorp to Den- 
mark iu exchange for Oldenburg, etc. The duchies 
were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, but restored to 
I)enmark in 1S14, and on May 28, 1831, Coustitueut As- 
semblies were granted to tlietn. Since 1S4-I disputes 
have been rife between the duchies and Denmark, and 
in 1848 the States-Geucral of the duchies voted their 
annexation to the (Jorniau Confederacy, in which they 
were supijorted liy Prussia : war ensued, which lasted 
till 18.50. See Jjcinnarh. The a<ritafion in the duchies, 
encouraged by Prassia, revived in 1857. The Germans 



m Schleswig desired it to be made a member of the 
German Coufederatiou, like Holstein ; and both duch- 
ies demanded a local government more independent 
of Denmark, which changes were resisted by that 
power. For the events of the war of 1864, see Den- 
mark. By the convention sigued at Gasteiu, Au"-. 14, 
1865, the government of Holstein was left with Aus- 
tria, and that of Schleswig with Prussia. See Gastein. 
Population in 1860, 1,004,473. 

HOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, Sept. 26, 
1815, between the Emperors of Russia (its originator) 
and Austria, and the King of Prussia, by which they 
ostensibly bound themselves, among other things, to 
be governed by Christian priuciples^iu all their polit- 
ical transactions, with a view to perpetuating the 
peace they had achieved. The compact was severely 
ceusured iu this country as opposed to rational lib- 
ert}'. 

HOLY GHOST. See Esjjrit. 

HOLY ISLAND. See Lindisfarne. 

HOLY LEAGUE. See Leagues. 

HOLY MAID OF Kent. Elizabeth Barton was in- 
cited by the Roman Catholic party to hinder the Ref- 
ormation by pretending to inspirations from heaven. 
She foretold that Henry VIII. would die a speedy and 
violent death if he divorced Catharine of Spain and 
married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to the 
nation. She and her confederates were hanged at 
Tyburn, April 20, 1534. — Rapin. 

HOLY PLACES in Palestine. The possession of 
these places has been a source of contention between 
the Greek and Latiu churches for several centuries. 
In the reign of Francis I. they were placed in the 
hands of the Latin monks, under the protection of the 
French government, by a treaty with the then sultan ; 
but the Greeks from time to time obtained firniaus 
from the Porte iuvalidating the rights of the Latins, 
who were at last (iu 1757) expelled from some of the 
sacred buildings, which were committed to the care 
of the Greeks by a hatti-sheriff, or imperial ordinance. 
The holy sepulchre partially destroyed by fire, and 
rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim additioual priv- 
ileges, and cause fresh dissensions ISOS 

The Russian and French governments interfered, 
and sent envoys (M. Dashkofl" and M. Marcellus) 
to adjust the dispute; but an arrangement was 

prevented by the Greek revolution in 1S21 

The subject agaiu agitated, and the Porte propose 
that a mixed commission should adjudicate on 
the rival claims. M. Titoff, the Russian envoy, 
acting on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Lavalette, 
the French envoy, on that of the Latins, took up 

the question very warmly 1850 

A firman issued by the Porte, coufirniing and con- 
solidating the rights previously granted to the 
Greek Christians, and declaring that the Latins 
had no right to claim exclusive possession of 
certain holy places specified, but permitting them 
to possess a key of the church at Bethlehem, 

etc., as iu former times March 9,1852 

The French government acquiesced, with much 
dissatisfaction ; but the Russian euvoy still de- 
sired the key to be withheld from the Latin 
monks. M. D'Ozerofl"made a formal declaration 
of the right of Russia to protect the orthodox 
in virtue of the treaty of Kaiuard ji in 1774, and 
demanded that the firman of March 9, 1852, 
should be read at Jerusalem, although it milita- 
ted against his pretensions, which was accord- 
ingly "done. The dispute still continued, the 
Porte beiug exposed to the attacks of both the 

Russian and Frenoh governments March, 1853 

Prince Meutschikoff arrives at Constantinople as 
euvoy extraordinary, and, in addition to the 
claims respecting the holy places, makes those 
demands respecting the protection of the Greek 
Christians in Turkey which led to the war of 

1854-6 (see Russo-Tu'rkish War) Feb. 28, " 

HOLY ROOD OB Cross. A festival was instituted 
on account of the recovery of a large ])ieee of the cross 
by the Emjieror Heraclius, after it had been taken 
awa}^ on the plundering of Jerusalem, about 615. The 
feast of the finding (or'inventiou) of the Cross is on 
May 3 ; that of the exaltation of the Cross, Sept. 14. 
At Boxlev Abbey, in Essex, was a crucifix, called the 
Hood of Grace; a't the dissolution it was broken in 
pieces as an imposture by Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, 
at St. Paul's Cross, London. 

HOLYROOD PALACE (Edinburg), formerly an ab- 
bey, was for several centuries the residence of the 
monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of which some ves- 



HOL 



246 



HOR 



tiges remain, was founded by David I. in 1128, and in 
ttie burial-place within its walls are interred several 
of his successors. The palace is a large quadrangular 
edifice of hewn stone, with a court within surrounded 
by piazzas. In the northwest tower is the bedcham- 
ber which was occupied by Queen Mary ; and from an 
adjoining cabinet to it, David Rizzio, her favorite, was 
dragged forth and murdered, March 9, 1566. The north- 
west' towers were built by James V., and the remain- 
ing part of the palace was added during the reign of 
Charles II. Great improvements were made in 1S57. 
The queen held her court here Aug. 30, 1850. 

HOLY SEPULCHRE, a Byzantine church in mod- 
ern Jerusalem. Pergusson, Robinson, and others, 
consider the true site of the holy sepulchre to be the 
Mosque of Omar, termed the "Dome of the Rock." 
The question is still undecided, and investigations are 
going on at the expense of the Russian government. 
See Knifjhts. 

HOLY WARS. See Crusades. 

HOLY WATER is said to have been used in church- 
es as early as 120. — Aahe. 

HOLY WEEK, or the "Week ot Indulgences," is 
the week before Easter. 

HOMELDEN (Northumberland), where the Scots, 
headed by the Earl of Douglas, were defeated by the 
Percies (among them Hotspur), Sept. 14, 1402. Douglas 
and the Earls of Autrus, Murray, Orkney, and the Earl 
of Fife, son of the Duke of Albany, and nephew of the 
Scottish king, with many of the nobility and gentry, 
were taken prisoners. 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the two most 
perfect epic poems in the world, were written by the 
greatest poet that has ever lived. The first begins 
with the wrath of Achilles, and ends with the funeral 
of Hector; the second recounts the voyages and ad- 
ventures of Ulysses, after the destruction of Troy. 
Various dates are assigned to these works, from 962 to 
915 B.C.* Among the thousands of volumes burnt at 
Constantinople, A.D. 4TT, are said to have been the 
works of Homer written in g(}]den letters on the great 
gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. 

HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the 
Areopagites, 1507 B.C. He that killed another at any 
public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay 
hid to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was 
not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with 
another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he 
that killed a man who, without just grounds, assault- 
ed another violently, was not deemed a homicide. 
Among the Jews, willful murder was capital; but for 
chance-medley the ofi'ender was to fly to one of the 
cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the 
high-priest, 1451 B.C. (Xum. xxxv.). 9 Geo. IV., c. .31 
(1S2S), distinguishes between justifiable homicide and 
homicide in its varioits degrees of guilt, and circum- 
stances of provocation and willfulness. See Murder. 

HOMILIES (Greek) in early Christian times were 
discourses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a 
homely manner, for the common people. — 'The Book 
of Homilies, drawn up by Abp. Cranmer, and publish- 
ed 1547, and another prepared by an order of- Convo- 
cation, 1563, were ordered to be read in those chui-ches 
that had not a minister able to compose proper dis- 
courses. — Stoiv. 

HOMCEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated at the 
commencement of the present century by Dr. Samuel 
Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 1S43), according to which 
every medicine has a specific power of inducino- a cer- 
tain diseased state of the system {nimilia similibus cu- 
rantur, likes are cured by likes) ; -and if such medicine 
be given to a person snflering under the disease which 
it has a tendency to induce, such disease disappears 
because two similar diseased actions can not simul- 
taneously subsist in the same organ. Brande. Infin- 
itesimal doses of medicine, such as the millionth of a 
grain of aloes, have been employed, it is said with ef- 
ficacy. The real merits of the system consist in its in- 
ducing the patient to regulate his diet and habits ac- 
cording to the dictates of common sense. 

HOMOUSION AND HOMOIOUSION (Greek, same es- 
sence, and similar essence or being), terms employed 
with respect to the nature of the Father and the Son 
in the Trinity. The orthodox party adopted the for- 
mer term as a party cry at the Council of Nice, 325 ; 
the Arians adopted the latter at Seleucia, 350. 

* Tbe first T5nprlish version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, appeared in 
1581. The most celebrated versions of Homer's works are Onapman's, 
1616 ; Hobbes's, 1675 ; Pope's, 1715-25; Cowper's, 1791. The transla- 
tion of the Iliad by the Earl of Derby (1864) is much commended. 



HONDURAS, one of the republics of Central Amer- 
ica {which see). Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands to 
Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president. Gen- 
eral J. M. Medina, was elected for four years, Feb. 1, 
1864. Population about 350,000 (1860). British Hoii- 
duras. Central America, was settled by English from 
Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 1667. They 
were often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes 
expelled, till 17S3. Balize or Belize, the capital, is a 
great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861 the popu- 
lation was 25,635, and the revenue X35,757. 

HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage 
prepared with honey, such as that known as mead, 
and as metheglin in England. It was a custom to 
drink of diluted honey for thirty days, or a moon's 
age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term 
hoiieij-momi, of Teutonic origin. Attila the Hun drank, 
it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day 
that he died of suffocation, 453. 

EONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil be to him 
who evil thinks." It is said that the Countess of Salis- 
bury, at a ball at court, happeuing to drop her garter, 
the king, Edward III., took it up, and presented it to 
her with these words, which afterward became the 
motto of the Order of the Garter; but the statement 
is unsupported by sufiicient authority. — The order is 
said to have been instituted April 23,"l349. 

HONOR. Temples were erected to Honor by Scipio 
Afrlcanus about 197 B.C., and by C. Marius about 102 
B.C. — The Legion of Honor was created by Bonaparte 
in 1802. 

HOOKS AUD CODFISH. See Holland, 1347. 

HOOPS. See Crinoline. 

HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into En- 
gland about 1524, and used in brewing; but the phy- 
sicians having represented that they were unwhole- 
some, their use was prohibited in 15'28. — Anderson. 
In the year ending Jan. 5, 1853, there were 40,157% 
acres under hops in England and Wales, chiefly in 
Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which paid 
X447,144 duty; the quantity yielded was 51,102,494 lbs., 
whereof 955,855 lbs. were exported. The duty on hops 
was repealed in 1862, after many applications. 

HORATII AND CURIATII. The Romans and the 
Albans, contesting for superiority, chose three cham- 
pions on each side to determine it. The three Horatii 
(Roman knights) overcame the Curiatii (Albans), and 
thereby united Alba to Rome, about 609 B.C. 

HORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought to be, 
next to the reed, the earliest wind instrument, and has 
been found among most savage nations. It was first 
made of horn, hence the name ; afterward with brass, 
with keys for the semi-tones, in the last century.— The 
dance called the Hornpipe is supposed to be so named 
from its having been performed to the Welsh pib-corn, 
that is, hornpijie, about 1300. — Spencer. 

HORNE TOOKE. The trial of Messrs. Hardy, 
Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a charge of 
high treason, caused a great sensation in England. 
They were taken into custody on May 20, 1794. Mr. 
Hardy was the first who was put to the bar, Oct. 29, 
same year; and, after a trial \vhich lasted eight days, 
he was honorably acquitted. John Home Tooke was 
next tried, and was acquitted Nov. 20; and Mr. Thel- 
wall also was acquitted Dec. 5; all the other accused 
persons were discharged. Acts were passed to pro- 
hibit Mr. Thelwall's political lectures in 1795. 

HOROLOGY. See Clocks. 

HORSE.* The people of Thessaly were excellent 
equestrians, and probably were the first, among the 
Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke 
them in for service in war; whence arose the fable 
that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. 
" Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, 
and 12,000 horsemen," 1014 B.C. (1 Kinris iv., 26). Tlie 
power of the horse is equal to that of five or six men. 
— Smeaton. The Greeks and Romans had some cov- 
ering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the 
9th century horses were only shod in the time of frost. 

* In March, 1868, Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a preat sen- 
sation in London by taming: vicious and wild horses, and even a zebra 
from the Zoological Gardens. His system is founded on a profound 
study of the disposition of tbe animal, and on kindness. He initiated 
many illustrious persons in his method (on March 90, 1858, Lord Pal- 
merston and twenty others"), binding them to secrecy ; from which they 
were released in June, 1858, when his book was reprinted in Entrland 
without his consent. In July, 1859, he was engajred to instruct cav- 
alry officers and riding-masters of the army. On Jan. 12, 1S60, he 
trnv-; a lecture to the London cabmen, which was well received ; and 
in May same year he received a present of 20 guineas from the Society 
. for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 



HOR 



247 



HOR 



The practice of shoeing was introduced into England 
by William I., luOG. lu EugUuul there are 2,0(iU,0U0 
draught and pleastire horses, and 100,(100 at^Ticultural 
horsfs, which consume the jjroduce of 7,000,000 acres. 
The hurse-lax was imposed in 1784, and was then lev- 
ied on al! saddUi and coach horses in England. Its 
operation was extended, and its amount increased, 
iu 17'.Hi; and again in ISOS. The existing duty upon 
" horses for riding" only, iu England, amounts to about 
i:350,0uy per year (1SC2).* See liace- horses. 

nORSE GUARDS. They were instituted in the 
reigu of Edward VI., 1550, aud revived by Charles II., 
lOGl. The first troop of the Horse Grenadier Guards 
was raised iu 1698, and was commanded by General 
Cholmondeley ; aud the second troop, coramauded by 
Lord Forbes, was raised iu 1702. There was a reduc- 
tion of the Horse and Grenadier Guards, and Life 
Guards, as uow established, were raised in their room. 
May 2(), IISS.— Phillips. The present ediflce called the 
Horse Guards was erected by Ware about 1730. In the 
front are two small arches, where horse-soldiers, iu full 
uniform, daily mount guard. In a part of the building 
is the office of the commander-in-chief. 

HORSE-RACING. See Racinr,. 

HORSE-SHOE BEND, Battle of the, on the Tal- 
lapoosa River, in Alabama, by about ISOO Tennessee 
militia and 600 friendly Indians, under General Jack- 
son, agaiust 1000 Creeks. The Creeks had taken this 
position, with their women aud children, determined 
to make a last desperate stand on the defensive. Thev 
were attacked ou the 27th of March, 1814, and fouo-ht 
desperately. They disdained to surrender, and almost 
600 warriors were slain. Only two or three were made 
prisoners, with about 300 womeu aud children. This 
battle terminated the Creek War. The Americans 
lost 2G killed and 111 wounded. The Cherokees had 
20 killed and 47 wounded. 

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Horticulture, the 
art ol cultivating gardens, is a late word in our dic- 
tionaries (from hortus and cultura), and was first used 
by Evelyn. The (now Royal) Horticultural Society of 
London was founded by Sir Joseph Banks aud others 
in 1804, and was incorporated April 17, 1809 ; the Edin- 
btirg society in 1S09; and that of Dublin in Jan.,lS17. 
The transactions of the London society (1812, etc.) 
have attracted great attention. In 1822 the plantino- 
of the society's garden at Chiswick was begun. The 
annual exhibitions there date from 1831. The society 
not having been prosperous, in 1859 the library was 
sold. In July a proposal for laving out a garden for 
the society, on the Brompton es'tate belonging to the 
Crystal Palace commissioners, received the support of 
the queen, nobility, etc., and Mr. Nestield's desi2:n was 
adopted in May, ISCO. On June 5, 1861, the ne^v gar- 
dens were opened by the prince consort, who planted 
a Wdlhvjtonia girmntca (which see). The queen also 
planted one ou July 24 following. On June 10, 1863, 
the Albert Memorial was uncovered iu the presence 
of the Prince and Princess of Wales. 

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES in the U. S. 
Maine: 
Androscoggin Horticultural Society. 

Bangor Horticultural Society I860 

Penobscot " " ] 1854 

Piscataquis Agricultural and Horticuit. Society! 1S53 
Sagadahoc " " " ^^§54 

" " 1852 



Lincoln County 
New HajMpshike : 

Exeter Agricultural and Horticultural Society. 
Massaoiibsetts : 

State Horticultural Society 1829 

Aincsbnry Agricultural aud Ilort. Association! !lS52 

Essex North Horticultural Society. 

Newton Horticultural Society IS55 

Worcester County Horticultural Society. 

Hingham Agricultural and Horticttltural Society 1858 
RnoDF. Island; 

State Horticultural Society I845 

Connecticut: 

Cheshire Horticultural Society. 

Norwich " " 

Woodbury " " ..'....'.'....'. 

New York : 

Cattaraugus County Horticultural Societv. 

Caytiga County Agricult. and Horticult. Society. 

Chemung Valley Horticultural Society. 

Conewango Valley ALrriciilt. and Ilort. Society .1856 

German Agricultural and Horticultural Society. 1861 

Syracuse German Agricult. and Ilort. Society. 

Highland Horticultitral Society 1S60 



1SC5 
1S5S 



Le Roy Horticultural Society iRfi4 

NewburgBay " " ^ joSS 

Oswego" " " 1^59 

New Jeusey: ^^^^ 

Horticultural Association of Metucheu. 

-,,.',. " ofPaterson ]855 

Vineland Agricultural and Horticultural SocietylS63 

Forest Grove Horticultural Society 1S67 

Pennsylvania: 

State Horticultural Society . iqqt 

Chester County Horticultural Society. 

Columbia County " " 

Lancaster County " " 

Monongahela Valley Agric. and Hort. Society . .1853 

Pittsburg Horticultural Society. 

Tioga County " " 

Wyoming « » ^ggg 

Maryland : 

Sandy Spring Horticultural Society ISGO 

Hyattsville Agricultural and Horticult. Society. 
Worcester Co. " " u 

Delawaee : 

State Horticultural Society. 
Viuginia : 

Laurel Hill Horticultural Society 1867 

Louisiana : 

Washington Parish Agi-ic. and Hort. Society . . .1358 
Tennessee : 

State Horticultural Society I86T 

Minnesota : 
German Horticultural Society. 
Hillsdale " " 

California : 
Los Angelos Horticultural Society. 
Pioneer " " 

Utah: 

Kane County Horticultural Society 1S66 

Virgin City " " 

Kentucky • 

State Horticultural Society. 
Ouio : 
Cincinnati Horticultural Society. 
Chillicothe " " 

Columbus " " 1848 

Cleveland " " 

Hocking Valley 

Loveland 

Oberlin Agricultural and Horticultural Society. 

Toledo Horticultural Society. 

Moscow " " 1S6T 

Michigan : 
Adrian Horticultural Society. 

Grand Haven " " 

Monroe Co. " Association. 

Ypsilanti " Society. 

German Agricultural and Horticultural Society. 1867 
Indiana : 

Allen County Horticultural Society 1S50 

Bridgeport " " 

Busseron Agricultural and Horticultural Club. .1864 

Danville Horticultural Society. 

Fulton Co. Agricultural and Horticult. Society. 

Gibson County Horticultural Society. 

Indianapolis " " 

Henry County " " 

Howard Co. Agricultural and Horticult. Societv.ia66 

La Porte Co. " " " " is65 

Marion Co. 



.1865 



.1861 



* GrcBt hnrso-shows were held at the Agricultural Hall, Islinirton, 
in July, 1S64, and July, 1665. 



Plainfleld Horticultural Society 1863 

Richmond " " 

Vanderburg Co. Agricult. aud Horticult. Society 1855 

Warsaw Horticultural Society. 

Madison " " 

Illinois : 

State Horticultural Society 1856 

Alton " " 1853 

Galesbnrg " Club. 

Grundy Co. " Society 1865 

Warsaw " " 1860 

Washington County Horticultural Society. 

Peoria County " " 

Bunker Hill " " 

Mason County " " 

Pike County " " 186T 

MiKsouKi : 
State Horticultural Society. 
Herman Agricult. and Horticult. Association. 
Maramee Horticultural Society, 

Northeast " " 1803 

St. Louis Co. " " 1857 

German " " IS6O 

Jefferson Co. " " 

lowA : 
Cedar Valley Horticultural Society. 



HOS 



248 



HUL 



Marshall County Horticultural Society. 

Scott Couuty " " 

Southwest " " 1863 

Keokuk " " 

Wisconsin : 

State Horticultural Society 1S64 

German " " 1805 

Glenbrulat " " 1805 

Madison " " 1S58 

Ozaukee " " 

Jauesville " " 

Kansas: 

Leavenworth Horticultural Society 1SG3 

Bourbon Co. Agricultural and Horticult. Society 1863 

Burlinsaiue Horticultural Society. 

Shawuee Agricultural and Horticultural Society. 

Washington Agric. and Horticult. Association. 

HOSIERY. See Stockings and Cotton. 

HOSPITALERS. See 3Mta. 

HOSPITALS, originally hmintia for the reception 
of travelers. That at Jerusalem, built by the Knights 
of St. John, 1112, was capable of receiving 2000 guests, 
and included an infirmary for the sick. The richly en- 
dowed "five royal hospitals," under "the pious care 
of the lord mayor of London," etc., are St. Barthol- 
omew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, Bethlehem, and 
Christ's. See Infirmaries. The Royal Dispensary in 
Aldersgate Street was the first established, 17T0. 
Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe ex- 
cept one at Granada) founded 1547 

Cancer, Brompton 1851 

Charing Cross founded 1818 ; new hospital built. .1831 

City of'London Lying-in 1750 

Consumption, Brompton 1841 

Dreadnaught ship 1821 

Fever. 1802 

Free, Gray's Inn Lane 1828 

German, Dalston 1845 

Great Northern 1856 

Guy's (see Gun's) 1721 

Hahnemann 1850 

Hospital of Surgery 1S27 

Idiots' 1S47 

Incurables 1850 

Jews' 1747 

King's College 1839 

Lock 1740 

London 1740 

Lying-in, British 1749 

" City Road 1750 

" General, Lambeth 1705 

" Queen Charlotte's 1752 

" Queen Adelaide's 1824 

Middlesex 1745 

London Ophthalmic, Finsbury 1804 

" " Gray's Inn Road 1S43 

Orthopoedic 183S 

Samaritan, Free, for women and children 1S47 

Small-pox 1T4G 

St. Bartholomew's (see Bartholomew, St.) 1546 

St. George's 1733 

St. Luke's (lunatics) 1751 

St. Mary's, Paddington 1S43 

St. Thomas's (removed 1802) 1.553 

University College 1833 

Westminster 1719 

Women's, Soho Square 1843 

HOSPITALS IN TUE United States. In most of 
the large cities of the United States there are both 
state and city hospitals, the city hospital of Boston 
being a large and very finely-constructed building. 
During the Civil War a very large number of hospitals 
were organized in all the cities near the seat of war, 
where our wounded soldiers received the greatest care 
and attention. There were also many movable hos- 
pitals for the benefit of the wounded and dying direct- 
ly on the field of battle. The Cincinnati Hospital 
(Ohio), opened in 1869, is said to be the finest edifice 
of the kind in this country. 

HOST, Elevation op the, introduced into Roman 
Catholic worship, and prostration enjoined, in 1201. 
Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a 
bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake 
themselves to the adoration of the host, 1228, which is 
done to this day. — Rees. The supposed miracle of the 
consecrated host being visibly changed into the body 
of our Lord is referred by Henault to 1290. 

HOT BLAST. See Blowing Machine. 

HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours 
from the year 293 B.C., when L.Papirius Cursor erect- 
ed a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Pre- 



viously to the invention of water-clocks (lohich see), 158 
B.C., the time was called at Rome by public criers. 
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two 
hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours 
round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours. In 
England, the measurement of time was, in early days, 
uncertain: one expedient was by wax candles, three 
inches burning an hour, and six wax candles burning 
twenty-fottr hours: said to have been invented by Al- 
fred, A.D. 886. For Hours of Prayer, see Breviary. 

HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1005. Its rate was 
frequently changed till its repeal in 1840 (3 & 4 Will. 4, 
c. 39). It was reimposed as a substitute for the win- 
dow-tax in 1851. 

HOUSE OF Commons, Loeds. See Parliament, 
Lords, and Commons. 

HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son of Marga- 
ret, the heiress of the Mowbrays. was created earl mar- 
shal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 1483. He was 
slain with his master, Richard HI., at Bosworth, Aug. 
22, 1485. His son was restored to the earldom of Sur- 
rey in 1489, in reward for having gained the victory of 
Plodden, Sept. 9, 1513; he was created the 8th duke of 
Norfolk iu 1514. Thomas, the loth duke, was behead- 
ed for conspiracy against Queen Elizabeth on behalf 
of Mary Queen of Scots, in 1572. Henry Pitzalau How- 
ard, now the 21st duke of Norfolk, and the 18th of the 
Howard family, premier duke and earl of England and 
hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 

HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnance, ranking 
between a cannon and a mortar, came into use early 
iu the ISth century. 

HUBBARDTON, Battle at. When St. Clair was 
obliged to evacuate Ticonderoga early in July and flee 
before the army of Burgoyne, a part of his force fled 
southward, along the foot of the (jfreen Mountains. A 
detachment of them, under Col. Seth Warren, were 
overtaken at Hubbardton, in Vermont, on the morning 
of the 7th of July, 1777, by British and Hessian troops 
under Generals Fraser and Reidesel. There a battle 
ensued, and the Americans were defeated and dis- 
persed, with a loss iu killed, wounded, and missing of 
little more than 300. The British reported their loss 
at 183. 

HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by Capt. Henry Hud- 
son when in search of a northwest passaire to the Pa- 
cific Ocean, 1610 ; had been discovered by Frobisher iu 
the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured far- 
ther north. The latter, passing the winter iu this bay 
on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by 
his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The Hud- 
son's Bay Company obtained a charter in 1670. Their 
license expired in 1859. The forts were destroved by 
the French in lOSG and 1782. In Julj', 1863, the forma- 
tion of a new company was proposed. 

HUE AND CRY. The old common law process of 
pursuing "with horn and with voice," from hundred 
to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and fel- 
ons. Formerly, the hundred was bound to make good 
all loss occasioned by the robberies therein commit- 
ted, unless the felon were taken; but by subsequent 
laws it is made answerable only for damage commit- 
ted by riotous assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was 
aided by a description of him in the Hue and Cry, a 
gazette established for advertising felons in 1710. — 
Ashe. 

HLTGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from the 
German Eidgcnossen, confederates; by others from 
Hugues, a Genevese Calviuist) applied to the Reformed 
party in France, followers of Calvin. They took up 
arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delu- 
sive edict of toleration, a great number were massa- 
cred at Vassy iu 1562 (March 1), when the civil wars be- 
gan, which lasted with some intermission till the Edict 
of Nantes in 1.598, revoked iu 168.5. The massacre of 
St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 24, 1572, occurred during 
a truce. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
many Huguenot families fled to the British American 
colonies. Some settled iu South Carolina ; others in 
New York. A large number of families from Rochelle 
settled on Long Island Sound, and called the place 
New Rochelle. See Calvinists, Bartholmnew, and Edict. 

HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial place iu 
1200, was named Kingston-upo'n-Hull in 1206 by Ed- 
ward I., who purchased the town, formed the port, and 
granted a charter. Great fire; damage about £100,000, 
Aug. 15, 1864. 

HULSEAN LECTURES (on Theology) were insti- 
tuted at Cambridge bv the will of the Rev. John Hulse, 
who died iu 1790. They began iu 1820, when twenty 



HUM 



249 



lectures were given by the Rev. Christopher Benson. 
lu ISoO the number was reduced to eight. 

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), for the re- 
covery of persons apparently drowned, was founded 
in lT74byUrs.Goldsniith, IJoberden, Towers, Lettsom, 
Hawes, and Cogan, but principally by the last three. 
The society has 221 receivinix-houses, supplied with 
apparatus. The principal one was erected in 1794, on 
a spot of Ki-ound L^vcn liy Geortrc IIL on the north side 
of llie Serpentine River, Hyde Park. The motto of 
this society is amn-oimatti—'- Latiat sciiitilliila fo,-mn" 
—"a small spark may perhaps lie concealed." See 
Drown inij. 

nUMILIATI, a congregation of religious of the 
Church of Rome, formed by some IVIilanese who had 
been imprisoned by Frederick L ,1102. The order had 
more than ninety monasteries ; but was abolished for 
hixury and cruelty by Pope Pius V., and their houses 
were given to the Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other 
communities in 1570. 

nUMAIING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful collec- 
tion of the skins of these birds was exhibited at the 
Zoological Gardens, London, in 1851. His elaborate 
work on them, in live folio volumes, with richly colored 
plates, was completed in 1S62. 

HUNDREDS, a Danish institution ; a hundred beino- 
a part or division of a shire, so called, as is supposed*! 
from its having been composed of a hundred families 
at the time the counties were originally divided by 
King Alfred, about S9T. The hundred-court is a conrt- 
barou held for all the inhabitants of a hundred instead 
of a manor. — Law Diationarij. 

HITNGARY, part of the ancient Panuonia and Da- 
cia, was subjected to the Romans about lOO and re- 
tained by them till the 3d century, when it was seized 
by the Goths, who were expelled about ?>76 by the 
Huns under Attila. See Huns and Attila. On his 
death in 453, the Ostrogoths, Gepidse, and Lombards 
at times held the country, which was, however ac- 
quired by the Avars about 56S, and retained by them 
till their destruction by Charlemagne in 799 About 
894 the country was settled by a Scvthian tribe, named 
Viugours or Ungi-i (whence the German name Un- 
garn), and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The chief 
of the latter, Arpad, was the ancestor of a line of kin^^s 
(see beloin). The progress of the Magyars westward 
■was checked by their defeat by the Emperor Henry 
the Fowler, 934. The line of Arpad became extinct in 
1.309, when Charles Robert, of Anjou, ascended the 
throne. In 152G,ijt accrued to the house of Austria, in 
which it was made hereditary in 10S7. War with Tur- 
key was frequent from the 15th to the ISth century. 
The Magyars have of late much intermingled with the 
German and Sclavonic races. Population (without 
the army) in 1857, 9,900,785. See Austria. 

Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, em- 
braces and establishes Christianity and subdues 
the slaves, etc., receives the title of Apostolic 
kinq from the pope 907 

The Poles overrun Hnuffary ".'.'.' 10(51 

Dreadful ravaires of the Tartars under the sons' of 
GeiiL'his Khan, throughout Hungary, Bohemia, 
andRiissia, 1241 c^.sr(7. 

Bela in. introduces the Greek civilization 1174, etc. 

Golden Bull ofAndrew II. granting personal ri<Thts 1222 

Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Sei-via, 
and Dahnatia 1344-82 

He marches into Italy, and avenges the murder of 
his brother Andrew, king of Naples 1348 

Sanguinary anarchy: Elizabeth, queen ofLoui'si'ls 
drowned : and Kitur Marv, the daughter, mar- 
ries Sigismund of Brandenburg ' 1382 

They govern with great severity i.382-92 

Sigismund's atrocious cruelties compel his sub- 
jects to invite the assistance of the Turks 1393 

Battle of Nicopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigis- 
mund and a large army Sept. 28,1390 

Sigismund obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is 
elected Emperor of Gemiany 1410 

Albert of Austria succeeds to'the throne of Hiin- 
Sniy 1437 

\ ictories of the great John Ilunniades (illegitimate 
son of Si^'ismund) over the Turks 1442-4 

Who obtained a truce for 10 years 1444 

Which is broken by Ladislas" king of Hungary (at 
the instigation of the pope). He is defeated and 



slain with a s 



HUN 

;reat part of his army, and the papal 



-jgate at Varna Nov io liAA 

'^''T^",lf^I'?"^'''^^^''?•;?P^« ^-^d becomes regent (for 

Ladislas, sou of Albert) ^ ^\y,, ^, 

He raises the siege of Belgrade, July 14, and diet 



The Hungarians insult the Turkish amba3ors'^^^° 
and war ensues: Solymau IL takes Buda '152s 

Disastrous battle of Mohatz (which sec). L's'V^^ 
Zi!'^?™^'' ^"^j««^ to the house of AtM 



.1606 



(see Germany) 

^Tutl°^.^l!""'''' ^'=^'""""2 't«l«VaVion 'to Protest^ 

John Sobieskidei^eaVs' the TuVks i\iVeverai battles" 
and raises the siege of Vienna Oct 1 fisq 

lend-emen "^ ^^'^"^ '^"'"''^'^ '^^ Turks 'at Sa-^^^ 

Prince Eugene defeats them at ZMita.V.Vsept 11 169T 

''Kfi^^^^"' ^"'^°^'^="S'^-^^ -session ^' 

^'o'fBelgm^!!!'''^''' "^"^""^ *° Turkey at'the peace _ 

The HuSgariaiis 'enthusiastically 'support' iviarial^ ' ^^ 
Theresa agamst France and Bavaria 1740 

I he Protestants permitted to have churches in 
-Hungary ^-.g. 

Independence of Hungary guaranteed. '.'.'.'.'.'. 1790 

Hungarian academy established ' "1825 

Ihe people, some time discontented with' their 
Austrian rulers, at length break out into a for- 
midable rebellion 1548 

Murder atPesth of the recently appoiii'tedini'litary 
governor. Count Lamberg, by a mob ; the Hun- 
garian Diet appoint a provisional government 
under Kossuth and Batthyany, Sept. 28 • the 
Hungarians defeat the Ban of Croatia. Sept «9 " 

The Diet denounces as traitors all who acknowl- 
edge the Emperor of Austria as King of Hun- 
gaiy .Dec 8 " 

The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at Szaik- 
szo Dec 21 " 

They are defeated at Mohr by the ban Jeilacli'ich' 

J)g(. 99 <4 

Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgriitz Jail's' 1849 

Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, ' 
TT -, , Jan. 21, " 
Hungary declares itself a free state ; Kossuth su- 
preme governor April 14 " 

The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before 

Gran April IS " 

March of the Russian army througJi'Gal'licia to as- 
sist the Austrians ji^y 1 " 

The Austro-Russiau troops defeat tlie Hiiii'garians' 

who retreat across the Waag June 2l' " 

Battle of Acs between the Hungarians and Austri- 

^ai^s- • •. • ■ • July 10, " 

Hungarians defeat Jellachich July 14 " 

The Hungarians defeated by the Russians • Gdr- 

gey retreats after three days' battle July 15, " 

Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents and 

the Austro-Russian army Jniy 10 " 

The insurgents under Bem enterMoldavia, July 23' " 

Again del'eated by the Russians July 31 " 

Utter defeat of the Hungarian army before Tem- 
eswar by Gen. Haynau Auo-. 10 " 



• Tlie Miincarian people Iinve or lind an irreroncilnhle aversion to tlie 
name n( mirm ; and, consequently, whenever a female siieceedert to (lie 
throne of Ilnnirary, ehe reicncd with the title o{ Hvij. Thus, in V.itii, 
when Mary fame to the crown, she was styled King Manj.—Praij, 
Jlist. Jicffum Iluitgaria. 



Gorgey and his army surrender to the Eussia°ns, 

Aug., " 

Kossuth, Bem, etc., escape to the Turkish front- 
iers, and are placed under the protection of Tur- 
key at New Orsova (see Turkei/) Aue. 21, " 

Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close olfthe 
war Sept. 27, " 

Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot; many other 
insurgent chiefs put to death Oct. 6, " 

Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, 
who return home Oct. 16, " 

Bem dies at Alepjjo Dec. 10,1850 

The country remains in an unsettled state ; many 
executions 1S53-5 

Crown of St, Stephen and royal insignia discover- 
ed and sent to Vienna Sept. 8,1853 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1S4S-9. .July 12,1850 

During the Italian War in 1S.59, an insurrection in 
Hungary was in contemplation, and communi- 
cations took place between Louis Napoleon and 
Kossuth, which circumstances, it is said, led the 
Emperor of Austria to accede to the peace of 
Villafranca so suddenly, and shortly afterward 
to promise many reforms and to grant more lib- 
erty to the Protestants in Hungary. .Aug.-Oct.,lS59 

Recall of Archduke Albert; General Benedek ap- 
pointed governor April, ISCO 



HUN 



250 



HUS 



Demand for restoration of the old Constitution ; 
reunion of the Banat and Voivodina with Hun- 
gary, etc oct.,iseo 

Charter restoring the old Constitntiou promit^ed, 

Oct. 20, " 

Schmerling appointed minister Dec. 13, " 

National conference at Gran Dec., " 

Demand for the Constitution of 1848 Jan.,lS61 

The emperor promulgates a new liberal Constitu- 
tion for the empire Feb. '26, " 

Which does not satisfy the Hungarians March, " 

Hunsjarian Diet opened April 6, " 

Meelmg of the Reichsrath at Vienna; no deputies 
present from Hungary or Croatia April 29, " 

Count Teleki (see Austria, 1S60) found dead in his 
bed at Pesth ; intense excitement May S, " 

The Diet votes an address to the emperor, desir- 
ing restoration of the old Constitution. .July 5, " 

The military begin to levy the taxes July, " 

Imperial rescript refusing the entire independence 
of Hungary, July 21 ; the Diet protests, Aug. 20, 
and is dissolved Aug. 21, " 

The Archbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly 
protests against the act of the imperial govern- 
ment Sept.-Oct., " 

He is summoned to Vienna, but stands firm, 

Oct. 25, " 

The magistrates in the Comitat at Pesth resign ; 
military government established ; passive resist- 
ance of the nobility Dec, " 

Amnesty declared for political ofl'enses, and cessa- 
tion of prosecutions Nov. 19,1SC2 

Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious 
speeches March 29,1SC3 

The emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; in- 
auguration of a new policy ; the rights of Hun- 
gary to be restored June 6-0,lSG5 

Imperial rescript, abolishing the representative 
Constitution of the empire, with the view of re- 
storing independence of Hungary, etc. .Sept. 21, " 

The Deak party demand restoration of the mon- 
archy, with a responsible government. .Nov. 11, " 

The emperor visits Pesth ; the Diet opened, Dec. 
14; Carl Szentivanyi elected president.. Dec. 20, " 

Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth Jan. 29,1SG6 

60VEKEIQN8 OF HiraGAEY. 

997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Gcisa) ; he 
establishes the Roman Catholic religion (1000), 
and receives from the pope the title of Apos- 
tolic King, still borne by the Emperor of Aus- 
tria as King of Hungary. 

103S. Peter, the German : deposed. 

1041. Aba or Owen. 

1044. Peter, again: again deposed, and his eyes pnt 
out. 

1047. Andrew I. : deposed. 

1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower, 

1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. 

1075. Geisa I., sou of Bela. 

1077. Ladislas I., suruamed the Pious. 

1095. Coloman, son of Geisa. 

1114. Stephen II., surnamed Thunder. 

1131. Bela II. : had his eyes put out. 

1141. Geisa II.: succeeded by his son, 

1101. Stephen III.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy). 

1173. Bela III.: succeeded by his son, 

1190. Emeric: succeeded by his sou, 

1204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 

1205. Andrew II., son'of Bela III. 
1235. Bela IV. 

1270. Stephen IV. (or V.), his son. 

1272. Ladislas IIL : killed. 

1290. Andrew III., surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law 
ofRodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany. 

1801. Charobert, or Charles-Robert (of Anjou); com- 
petitors— Wenceslas of Bohemia, and Otho of 
Bavaria, who give way to him, 1309). 

1342. Lonis I., the Great ; elected King of Poland in 
1370. 

1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis the 
Great. 

13S7. Mary and her consort Sigismund; the latter be- 
came King of Bohemia, and was elected em- 
peror in 1410. 

1392. Sigismund alone (on the death of Mary). 

1437. Albert, duke of Austria, marr. Elizabeth, daugh- 
ter of Sigismund, and obtains the thrones of 
Hungary, Bohemia, and Germany; dies sud- 
denly. 

1439. Elizabeth alone : she marries 

1440. Ladislas IV., king of Poland, of which kingdom 

he was Ladislas VL : slain at Varna. 
1444. [Interregnum.] 



1526. 



1445. John Hunniades, regent. 

1458. Ladislas V. , posthumous son of Albert : poisoned. 
" Matthias-Corvinus, sou of Hunniades, an able 
sovereign. 

1490. Ladislas VI. , kin^ of Bohemia: the Emperor 
Maximilian laid claim to both kingdoms. 

1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia) : loses his 
life at the battle of Mohatz. 
■John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elect- 
ed by the Hungarians, and siyjported by the 
Sultan Solyman ; by treaty with Ferdinand, 
he founds the principality of Transylvania, 
1536. 
Ferdinand I., king of Bohemia, brother to the 
l_ Emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 

1536. Ferdinand alone: elected emperor of Germany 
in 1558. 

1561. Maximilian, son of Ferdinand; emperor in 1564. 

1573. Rodolph, son of Maximilian ; emperor in 1576. 

1009. Matthias II., his brother; emperor in 1612. 

1619. Ferdinand II., his cousin, emperor. 

1625. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding; emperor 
in 1637. 

1647. Ferdinand IV. ; died in 1654, three years before 
his father. 

1055. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand HI.; emperor in 
1658. 

1GS7. Joseph I., his son ; emperor in 1705. 

1711. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother of Joseph, 
and nominal King of Spain, succeeded by his 
daughter, 

1740. Maria-'Theresa, empress ; survived her consort, 
Francis I., emperor, from 1765 until 1780. See 
Germany. 

1780. Joseph II., her son, emperor in 1765: succeeded 
to Hungary on the death of his mother. 

1790. Leopold II., brother of Joseph II., emperor: suc- 
ceeded by his son, 

1792. Francis I. (Francis II. as Emperor of Germany) : 
in 1804 he became Emperor oi Aiistria only. 

1835. Ferdinand V., son of Francis : Ferdinand I. as 
Emperor of Austria. 

1848. Francis-Joseph, nephew of the preceding: suc- 
ceeded on the abdication of his uncle, Dec. 2, 
184S. The present King of Hungary and Em- 
peror of Austria. 

HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have con- 
quered China about 210 B.C., and to have been expel- 
led therefrom about A.D. 90. They invaded Hungary 
about 376, and drove out the Goths. Marching west- 
ward under Attila, they were thoroughly beaten at 
Chalons by the Consul Aetius, 451. ^ee Attila. 

HUNTING: an ancient pastime. The "Bokys of 
Hawking and Huntyug,"by Dame Julyana Barnes, 
was printed at St. Alban's, 14S6. 

HUSSARS, light cavalry in Poland and Hungary' 
about 1000; and as they were more fitted for a hasty 
enterprise than a set battle, they are supposed to have 
taken their name from the huzzas or shout they made 
at their first onset. They were generally opposed to 
the Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having 
the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on 
their backs against bad weather, and wore fur caps, 
with a cock's feather." — Pardon. Hussars became the 
name of a British force in the last century (1759), very 
dift'ereutly attired. 

HUSSITES. After the death of Huss,*many of his 
followers took up arms in 1419, and formed a political 
party under John Ziska, and burnt the city of Tabor. 
They defeated the Emperor Sigismund several times, 
1420-22 ; but, after being worsted in 1484 at Biimisch- 
brod, they entered into negotiations, which ended in 
the Compact of Prague. They were again defeated by 
Albert of Austria in 1438. The pacific portion of the 
Hussites existed in the time of Luther, and were call- 
ed "Bohemian Brethren." 

HUSTINGS (said to be derived from House Court, an ' 
assembly among the Anglo-Saxons), an ancient court 
of Loudon, being its supreme court of judicature, as 
the Court of Common Council is of Legislature. The 
Court of Hustiinijs was granted to the city of London, 
to be holden and kept weekly, by Edward the Confess- 
or, 1052. Winchester, Lincoln, York, etc., were also 
granted Hustings Courts. 



* The clergy havinfi instigated t!ie pnpe to issue a bull against here- 
tics, John Hus3(born in Bohemia in 1373), a zealous preacher of the Ref- 
ormation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance, 
the Emperor Sip;ismund sending? him a safe-conduct. He presented 
himself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, and after some months' 
confinement was adjudged to be burned alive, which he endured with 
resignation, July 6, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who 
came to this council to support and second him, also suffered death by 
fire, May 30, 1416, although he also had a safe-conduct. 



HUT 



251 



ICH 



nUTCniNSONIANS included many eminent cler- 
gy, who (lid not form any sect, but held the opinions 
of John llutfluiisoii, of Yorksliire; they rejected the 
Newtonian system, and contended that the .Scriptures 
contain a complete system of natural philosophy. His 
work, "J/ost',s'.s Prinr/pia," was publislied in 1T-J4. He 
derived all thiuijs from the air, whence he said pro- 
ceeded Arc, li.Ljht, and spirit — types of the Trinity. In 
1712 he invented a time-piece for finding the longitude, 
and died in 1737. 

HYDE PARK, W. (London), the ancient manor of 
Hyde, belon^in^' to the Abbey of Westminster, became 
crown property at the Dissolution, 1539. It was sold 
by Parliament in 1C52, but was resumed by the king 
at the Restoration in ICGl. It comprises about 394 
acres, with a large winding sheet of water called the 
Serpentine. There are eight entrances. 
Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken 
in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, 
and Waterloo, and inscribed to "Arthur, duke 
of Wellington, and his brave companions in arms, 
by their countrywomen," erected on... June 18,18-22 

Hyde Park Corner Entrance erected 1828 

Marble Arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 

Cumberland Gate March 29,1851 

Crystal Palace erected for the exhibition of 1851 

Disturbances in consequence of a Sunday Bill hav- 
ing been brought before Parliament by Lord 
Robert Grosvenor, which was eventually with- 
drawn Sundays, June 25, and July 1 and 8 1855 

Eiotous meetings held here on account of the high 

price of bread Sundays Oct. 14, 21, 28, " 

Democratic meetings on the Reform question 

March,lS59 

The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers June 23,1860 

Great meeting of admirers of Garibaldi, Sept. 28; 
who are violently attacked by the Irish ; many 

persons wounded Oct. 5,1862 

Public meetings in the Park henceforth prohibit- 
ed Oct. 9, " 

HYDRAULIC PRESS. See under H<jdrostatics. 

HYDROGEN (from hyddr, water), under the name 
of combustible air, was obtained by Paraceslus in the 
16th century. In 1766 Caveudish described its proper- 
ties ; and in 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the 
combination of this gas with oxygen, which takes 
place when it is burnt, water is prodiicod ; subsequent- 
ly Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements. One 
volume of oxygen combines with two volumes of hy- 
drogen, and forms water. Hydrogen is never found in 
the tree state. — G-melin. 

HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the surface 
waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is attributed 
to Henry the Navigator, in the 10th century. There is 
a hydrographic department in the British Admiraltv, 
by which a series of charts has been issued. 

HYDROiLETER, the instrument by which is meas- 



ured the gravity, density, and other properties of liq- 
uids. The oldest mention of the hydrometer occurs 
in the 5th century, and may be found in the letters of 
Syncsius to Hypatia; but it is not improbable that 
Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs 
of it are to be found. — IJeckmann. Archimedes was 
killed in 212 B.C., and Hypatia was torn to pieces A. 
D.415. ^ 

HYDROPATHY', a term applied to the treatment 
of diseases by cold water, practised by Hippocrates in 
the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the 10th century 
A.D., and revived by Dr. Currie in 1797. The present 
system was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz Priessnitz, 
of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia ; and though he is 
considered as its founder, the rational part of the doc- 
trine was understood and maintained by the eminent 
Dr. Sydenham before 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 
1861.— Brande. 

HY'DROSTATICS were probably first studied in the 
Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 
Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes about 

B.C. 250 
The forcing pump and air fountain invented by 

Hero about 120 

Water-mills were known about A.D. 1 

The science revived by Galileo about 1600 

The theory of rivers scientifically understood in..l69T 
The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of 

waves explained by Newton 1714 

A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics by 

Bernouilli 1738 

Joseph Bramah's hydrostatic or hydraulic press 

patented first in 1785 

HYGROMETER, an instrument for measuring the 
moisture in the atmosphere. That by Saussure (who 
died in 1799) is most employed. It consists of a hu- 
man hair boiled in caustic lye, and acts on the principle 
of absorption. — Brande. Daniell's hygrometer (1820) 
is much esteemed. 

HYiyiNS. The song of Moses is the most ancient, 
1491 B.C. {Exod. XV.). The Psalms date from about 
1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David to Ezra). The 
hymns of the Jews were frequently accompanied by in- 
strumental music. Paul (A.D. 64) speaks of Christians 
admonishing one another " in psalms, and hymns, and 
spiritual songs" {Col. iii., 16). Hilary, the bishop of 
Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who com- 
posed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about 
431. The hymns of Dr. Watts (died 1748), and of John 
Wesley (died 1791), and his brother Charles, are much 
used by English Dissenters. , 

HY'PNOTISM (Greek hypnos, sleep), or nervous 
sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) to a sleep- 
like condition, produced in a person by steadily fixing 
his mind on one particular object. Minor surgical op- 
erations have, it is said, beau performed withoiU pain 
on persons in this state. 



I. 



lAJIBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metani- 
ra, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when trying to ex- 
hilarate Ceres, while the latter was traveling over At- 
tica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, eiitertained 
her with jokes, stories,"and poetical efi'usions ; and 
from her, fi-ee and satirical verses have been called 
Iambics. — Apollodor^w. Iambic verses were first writ- 
ten about 700 B.C. by Archilochus, who had courted 
Neobule, the daughter of Lycambes ; but after a prom- 
ise of marriage the father preferred another suitor, 
richer than the poet, whereupon Archilochus wrote so 
bitter a satire on the old man's avarice that he hanged 
himself — Herodotus. 

IBERIA. See Georgia. 

ICE. Galileo was the first to observe ice to be light- 
er than the water which composed it, and therefore to 
float: about 1597.* Sec Cdiuirlat inn, where is noticed 
the ice-making machines of Harrison and of Siebe. In 
1841 there were sixteen companies in Boston, U. S., 
engaged in exporting ice, brought from V/enham, 
Fresh, and Spy Ponds, about IS miles from that city. 



• Regelation and other properties, exliibited by Professor Faradav in 
1850, are still the subject of investipation by eminent physicists of' the 
present day, especially Tyudall, J. D. Forbes, and W'm. Thomson, 



The trade was begun by Mr. Tudor in 1S05. 156,540 
tons were sent from Boston alone in 1S54. In New 
York, in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up, of which 
20,000 were for exportation. 

ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwegian 
chiefs about 861 ; according to some accounts, it had 
been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It 
was peopled by the Norwegians in 874, and has be- 
longed to Denmark since 1397. Christianity was in- 
troduced about 996, and Protestantism about 1551.* 

"ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the plume 
of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of the King of 
Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Cressy, at 
which he served as a volunteer in the French army, 
Aug. 26, 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration 
of his father, Edward IIL, who commanded that day, 



* In 17S4-5, there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic erup- 
tion on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and a 
darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall 
to pieces. Three fire-spouts broke out on Mount Sknpta, which, after 
rising to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot 
lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, 
in a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles; 12 rivers were dried up; 21 
villages totally overwhelmed by fire or water j and 34 others were ma- 
terially injured. See Hecla. 



ICH 



252 



IMP 



though the priuce wou the battle, adopted this motto, 
which has ever since been borne with the feathers by 
the heirs to the crown of England; but not as Prince 
of Wales, which many have erroneously maintained. 

ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats of the 
impressions made in mud or sand by the animals of 
former ages. Dr. Duncan flrst discovered the foot- 
prints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Anuaudale in 
1S2S; since then numerous discoveries have been made 
by Owen, Lyell, Iluxley, and others. 

ICHTHYOLOGY, the science offish. Eminent writ- 
ers are Willou>j;hby, Ray, Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, 
Agassiz, etc. Yarrell's "British Fishes" (1836-59) is a 
classical work. See Fish. 

ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas preach- 
ed, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a kingdom here 
in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it was conquered 
by the Turks. It had been subdued by the Crusaders 
iu 10K7 and 1190. See Konieh. 

ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy 
respecting images (which had been Introduced into 
churches for popular instruction about 300) was begun 
72(5, and occasioned many insurrections iu the Eastern 
Empire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for de- 
molishing images in churches in that year, and en- 
forced them with great rigor in 736. The defenders of 
images were agaiu persecuted in 752 and 701,wheu Con- 
stantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. This 
schism was the occasion of the second Council of Nice, 
787. Theophilus banished all the painters and statu- 
aries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The Iconoclasts 
were finally excommunicated iu 869. This contro- 
versy led to the separation of the Greek and Latin 
churches. In the contests between the Iconoclasts 
and their opponents thousands perished. — Many im- 
ages iu churches were destroyed in England and 
Scotland during the Eeformation and the Civil War, 
1G41-8. 

IDAHO, a northern " territory" of the United States 
of North America, was organized as such on March 3, 
1863. 

IDES, in the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of 
each month, except in March, May, July, and October, 
in which it was the fifteenth day; in these four it was 
six days before the nones, and in the other months 
four days. The Ides of March was the day on which 
Julius Ctesar was assassinated in the senate-house by 
Brutus, Cassias, Casca, and other conspirators, 44 B.C. 

IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, exclu- 
sively of lunatics, pauper idiots, or idiots protected in 
national institutions, males, 3372; females, 3893 ; total, 
7265. For laws relating to idiots, see Lunaci/. The 
Idiot Asylum at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, be- 
gan in 1847. According to the censiis of 1860 there 
were then 18,930 idiotic persons in the United States. 
There are a number of asylums for them. 

IDOLS. The public worship of idols was introduced 
by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 B.C. — Vossius. Images 
are mentioned in Ge7i. xxxi., 19, 30, 1739 B.C. The 
Jews frequently deserted the worship of God for idols 
till their captivity, 588 B.C. Constantine, emperor of 
Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- 
stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, A.D. 330. — Diifrcs- 
noy. The Saxons re-established idolatry in 473. It 
gave way in Britain after the coming of Augustin, 599. 
See Iconoclasts, Week. 

IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent army 
of Holstein and Schleswig was defeated by the Danes, 
July 25, 1850. 

IDUM^A, the country of the Edomites, the de- 
scendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : see Gen. 
xxxvi. ; Josh, xxiv., 4. 
The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 

through their country B.C.1453 

They are subjugated by David 1040 

They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severe- 
ly defeated by Amaziah 827 

They join the Chaldfeans against Judah, and are 

anathematized in Psalm csxxvii about 570 

John Hyi-canus, the Maccabee, subjugates and en- 
deavors to incorporate them with the Jews 125 

Herod the Great, son of Antipater, an Idumreau, 

king of Judasa 40 

ILIUM (Asia Minor). A city was built here by Dar- 
danus, and called Dardania, 1480 B.C. Troy (which 
see), another city, was founded by Troas about 1341 
B.C. ; and Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. 

ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, was 



settled in 1749, and admitted into the Union Dec. 3, 
1818. Capital, Springfield. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice of adopt- 
ing ornaments, drawings, and emblematical figures, 
and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiqui- 
ty. Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, 
which he embellished with their likenesses, about 70 
B.C.— Plin. Nat. Hist. Some beautiful missals and 
other works were printed iu the 15th and 16th centu- 
ries, et seq. ; and fine imitations have lately appeared. 

ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in Spain, 
where they were called Alumbrados, about 1575. After 
their suppression in Spain they appeared in France. 
One of their leaders was Friar Anthony Buchet. Their 
chief doctrine was that they obtained grace and per- 
fection by their sublime manner of priTyer. A secret 
society bearing this name, opposed to tyranny and 
priestcraft, was founded at lugoldstadt, Bavaria, by 
Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May,17t6, and was suppressed 
in 1784-5. 

ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, the earliest pub- 
lication of the kind, established by Mr. Herbert In- 
gram, M.P., first appeared on May 14, 1842. Mr. In- 
gram was drowned iu Lake Michigan Sept. 8, 1860. 

ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), aft- 
er several wars (from 230 B.C.), was made a Roman 
province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleou I. gave the name 
of Illyrian provinces to Carniola, Dalmatia, and other 
provinces, then part of the French Empire, now Cariu- 
thia, Carniola, etc. 

IMAGE WORSHIP. See Iconoclasts. 

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. See ConceiMon. 

IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower of the 
Persian army, limited to 10,000 in number, and re- 
cruited from the uobility alone, about 500 B.C. The 
name was also given to the body-guard of the emper- 
ors at Constantinople iu the 4th and 5th centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the 
Commons House of Parliament, and the first of a lord 
chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suft'olk, was in 
1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. & Mary it was enacted 
that uo pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded 
to an impeachment by the Commons in Parliament, 
1700. 
Impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 13, 1788, to 

April 25, 1795; an acquittal. 
Impeachment of Lord Melville, April 29 ; acquittal, 

June 12, 1806. 
Inquiry into the charges preferred by Colonel Wardle 
against the Duke of York, Jan. 27 to March 20, 1809 ; 
acquittal. 
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains 
and penalties, before the House of" Lords, com- 
menced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham eutered on her maj- 
esty's defense Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill 
took place Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen Caroline. 

IMPEACHMENT itY the U. S. House of Repre- 
6ENTATIVES. The mauuer of impeachment in this 
country is by a written charge and accusation made 
by the House of Representatfves to the Senate. The 
Senate alone can try impeachment. The persons lia- 
ble are the President, Vice-President, and all civil offi- 
cers of the federal government. The offenses charged 
must consist of "treason, bribery, and other high 
crimes and misdemeanors" (Const., art. ii., sec. 4). No 
person can be convicted without the concurrence of 
two thirds of the members. The only occasion upon 
which a President has been impeached was the case 
of President Andrew Johnson, upon the removal by 
the latter of Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, contrary 
(as was alleged) to the provisions of the Tenure of Of- 
fice Act. The resolutiou for impeachment was adopt- 
ed by the House February 24, 1808. Articles were pre- 
sented on the 2nth, and adopted March 2 : Messrs. 
Stevens, of Pennsylvania ; Butler, of Massachusetts; 
Bingham, of Ohio ; Boutwell, of Massachusetts ; Wil- 
son.'of Iowa; Williams, of Pennsylvania, and Logan, 
of Illinois, were chosen managers for the prosecution. 
On March 5, the Senate was organized as a court. 
Chief Justice Chase presiding. On the 23d the Presi- 
dent appeared by his counsel, Messrs. Curtis, Evarts, 
Groesbeck, Nelson, and Stanbery. The trial closed 
May 26 with the acquittal of the President. The vote 
on the 2d and 11th charge was, "guilty," 35; not 
guilty, 19. The transference of one vote from the lat- 
ter to the former list would have given the requisite 
two thirds in favor of conviction. 

IJIPERIAL GUARD of France was created by Na- 
poleon from the Guard of the Convention, the Direct- 
ory, and the Consulate, when he became emperor in 



IMP 



253 



INC 



1S04. It consisted at flrf>t of 97T5 men, but was after- 
ward cnlar<:ed. It was subdivided in isuy into the Old 
anil Youii',' Guard. In Jan., 1814, it unmbered 102,706. 
It was tlissulvod by Louis XVIII. iu lsl5, but revived 
by Napdlcon III. iu 1S54. It took part iu the Crimean 
War in isn.^. 

IMPERIAL PAKLIAMENT. See Cummom, Lords, 
Parliament, and lieforvi. 

IMPORTS OP Mekouanpise. The vast pros^ressive 
increa.*e of our commercial intercourse with other 
couuiries : 

VALUE OF IJirORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN FROM ALL 
TARTS OP THE WORLD. 

Iu 1710 £4,753,777 In 1S45 £85,281,958 



1750 7,2S9,.582 

1775 14,815,855 

1800 30,570,605 

1810 41,136,135 

1820 36,514,564 

1830 46,245,241 

1840 62,004,000 



1S50 95,252,084 

1851 103,579,582 

1856 172,544,15-t 

1857 187,844,441 

1859 179,182,355 

1861 217,485,024 

1864 274,863,924 



1.MP0RT8 OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE FOURTEEN 
YEARS ENDING 1866. 

In IS.'iS $167,978,647 

1S54 304,502,381 



1S55 261,468,520 

1856 314,639,942 

1857 360,890,141 

1858 282,613,150 

1859 338,765,130 



In 1800 $.362,163,941 

1801 350,775,835 

1862 205,819,823 

1803 252,187,587 

1864 328,514,659 

1865 234,434,167 

1860 437,638,960 



IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of re- 
ligious, political, and other impostors would till a vol- 
ume ; they have been of every country, of every age. 
The followinrr are among the most extraordinary: 
Aldebert, a Gaul, who iu 743 pretended he had a letter 
from the Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Je- 
rusalem ; he seduced multitudes to follow him into 
woods and forests, and to live in imitation of John 
the Baptist. He was condemned by a council at 
Rome in 745. 
Mohammed promulgated his creed, 604. See Mohain- 

viedanism. 
Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the an- 
gel INIichael in 1359 ; he was burnt by the Inquisition 
in Spain in 1360. 
George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled 
himself the Son of God, sent into the world to adopt 
children worthy of heaven: he denied the resurrec- 
tion, preached against marriage, iu favor of a com- 
munity of women, and taught that the body only 
could be defiled by sin ; he had many followers ; died 
at Basle, 1550, promising to rise again in three years. 
Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius, the sou 
of Ivan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris 
had put to death ; he maintained that another child 
had been substituted in his place : he was supported 
by the arms of Poland; his success astonished the 
Russians, who invited him to the throne, and deliv- 
ered into his hands Feodor, the reigning czar, and 
all his family; his imposition being discovered, ho 
was assassinated in his palace, 1000. 
Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks and 
Jews a long time at Constantinople and other places 
by personating our Savior, 1666. 

IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman 
a.«suniing to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

In 14S7, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a 
priest, supported by the Duke of "Burgundy, person- 
ated the Earl of W.arwick. Simnel's army was de- 
feated by Ilonry VII., and he was made a scullion in 
the kiuLT's kitriien. 

ForPerkiii Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see Warbeck. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the IIolv Maid of Kent, spir- 
ited up to hinder the Reformation by pretendins to 
ins])irations from heaven, foretelling that the king 
would have an early and violent death if he divorced 
Catharine of Spain and married Anne Bolejm. She 
and her confederates were hanged at Tyburn, 1.534. 

In 15.')3 (first year of Mary's reisrn after lier marriage 
with Philip of Spiin), Elizabeth Croft, a girl IS years 
of aire, was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle, 
made for the purpose, uttered many seditious sj)eech- 
es against the queen and the jjrincc, and also .-iirainst 
the mass and confession, for which she did iienauce. 

William Ilacket, a fanatic, personated our Savior, and 
was executed for blaspliemy, 1591. 

Valentine Gre.itrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended 
to cure all di.-^eases by stroking the patient: his im- 
posture deceived the credulous, and occasioned very 



warm disputes in Ireland and England about 1GG6. 
Boyle and Flamstced believed iu him. 

Dr. Titus Oates. See Uatcs. 

Robert Young, a prisoner iu Newgate, forged the hands 
of the Earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other no- 
bility to a pretended association for restoring King 
James : the lords were imi)risoued, but the impos- 
ture beiu'' detected. Young was fined £1000, and put 
m the pillory, 1692. Afterward hanged for coinin"-. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and 
raise tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov., 1707. 

Mary Tofts, of Godalmiug, by pretending she bred 
rabbits within her, so imposed upon many persons 
(among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to ihe king) 
that they espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost imposture, by William Parsons, 
his wife, and daughter, 1762. See Cock-laiie Ghost. 

Joanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of 
the Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ; she 
died Dec. 27, 1814. 

W. Thom. See Thomites. 

Joseph Smith. See Mormonites. 

IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, afHrmed by Sir M.Fos- 
ter to be of ancient practice. The statute 2 Rich. II. 
speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. 
The first commission for it was issued 29 Edw. III., 
1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, de- 
clared to be illegal by the British Parliament, Dec, 
1641. Impressment was not resorted to in the Russian 
War, 1854-5. 

IMPRISONMENT for DEBT. See Arrests, Debtors, 
and Ferrars's Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical property 
to lay purposes). On the suppression of abbeys in 
1539, their incomes from the great tithes were distrib- 
uted among his courtiers by Henry VIII. ; and their 
successors constitute 7597 lay impropriators. 

INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was 
death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. 
In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to 
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 
8 Hen. VI., 1429 ; and it was denied benefit o"f clergy, 
21 Hen. VIII., 1528. Great incendiary fires commenced 
in and about Kent in August, 1880, and iu Suffolk and 
other counties since. The punishment of death was 
remitted, except in special cases, in 1827. The acts re- 
lating to arson were amended in 1837 and 1844. 

INCH. See Standard. The length was defined in 
1824 by the declaration by act of Parliament that 
39-13929 inches is the length of a seconds pendulum in 
the latitude of London, vibrating in vacuo at the sea 
level, at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit. 

INCOME TAX. In 1.512, the English Parliament 
granted a subsidy of two tifteeuths from the commons, 
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to 
enter on a war with France.— iiapin. In 1798, Mr. Pitt 
proposed and carried, amid great opposition, increased 
taxes "as an aid for the prosecution of the war" with 
France. On Jan. 9, 1799, this act was repealed, and 
graduated duties on income proposed, beginning with 
£60 per annum. On Aug. 11, 1803, was passed the 
"property tax," which levied a rate of 5 per cent, on 
all incomes above £150, and lower rates on smaller in- 
comes. In 1805 it was increased to G}<< per cent., and 
in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent., embracing the divi- 
dends at the bank. It produced 

In 1800 £5,716,572|In 1806 £11,500,000 

1804 4,650,000 1808 10,.548,9S5 

1805 5,937,500| 1815 14,978,557 

The tax produced from lands, houses, etc., £8,6.57,937; 
from funded and stock properties, £2,885,505 ; the 
profits and gains of trade, £3,831,088 ; and salaries 
and pensions, £1,174,456. Repealed March, ISIG. 

Sir Robert Peel's Bill imposing the present tax at a 
rate of Id. in the pound (£2 ISs. 4f/. per cent.) per 
ann.., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842. 

It produced about £5,3.50,000 a year, and enabled Sir 
Robert Peel to repeal about £12,000,000 of indirect 
taxes. 

Renewed for three years in March, 1845 ; and March, 
1848.* 

Continued for one year in 1S51 and 18.52. 

The tax of 7rf. limited to seven years (till 1S60); to be 
gradually reduced in amount; but all incomes from 
£100 to £150 made liable to 5(/. in the jjouud for all 
that period : the tax also extended to Ireland, June, 
1853. 



* I.nrzo meetines nssetnbled in Trafalenr Sminre, Lonilnn, March 6, 
7, 184.S (for the ostensible purpose of opposing the Income Tax) ; rioting 
ensued, which was soon quelled. 



INC 



254 



IND 



In consequence of the Crimean War, the rate was 
doubled, 1S54, Ud. 

M. more added to the tax on incomes above i;i50, and 
1>^(/. on those between illOO and X150; the former 
being Is. 4d., the latter ll}id. in the pound, 1S55. 

The former assessment reduced to Id., the latter to 5d., 
1857. 

Both become 5d., 1858. 

The former raised to M., the latter to 6%d. ; and the 
tax on incomes derived from lands, tenements, etc., 
raised from 3}4d. to 5)4d. for England, and from 2;^d. 
to id. for Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 

The assessment on incomes raised — to those above 
£100 to Id. ; to those above £150 to lOd. 

[The object of the increase was to provide for a defi- 
ciency occasioned by extra expenditure for defend- 
ing the country, April, I860.] 

A committee to inquire into the working of the in- 
come tax appointed, Feb. 14, ISOl. 

Reduction of the last assessment from 7d. to 6cZ., and 
from lOiZ. to 9d. for three quarters of the financial 
year 1861-2. 

The rates of 6rf. and 9(7. to continue, April, 1862. 

The rate of Id. on all chargeable incomes ; 3}^d. on 
farms, etc., in England; and 2><Jd. in Scotland and 
Ireland. Incomes under £100 a year exempted; 
those above £100 and under £200 allowed an abate- 
ment on £60, June S, 1863. 

The rate of Gd. on chargeable incomes, with some ex- 
emptions and abatement. May 13, 1864. 

The rate of 4rf. on chargeable incomes, with same ex- 
emptions and abatement, May, 1865. 

INCOME TAX IN THE United States. In the 
United States the annual income of every person, 
when exceeding $600 and not exceeding $10,000, over 
and above rent actually paid for homestead, shall pay 
a duty on the excess over $600, 5 per cent. ; exceeding 
$10,000, on excess over $600, 5 per cent. ; income from 
United States securities, 1^ per cent. All persons are 
obliged to make a return of their incomes to the treas- 
urer. Any failure to pay the income tax at the time 
appointed adds 5 per cent, to the tax. In 1866 the tax 
was levied only on the excess over $1000. 

INCUMBERED ESTATES. See Encumbered Es- 
tates. 

INCURABLES. The Royal Hospital for incurables, 
founded by Dr. Andrew Reed, at Carshalton, in Sur- 
rey, in 1850, has since been removed to the village of 
Putney. 

INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister of the 
crown, or the government generally, is relieved from 
the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme and 
urgent cases, without the previous sanction of Parlia- 
ment. One was passed April 19, 1801 ; another to in- 
demnify ministers against their acts during the sus- 
pension of the Habeas Corpus Act was carried in the 
Commons (principal divisions, 190 to 04), and in the 
Lords (93 to 2T), March 10, 1818. In 1S48 and 1S5T, bills 
of indemnity were passed for the suspension of the 
Bank Charter Act by the ministry. See Oblivion. An 
indemnity bill is passed at the end of every session of 
Parliament for persons who transgress through igno- 
rance of the law. The practice began in 1715. 

INDEPENDENTS, or Congeeoationalists, hold 
that eacn church or congregation is independent of 
all others, and may govern itself in religious matters. 
They say there is no absolute occasion" for synods or 
councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise 
and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremp- 
torily obeyed ; they affirm that one church may advise 
or reprov& another, but has no authority to excom- 
municate or censure. Robert Brown preached these 
views in 1585, but, after 32 imprisonments, he eventu- 
ally conformed to the Established Church. A church 
was formed in Loudon in 1593, when there were 20,000 
Independents. Thev were driven by persecution to 
Holland, where the/formed several churches ; that at 
Leyden was under Mr. Robinson, often regarded as 
the author of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs 
returned to England and founded a meeting-house. 
Cromwell, who "was himself of their views, obtained 
them toleration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. 
The Independents published an epitome of their faith, 
drawn up at a conference at the Savoy in 1658 ; and 
the Congregational Union of England and Wales, 
formed in 1831, published their " Declaration of Faith, 
Order, and Discipline" in 1833. In 1851 they had 3244 
chapels for 1,067,760 persons in England and Wales. 
See Worship. The first Independents in Scotland were 
the Glasites, ivhich see. The first Independent church 
in America was founded by John Robinson at Plym- 
outh, New England, in 1620. 



INDEX BXPURGATORIUS, a catalogue of the 
books prohil)ited by the Church of Rome, first made 
by the Inquisitors, and approved by the Council of 
Trent, 1559. The Index of heretical books, by which 
the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with cer- 
tain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull 
of Pope Clement VIII. in 1595. Most of the celebrated 
works of France, Spain, Germany, and England are 
prohibited. On June 25, 1864, Hugo's " Les Mist-ra- 
bles" and many other books were added to the num- 
ber. Several books were inserted in it in Jan., 1866. 

INDIA or HINDOSTAN. The Hindoo histories 
ascribe their origin to a period ages before the ordi- 
nary chronoloijies. A race of kings is mentioned as 
reigning 2300 B.C., and Buddhism is said to have been 
introduced 956 B.C. Many ancient nations, particu- 
larly the TjTians and Egyptians, carried on much com- 
merce with India. It was conquered by Darius Hys- 
taspes, who formed an Indian satrapy in 512 B.C., and 
by Alexander, 327 B.C., and subsequently the inter- 
course between India and the Roman Empire was 
much increased. The authentic history of Hiudostau 
is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mah- 
mud Ghazni, A.D. 1004. — Reniwll. See Bengal, Bom- 
bay, Calcutta, Madras, and Oude for farther details.* 
For the new route to India, see Wagtwrn. 
Irruption of the Mohammedans under Mahmud 

Ghazni about 1004 

Extinction of the house of Ghazni, 1186; rule of the 
slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Khilgis 
and house of Toghlak, 1288-1412; of the Syuds, 

1412-50 ; of the house of Lodi 1450-1526 

Patna, or Afghan Empire, founded 1205 

Invasion of Genghis Khan, one of the most bloody 
conquerors of the world ; 14,000,000 of the human 
race perish by his sword under the pretense of 
establishing the worship of one god, 1222 : he 

died 1237 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the cele- 
brated Timour, or Tamerlane, invade Hindos- 
tan, and take Delhi ; defeat the Indian army, 
1397; conquer Hindostan, and butcher 100,000 

of its people 1398-9 

The passage to India discovered by Vasco de 

Gania 149T 

The first European settlement (Portuguese) estab- 
lished by him at Cochin (S. coast) 1502 

Conquest of the country completed by the Sultan 

Baber, founder of the Mogul Empire 1525 

Reign of his son Humayun 1530-56 

Reign of the illustrious Akbar, the greatest prince 

of Hindostan 1556-1605 

Arrival of the English in India 1589 

Reign of Jehanghir 160.5-2T 

Reign of Shah Jehan 1627-58 

Sevajee establishes the Mahratta power 1660-80 

Aurungzebe dethrones his father : his dominions 
extend from 10 to 35 degrees in latitude, and 
nearly as much in longitude, and his revenue 

amounts to £32,000,000 sterling 1658-1707 

Shah Alum succeeds Aurungzebe, 1707 ; killed 1712 

Jehaunder Shah dethroned and killed " 

Feruk Shere assassinated 1717 

Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli 
Khan : at Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
and 150,000 persons perish ; carries away treas- 
ure amounting to £125,000,000 sterlmg 1739 

Mohammed Shah dies 1747 

Defeat of the last imperial army by the Rohillas. .1749 
[The Mogul Empire now became merely nominal, 
distinct and independent sovereignties being 
formed by numerous petty princes. The em- 
perors were of no political consequence from 
this period. In 1761, Shah Alum II., attacking 
the English, was defeated at Patna. In 1764, 
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon 
the protection of the English, who established 
him at Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 
1803, Gen. Lake restored the aged monarch to a 
nominal sovereignty, which descended at his 
death to his son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 
1837, and was succeeded by the last King of 
Delhi (his son), who received a pension of about 
£125,000 per annum. He joined the mutiny in 
1857 ; was tried in 1858, and transported to Ran- 
goon ; died there Nov 11, 1862.] 

* British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat., and from 70° to S0° E. 
lonR. (exclusive of tlie Burmese additions). The population is about 60 
millions; that of the whole peninsula about 176 millions. Cotton was 
planted in 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the electric 
telegraph are being rapidly constructed, and canals for irrigation. See 
Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in the year 1864-5 was £20,371,450. 
The expenditure, £22,915,160. In 1858-9, the revenue was £36,060,788 ; 
expenditure, £49,642,359. 



IND 



25i; 



IND 



nRiTisu powEn in inma. 
Attempt made to reach ludia by the northeast and 

northwest passages 1528 

Sir Frauds Drake's expedition 1579 

Levant Company malve a land expedition to lEdia,1589 

First advc'ulure from Enf,'land 1591 

First charter to the London company of merchants 

(see India Coinjiaitii) IGOO 

Factories established at Siirat 1012 

Sir Thomas Hoc, lirst English ambassador, arrives,1615 

Madras made a presidency 1052 

Bombay becomes an English possession 1CG2 

French company established 1604 

They settle at Pondicherry 1008 

Calcutta purchased 1098 

War between the English and French in India. .1740-9 
English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the 

French government, without success 1748 

Clivc takes Arcot 1T51 

Peace made 1754 

Severndroog and other strong-holds of the pirate 

Angria taken Feb. 11,1756 

Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah (see Cal- 
cutta and Black Hole) June, " 

Calcutta retaken by Clive ; he defeats the Soubah 

at Plassey June 20,1757 

[Colonel Clive's force was but 3U00 men, and the 
Soubah's 50,000. By this victory he acquu-ed all 
Benu'al, and numerous conquests followed.] 

Fort William, the strongest fort iu India, built " 

French successful under Lally 175S 

But lose nearly all their power 1759 

The French under Lally defeated by Sir Eyre 

Coote near Wandewash July 2,1760 

Hyder Ali acquires the sovereignty of Mysore 1761 

Conquest of Patna Nov. 6,1763 

Battle of Buxar {wliMi see) Oct. 23,1764 

The nabob becomes subject to the English 1705 

Lord Clive obtains the Uewanuy by an imperial 
grant, which constitutes the Company the le- 
ceivers of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and 
Orissa, and gives the British the virtual sov- 
ereignty of these countries Aug. 12, " 

Treaty with Nizam All: the English obtain the 

Northern Circars Nov. 12,1766 

Hvder Ali ravages the Carnatic Jan., 1769 

Frightful famine in Bengal 1770 

Walreu Hastings governor of Bengal April 13,1772 

Treaty with Bhootan 1774 

India Bill: Supreme Court established (see India 

Bills) 1773 

Accusations commence against Warren Hastings: 
he is accused of taking a bribe from a concubine 

of Meer Jaffler (see Hastings) May 80,1775 

Nuncomer, a Brahmin, accuses Warreu Hastings 

of receiving bribes March 11,1770 

Is hanged for forgery Aug. 5, " 

Pondicherry taken Oct. 11,1778 

The strong fortress of Gwalior taken by .Major 

Popham Aug. 4, " 

Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the 

British Sept. 10,1780 

He takes Arcot Oct. 31, " 

Hyder Ali defeated by Sir Eyre Coote July 1,1781 

Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes 

(see Clninar) Sept. 19, " 

Bussy lauds with a French detachment March,17S2 

War with Hyder Ali aided by the French " 

Ilyder Ali overthrown by Coote June 2, " 

Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo 

Sahib Dec. 11, " 

Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes Bed- 

uore April 30,1783 

Pondicherry restored to the French, and Triuco- 

malee to the Dutch " 

Peace with Tippoo March 11,1784 

War with Tippoo renewed 1700 

Cornwallis defeats him at Arikera May 16,1791 

Bangalore taken (sec Baiigahrc) March 21, " 

Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sous hos- 

ta''es March 19,1792 

Civil and criminal courts erected 1793 

Pondicherry again taken " 

Tijjpoo's sons restored March 29,1794 

First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by Gen- 
eral Erskiue 1795 

Government of Lord Mornington, afterward Mar- 
quess Welleslcy May 17,1798 

Seringapatam stormed by General Baird; Tippoo 

Sahib killed May 4,1799 

Mysore divided June 22, " 

Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered, ISOO 
The Nabob of Fumickabad cedes his territories to 
the English for a pension June 4,1802 



Mahratta War. Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley 

and General Lake 1803 

Wellesley's first great victory at Assayc . . Sept. 23, " 

Pondicherry (restored 1801) retaken .Dec, " 

War with Holkar 1804-6 

Capture of Bhurtpore, and complete defeat of Hol- 
kar April 2,1805 

The marquess dies Oct. 5, " 

The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the Brit- 
ish ; treaty of peace Nov. 23, " 

Treaty with Holkar Dec. 24, " 

Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed July,180G 

Cumoona surrenders Nov. 21,1807 

Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled Aug. 23,1809 

Act opening the trade to ludia July,1813 

War with Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar defeated by Sir T. Hislop Dec. 21,1817 

Pindaree War. English successful 1817-13 

Peace with Holkar Jan. 6,1818 

Burmese War. The British take Rangoon. .May 5,1824 

Lord Combennere commands iu India " 

Malacca ceded, and Singapore purchased " 

Mutiny at Barrackpore ; many Sepoys killed, Nov., " 
General Campbell defeats the Burmese near 

Proome Dec. 25,1825 

Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere Jan. 18,1826 

Peace with the Burmese Feb. 24, " 

LThey pay Xl, 000,000 sterling, and cede a great ex- 
tent of territory.] 
Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows (see 

Suttees) Dec, 7,1829 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, etc, 
to China, forming a new era iu British com- 
merce Aug. 28,1833 

Rajah of Coorg deposed ; Coorg annexed, April 10,1884 
The natives first admitted to the magistracy. May 1, " 
The Nawab Shuusooddeu put to death for the mur- 
der of Mr. Frazer, British resident Oct. 8,1835 

AFGHAN WAK. 

Proclamation against Dost Mohammed Oct. 1,1838 

The British occupy Caudahar April 21,1839 

Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of Sir John (now Lord) 

Keaue (see Ghiznee) July 23, " 

Wade forces the KhyberPass July 26,1839 

Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, and he 

and the British army enter Cabul Aug. 7, " 

English defeat Dost Mohammed Oct. 18,1840 

Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies; at his fu- 
neral his successor is killed by accident, and 
Dost Mohammed, next heir, surrenders to En- 
gland Nov. 5, " 

General rising against the British at Cabul ; Sir 
Alexander Buriies and other officers murdered, 

Nov. 2,1841 
Sir William Macnaghten treacherously assassina- 
ted Dec 25, " 

The British under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
placing Lady Sale, etc., as hostages in the hands 
of Akbar Khan; a dreadful massacre ensues of 
about 26,000 men, women, and children, Jan. 6-13,1842 

The British evacuate Ghiznee March 6, " 

Sortie from Jellalabad ; General Pollock forces the 

Khyber Pass April 5, " 

Ghiznee retaken by General Nott Sept. 6, " 

General Pollock re-enters Cabul Sept. 16, " 

Lady Sale, etc., are rescued by Sir R. Shakspeare, 

■and arrive at General Pollock's camp. . . Sept. 21, " 
Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifica- 
tions Oct. 12, " 

SOINDE WAR. 

Ameers defeated by Sir Charles Napier at IMeanee, 

Feb. 17,1843 
Scinde annexed to the British Empire, Sir Charles 
Napier governor June, " 

GWALIOB W-AR. 

Battles ofMaharajpoor andPunniar; the strong 
fort of Gwalior, the "Gibraltar of the East," 
taken Dec. 29, " 

Danish possessions in India purchased 1845 

SIKH WAK.* 

The Sikhs cross the Sutlej River, and attack the 
British at Ferozepore Dec 14, ' 

Sir H. Hardingc, after a long, rapid march, reaches 
Moodke ; the Sikhs (20,000) make an attack ; after 
a hard contest they retire, abandoning their guns 
{see Moodkec) Dec 18, " 

* Runieot Singh, Ion? the ruler of the Sikhs and the Piinjab, lived 
in araity with the British. After his death, June 27, 1S39, several of 
his successors (chil.lren and p-andchildren) were in turn assassinated. 
Durin" the niinoritv '>( his grandson, Dhuleep Singh, the favorite of the 
Maha Ranee, Lall Singh, ruled ; and, finding the army ungovernable, 
Bttuctioned the unprovoked attack on the British, as giveu above. 



IND 



56 



IND 



Battle of Ferozesha {wJiich see)) Dec. 21, 22,1S45 

Battle of Aliwal; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal 
aud Sutkj) Jan. 2S,1846 

Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with 
immeuse loss (see Sohraon) Feb. Id, " 

Citadel of Lahore occupied by Sir Hugh Gough, 
and the war terminates Feb. '20, " 

Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received atMoodke 
(Dec. IS, 1S45) Feb. 23, " 

The governor general aud Sir Hugh Gough are 
raised to the peerage as Viscouut'Hardinge and 
Baron Gough, and receive the thanks of Parlia- 
ment and of the East India Company, March 2, 6, " 

Treaty of Lahore signed March 9, " 

Vizier Lall Singh deposed Jan. 13,1847 

Mr. Vans Agnew and Lieut. Anderson killed by the 
troops of the Dewan Moolraj April 21,1843 

Lieut. Edwardes joins General Courtland, and 
most gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, 
which he defeats after a sanguinary battle of 
nine hours, at Keunyree June 18, " 

General Whish raises the siege of Mooltau through 
the desertion of Shere Singh Sept. 22, " 

Shere Singh, intrenched on the right bank of the 
Cheuab with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- 
lery. Major General Thackwell crosses the river 
with 13 infantry regiments, with cavalry and 
cannon, and operates on his left flank. .Nov. 20, " 

Lord Gough meantime attacks the enemy's ad- 
vanced position ; the British suffered great 
slaughter, but finally defeated Shere Singh, who 
is driven out of Kamnugger Nov. 22, " 

Victory of Chillianwallah"(!''/iic7j see) Jan. 13,1849 

Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mooltau 
by Moolraj (see Mooltan) .■ Jan. 22, " 

Victory of Goojerat {which see) Feb. 21, " 

Sir Charles Napier appointed commander-in-chief, 

March 7, " 

The Sikh army surrenders unconditionally, 

March 14, " 

Formal annexation of the Punjab to the British 
dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension 
of £40,000 March 29, " 

Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. 
Agnew and Lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted 
to transportation for life Sept., " 

Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal na- 
tive infantry for mutiny Feb. 27,1850 

Dr.Healy, of the Bengal army, and his attendants, 
murdered by the Affredis March 20, " 

Embassy from the King of Nepaul to the Queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (seeXe2Jmil), 

May 25, " 

Kesignation of his command in India by Sir 
Charles Napier July 2, " 

His farewell address to the Indian army. .Dec. 15, " 

BTJKMEBE V.'AK. 

Death ofBajee Rao, ex-peishwa of theMahrattas. 
[His iiepliew, Nana Sahib's claim for continu- 
ance of the pension (i;80,000) refused] . ..Jan. 28,1851 
British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in the 
Burnian Empire, and Commodore Lambert al- 
lows the viceroy thirty-five days to obtain in- 
structions from Ava Oct. 29, " 

TheViceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication 
between the shore and the British ships of war, 
and erects batteries to prevent their departure, 

Jan. 4,1852 

[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy; 

the Fox, Hermes, etc., attacked by the batteries, 

destroy the fortifications, aud kill nearly 300 of 

the enemy.] 

Martaban (April 5), Rangoon (April 14), and Bas- 

sein stormed by the British May 19, " 

Pegu captured, afterward abandoned June 4, " 

Prome captured by Capt. Tarleton July 9, " 

Pegu recaptured by General Godwin Nov. 21, " 

Pegu annexed to our Indian Empire by proclama- 
tion of the governor general Dec. 20, " 

Revolution at Ava : the King of Ava deposed by 

his younger brother Jan. ,1853 

Rangoon devastated by fire Feb. 14, " 

Capt. Lock and many officers and men killed in • 
an attack on the stroD<r-hold of a robber chief, 
Feb. 3, which is taken by Sir J. Cheape, March 19, " 
First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 

Tannah) April 16, " 

Termination of the war June, " 

New India Bill passed Aug. 20, " 

Death of General Godwin Oct. 26, " 

Assassination of Captain Latter Dec. S, " 

Rajah ofNagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 
the E.I. Company Dec. 11, " 



Opening of Ganges Canal •. 1854 

Opening of the Calcutta railway Feb. 3,1855 

Treaty with Dost Mohammed of Cabul. .March 31, " 

Insurrection of the Sonthals {which see) Jul}', " 

Which is only finally suppressed May,185C 

Oude annexed (see Oude) Feb. 7, ,, 

MUTINY OP THE NATIVE AEMT. 

Mutinies in the Bengal army: at Barrackpore, etc., 
several regiments disbanded March, 1857 

"India is quiet throughout" — Bombay Gazette, 

Mayl, " 

Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi). The mutineers 
seize Delhi, where they commit dreadful out- 
rages, aud proclaim the King of Delhi emperor, 

May 10, etc., " 

Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
the energy of'Mr. Montgomery and Brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab May 12, " 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieutenant 
governor, J. R. Colvin May, " 

British troops under General Anson advance on 
Delhi ; his death May 27, " 

The mutineers defeated in many attacks. 

May 30-June 23, " 

Mutiny at Lucknow May 30, " 

Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, June 3, 
and recovers Allahabad June 4, " 

Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal: fearful atroci- 
ties committedt June, " 

Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
saved June 11, " 

Ex-king of Oude arrested June 14, " 

Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the rebels 
commences July 1, " 

Sir II. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 

July 4, " 

The liberty of the press restricted July 4, " 

Sir H. Barnard, commanding before Delhi, dies of 
cholera, succeeded by General Reed July 5, " 

General Nicholson destroys a large body of rebels 
at Sealcote July 12, " 

Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills 
the garrison, etc., June 28; he is defeated by 
Gen. Havelock, July 16, who recaptures Cawn- 
pore (see Cawvjwre) July 17, " 

Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, July IS ; and 
at Lahore July 20, " 

General Reed retires and Sir Archdale Wilson 
takes the command before Delhi July 22, " 

Revolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with se- 
vere loss at Arrah July 25, " 

Heroic exertions and numerous victories of Gen. 
Havelock aud his army, although suffering from 
disease July 29 to Aug. 16, " 

Lord Canning's so-called "Clemency" proclama- 
tion July 31, " 

Victory of Neill atPaudoo Nuddee Aug. 15, " 

General Nicholson's victory at Nujufighur [he 
dies Sept. 23] Aug. 25, " 

Assault of Delhi took place Sept. 14; the city 
taken, Sept. 20 ; the king captured, Sept. 21 ; his 
son aud grandson slain by Colonel Hodson, 

Sept. 22, " 

Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves un- 
der him Sept. 10, " 

Havelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the 
besieged residency ; retires and leaves Outram 
in command ; Neill killed Sept. 25, 26, " 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolund- 



* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) musliet in the Indian 
army, greased cartridg^es had been brought from England. These were 
objected to by the native Boldiers, and the issue of them was immedi- 
ately discontinued by orders in Jan., 1857. A mutinous spirit, how- 
ever, gradually arose in the Bengal native army. In March several 
regiments were disbanded, followed by others, till in June the army 
had lost by disbandmcnt and desertion about 30,000 men. On April 5, 
a Sepoy, and on April 20, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were execu- 
ted. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. In April, 85 of the 3d 
Bengal native cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. On 
May 9 they were committed to jail. On Sunday, the 10th, a mutiny in 
the native troops broke out; they fired on their officers, hilling Col, 
Finnis and others. They then released their comrades, massacred many 
Europeans, and fired the public buildings. The European troops ral- 
lied and drove them from their cantouments. The mutineers then fled 
to Delhi, W/ic^ see. 

\ At the end of June the native troops at the following places were 
in open mutiny: Meerut, Delhi, Ferozepore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Mur- 
daun, Lucknow, Cawnpore, Nurseeraltad, Neemneh, Han^i, IJissar, 
Jhansi, Mehidpore, Jullundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, Ba- 
reilli/, Shahjehanpore, Allahabad. At the stations printed in italics, 
European women and children were massacred. — The Relief Fnvd for 
the sufferers in India was commenced Aug. 25, 1857. The queen, Louis 
Napoleon, and the sultan gave each iUIOO. In Nov., 1857, ^280,749 
had been collected ; in Nov., 1868, i433,620. In Dec, 18G1, ^140,000 
had been distributed to sufferers in India; and i!100,OOD to those at 
home ; £246,069 remained for the benefit of widows and orphans. A 
fast was observed on Oct. 7, 



IND 



237 



IND 



shohur, Sept. 27 ; d^troys a fort at Molasjhiir, 
Sept. 29 ; takes Allyghur, Oct. 5 ; aud defeats 

rebels at Agra Oct. 1U,1S57 

Sir Ciilin Campbell (since Lord Clyde) appointed 
commander-in-chief, July 11 ; arrives at Cawu- 

, pore Nov. 3, " 

Marches to Aluniba;;!], near Luckuow, Nov. 9 ; aud 

takes Secuiidci'aba^h Nov. 1(5, " 

Joined by llavelock, he attacks the rebels aud res- 
cues the besieged in the residency. ..Nov. lS-25, " 
Havelock* dies of dyentery at Alumbagh.Nov. 2.5, " 
General Wiudham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
loss in an attack on the rebellious Gwalior con- 
tingent, who take part of Cawnpore Nov. 2T, " 

Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he re- 
takes, Nov. 28, and defeats the Gwalior rebels, 

Dec. 6, " 
The rebels defeated by Seaton, Dec.l4, 17, and 27 ; 
at Goruckpore by Rowcroft, Dec. 27 ; aud at Fut- 

tehghur by Sir C. Campbell Jan. 2,1S5S 

Luoknow strongly fortified by the rebels Jan , " 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, aud Grant victori- 

ous in many encounters Jan. aud Feb., " 

Trial of King of Delhi ; sentenced to transporta- 

„.tiou • ■ • • • • Jan. 27 to March 9, 

Sir C. Campbell marches to Luckuow, Feb.il ; the 
siege commences March 8 • taken by successive 
assaults; the enemy retreat ; Hodson killed, 
„ March 14-19, 

Severe proclamation of governor general in Onde,t 
^ , „ , March 14, 

General Roberts takes Kotah March 30, 

Sir Hugh Rose beats the euemy severely, and takes 

Jhansi April 4 

General Whitelock takes Budaou April 19* 

Death of Captain Sir W. Peel, of small-pos, at 

Cawnpore April 27, 

General Penny killed in Rohilcuud May 4, 

Bareilly recaptured May 7, 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times— 
at Kooueh, May 11, and near Calpee, which he 

retakes May 23, 

V ictory of Sn- E Lugard at Jugdespore . . .May 29, 
The rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 

who escapes to Agra June 13 

The rebels defeated by Sir H. Rose (the heroic 
Ranee of Jhansi killed), June 17 ; Gwalior re- 
taken and Sciudiah reinstated June 19, 

Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels 

Rajahs of Jeypore, etc., surrender; Rohilcuud and 

other provinces tranquillized July, 

General Roberts destroys the remains of the Gwa- 
lior rebels Auo-. 14 

Many Oude chiefs surrender .Aug.', 

An attempt of disbanded regiments to retake their 
arms at Mooltau suppres.sed by Major Hamilton 
(300 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured 

afterward) Aug. 31, 

The government of tlie East India Company ceases, 

Sept.l, 
General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee near Rai- 

^,ghur. Sept. 15, 

The queen is proclaimed throughout India— Lord 

Cauning to be the first viceroy .- Nov. 1 ' 

Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit' 

others subdued Nov. 1-3] ' 

At Dhooden Khera, Lord Clyde (formerly Sir c' 



Campbell) defeats Beui Ma'hdo Nov. 24" " 

Flight of Tantia Topee— he is beaten in Guzerat 

by Major Sutherland Nov 2.'i " 

The Ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 

Hope, Dec. 4-11; the colonists refuse to receive 

him ; he is sent to Rangoon " 

Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (■^reativ 

lamented) 'ilfic. 6 " 

Indecisive skirmishes with Ferozeshati Dec' " 

Who joins Tantia Topee; they are defeated i'u 

several small engagements Jau 1859 

Euforcement of the l)isarming Act in the uorth- 

west provinces j;ju n 

The Punjab made a distinct presidency.'.'.". Jan. i' " 
Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; they enter 

Nepaul jgj] <i 

Guerrilla warfiire continues in" Rohiicund"."."."Feb ' " 
Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, 

about Feb. 25, " 



• Born April 5, 1795; educated at the Charter House, London, where 
he was called " old rhloa ;" went to India, \Hi3 ; served in the Burmese 
War, 1824 ; and in the .Sikh War, 1845. He was a Baptist. 

t Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, sent, unknown to his 
colleaiiues, a dispatch severely censurini; this proclamation. This dis- 
patch became public, and led to his resignation, and very nearly to the 
defeat of the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both houses 
of Purliameut, but not carried. 

R 



Defeat of the Begum of Ondc and Nana Sahib by 

General Ilorslord peb 10 1859 

tfon '^^^ ^"*^'''*" *'"''^" '^■'^"''^^ ™"ch di'ssatis'fac'- 

Maim "Siugh'surrenders". ;■.■.". ■.".■.;; 'Amifl' " 

a aiitia Topee taken, April 7 ; hanged" '. ! April ^S, " 

dia "^ 1" England for paaficatiou of In- 

Mutinous conduct" of' Bri'tisli" troops" iatefy in ^h4 ' 
Company s service at Meerut and other places ■ 
dissatished on accouut of their transfer to the 

Qiieu s service without bounty Mav 5 " 

Sir Hope Grant defeats Naua Sahib iu the jorwah 

i^o.ss Mav '23 " 

A court of inquiry appointed j„ue' » 

Sir Charles Wood becomes Secretary for India, ' 
!-,• i- e i- June 22, " 
Dissatisfiiction among the troops at their transfer 
trom the service of the Company to that of the 
crown without a bouuty settled by discharo-e 
being oflered to them, which about 10,000 ac- 
cept.......... ... . j„i .. 

Thanksgiving day observed iu India July "8 " 

An Income Tax Bill (called "The Trades' aud 
Professions' Liceusiug Bill") passes the Legis- 
lative Council ; great meetings at Calcutta and 

Madras protesting agaiust it Sept., " 

Rajah Jey-loll Singh hanged Oct. l" " 

Naua Sahib iu force, iu Nepaul, on the frontiers 

of Oude Oct. " 

Insurgents iu Nepaul dispersed '.".'."Dec. 24, " 

Important financial changes made by Mr. James 

Wilson, new finance secretary Feb., 1860 

Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, etc., from 

India March, " 

Paper currency determined on March, " 

Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for 

murders caused by him March 2 " 

Sir Charles Trevelyan recalled from Madras for 
publishing a government minute against Mr. 

Wilson's commercial scheme May, " 

Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian 
army, which is amalgamated with the British 

f»my July, " 

Lord Clyde quits India, aud arrives in London, 
X , July 18, " 

Lord Canning's recommendation that the adopted 
successors of Indian princes should be recog- 
nized is adopted by the home government, 

July 21, " 
Death of Sir H. Ward, the new governor at Mad- 
ras, Aug. 3; and of Mr. James Wilson... Aug. 11, " 
Naua Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle lever 

iu Aug., 1858, is said to be living in Tibet, Dec, " 
Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore 
suppressed ; breaks out again, Oct. 5 ; is again 
suppressed, one man is shot, aud the regiment 

disbanded ifov. 13, " 

British troops repulsed at Sikkira Nov.,' " 

Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 

Bombay aud other places Dec, " 

Great excitement against Sir Charles Wood's grant 
of X5'20,000 to the descendants of Tippoo Sahib, 

about Dec. 22, " 
Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James M'ilson, 

arrives Jan. 10,1801 

Awful famine in N. W. provinces through failure 
of the crops ; immense exertions of the govern- 
ment and others to relieve the sufferers, 

Jan. -June, " 
Expedition marches against Sikkim ; natives re- 
tire Feb., " 

Disturbances in the indigo districts continue, 

March, " 
Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, 

murdered by his servants March 31, " 

British subscriptions for relief of the famine com- 
mence at the Mansion House, London, with 
£400, March 28 ; £52,000 subscribed April 20 ; 

closes with £114,807 Nov., " 

Order of the "Star of India" {which sec) consti- 
tuted June 25, " 

Excitement through the printing and circulation 
of "Nil Darpan," a Hindoo diama libeling the 

indigo-planters June, " 

The Rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced to 

flue and imprisonment Aug., " 

New Indian C<nincil and new High Court of Judi- 
cature established Aug., " 

Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. governor of Bengal (who had 
authorized the translation of "Nil Darpan"), 
and Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, 
without authority, distributed copies), are cen- 
sured, and resign Sept., " 



IXD 



258 



IND 



Law of property in India altered; sale of waste 
lauds authorized Oct.,18Cl 

Lords Harris and Clyde, Sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep 
Singh, and others,"iuvested with the insignia of 
the Star of India by the queen Nov. 1, " 

Reported prosperity of Indian finances : liceuse 
tax not to he reimposed Dec. 31, " 

First meeting of the new Legislative Council of 
India includes several Indian princes. . .Jan. 18,1863 

Lord Elgin, the new governor general, arrives at 
Calcutta March 1-2, " 

Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, April 20 ; 
dies June 17, " 

Mr. S. Laiug returns to England through ill health ; 
censured by Sir C. Wood ; he justifies himself 
and resigns Jnly, " 

High Court of Judicature at Bengal inaugurated, 

July 12, " 

Reported suspension of the sale of waste lands, 

Aug., " 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt, 

Sept. 8, " 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in India 
reported Oct., " 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, ar- 
rives Jan. 8,1803 

First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta, 

Jan. 10-30, " 

Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N. W. provinces, 

Oct., " 

Wi^r Avith warlike hill-tribes on the N. W. fron- 
tiers, Oct. ; severe conllict. Gen. Chamberlain 
wounded, Nov. 20; war ended ...Dec. 29, " 

The Hindoo religion deprived of government sup- 
port Dec, " 

Death of Lord Elgin, Nov. 20 : Sir John Lawrence 
appointed his successor Dec, " 

He assumes office Jan. 12,1804 

Excitement among the Hindoos on account of 
government suppressing funeral rites on sani- 
tary grounds March, " 

Prosperous financial statement of Sir Charles 
Trevelyan April, " 

Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam, 

about April, " 

Gold currency (sovereign=10 rupees) ordered to 
be introduced at Christmas Jnly, " 

Terrific cyclone — immense loss of life, property, 
and ships at Calcutta and elsewhere Oct. 5, " 

Grand durbar held by Sir John Lawrence at La- 
hore ; attendance of 604 native princes.. Oct. 18, " 

War with the Bhootanese— fortress ofDhalimcote 
taken Dec 12, " 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay. . .Dec, " 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss Jan. 29,1805 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a tele- 
gram from Kurrachce received March 1, " 

WTMassey succeeds Sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
minister ; he arrives at Calcutta March 31, " 

Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in 
the revenue April 1, " 

Dewangiri (which had been abandoned) recap- 
tured" by Gen. Tombs April 2, " 

Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of the army, 
which is assumed by Sir Wra. Mansfield, April 23, " 

Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by Sir C. 
Wood May, " 

Death of the able and beneficent Hon. Juggonath 
Sunkersett, the recognized representative of the 
Hindoo community July 31, " 

Negotiation with the Bhootanese July, " 

Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta; 205 
coolies perish through cruel neglect Aug. 24, " 

Much dissatisfaction "at mildewed cotton goods 
being received from England Jul3'-0ct., " 

Peace with the Bhootanese signed {telegram) 

Nov. 13, " 

GOVEKNOKS GENEKAl. OF INTIIA, ETC.* 

Warren Hastings assumes the governmeut in In- 
dia April 13,1772 

Sir John Macpherson Feb. 1,178.5 

Lord Cornwallis Sept. 12,1786 

Sir John Shore (afterward Lord Teignmouth), 

Oct. 28,1793 

* Several of these appointments are those of governors freneral pro- 
visionally, Imvinp; been first in rank in the council, and holding office 
on the resipmation of the governors general, or pending their arrival 
and assumption of the government ; as, for instance, Sir Alured Clarlje, 
Sir George Hilaro Barlow, Hon. William Butterworth Bayley, Wil- 
liam Wilberforco Bird, etc. The appointments of governors general 
were, of course, of earlier date than their assumption of ofEce. 



Lord (afterward Marquess) Cc^rnwallis again : he 
relinquished the appointment. 

Sir Alured Clarke April C,179S 

Lord Moruiugtou (afterward Marquess Wellesley), 

May 17, " 

Marquess Cornwallis again July 30,1805 

Sir George Hilaro Barlow Oct. 10, " 

Lord Miuto July 31,1807 

Earl of Moira, afterward Marquess of Hastings, 

Oct. 4,1813 

Hon. John Adam Jan. 13,1823 

Rt. Hon. George Canning relinquished the ap- 
pointment. 

William, lord (afterward Earl) Amherst Aug. 1, " 

Hon. W. Btttterworth Bayley March 13,1823 

Lord Wm. Cavendish Beutiuck July 4, " 

[This nobleman became the first governor gen- 
eral of India under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 
85, Aug. 28, 1833.] 
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterward Lord 

Metcalfe) March 20,1835 

William, lord Heytesbury. Did not proceed. 
George, lord Auckland (afterward Earl of Auck- 
land) March 4,1836 

Edward, lord Ellenborough Feb. 28,1842 

William Wilberforce Bird June 15,1844 

Sir Henry (afterward Viscount) Hardinge, July 23, " 
James Andrew, earl (afterwarcl Marqttess) of Dal- 

housie Jan. 12,1848 

Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed July, 
1855. (Proclaimed the first vioep.oy throughout 
India, Nov. 1,1858.) 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed Aug., 1861 ; died 

Nov. 20,1863 
Sir John Lawrence appointed Dec, " 

INDIA COMPANY. The first commercial inter- 
course of the English with the East Indies was a pri- 
vate adventure of three ships fitted out in 1591. Only 
one of them reached India; and, after a voyage of 
three years, the commander. Captain Lancaster, wag 
brought home in another ship, the sailors having 
seized on his own ; but his iiifi)rmation gave rise to a 
mercantile voyage and the Company's first charter, in 
Dec, leOO, which was renewed in 1609, 1057, 1661, 1693, 
and 1744. Its stock in 1000 consisted of £72,000, when 
it fitted out four .ships; meeting with success, it con- 
tinued to trade. India stock sold at £500 for a share 
ofX100nulG83. 

A new company (the "English") was chartered in 
1698, and the old (the " London") suspended from 
trading for three years; the two were united in 1702 

Privileges of the Company continued till 1783 1744 

Afi'airs of the Comjjany were brought before Par- 
liament, and a committee exposed a series of in- 
trigues and crimes Aug., 1772 

As remedial measures, two acts passed (one au- 
thorized a loan of £1,000,000 to the Company; 
the other (celebrated as the India Bill) effected 
most important changes in the constitution of 
the Company and its relations to India. A gov- 
ernor general was appointed to reside in Ben- 
gal, to which the other presidencies 'were now 
made subordinate; a supreme Court of Judica- 
ture was instituted at Calcutta ; the salary of 
the governor was fixed atX25,000 per year; that 
of the council at X'10,000 each ; and of the chief 
judge at £8000 ; the afi'airs of the Company were 
controlled ; all the departments were reorgan- 
ized, and all the territcn-ial correspondence "was 
henceforth to be laid before the British minis- 
try) Juue.1773 

Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 

{which see) passed May 18,1784 

The Company's charter was renewed for 20 years 
in 1793 ; and in (the trade with India thrown 

open) 1813 

The trade to China opened and the charter re- 
newed till 1854 1833 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the dis- 
appearance of the Company's army, the govern- 
ment of India was transferred to the crown, the 
Board of Control was abolished, and a Council 
of State for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 
Vict., c. 106, which received the royal assent 

Aug. 2,1858* 
The Company's political power ceased on Sept. 1 ; 

* Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the purpose on Feb. 1 2, wliich 
was accepted by the House on Feb. 18. He resigned on the following 
day, and the bill dropped. A similar bill was introduced by Mr. Dis- 
raeli on March 19; but many of its details being objccted'fo, it was 
withdrawn. On Lord John Russell's proposition, the House proceeded 
to consider the matter by way of resolutions; on June 17, Lord Stan- 
ley brought in the above-mentioned bill, being the third on the subject 
introduced during the session. 



IND 



259 



IND 



and the queen was proclaimed as Queen of Great 
Britain and the Colonies, etc., in the principal 
ijlaics in India, amid nnich cntliusia.sm. .Nov. 1,1853 
The East India Hoirsi; built, }1M; enlari^ed and 
a new front erected, IT'.Mi ; sold with tlie furni- 
ture, ISGl ; pulled down in Sept. and Oct 1862 

INDIA, CorNoir, of, established in 1S58 in the place 
of the lioard of Control (n'hich sec). It consists of 15 
memliers ^salary £1200 a year), eight of whom are ap- 
jioinled by the queen, and seven elected by the direct- 
ors of the East India Company. The members may 
not sit in Parliament. The council met first on Sept. 
H, 1S58, when Lord Stan lev, secretary of state for In- 
dia, presided. In June, is.vj, he resigned, and was suc- 
ceeded by Sir Chtirles Wood. The members of the 
Jirst council are here recorded : 



EI.EOTET). 

Charles Mills. 
Jiiliii Shepherd. 
Sir .r. Weir Iloijg. 
Elliot :\Iacnai,diten. 
Ifnss 1). .Alangles. 
William J. Eastwick, 
Ueury T. Priusep. 



APPOINTED. 

Sir Frederick Carrie. 

Sir Henry Rawlinsou. 

Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 

•T. l^)llard Willouo-hby. 

Sir John Lawrence. 

"^ir Henry Montgomery. 

Sir Proby Cautley, and 

Wm. Arbuthuot. 
, ™PIAN MUSETOI, TuE, was proposed by Sir C. 
1 Tol n.v'*"'^ approved by the East India Company iu 
179b Ihe valuable collections were removed from 
Leadenhall Street to Fife House, behind the chapel 
royal, \\ hitehall, and opened July 24, 1S61. 

e„Ji^'^*,^-^^.'^.!n^^^'?,^*'^P .^^^^^ Of North America, was 
settjed m li30, and admitted into the Union Dec. 11, 

T^^J^t^.^S. The American Indians or aborigine'; are 
dimimshing m numbers before the march of civiliza- 
TT°"; i£'?^'*^^.°^*' number within the domain of the 
United States in 1853 was estimated at 400,764, distrib- 
utee! as follows : Eastward of the Mississippi 17 000 • 
in Minnesota, and along the frontiers of the Western 
? n onn"" Tesas (mostly emigrants from the East), 
110,000: on the Plains and among the Rocky Moun- 
tains, 63,000 ; in Texas, 29,000; NewMexico, 45^000 Tn 
Cahforuia, 100,0«10 ; Utah, 12,000; Oreo-on and Wash- 
iiu'ton, 23,000 The following are some of the princi- 
pal events in Indian history, as connected with Euro- 
pean settlements : 
Carried from South Carolina for slaves by the 

Spaniards ^ irfiO 

Massacre of Spaniards by the Indians. I'wi 

Alabama Indians fight De Soto i539_41 

English treachery at Roanoke revenged '^1535 

MautM, a Haiteras chief, made Lord of Roanoke ' '1587 
New England Indians kidnapped by the En<rlish 

and sold into slavery ^ ■,(.■,, 

Received the English kindlv jnoo 

King Philip's War in New England iivhich """ 
Join the French against the English 

Burn Schenectady and Casco 

Attacked in Georgia by South Caroiiuians! '.'.'." 'l703 

Attacked by Captain Church ' ' ' 1 704 

Burn Deerfield (Massachusetts) u 

Burn Haverhill (New Hampshire) ..'.'. 170s 

War with the whites iu North Carolina. 1 71 1 

T uscaroras expelled from North Carolina 171^ 

Uarupon the whites in Soulh Carolina.. 1715 

Join the French in the war from '"irkj^a-^ 

Cherokees subdued 17fii 

Pou tiac's conspiracy 1 7^0 

Active on both sides during the War of the Revol 



Osceola, in Florida, captured 1007 

The Maudans destroyed... . .. 

Chippewas massacred by Sioux. ■■ 

Oregon Indians chastised 10,7 

Hostilities against the whites iu Oregon and Wash- 
ington Territories " "''"".„„ 

Rogue River Indians defeated. '.['^['] DeV " 

Wo J'"'''?" ^°i"",?^ ^"^ ^^'l^'tes in Oregon and 
Washington ; Indians subdued 1 o.r 

clJsed ]fi^^ Ti'"" ^'"'^ 'ri'^ "f^"' the'war'which 
closed in 185., and were glad to accept and observe 



.1676 
1690 



Cherry Valley massacre ?^o 

Treaty with the Choctaws lyii- 

Treaty with the Creek.s ||n,^ 

Defeat General Ilarmcr near Chillicothe' '. '• 

Deleat General St. Clair 1701 

Defeated by General Wayne. ..".'.' 170! 

Treaty with Six Nations ,'. ■■ 

Trealy at Greenville i-nE 

Treaty with Delawares .' iin2 

Defeated at Ti],pecanoe ". isil 

Creek War in Horida 1813-14 

Treaty with Southern tribes ' ' ' jgig 

Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States' ' ' " 

War with thoSeminoles ""l81T 

Measures for removing Indians west of tiie Missis- 
sippi adopted 1009 

Black Hawk War ::;:::::: << 

Seminole War 1835-42 

Treaty with the Sioux, and .5,000,000 acres'ofVand 
west of the Mississippi obtained by the United 

States 1S37 

Treaty with the Winnebagoes .... . . .' . .' .' .' .' .' ' " Vi 



lished across them. At last, having two or 'three re"-.^i- 
L'"n?fh?''"'°"''" ^'■°°Pf ?'-g'"ii^ed and in the serv- 
ice of the governmeut, doing garrison duty at the 
various forts in the Territory,1he people of Colorado 
anxious to possess the land on which the Indians were 
ocated began hostilit es against them. On AprinL 
1864 a band of friendly Cheyeunes were accused of 
stealing cattle, and, though they denied the charge and 
explained that the Kiowas had committed the otit- 
rage, the Colorado troops attempted, in obedience to 
orders from their captain, to disarm the Indians The 
latter resisted, and iu the fight which ensued the Col- 
orado men were Worsted. Colonel Chivinc^ton then 
commanding, as an officer of United States Volunteers 
the District of Colorado, gave orders to his various 
subordinates to commence a reguhir series of opera- 
tions against the Indians. In obedience to these 
orders. Major Downing attacked and destroyed an In- 
dian camp near Fort Dodge, killing fortv men, women 
and children. The Indians at once attempted to brined 
about an understanding, exDressiug themselves ans^ 
lous for peace, and making efforts to secure it. Left 
Hand, a chief of the Cheyeunes, and Little Raven a 
chief of the Arapahoes, with their bands, made their 
appearance simultaneously before Fort Larned and 
Port Lyon, and made overtures of peace. Little Raven 
was kindly received at Fort Lyon by Major Wynkooo 
commanding at that point, who told him that Colonel 
Chivmgtou was at Fort Dodge, and would settle the 
terms of peace with Left Hand. But that chief on 
approaching Fort Larned, was fired upon by ordens of 
Colonel Chivington and compelled to fly "for safety 
\V hen Little Raven heard of this afiair he abandoned 
his camp m front of Fort Lyon, and, moving north on 
the Smoky Hill Overland Route, began to depredate on 
the trains and committed several outrages, iu which 
the rest of the Arapahoe and all the Cheyenne tribes 
refused to engage, and which all condemned. Subse- 
quently Lieutenant Ayres encountered a baud of peace- 
Uil Indians near Fort Larned ; invited their chief into 
his camp, shot him, and then attacked the band kill- 
ing many. The Indians did not abandon their at- 
tempts at securing a peace, though they seemed to 
have lost all hope of success. They had confidence in 
Major Wynkoop and Colonel Colley, their ao-ent- 
these oflicers had been steadfastly friendly to t1iem' 
and 2000 of the two tribes, under the principal chief 
of the Cheyeunes, Black Kettle, made application on 
Sept. 10, 1S64, to them to bring about a council at 
which peace might be concluded. Major Wvnkoop 
met the Indians near Fort Lyon, told them he"had no 
power to conclude a peace, but promised the tribe the 
protection of the United States while the principal 
chiefs went with him to Denver City and conferred 
with Governor Evans. This protection the tribes final- 
ly accepted ; they pitched their camp near Fort Lyon, 
while Black Kettle and other chiefs called on the 'Gov- 
ernor. They were referred by him to Colonel Chiv- 
ington, M'ho decided that he could not make peace 
without consulting his superiors. He advised the In- 
dians to return to Fort Lyon, remain there under Major 
Wyukoop's protection while he consulted with the 
commander of the department. Accepting his assur- 
ances of safety, they returned to Fort Lvou.and remain- 
ed m camp under the care of Major Wvnkoop. This 
officer was soon relieved by M:ijor Anthonv, under 
orders from Colonel Chivington, and he repeated every 
assurance of protection. Here the Indians remained 
in camp for two mouths, protected and fed by Major 
Anthony. In the mean time Colonel Chivington had 
collected about 1000 men from various forts iirthe Ter- 
ritory, and on Nov. 28, 1S64, made his appearance at 
Fort Lyon. At daylight on the next morning, against 
the entreaties and protests of Jlajor Anthony, he 
marched out of Fort Lyon, attacked the Indian camp, 
and jnit (as he claims) over 500 men, women, and chil- 
dren to the sword under circumstances of great crueltv. 
From this time forward all efforts at conciliation weie 
abandoned. The Indians began their depredations in 
earnest ; an alliance of the five principal tribes of the 



IND 



260 



INO 



Plains, the Comanches and Kiowas of Arkansas, the 
Cheyennes and Arapahoes of Colorado, and the Sioux 
and their numerous adherents of Nebraska and Dako- 
tah, was formed, and the war began in earnest. The 
routes to the West were continually interrupted, and 
hundreds of emigrants fell victims to the vengeance of 
the Indians. At last the "Chivington massacre" was 
avenged by the slaughter on Dec. '21, 1866, of a portion 
of the garrison of Fort Philip Kearney. Then the 
government began to take steps for the protection of 
its troops and the overland routes and railroads, and 
the present expeditions of Generals Hancock and Sully 
were planned. General Hancock has, with apparent 
indecision, been engaged in holding councils with the 
Indians, but while doing so has gradually placed his 
forces on the Upper Arkansas River, and thus inter- 
posed between and separated the Comanches and Kio- 
was from their allies, the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. 
The forces moving along the Platte River have succeed- 
ed in interposing in the same manner between the 
Sioux and Cheyennes and Arapahoes ; and thus the 
allied Indians are debarred from concentration, and in- 
deed from co-operative action. The Sioux and Crows, 
and the other tribes of the North, have actively en- 
gaged the whites of Montana, Dakotah, and Nebraska, 
and have connnitted many depredations on the Platte 
River route and the Union Pacific Railroad ; but the 
Cheyennes, Arapahoes, Kiowas, and Comanches ap- 
pear to be subjugated into inactivity. 

With regard to the United States Civil War in ISGl, 
the Choctaws joined the Confederates, who permitted 
two Choctaw delegates to sit in Congress ; the first 
being Sampson P'olsom and Eastman Loman ; but the 
principal chief of the Cherokees, on May 4, 1801, issued 
a proclamation of neutrality, which wag maintained 
with great difficulty. 

INDIA-RUBBER. See Caoutchouc. 

INDICTION, a cycle of tributes orderly disposed for 
fifteen years, not known before the time of Constan- 
tine. The first examples in the Theodosian Code are 
of the reign ofConstautius, who died 36l. — In memory 
of the great victory obtained by Constantine over Me- 
zentius, 8 Cal. Oct., 312, the Council of Nice oroained 
that the accounts of years should be no longer kept by 
the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its 
epocha 313, Jan. 1. It was first used by the Latin 
Church in 342. 

INDIGO. Its real nature was so little known in 
Europe that it was classed among minerals, as appears 
by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from 
mines in the principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 
1705; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny called indicum. is 
supposed to have been our indigo. — Bcckmann. The 
first mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 
1.581. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 174T. 
The quantity imported info Great Britain in 1840 was 
5,831,269 lbs. ; in 1845, 10,127,488 lbs. ; in 1850, 70,482 
cwt. ; in 1850, 63,237 cwt. ; in 1861, 83,109 cwt. ; in 1864, 
70,214 cwt. The use of coal-tar dyes will no doubt 
lessen the consumption of indigo. Bee: Aniliiie. 

INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical pyrites 
of Freiberg l)y F. Reich and T. Richter in 1803. Its 
name is due to its giving an indigo blue ray in its 
spectrum. 

INDUCTION of electric cttrrents, discovered by Far- 
aday, and announced in his "Experimental Research- 
es," published in 1831-2. RHhmkorft''s magneto-elec- 
tric induction coil was constructed in 1850. 

INDULGENCES for the pardon of sin, commenced 
by Leo III. about 800, were granted in the 11th cen- 
tury by Gregory VII., and by Urban II. and others in 
the 12rh century as rewards to the Crusaders. Clement 
V. was the first pope who made public sale of indul- 
gences, 1313. In 1517, Leo X. published general indul- 
gences throughout Europe, and the resistance to them 
led to the Reformation. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 Vict., c. 4S 
(1857), was enacted to make better provision for the 
care and education of vagrant, destitute, and disorder- 
ly children. Another act was passed 1801. Forty-seven 
of these schools had been certified imder these acts up 
to Sept. 29, 1804. 

INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in bar- 
barotts countries. Lord Macartney stated that 20,000 
infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually de- 
creasing in India. On Nov. 12, \SS\, Mr. Raikes in- 
duced the Chohan chiefs to agree to resolutions against 
it, and a great meeting in tlie Pitnjab was held for the 
same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 

INFANTRY, the modern term for foot soldiers, 



much improved during the wars of Charles V. and 
Francis I. in the 16th century. The British army com- 
prised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1858, when 
the Canadians raised a regiment which is termed the 
100th. The number, now 109, includes the Indian 
array. 
INFANT SCHOOLS began in London in 1818. 

INFERNAL MACHINE. See France, 1800-1835; 
and Baltic, note. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for 
the cure of the sick. Diseased persons were carried 
to the Temple of ^sculapius for cure, as Christians 
were taken to churches. Institutions for the accom- 
modation of travelers, the indigent, and sick, and the 
first infirmaries, or hospitals, were built close to cathe 
drals and monasteries. The Emperor Louis II. caused 
infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, 855. 
In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended ou 
the sick. There were" hospitals for the sick at Con- 
stantinople in the 11th ceuturj'. The oldest mention 
of physicians and surgeons established in infirmaries 
occurs in 1437. — Beckv^ann. See Uospitals. 

INFUSORIA. See Animalcules. 

INGOLTR, a river rising in the Caucasus and falling 
into the Black Sea. Omer Pasha, marching to the 
relief of Kars, crossed this river on Nov. 0, 1855, with 
10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, 12,000 strong, 
who, after a struggle, retreated with the loss of 400 
men. The Turks had 68 killed and 242 wounded. 
Kars/however, was not saved. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of 
eoot and ivory-black, and Vitruvius and Pliny mention 
lamp-black; but they had inks of various colors, as 
red, fjold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made of 
vermilion and gum. India ink was brought from 
China, and must have been in use by the people of the 
East from the earliest ages, most of the artificial Chi- 
nese productions being of very great antiquity. It 
is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular 
cakes, and is composed of a fine black and animal 
glue. — Beckmann. Invisiule or Sympatiietio inks, 
fluids which, when written with, will remain invisible 
until after a certain operation, were known at early 
periods. Ovid (A.D. 2) teaches young women to de- 
ceive their guardians by writing to their lovers with 
new milk, and afterward makiiig the writing legible 
with ashes or soot. Receipts for preparing invisible 
ink were given by Peter Borel in 1653, and by Le Mort 
in 1609. — Beckmann. 

INKERM ANN (Crimea). The Russian army (about 
40,000) having received re-enforcements, and being en- 
couraged by 'the presence of the grand-dukes Michael 
and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) near the old 
fort of Inkermann before daybreak, Nov. 5, 1854. The 
latter Ivept their opponents at bay for six hours till the 
arrival of 0000 French. The Russians were then driven 
back, leaving behind 9000 killed and wounded. The 
loss of the Allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, and 191 
missing. Sir George Cathcart, and Generals Strang- 
ways, (Joldie, and Torreus, were among the slain. On 
Nov. 15, 1855, an explosion of about 100,000 lbs. of gun- 
powder occurred near Inkermann, and caused great 
loss of life. 

INLAND REVENUE OFFICE was constituted in 
Feb., 1849. It comprises the excise, stamps, and taxes. 

INTS:S OF COURT, Loudon, were established at dif- 
ferent periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching 
the law. The Temple was founded, and the Church 
built by the Knights Templars, 32 Hen. II., 1185. The 
Inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in 
the reign of Edw. III., about 1340 ; the Outer not until 
the reign of Elizabeth, about 1500. — Stow's Survey. 
The following inns were founded, viz. : 

Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery 1445 

Clement's Inn, 18 Edward IV 1478 

Clifl"ord's Inn, 20 Edward III 1345 

Furnival's Inn, 5 Elizabeth 1503 

Gray's Inn, 32 Edward III 1357 

Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edward II 1310 or 1312 

Lyon's Inn ;. ..;... 1420 

New Inn, 1 Henry VII 1485 

Sergeant's Inn, Fleet Street 1429 

Sergeant's Inn, Chancery Lane 1606 

Staples Inn, 4 Henry V 1415 

Thavies' Inn, 10 Henry VIII 1519 

INOCULATION. See Small-pox. Lady Mary Wort- 
ley Montagu introduced inoculation from small-pox to 
England from Turkey. In 171S she had her own son 
inoculated at Adrianople with perfect success; and she 
was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in En- 



INQ 



2G1 



INT 



flaiid, on seven conclcmiied criminals, 7 Geo. I., 1721. 
11 17'J'2 two oi the royal family were inoculated. The 
practice was preached ai^aiiist by many of the bishops 
andotlu'r clcri^y from that period iintil'l iC)0. Dr. Mead 
practiced inoculation very successfully up to IT.'i-i, and 
l)r. Dimsdale, of London, iiniculated Catharine II., 
empress of Russia, in 1708. Of .V.XU wlio were inocu- 
lated iu 1797-9!), only three died. Inoculation was for- 
bidden by law iu 1S40. Dr. Zabdiel Boylston intro- 
duced iuoculation iu the United States at Boston, Mas- 
sachusetts, in 1721. Ilia own son, six years old, and 
two servants, were his first patients. He was success- 
ful, oilier physicians made his e-xperiments a cause 
for dclamiuLC his character. The practice was forbid- 
den by the authorities, and the commcm people be- 
came so cxciied that at one time they paraded the 
streets witli lialters, declarini; their intention of hang- 
iufr him. lie triuuiplied, his practice became popular, 
and on goin^r to Euixhnid in 1725 he was honored with 
a membership iu the Koya! Society. Vaccv)ie inocula- 
tion was introduced by Dr. Jenuer, Jan. 21, 1799; he 
had discovered its virtue in ll'M, and had been making 
experiments during the intermediate three years. A 
hospital for iuoculation was erected iu 17i6. See 
Sheep. 

INQUISITION, OE IToi-Y Office. Previous to Con- 
stautine (:Kt6), heresy aud spiritual offenses were pun- 
ished by excommunication only ; but shortly after his 
death capital punishments were added, and inquisi- 
tors were appointed by Theodosius, 382. Priscillian 
was put to death about 3S5. Justinian decreed the 
doctrine of the four holy synods as to the Holy Script- 
ures aud their cauons to be observed as laws, 529; 
hence the penal code against heretics. About 800 the 
power of the Western bishops was enlarged, aud 
courts were established for trying aud punisliiug spir- 
itual ofleuders, even with death. In the 12th century 
many heresies arose, and during the crusades against 
the Albigenses, Gregory IX., iu 1233, established by 
rules the'iuquisitorial missions sent out by Innocent 
III. some years previously, and committed them into 
the hands of the Dominicans. Pietro da "Verona, the 
first inquisitor who burnt heretics, was assassinated 
by an accused gonfalonier, April 0, 1252, aud was after- 
ward cauouized. 

The Holy Oflice was reiustitiited in Spain by Fer- 
dinand and Isabella 1480 

Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Audiilusia, and 17,000 

sutler other penalties 14S1 

" Instructions" of the new tribunal promulgated, 

Nov. 29,1484 

New articles were added 14SS and 149S 

The establishment of the Inquisition was resisted 
in Naple.?, and only introduced into other parts 
of Italy with jealous limitations by the temporal 

power 1540-7 

New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the in- 
quisitor general, Valdez 1501 

Carnesecclii executed at Rome, 1567, aud Galileo 

compelled to abjure his opinions 1634 

The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy,17S7 
Never firmly established iu Prance ; totally abol- 
ished by Henry IV. by the Edict of Nantes, 159S. 
Louis XIV. revoked the edict, but refused to in- 
troduce the Inquisition, 1085. Suppressed in 
Spain by Napoleon, Dec. 4, ISOS, aud by the Cor- 
tes Feb. 12,1813 

Restored by Ferdinand VII July 21,1814 

Finally abolished by the Cortes 1820 

[Lloreute states that iu 236 years the total amount 
in Spain of jjersons put to death by the Inquisi- 
tion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected to 
otluT ])unishments. The last person burnt was 
at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, being a woman accused 
of making a contract with the devil.] 
INQUESTS. Sec Coroner. 
INSANITY. See Lrmatics. 

INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was passed 
in 1049, but it was of limited operation ; a number of 
acts of more extensive operation were passed at vari- 
ous periods, and particularly iu the reign of George 
III. The benefit of the act known as the Great In- 
solvent Act was taken in England by .'id, 733 insolvents 
from the time of its passing iu isli to March, 1S27, a 
period of thirteen years. Since tlien tlie acts relating 
to insolvency have been several times amended. Per- 
sons not traders, or, being traders, whose debts are less 
than X300, might petitimi the Court of Bankruptcy, 
and i)roposc compositions, and have jm) tern, protec- 
ti(m from all process against their persons aud prop- 
erty, by 6 Vict., c.no (1S42). In 1801, by the New Bank- 
ruptcy Act, the business of the lusolveut Debtors' 



Court was transferred to the Court of Bankruptcy ; 
and a number of imprisoned debtors were released iu 
Nov., ISOl. In May, 1837, a commercial crisis occurred 
m the U. S. Failures to the amount of more than 
$100,000,000 occurred. Banks generally suspeuded 
specie payment. A general bankrui)t law was passed 
by Congress, Aug. 9, 1841. Another crisis occurred iu 
1857. The banks throtighout the U. S. suspeuded spe- 
cie payment, but soou resumed. During the Civil War 
of ISOl-t the banks suspended specie payment, which 
they have not yet resumed (1869). 

INSTITUTE OF France. On Oct. 2.5, 1795, all the 
Royal Academies, viz., the French Academv, the Acad- 
emy of luscriptions and Belles-Lettres, that of the 
Mathematical aud Physical Sciences, of the Fine Arts, 
and of the Jloral and Political Sciences, were com- 
bined in one body, under the title of "lustitut Nation- 
al," afterward lioijal, aud now ImperiaL 

INSTITUTES. See Code. 

INSTITUTION. See Royal, Londo7i, aud Civil En- 
giiwers. 

INSURANCE ON Snips and Mekohanbise. Sueto- 
nius conjectures that Claudius was the first contriver 
of the insurance of ships, 43. 

Insurance was in general use in Italy, 1194, and in 
England jgco 

Insurance policies first used in Florence 1523 

The first law relating to insurance was enacted. . .1601 

Insurance of houses and goods against Fire, in 
London, began the year following the Great Fire 
of Loudon } 1037 

An office was set up for insuring houses" and 
buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, 
one of the first and most considerable builders 
of the city of Loudon " 

The first regular oflice set up in London was the 
Iland-iii-Uand iqqq 

First Life Insurance office (the Amicable) estab- 
lished 170G 

Sim -fire-office established 1710 

The first Marine iusurance was the Royal Ex- 
change Insurance, and tLe Loudon Insurance.. 1720 

Duty first laid on insurances of l«. 6d. perillOO in- 
sured, 1782 ; duty increased 1797 

In 1857, .€1,451,110 were paid as duty for fire insur- 
auces on property amounting to i;72,130,58.5. 

There were 33 London fire iusurance offices; 25 
country offices ; 7 Scotch, and 2 Irish 1859 

105 such offices iu London " 

A new Commercial Union fire insurance, fouudecl 
iu consequence of the increased charges of the 
companies Sept.,lSGl 

Rate of tax on iusurance reduced from 3.s. to l.s. 
Orf. per cent, on stock in trade from May 13,1864; 
on household goods 1S65 

AMOUNT INSURED. 



1842 £6.52,000,000 

1802 1,007,000,000 



1782... i;l30,000,000 

1802 220,000,000 

1822 399,000,000, 

INSURRECTIONS. See Conspiracies, Massacres, 

Rebcllioiis, j;iots, etc. 

INTENDMENT of Crimes. In cases of treason, 
wounding, burglary, etc., where iutentiou proved was 
made as punishable as crime completed by 7 Geo. II., 
1734. The rigor of this act was modified by Sir Rob- 
ert Peel's revision of the statutes 4-10 Geo. IV., 
1823-29. 

INTERDICT, OR Ecclesiastical Censure, seldom 
decreed in Europe till the time of Gregory VII., 1073, 
but often afterward. When a prince was excommu- 
nicated, all his subjects retaining their allegiance were 
excommunicated also, and the clergy were forbidden 
to perform any part of divine service, or any clerical 
duties, save the baptism of infants, and taking the 
confessions of dying penitents. In 1170, Pope Alex- 
ander put all England under an interdict; and when 
King John was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom 
lay under a papal interdict for six years. England 
was put under an interdict on Henry VIII. shaking 
olT the pope's supremacy, 1.535 ; and Pope Sixtus V. 
published a crusade against Queen Elizabeth of En- 
gland in 15SS. See Excommunication. 

INTEREST. The word was first used in an act of 
Parliament of the 21st James I., 1023, wherein it was 
made to signify a lawful increase by way of compen- 
sation for the use of money lent. The rate fixed by 
the act was £S for the use of x'lOO for a year, in place 
of usury at XIO before taken. The Commonwealth 
lowered the rate to £6 in 1650; and by au act of the 



INT 



262 



INV 



13th of Queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced to £5. The 
restraint being found prejudicial to commerce, it was 
totally removed by 17 & IS Vict., c. 90 (1854). Interest 
on money in the "U. S. varies in the diflerent states. 
The usual amount is 7 per cent. There are stringent 
usury laws, but these are evaded, and as high as 3 or 4 
per cent, a mouth has been asked and obtamed. 

INTERIM OF AuGSBCBG, a decree issued by the Em- 
peror Charles V. in 154S, with the view of attempting 
to reconcile the Catholics and Protestants, in which it 
entirely failed. It was revoked in 1552. The term 
Interim has been applied to other decrees and treaties. 

INTERNATIONAL. See Coinjriglit and Exhibition. 

INUNDATIONS. The following are among the 

most remarkable : 

An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 

water many thousand acres, A.D. '.'45. — Camden. 
Another in Cheshire, by which 5000 persons and an in- 
numerable quantity of cattle perished, 353. 
An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more than 

400 families, 15S.—Fonhm. 
The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste the 

country for 30 miles round, S36. 
An inundation on the English coasts demolished a 

number of sea-port towns, 1014. 
Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, overflowed 
by the sea, and an immense sand-bank formed on 
the coast of Kent, now known by the name of the 
Godwin Sands, IIM.— Camden. 
Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and har- 
bor of Ostend totally immersed, llOS. 
More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea by 

an inundation of the sea, 12S0. 
At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of Am- 
sterdam, 1400. 
The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages and 

100,000 people (see Dort), April 17, 1446. 
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and chilclreu in their beds, and 
covered the tops of many mountains ; the waters 
settled upon the lands, and were called the Great 
Waters for 100 years after,l Richard III., 1483.— //o?- 
linshcd. Again 4 James I., 1G07, the waters rose 
above the tops of the houses, and above 100 persons 
perished in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. — 
£urn.% 
A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
Holland, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to have 
been 400,000. 
At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished, 1617. 
An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, and 
poured out water to the height of a church steeple, 
1686. Vide Phil. Trans. 
Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
drowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- 
burg, 1717. 
At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and other 
persons of distinction perished, 17-23. — Bn Fresnoij. 
In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 

Flood, 1771. 
In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by the 

torrents fnmi the mountains, Sept., 1787. 
Inundation of the Lifiev, which did immense damage 

in Dublin, Nov. 12, 1787. Again, Dec. 2 and 3, 1802. 
Lorca, a city of Mercia, in Spain, destroyed by the 
bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more than 
20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides cattle, 
April 14, 1S02. 
At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the Danube, 
by which 24 villages and their inhabitants were 
swept away, April, 1811. 
In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
during a storm, many persons and much stock per- 
ished, May,1 311. 
Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and Poland 

in the summer of 1813. 
Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 men , 
on a small island near Widdin, surprised, and met 
instant death, Sept. 14, 1S13. 
In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin of 
the French army under Macdonald was accelerated 
by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives were sup- 
posed to have been lost, same year. 
At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow on 
the surrounding mountains, most destritctive floods 
were occasioned, Jan. 2, 1816. 
In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
property was sustained, March 21, 1S16. 
In England 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen coun- 
tries, in June, 1819. 
Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 



breaking through some of its dikes, by which 10,000 
head of cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and 
numerous lives lost, April 9, 1829. 

The "Moray Floods," Aug. 9, 1829, when the Spey and 
Findhoru rose in some places 50 feet above their or- 
dinary level, and caused great destruction of prop- 
erty. Many lives were lost, and whole families who 
took refuge on elevated places were with difficulty 
rescued. — Sir T. D. LaKder. 

At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
laid under water, Feb., 1830. 

10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons per- 
ished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of an in- 
undation occasioned by incessant rains. Equal or 
greater calamity was produced by the same cause in 
other ports of China, Oct., 1833. 

Awful inundation in France: the Saone poured its 
waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, and 
covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; in 
Avignon 100 houses were swept away; 218 Louses 
were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and upward 
of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes : the Saone 
had not attained such a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 
to Nov. 4, 1840. 

Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the surround- 
ing country; several lives lost, and immense prop- 
erty destroyed. Jan. 16, 1841. 

Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and soiith- 
west of France; numerous bridges, with the Orleans 
and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; the latter had 
cost 6,000,000 of francs. The damage done exceed- 
ed £4,000,000 sterling. The Loire rose twenty feet 
in one night, Oct. 22, 1846. 

Inundation of the Mississippi at New Orleans; IGO 
squares and 1600 houses flooded. May 12, 1849. 

Lamentable catastrophe at Holmfirth. See llohnfirth 
Flood, Feb. 4, 1852. 

Inundation of the valleys of the Severn andTeme aft- 
er a violent thunder-storm, Sept. 5, 1852. 

Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the Rhone, 
overflowing the country to a great extent, Sept. 19, 
1852. 

Hamburg half flooded by the Elbe, Jan. 1, 1855. 

Inundations in the south of France, with immense 
damage (see France), May and June, 1856. 

In Holland nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan., 1861. 

■Great inundation through the bursting of the outfall 
sluice at St. Germain's, near King's "Lynn (see Lev- 
cU), May 4-15, 1862. 

Another marshland sluice bursts; many acres inun- 
dated, Oct. 4, 1862. 

Bursting of the Bradfleld reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
about 250 persons drowned, March 11, 1864. 

INVALIDES. The Hotel dcs Invalides was founded 
in 1671 by Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the body 
of Napoleon I., deposited there Dec. 15, 1840. 

INVASIONS OF THi; Bkitish Islands. See Britain 
and Danes. From the death of Edward the Confessor, 
only the following invasions (marked s) have been 
successful : 

William of Normandy (.s) Sept. 29,1066 

The Irish 1069 

The Scots, 1091 ; King Malcolm killed 1093 

Robert of Normandy 1101 

The Scots 1136 

The Empress Maud 1139 

Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (.s) 1169 

Ireland, by Edward Bruce 1315 

Isabel, queen of Edward II. (s) 1326 

Duke of Lancaster (s) 1399 

The French 1416 

Queen of Henry VI 1462 

Earl of Warwick («) 1470 

Edward IV. (.s-) 1471 

Queen of Henry VI 1471 

Earl of Richmond (s) 1485 

Lambert Simnel 1487 

Perkin Warbeck 1495 

Spaniards and Italians, Ireland 1580 

Spanish Armada 1588 

Ireland, Spaniards 1601 

Duke of Monmouth 1685 

William of Orange (.s) 1688 

James II., Ireland 1689 

Old Pretender. 1708 

Pretender again 1715 

Young Pretender 1745 

Irelan'd (see Thvrot) 1760 

Wales, the French 1797 

Ireland ; the French land at Killala {tvhich see) — 1798 

INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the Picts up 
to 843. It was taken byEdvvardl. ; retaken by Bruce, 



INV 



263 



IRE 



1P>13 ; burnt by the Lord of the Isles, 1411 ; taken by 
Cromwell, 1G4'J ; and by Prince Charles Edward in 
1740. lie was defeated at Culloden, about live miles 
from Inverness, April IC, 1746. 

INVESTITl'IlE OF EcoLEsiASTios was a cause of 
discord between the pope and temporal sovereigns in 
the Middle Am's, and led to actual war between Greg- 
ory VII. and the Emperor Henry IV., 1075-1085. The 
pope endeavored lo deprive the sovereign of the right 
of nominating bishops and abbots, and of investing 
them with the cross and ring. Henry V. gave up the 
right, 1111. 

IN\^NCIBLE ARMADA, or Si-a^isu Ar.mada. See 

Arxiada. 

INVOCATION OP THE Virgin and Saints. The 
practice of the Romish Church of invoking the inter- 
cession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to 
the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the 
Great, .')'.iH. — irjie. The Eastern Church began (iu the 
5ih ceutury) by calling upon the dead, and demanding 
their sufl'rage "as present in the divine offices ; and the 
Western Church frequently canonized persons the 
wickedness of whose lives gave them uo title to any 
such honor. 

IODINE (from the Greek ificUs, violet-like) was dis- 
covered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre 
at Paris in ISI'2, and investigated by M. Clement, 1813. 
On the application of heat it rises in the form of a 
dense violet -colored vapor, easily evaporates, and 
melts at 220 degrees: it changes vegetable blues to 
yellow, and a seven thousandth part converts water to 
a deep yellow color, and starch into a purple. 

lONA. One of the Hebrides. In 563 St. Columba 
and his disciples founded a monastery here, which 
flourished till the 8th ceutury, when it was ravaged by 
the Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterward were 
formed, and the isle was long esteemed exceedingly 
sacred. 

IONIA (in Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the Tones, 
a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and settled 
here and on the adjoining islands. They built Ephe- 
sus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They were con- 
quered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; revolted iu 
504, but were again subdued. After the victories of 
Cimon, Ionia became independent, and remained so 
till 387, when it was once more subjected to Persia. It 
formed part of the dominions of Alexander and his 
successors ; was annexed to the Roman Empire, and 
conquered by the Turks. — Ionia was renowned, for 
poets, historians, and philosophers. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). Corfu, 
the capital, Cephalouia, Zaute, Ithaca, Santa Maura, 
Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonized by the lones, 
and partook of the fortunes of the Greek people ; were 
subject to Naples in the 13th century, and iu the 14th 
to Venice. Population in 1862, 234,123. 
The islands ceded to France by the treaty of Cara- 

po Formio Oct. 1T,179T 

Formed into the republic of the Seven Islands un- 
der the protection of Russia and Turkey, 

March 21,1800 
Restored to the French by the treaty of Tilsit, 

July 7,1807 

Taken by the English Oct. 3-12,1809 

Formed into an independent state under the pro- 
tection of Great Britain (Sir Thomas Maitland 

lord high commissioner) Nov. 5,1815 

A Constitution ratified July 11,1817 

A University established at Corfu 1823 

The Constitution liberalized during the govern- 
ment of Lord Seaton 1848-9 

In consequence of the discontent and complaints 
of the islanders, Mr. W. E. Gladstone went out 
on a commission of inquiry, etc., but nothing 

important ensued Nov., 1858 

Sir II. Storks, lord high commissioner Feb. 2,1859 

The Parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 

March, 18G1, and April, 1862 
The islands annexed to Greece, May 28 ; King 
George I. arrives at Corfu (see Greece). . .June 0,1864 

IONIC ORDER OF ARcniTEOTURE, an improvement 
on the Doric, was invented by the lonians about 1350 
B.C. — ['itnn'htJi. Its distinguishing characters are 
the slenderncss and flntings of its columns, and the 
volutes of rams' horns that adorn the capital. 

IONIC Si'.cT OF Pnii.osornKRs, founded by Thales 
of ^liletus 570 B.C., distingnis-iied for its abstruse spec- 
ulations under his successors and pupils, Anaxiraan- 
der, Anaximenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaiis, the 



master of Socrates. They held that water was the or- 
igin of all things. 

IOWA, a Western state of North America, was or- 
ganized as a territorv June 12, 1838, and admitted into 
the Union Dec. 2S, 1846. Capital, Des Moines. 

IPSUS (Phrygia), Battle op, 301 B.C., by which 
Seleucus was coulirmed in his kingdom by the defeat 
and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. The latter led 
iuto the field an army of about 70,000 foot and 10,000 
horse, with 75 elephants. The former had 64,000 in- 
fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 arm- 
ed chariots.— Plutarch. 

IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippcswic, was rav- 
aged by the Danes, 991. Wolsey was born here, 1471 ; 
founded a school in 1525. The port was greatly im- 
proved by the erection of wet docks, 1837-42. The 
railway to London was opened June 25, 1840. 

IRELAND is said to have been first colonized by 
Phoenicians. Some assert that the Partholaui landed 
in Ireland about 204S B.C. ; that the descent of the 
Damnonii was made about 1463 B.C. ; and that this 
was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, 
Milesian princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquer- 
ed Irelaud, and gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. 
Ireland was not attacked by the Romans or Saxons. 
The population, by the census of 1801, was 5,704,543. 

Arrival of St. Patrick about A.D. 432 

Christianity established about 448 

The Danes and Normans, kno^^nn by the name of 
Easterlings, or Ostmeu, invade Irelaud 795 

They build Dublin and other cities about 800 

Brian Boroihme totally defeats the Danes at Clon- 
tarf, and is killed April 23,1014 

[In the twelfth century Ireland is divided into five 
kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Con- 
naught, and Munster, besides a number of pet- 
ty pi'incipalities, whose sovereigns continually 
warred with each other.] 

Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland 
on condition that he compelled every Irish fam- 
ily to pay a carolus to the Holy See, and held it 
as a flef of the Church 1156 

Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Leinster, is driven 
from his throne for his oppression, and takes ref- 
uge in England, where he takes an oath of fidelity 
to Henry II., who promises to restore him 1168 

Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen 1169 

Lauding of Strongbow at Waterford 1170 

Henry II. lauds near Waterford, and receives the 
submission of the princes of the country, settles 
the government, and makes his son John lord 
of Ireland 1171 

Ireland wholly subdued, and English laws and 
customs introduced by King John 1210 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315, who is crowned 
king, 1316, defeated and slain at Foughart, near 
Dundalk 1318 

Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 
marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster, 
which had not hitherto submitted to the English 
authority. 1361 

Richard II. lauds at Waterford with a train of no- 
bles, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 archers, and 
gains the affection of the people by his munifi- 
cence, and confers the honor of knighthood on 
their chiefs 1304 

Richard again lands in Ireland 1399 

The sanguinary Head Act passed at Trim* by the 
Earl ot' Desmond, deputy 1465 

Apparel and Surname Act (the Irish to dress like 
the English, and to adopt surnames) " 

Poynings' law, subjecting the Irish Parliament to 
the English Council. . ." 1494 

Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds subdued 1534 

Henry Vin. assumes the title oi king instead of 
lord of Ireland -1542 

The reformed religion embraced by the English 
settlers in the reign of Edward VI 1547 

* This act ordained " that it shall be lawful to nil manner of men 
that find any theeves robbing; by day or nifrbt, or poinsj or coming; to 
rob or steal, or any persona going or cominfr, having no faithful man of 
good name and fame in their company in English apparell, that it shall 
be lawful to take and kill those, and to cut off their heads, without any 
impeachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head so cut 
off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ayders there to him 
cause the said head so cut off to be brought to the portreffe to pnt it 
upon a stake or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that the sain port- 
reffe shall testify the bringing of the same to him. And that it shall 
be lawful for the said bringer of the said head to distrain and levy by 
his own hand (as his reward) of every man having one ploughland in 
the barony, twopence ; and of every man having half a ploughland, one 
|)eny ; anii of every man having one house and goods, value forty shil- 
lin;^, one peny ; and of every other cottier having bouse and smoak, one 
halfpeny," etc. Much slaughter is said to have ensued. 



IKE 



264 



IRE 



Ireland finally divided into shires 15G9 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. 

Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's 15T1 

TOO Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Kerry ; 
they are treacherously butchered by the Earl of 

Ormond 15S0 

O'Neal defeats the English at Blackwater, Aug. 14,lo'JS 
The insurrection of Tyrone, who invites over tiie 
Spaniards, and settles them inKinsale; but they 
are defeated by the Lord Deputy Mouutjoy. . .1'G01-2 
In consequence of repeated rebellions and forfeit- 
ures, 511,405 acres of land in the province of Ul- 
ster became vested iTi the crown, and James I., 
after removing the Irish from their hills and fast- 
nesses, divides the land among such of his En- 
glish and Scottish Protestant subjects as choose 

to settle there 1609-12 

More and Maguire's rebellion ; the Catholics enter 
into a conspiracy to expel the English, and cruel- 
ly massacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster to 
the number of -10,000 persons, commenced on St. 
Iguatius's day [some doubt the massacre], 

Oct. 23,1041 
O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at Beu- 

burb June 5,1G4G 

Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island to 

obedience between 1649 and 16.56 

Massacre and capture of Drogheda Sept. 11,1649 

Landing of James II March 12,16S9 

3000 Protestants attainted " 

William III. lauds at Carrickfergus June 14,1690 

Battle of the Boyue ; James defeated July 1, " 

Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) Oct. 3,1691 

Linen manufacture encouraged 1G'.)6 

Thurot's invasion (see Thurot) 1760 

Indulgences granted to the Catholics 1778 

Ireland admitted to a free trade 1779 

Released from submission to an English Council, 1TS2 
The Genevese refugees are received in Ireland, and 
have an asylum given them in the county of Wa- 

terford 1783 

Order of St. Patrick established " 

Orange clubs, etc., formed 1705 

Memorable Irish rebellion commenced, May 4, 1798, 

and not finally suppressed until the nest year.. 1799 
Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland, 

Jan. 1,1801 

Emmet's insurrection July 23,1803 

English and Irish exchequers consolidated, Jan. 5,1817 

Visit to Ireland of George IV Aug.,lS21 

The currency assimilated Jan. 1,1826 

Roman Catholic emancipation April 13,1829 

Customs consolidated Jan. 6,1830 

Dr. Whately, supporter of the Irish National School 

system, becomes Archbishop of Dublin 1831 

Poor-laws introduced 1838 

Great Repeal movement ; meeting at Trim (seeiJe- 

X)cal) March 19,1843 

O'Connell's trial (see Trials) Jan. 15,1844 

Trial of O'Connell and others for political conspir- 
acy ; found guilty (see Trials) Feb. 12, " 

Appointment of new commissioners of charitable 
bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recognized), 

Dec. IS, " 
Irish National Education Society incorporated, 

Sept. 23,1845 
Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland. ... " 
Committal of William Smith O'Brien to the cus- 
tody of the sergeant-at-arms for contempt in not 
obeying an order of the House of Commons to 

attend a committee April 30,1846 

William Smith O'Brien and the "Young Ireland" 
or physical force party secede from the Repeal 

Association July 29, " 

O'Connell's last speech in the Commons. . .Feb. 8,1847 
Grants from Parliament amounting toi;i0,000,000 
made to relieve the people sixflfering from famine 

and disease " 

Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to Rome, 
in his 73d year ; he had bequeathed his heart to 

Rome May 15, " 

Deputation from the Irish people (?) — Smith 
O'Brien, Meagher, O'Gorman, etc. — to Lamar- 
tine and others, members of the provisional 

government at Paris April 3,1848 

Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at Dublin, 

April 4, " 
Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United Irishman, 

May 13, " 
State trials in the Irish Queen's Bench, May 15-27, " 
Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to transpor- 
tation for 14 j'ears May 26, " 

Arrest of Oavan Duft'y, Martin, Meagher, Doheny, 
etc., for felonious writings, speeches, etc., July 8, " 



Confederate clubs prohibited July 26,1848 

The Habeas Corpus Act suspended July 26, " 

Arrest of Smith O'Brien atThurles; he is conveyed 

to Kilmaiuham jail, Dublin Aug. 5, " 

Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, etc Aug. 12, " 

Martin sentenced to transportation Aug. 14, " 

Encumbered Estates Act passed ^ept., " 

Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other confeder- 
ates tried and sentenced to death Oct. 9, " 

The Irish Court of Queen's Bench gives judgment 
on writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- 
victed of high treason, and confirms the judg- 
ment of the court below Jan. 16,1849 

O'Brien,* Meagher, M'Mauus, and O'Donoghue 

transported July 9, " 

Orange and Catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; sev- 
eral lives lost July 12, " 

Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court at 

Dublin Castle Aug. 5, " 

First court under the Encumbered Estates Act 

{which see) held in Dublin Oct. 24, " 

Queen's University in Ireland established, Aug. 15,1850 
Roman Catholic University originated, and large 

sums subscribed May 5,1851 

Death of R. Lalor Shell, at Florence May 25, " 

M'Manus escapes from transportation, and arrives 

at San Francisco, in California June 5, " 

The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the 

site of the battle of »he Boyne June 14, " 

First meeting of the "Catholic Defense Associa- 
tion" Oct. 17, " 

Meagher escapes from Van Diemeu's Land and ar- 
rives at NewY'ork May 24,1852 

Cork National Exhibition June 10, " 

Irish Industrial E.xhibition set on foot ; Mr. Dar- 
gan, a railway contractor, contributes toward it 

i:26,000 June 24, " 

"Tenant Right" demonstration at Warrington dis- 
persed by the magistrates July 3, " 

Fierce religious riots at Belfast July 14, " 

Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge July 22, " 

Irish members of Parliament found a "Religious 

Equality Association" Sept. 10, " 

Cork Industrial E.xhibition closed Sept. 2, " 

Income tax extended to Ireland Maj',1853 

Dublin Exhibition opens May 12, " 

(iueen visits Ireland Aug. 29, " 

Tenant Right League conference Oct. 4, " 

Dreadful railway accident near Dublin Oct. 5, " 

Exhibition closed Nov. 1, " 

Train willfully ujjset after an Orange demonstra- 
tion at Londonderry, one person killed and many 

hurt Sept. 15,1854 

Religious riots at Belfast Sept., 18.57 

Progress of Cardinal Wiseman in Ireland. ..Sept., 1858 
A packet from Galway reaches N. America in six 

days Sept., " 

Proclamation against secret societies Nov., " 

Arrests of members of Phcenix Society Dec, " 

Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed by 

Marquess of Downshire) given up Jan. 27,1S.';9 

National Gallery founded Feb., " 

Agitation against the Irish National School sys- 
tem Sept., " 

Religious revival movement in the north, particu- 
larly at Belfast Oct., " 

Great emigration to America in the spring ISCO 

Many Iristimen enlist in the service of the pope, 

May, June ; many return dissatisfied July, " 

The remainder, taken prisoners by the Sardinians, 
are released, and return to Dublin, where they 

receive an ovation Nov., " 

Agrarian outrages; Alderman Sheehy murdered, 

Oct. 23, " 

Attempted revival of Repeal agitation Dec, " 

Census taken— population, 5,764,543 April S,1SG1 

Suspension of packet service between Galway and 
America through the Company's breach of con- 
tract May 23, " 

Visit of the Prince of Wales, June 29; and the 

queen and prince consort Aug. 24-31, " 

Irish Law Court commission appointed. . .Dec. 13, " 
The primate, J.G. Beresford, apb. of Armagh, dies, 

aged 89 July 19,1862 

Building for the Catholic University founded, 

July 20, " 
Numerous agrarian murders; Gustav Thiebault, 
April 28; Francis Fitzgerald, May 16 (and oth- 
ers); Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, 

July 30, " 
An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- 
strtictive riots Sept. 17, " 



IRE 



2G5 IRE 



Great agricultural distress; many murders aud 

outrages, eud of 1802, begiuuiug of 1SG3 

Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 

XTO,0()() (see Galwai/) Aug., " 

InsiLTuilicact " Nationalist" meeting Aug. t5, " 

Death of Archbishop Whately tict. s, " 

Great eniigratiou of able-bodied laborers in " 

Appearance of the Fenians {which see) Jan., 1804 

Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of King Brian 

Boroihme June IS, " 

Address of the "National Association" to liberate 
tenant capital ; recover the property of the Cath- 
olic Church, etc Jiiu- 12,1SG5 

Opening of the Internatioual Exhibition atDublm 

by the Prince of Wales May 9, " 

General election favorable to the government and 

liberal partv July, " 

Importation of cattle from England prohibited on 

account of the plague Aug. 25, " 

Seizure of the newspaper "Irish People" and 30 

Fenians (see FenianN\ Sept. 15-17, " 

More arrests; 33 committed for trial up to Oct. 14, " 

International Exhibition closed Nov. 9, " 

James Stephens, the "head centre" of the Fenians 

in Ireland, and others, captured Nov. 11, " 

Stephens escapes from jail Nov. 25, " 

Fenian trials begin at Dublin, Nov. 27 ; Thomas 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason-felony; sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude Dec. 1, " 

G'Leary aud others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovau or 
Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 

Dec. 13, " 
More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and 

Dublin Jan., Feb.,lS6G 

Discovery of an arms manufiictory at Dublin; the 
city and county proclaimed as put under the pro- 
visions of the Peace Preservation Act... Jan. 11, " 
(See Bublin.*) 

KIXGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.! 
KINGS. 

9T9 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. 
1001 or 1002. Brian Baroniy, or Boroihme, slain after 

totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, April 

23, 1014. 
1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 

[Disputed succession.] 
1058. Donough, or Denis O'Brian, son. 
1072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 
108C-1132. The kingdom divided ; tierce contests for 

it. 
1132. Tordel Vach ; killed in battle. 
1100. Roderick, or Roger O'Connor. 
1172. Henry II., king of England; conquered the coun- 
try, and became Lord of Ireland. 
[The English monarchs were styled " Lords of 

Ireland" until the reign of Ileury VIII., who 

first styled himself iwij.] 

GOVERNORS OF lEELAND (wlth varloiis titles). t 
1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1173, Richard Fitz-Gislebert, 

earl of Pembroke. 1176, Raymond le Gros. 

1177, Prince John (afterward king) made Lord 

of Ireland. 
1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 

that the more important ofiicers only are 

given. 
1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 
1199, 1204. l^Ieiller Fitz-IIenri (son of Henry IL). 
1215, 1220. Geoffrey de Marreis. 
1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 
1303. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312,Edmund 

le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320, 

Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Berming- 

ham. 1327, Eiirl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, 

Prior Ro^er Uttagh. 1.^32, Sir John D'Arcy. 

1337, Sir John de Cherlton. 1344, Sir Rasiil 



»P:miwr9 in Irish worlihoiisca in 1S49, 620,nfin ; in lS57,65,nO0. 
Notes in circulation in 1849, £3,850,450 ; in 1857, £7,150,000. 
Bullion in Irish banka in 1849, XI, 625,000 ; in 1857, £2,492.000. 

fThe list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous editions, has been 
omitted to make room for authentic matter. The Irish writers carry 
their succession of kings very high, as high ns even before the Flood. 
The learned antiquary, Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, 
e-tpressed his wonder that " the learned men of the Irish nation have 
not, like those of other nations, yet published the valuable remains of 
their ancient history whole and entire, with just translations, in order 
to separate what is fabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of 
their poets and bards, from what is certain history." " O'Flaherty, 
Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern Irish historians, have 
rendered all uncertain, by deducing their history from the Deluge with 
as much assurance as they deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. 
Patrick's time. — Anderton. The " Annals of the Four Masters," edited 
by Dr. Donovan, were published in Irish and English in 1848. 

t Lord justices and deputies, and latterly Lords Lieutknant. It 
has been several times proposed to abolish "the viceroyalty of Ireland, 
but without success. The last time, March 23, 1S5S, 



d'Ufford. 1340, Sir Roger d'Arcy; Sir John 
Moriz. 134S, Walter de Bermingham. 1365, 
Maurice, earl of Desmond. 1350, Thomas de 
Rokeby. l;;57, Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, 
James, earl ofOnnond. 1301, Lionel, duke of 
Clarence. 1307, Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1309 
and i:!74,William de Windsor. 1370, Maurice, 
earl of KiUUin-, and James, earl of Ormond. 
13S(i, Ediuund M(jrtiiiier, earl of March. 13S.5, 
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford. 1389 and 98, 
Sir John Stanley. 1391, James, earl of Or- 
mond. 1393, Thomas, duke of. Gloucester. 
1395, Roger de Mortimer, earl of March. 1398, 
ReginaUl Grey aud Thomas de Holland. 

1401 aud 1408, Thomas, earf of Lancaster. 1413, Sir 
Johu Stanley aud Sir John Talbot. 1420, 
James, earl of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de 
Mortimer, earl of March. 1425, Sir John Tal- 
bot. 1427, Sir John de Grey. 1428, Sir John 
Sutton, lord Dudley. 1431 aud 1435, Sir Thom- 
as Stanley. 143S, Leon, lord de Welles. 1440, 
John, earl of Shrewsbury. 1449, Richard, duke 
of York. 1401, George, duke of Clarence. 1470, 
Earl of Worcester. 1478, John de la Pole, earl 
of Suffolk. 14S1, Richard, earl of Kildare. 
1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. 14S4, John de la 
Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, Jasper, duke of 
Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of York, after- 
ward Henry VIII. (his deputy. Sir E. Poyn- 
ings). 1496, Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 
1504. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 
1529, Henry, duke of Richmond. 1500, Thom- 
as, earl of Sussex. 1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 

1003. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made Earl of 
Devonshire. 1040,Thos.,visconntWentwortb, 
earl of Strafford. 1043 and 1648, James, mar- 
quess of Ormond. 1047, Philip de Lisle. 1649, 
Oliver Cromwell. 1057, Henry Cromwell. 1002, 
James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1069, Johu 
Roberts, lord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berke- 
\ey. 1072, Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1077, 
James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1085, Henry 
Ilyde, earl of Clarendon. 1GS7, Richard Tal- 
bot, earl of Tyrconnel. 1G90, Henry Sydney, 
lord Sydney. 1095, Henry Capel, lord Capel. 

1700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl 
of Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
1710, James, duke of Ormond, a^ain. 1713, 
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Charles, 
duke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Graf- 
ton. 1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, 
duke of Dorset. 1737, William, duke of Dev- 
onshire. 1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, 
William, earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke 
of Dorset, again. 1755'iWilliam, duke of Dev- 
onshire. 1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1701, 
George, earl of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of 
Northumberland. 17G5, Francis, earl of Hert- 
ford. 

1767. George, viscount Townshend, Oct. 14. 

1772. Simon, earl of Ilarcourt, Nov. 30. 

1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, Jan. 25. 

1780. Frederick, earl of Carlisle, Dec. 23. 

1782. Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, April 14. 
" George, earl Temple, Sept. 15. 

1783. Robert, earl of Northington, June 3. 

1784. Charles, duke of Rutlaiid, Feb. 24 ; died Oct. 24, 

1787. 
1787. George, marquess of Buckingham (late Earl 

Temple), again, Dec. 16. 
1790. John, earl of Westmoreland, Jan. 5. 
1795. William, earl Fitzwilliam, Jan. 4. 

" John, earl Camden, March 31. 
1798. Charles, marquess Cornwallis, June 20. 
1801. Philip, earl of Ilardwicke, May 25. 

1806. John, duke of Bedford, March 18. 

1807. Charles, duke of Richmond, April 19. 
1813. Charles, earl Whitworth, Aug. 26. 
1817. Charles, earl Talbot. Oct. 9. 

1821. Richard, mar(|ucss Wellesley, Dec. 29. 

1828. Henry, marquess of Aufflescv, March 1. 

1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, :March G. 

1830. Henrv, marquess of Antrlesey, acrain, Dec. 23. 

1833. Marquess Wclleslcv, again, Sept." 26. 

1834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, Dec, 29. 
18.35. Henry, marquess of Normanby, April 23. 
1839. Hugh, earl Fortescue. April 3. 

1841. Thomas Philij). earl de Grey, Sept. 15. 
1S44. William, lord Ileytcsbnry, July 12. 

1846. John William, earl of Besborough, July 9 ; died 

May 16, 1847. 

1847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 

May 26. 



IRE 



2G6 



1ST 



1852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, Feb. 28. 

1S53. Edward Grauville, earl of St. Germaiu's, Jau. 

1855. George, earl of Carliisle, March. 

1S5S. Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., re- 
signed. 

1859. Geoige, earl of Carlisle, again, June ; died Dec. 
5, ISO-i. 

18G4. John, lord Wodehouse, Nov. 1. 

IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1796 W. H. Ireland 
made public the Shakspeare manuscripts which he 
had forged, and deceived many critics. The play, 
Vortigern, was performed at Driiry Lane Theatre on 
April 2, 1796. He shortly after acknowledged the for- 
gery, and published his "Confessions" in 1S05. He 
died in 1S35. 

IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In 1804 Tennant discov- 
ered these two rare metals in the ore of platinum, in 
which, in 1845, Claus discovered a third. Ruthenium. 

IRON was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, ow- 
ing to the forest having been burnt by lightning, 1432 
B.C.— Arvndelum Marbles. [1407, Bales; 1283, Clin- 
ton.'i The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to 
themselves, and referred glass to the Phrenicians. 
Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. 
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided 
with bellows, but were placed on eminences, with the 
grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. Swed- 
ish iron is very celebrated, and Dannemora is the 
greatest mme of Sweden. 
Belgium was an early seat of the iron manufacture; 

coal said to have been employed at Marche-les- 

dames, 1340. 
British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 

Susses, 1543. — Ei/mer's Foedera. 
Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, 

by Godfrey Bochs, 1590. 
Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1081. Till 

about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with 

wood charcoal, which did not wholly give way to 

coal and coke till 1788. 
The operation termed jii'ddling, and other very great 

improvements in the manufacture, invented by INlr. 

Henry Cort, between 1781 and 1820, who did not reap 

the due reward of his ingenuity. 
Mr. Henry Bessemer made known his method of man- 
ufacturing iron and steel, which is considered to 

possess many advantages, 1856. 
Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 

Staffordshire, Northumberland, etc.. lasted during 

March, April, and IMay, 18C5. 

IRON PRODUCED IN OKEAT UTLITAIN. 
Fiimnces. Tons. 

1740 50 17,850 

1788 78 61,900 

1796 121 124,789 

1802 ICS 227,000 

ISOG 227 250,000 



1830. 
1825. 

1840. 
184S. 



Fu 



Tons. 

200 400,000 

374 581,367 

402 1,896,400 

623 1,998,558 

1852 655 2,701,000 

In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 
1857, 8,650,447 tons ; in 1864, 4,767,951 tons. 

IRON CROWTSr (of Italy) is of gold, having inside a 
ring of iron, said to have been forged from the nails 
of Christ's cross, and was made by order of Theude- 
linde for her husband, Agilnlf, king of the Longo- 
bards, 591. She presented it (to be kept) to the 
church at Monza. Charlemagne was crowmed with 
this crown, and after him all the emperors who were 
kings of Lombardy ; Napoleon I. at Milan, on May 2G, 
1805, put it on his head, saying "Dicv, me I'a donnee ; 
(jare <i qtti y timchcra" (God has given it to me ; woe to 
him who shall touch it). He founded the order of the 
Iron Crown, which still continues. The crown was 
removed from Monza to Mantua by the Austrians on 
April 23, 1859. 
IRON MASK, THE Man with the.* A mysterious 

* Some conjecture this person to have been an Armenian patriarch 
forcibly carried from Constantinople (who died ten years before the 
mask) ; others that he was the Count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., 
although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Dix- 
mude. More believe him to have been the celebrated Duke of Beau- 
fort, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ; 
while still more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of 
Monmouth , who— in the ImaKination of the Londoners at least— was 
e-xecuted on Tower Hill. There are two better conjectures :_ he was 
said to have been either a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, 
his father being the Cardinal Mazarin (to whom that dowager-queen 
was privately married), or the Duke of Buckingham ; or to have been 
the twin brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was concealed to prevent 
the civil dissensions in France which it might one day have caused. 
The last conjecture was received by Voltaire and many others. It has 
been more recently conjectured that Fouqiiet, an eminent statesmen in 
the time of Louis 'XIV.', was the Masque de Fer ; and a Count Matthi- 
oli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke of Mantua, is supposed by 
M. Delort, in a later publication, to have been the victim. The Right 
Hon. Agar Ellis (afterward Lord Dover), in an interesting narrative, 



prisoner in France, wearing a mask and closely cou- 
tined, under M. de St. Mars, at Piguerol, Sainte Mar- 
guerite, and afterward at the Bastife. He was of noble 
mien, and was treated with profound respect ; but his 
keepers had orders to dispatch him if he uncovered. 
M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his 
table, and stood in his presence. He died Nov. 19, 
1703. 

IRON-PLATED SHIPS. See under Kavjj of En- 
gland and United States, 1862. 

IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On the 16th of 
May, 1837, the British auxiliary legion under General 
Evans marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun (held 
by the Carllsts), which, after a desperate resistance, 
was carried by assault, May 17. 

IRVINGITES, or the followers of the Rev. Edward 
Irving,* who now call themselves the "Holy Catholic 
Apostolic Church." They use a Litura-y (framed in 
1842, and enlarged 1S53), and have Church officers 
named apostles, angels, prophets, etc. In 1852 light- 
ed candles were placed on the magnificent altar, and 
burning of incense during prayers was prescribed. 
The Gothic chmxh in Gordon Square was solemnly 
opened Jan. 1, 1S54. It is said that all who join the 
Church offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 
chapels in England in 1851. 

ISAURIA (a province in Asia Minor) was retaken 
from the Saracens by the Emperor Leo III., who 
founded the Isanrian dynasty, which ended with Con- 
stantine VI. in 797. 

ISERNIA, S. Italy. Here the Sardinian General Ci- 
aldini defeated the Neapolitans, Oct. 17, 1860. 

ISLAM, or EsLAM, submission to God, the name giv- 
en to Mohamviedaiiisni {which see). 

ISLE OF France. See Mauritius, Man, etc. 

ISLES, Bishopric or. This see contained not only 
the Ilebudes, Hebrides, or Western Isles, but the Isle 
of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a separate 
bishopric. The first bishop of the Isles was Amphiba- 
lus, 360. The Isle of Ily was in former ages a place 
famous for sanctity and learning, and early the seat 
of a bishop ; it was denominated Icolumkill from St. 
Columba, the companion of St. Patrick, founding a 
monastery here in the 6th century, which was the pa- 
rent of above 100 other monasteries in England and 
Ireland. Since the Revolution (when this bishopric 
was discontinued) the Isles have been joined to Mo- 
ray and Ross, or to Ross alone. In 1847, however, Ar- 
gyll and the Isles were made a seventh post-Revolu- 
tion and distinct bishopric. See Bishops. 

ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long siege by the 
Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the place, the 
town was taken by storm, Dec. 22, 1790 ; when Suwar- 
row, the most merciless warrior of modern times, put 
the brave Turkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword, 
and delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the 
massacre of 6000 women. By the treaty of Paris in 
1S56 Ismail was restored to Turkey. It was ceded to 
Moldavia in 1856. 

ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by Abbas 
the Great in 1590. It ceased to be so in 1796, when 
Teheran became the capital. 

ISRAEL, Kingdom of. See Jeivs. 

ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's second 
great battle with Darius, whose queen and family were 
captured, Oct., 333 B.C. The Persian armv, according 
to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; 
61,000 of the former and 10,000 of the latter were left 
dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name from the 
Isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed ; insti- 
tuted bv Sisyphus, about 1406 B.C., in honor of Meli- 
certes, a sea-god.— 7vc«'7W. They were reiustituted in 
honor of Neptune by Theseus, about 1239 B.C. ; and 
their celebration was held so sacred that even a public 
calamity did not prevent it. The games were revived 
by Julian, A.D. 362. 



endeavors to prove Matthioli to have been the person. The mask, it 
seems, was not made of iron, but of black velvet, strengthened with 
whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 

* Edward Irving was born Aug. 15, 1792, and was engaged as assist- 
ant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in 1819. In 1822 he attracted im- 
mense crowds of most distinguished persons to his sermons at the 
Scotch church, Hatton Garden. A new church was built for him in 
Regent Square in 1817. Soon after he propounded new doctrines on 
the human nature of Christ ; and the " Utterances of Unknown 
Tongues," which began in his congregation with a Miss H«U and Mr. 
Tapiin, Oct. 16, 1831, were countenanced by him as of divine inspira- 
tion. He was expelled from the Scotch Church, March 16, 1833. His 
church, " reconstituted with the threefold cord of a sevenfold minis- 
try," was removed to Newman Street. He died Dec. 8, 1834. 



1ST 



2G7 



ITA 



ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Eomans, 177 B. 
C. Atiei- vnrious chauges it came under the rule of 
Venice iu 1378. 

ITALY (cither from Italus, an earlv kinc;, or itahts, 
a buU-calf) is called the nardeu of Europe. The in- 
vadiiiir Pclas^ians from Greece, and the Abori<j;ines 
(Uml)rians. Oj^cans, and Etruscans) combined, form 
the renowned Latin race, still possessius; the southern 
part of Kuriii)0. The history of Italy is soon absorbed 
into that of Itome, founded 75:! B.C. Previous to the 
15th century it was desolated by intestine wars and 
the iuterfercuce of the German emperors ; since then, 
Spain, France, and Germany have strugajled for the 
possession of the country, which has been divided 
amoncr them several times. Spain predominated in 
Italy dnriufj the 16th and 17th centuries, but was com- 
pelled to yield to the house of Austria at the betjin- 
ning of the 18th. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797 
-S changed the government of Italy, but the Austrian 
rule was re-established at the peace iu 1814. In 1S4S 
the Milanese and Venetians revolted and joined Pied- 
mont, but were subdued by Radetzkv. The hostile 
feeling between Austria and Piedmont gradually in- 
creased till war broke out in April, 1859. The Aus- 
trians were defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, com- 
prising Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Mod- 
ena, Parma, the Romagna, Naples, aud Sicily, was re- 
established, March 17, 1861, by the Italian Parliament 
(consisting of .143 deputies from 59 provinces). On Oct. 
29, 1861, the internal government was reorganized; 
the 59 provinces were placed under prefects, subject 
to four directors general. In 1861 the population was 
21,728,529.— Estimated revenue, £25,000,000 ; expendi- 
ture, £30,000,000. For details, see liome aud the vari- 
ous Italian cities throughout the volume. 



But loses it in. 



1496 



Louis XII. joins Venice and conqueVsMilaii "(soon 

^ lO-^t) ^ j^gg 

League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, which is 
despoiled of Us Italian possessions 1509 

Leo X., pope, patron of literature aud art i5i3-22 

Wars ol Charies V. and Francis 1 1515-n 

The latter defeated and made prisoner at Pavia..l525 
Piirma and Placentia made a duchy for his lamilv 

by Pope Paul III. (Alexander Farnese) .1545 

Peace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 

War of theMautnau succession.... 1627-31 

Catinat and the French defeat the Dukeof Savov 

at Marsaglia oct. 4 1693 

War of Spanish Successiou commences in Italv!. 'l701 



Battle of Turiu 



.Sept. 7,1706 



552 



Italy (Saturnia) fabled to have been ruled by Sat- 
urn during the Goldeu Age. 
Arrival of (Enotrus from Arcadia, 1710 B.C. ; and 

of Evander about B.C.1240 

.^neas the Trojan lands iu Italy, defeats and kills 
Turnus, marries Lavinia, daughter of King La- 
tinus, and founds Lavinium, in South Italy, 1182, etc. 
Greek colonies (see Magna Grcecia) foundedL . .974-443 

Komulus builds Rome .1 753 

[For subsequent history, see Rovu.'] 
Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the kinn- 

dom of Italy ; . .A.i). 476 

The Ostrogoths invade Italy, and retain "iV till ' ' 'loi 
They are expelled by the Imperial generals Nar- 

ses and Belisarius 

[See Kings of Italy, p. 269, and Iron Crown.] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 

from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy 59c 

Venice first governed by a doge 697 

Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope '. . " 754 

Charlemagne invades Italv, 774 ; crowned Emper- 
or of the West at Rome by Pope Leo III 800 

The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Ban. ... 842 

Genoa becomes important looo 

The Saracens expelled by the Normans.... .'.'."l6io-17 
Pope Gregory VIL, surnamed Hildebrand, pre- 
tends to universal sovereignty, in which he is 
assisted by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, mis- 
tress of the greater part of Italy 1073-85 

Disputes between the popes and emperors rela- 
tive to ecclesiastical investitures begin about 
1073, and long agitate Italy and Germany. 

Rise of the Lombard cities aboutll'>0 

Who war with each other II44 

The Venetians obtain many victories over the 

Eastern emperors jj25 

Wars of the Guelfs aud Ghibeliues^w/a'c/i'seeVbe- 

gin. ........... aboui 1161 

Frederick I. (Barbarossa) interferes: his wars, 1154-75 

Lombard league formed 1]67 

His defeat at Leguano .'.'!.'..!... 1170 

Peace of Constance .....'.'.'..'.'.'. 1183 

Civil wars again 1199 ptr> 

Wars of Frederick II 1236-50 

His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated 
and killed at the battle of Benevento by Charies 

of Anjoii. . . Feb. 26,1206 

« ho also defeats Conradiu at Tagliacozzo, Aug. 23 1968 

The Visconti rule at Milan 7. 1277 

The Sicilian Vespers, March 30 ; the French ex- 
pelled from Sicilv .- 1082 

Clement V. (Pope, 1305) fixes his residence at Avig- "" 

nou in France 7.1308 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mautiia, 

with the title of Imperial Vicar. 1.S28 

First doge of Genoa appointed ,'. ! ^1339 

Charles VII. of France invades Italy, and conquers 
Naples 1405 



Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht. . . . 1713 

The Duke of Savoy becomes King of Sardinia 1718 

Successful French campaign in Italy 1745 

Milan, etc., obtained by the house of Austria 1706 '• 

contirnied by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 'l748 

Division of the Venetian states by France and 
Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cisal- 
pine republic founded 1797 

Italy overrun, 1796 ; and Pius VL deposed tiy Bo- 
naparte i79g 

The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat' tlie' French 

at Trebia, etc 1799 

The Italiau republic (Bonaparte president) ...... .1802 

Napoleon crowned King of Italy May 26,lSi_5 

Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of Italy .' " 

Austria loses her Italiau possessions by the treaty 

of Presburg ; ratified Jan. 1,1800 

The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napole- 
on, 1814; the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom es- 
tablished for Austria April 7,1815 

Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; 
supported by the King of Sardinia, April ; and 

the pope June,1848 

The king defeated at Novara, March 23 ; and Lom- 
bardy reverts to Austria May, 1849 

(See Sardinia and Austria.) 

"Napoleon III. et I'ltalie" published Feb., 1859 

The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Sardinia, 

m,. April 26, " 

The Austrians cross the Ticino, April 27 ; and the 

French enter Genoa May 3 " 

Peaceful revolutions at Florence, April 27 ■ Par- 
ma, May 3 ; Modena June 15, « 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, Mav 20 ; 
Palestro, May 30-31 ; Magenta, June 4; Mario-- 

nano, June S ; Solferino June 24, " 

Provisional governments established at Florence, 
April 27; Parma, May; and Modena [the sover- 

eigns retire] J„,ie 15, " 

Insurrection in the Papal States : Bologna, Ferra- 

,,!■"> etc Jnue 13-15, " 

Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the 

Swiss troops "...June 20, " 

The Allies cross the Mincio July 1, " 

Armistice between Austria and France July 8, " 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranca ; 

Lombardy surrendered to Sardinia July 11, " 

Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
Florence, Modena, Parma, etc., resignation of 

Count Cavour as minister July, " 

The pope appeals to Europe against the King of 

Sardinia July 12, " 

Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm July loj " 

Grand-duke of Tuscany abdicates July 21, " 

Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, Aug. 

11, and at Modena Aug. 16, " 

Tijscauy, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna enter 
into a defensive alliance, Aug. 20 ; declare for 
annexation to Piedmont, Aug.''20-Sept. 10 ; fiscal 
restrictions between them alid Piedmont abol- 
ished Oct. 10, " 

Assassination of Col. Anviti at Parma Oct. 5, " 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans; subscrip- 
tions in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for 

the Italians Oct., " 

Tuscany, etc., choose the Prince Eugene, of Carig- 
uan-Savoy, as regent of Central Italy, Nov. 5; 
the King of Sardinia refusing his cousent, the 
prince declines the offlce, but recommends the 

Chevalier Buoncampagui Nov. 14, " 

Garibaldi retires from the Sardinian service, 

Nov. 18, " 
New Sardinian Constitution proclaimed . . .Dec. 7, " 
The pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Pape et le 

Connrcs" Dec. 31, " 

The Emperor Napoleon recommends the pope to 

give up the legations Dec. 31, " 

The pope refuses ; denounces the emperor, Jan. 8,1860 



ITA 



2C8 



ITA 



Connt Cavour charged with the formation of a 
miuistry Jan. 16,1860 

Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal 
suffrage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagua, 
March 13; Tuscany, March 16; accepted bv the 
king March lS-22, " 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 
March 'Zi ; approved by the Sardinian Parlia- 
ment May 29, " 

The French troops retire from Italy May, " 

Vain insurrections in Sicily April 4 ; May 2, " 

Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, May 11, and 
assumes the office of dictator, May 14; he de- 
feats the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, May 15, and 
at Melazzo, July 20 ; by a convention the Nea- 
politans agree to evacuate Sicily (see SicUy), 

July 30, " 

Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, Aug. IS ; 
enters Naples ; the king, Francis IL, retires, 

Sept. 7, " 

Insurrection in the Papal States, Sept. S ; the Sar- 
dinians enter them, Sept. 11 ; defeat the papal 
troops at Castel P'idardo, Sept. IS ; besiege and 
take Ancona, Sept. 17-29; Victor -Emmanuel 
takes the command of his army Oct. 4, " 

The Sardinians enter the kingdom of Naples, Oct. 
15; defeat the Neapolitans at Isernia. . .Oct. 17, " 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at the Volturno, 
Oct. 1, ISCO ; meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, 
"King of Italy!" the latter replies, "I thank 
you !" Oct. 26, " 

By universal suffrage, Sicily and Naples vote for 
annexation to Sardinia Oct. 21, " 

Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, Nov. 
2, and are defeated at the Garigliano Nov. 3, " 

Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, Nov. 7 ; 
Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires to 
Caprera Nov. 9, " 

Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Nea- 
politan clergy, etc. ; gives money to encourage 
education; appoints a ministry, "including Poe- 
rio, etc Nov., " 

Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
vented by the presence of the French fleet, 

Nov. 3, etc., " 

Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) Nov. 10, " 

Decree in honor of Garibaldi's army Nov. 16, " 

Reactionary movements suppressed . . .Nov. -Dec, " 

Prince of Carignau-Savoy appointed lieutenant of 
Naples Jan., 1861 

The French fleet retires from Gaeta, Jan. 19 ; after 
severe bombardment it surrenders ; Francis II. 
retires to Rome Feb. 13, " 

Monastic establishments in Naples abolished, 
with compensation to the inmates ; schools es- 
tablished Feb., " 

Assembly of the first Italian Parliament, Feb. 18, 
which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, 

Feb. 26, " 

Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues of 
the papal party March and April, " 

The new kingdom recognized by Great Britain, 

March 31, " 

Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers April, " 

Cavour forms a new ministry, including members 
from all parts of Italy April, " 

The pope protests against the kingdom . .April 15, " 

Altercation in Parliament between Cavour and 
Garibaldi, April IS; reconciled April 25, " 

Bourbonist bauds defeated May 7, etc., " 

Prince of Carignan resigns; SanMartiuo appoint- 
ed lieutenant May 13, " 

Death of Count Cavour, aged 52 ; intense grief of 
the king and nation June 6, " 

Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's 
policy June 11, " 

The kingdom recognized by France June 24, " 

San Maftino resigns the government of Naples; 
active measures taken against the insurgents 
and brigands by Cialdini, his successor, ap- 
pointed July 16, " 

The king opens the exhibition of Italian indus- 
try at Florence Sept. 14, " 

The kingdom recognized by Portugal and Bel- 
gium, Oct. 1 ; divided into tifty-nine prefectures, 
etc Oct. 13, " 

Severe skirmishes in the south with brigands and 
foreign emissaries in the cause of Francis IL, 

Oct., " 

Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
tenant general of Naples Nov. 2, " 

Brifijandage still prevailing in the south, aided by 
the Kinr; of Naples; insurgents defeated, and 
many killed Nov. 10, " 



Jos6 Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, Sept. 
15; calls on the people to rise for Francis IL, 
Sept. ; taken and shot Dec. S,1S61 

The reactionist warfare continues ; the cruelties 
of the brigands lead to severe reprisals, Dec, 

Jan., and Feb.,lS63 

The minister Ricasoli compelled to resign by 
court influence, March 1 ; Rattazzi forms an ad- 
ministration March 3, " 

The kingdom recognized by Prussia March 1, " 

Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bour- 
bon fortress in Sicily March 14, " 

Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
establishing rifle clubs March and April, " 

Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
propagandist, captured April 2, " 

Conspiracy amon^ the Neapolitan soldiers at 
Milan suppressed April 19, " 

The king received at Naples with great enthusi- 
asm April 28, " 

The French General Guj'on aids in the suppres- 
sion of the Bourbonist brigands April, " 

The kingdom recognized by'Russia July 3, " 

Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls 
for volunteers, giving as his watchword " Rome 
or death !" July 19, " 

Calls on the Hungarians to rise July 26, " 

The king issues a proclamation against his pro- 
ceedings, as tending to rebellion Aug. 3, " 

Garibaldi enters Catania, and organizes a provis- 
ional government Aus. 19, " 

Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, Aug. 21 ; 
and put under General Cialdini Aug. 22, " 

Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks 
at Catania; lands at Melito, in Calabiia, and 
marches toward Reggio, Aug. 25 ; La Marmora 
proclaims a state ot siege, Aug. 26 ; Garitaldi 
and his followers fall in with the Royalists, un- 
der Pallavicini, at Aspromonte, where, after a 
short skirmish, he is wounded and taken pris- 
oner, Aug. 29 ; removed to Varisrnano, near Spez- 
zia , .". Sept. 1, " 

Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to ten years' imprison- 
ment Sept. 6, " 

General Durando issues a diplomatic circular con- 
demning Garil)aldi's proceedings, yet asserting 
the necessity of the Italian government possess- 
ing Rome Sept. 10, " 

A subscription in England enables Professor Par- 
tridge, of King's College, London, to go to Gari- 
baldi Sept. 19, " 

Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the King 
of Portugal Sept. 27, " 

Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the English 
nation, urging its intervention for the cause of 
liberty. ..'. Sept. 2S, '« 

Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the people 
of Italy by Joseph Mazzini Sept., " 

Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, 

Oct. 5, " 

Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Durando's 
note Oct. 8, " 

State of siege in Naples and Sicily abolished, 

Oct. 17, " 

Disorderly encounter between Italian and Aus- 
trian troops on the banks of the Po Nov. 1, " 

Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian 
priests sign a declaration against tlie temporal 
authority of the pope Nov., " 

Garibaldi removed to PisfuNov. 9; the ball ex- 
tracted from his foot by Dr. Zanetti Nov. 23, " 

Meeting of Parliament ; determined opposition to 
Rattazzi's ministry, Nov. IS ; he resigns, Nov. 30, " 

New ministry formed, with Farina as president of 
the council Dec 9, " 

It declines farther negotiations with France on 
the Roman Question Dec. 18, " 

Commercial treaty with France signed. . .Jan. 17,1863 

Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds March 24, " 

Grand Cavour Canal, for irrigation of Piedmont, 
opened June 1, " 

Income Tax Bill passed July, " 

Tristany and other bandits captured Jul3', " 

Commercial treaty with great Britain signed, 

Aug. 6, " 

Death of Farina Sept. 5, " 

Several bandits captured on board the French ship 
Aunis ; given up to Prance, July ; restored to 

Italy Sept. 12, " 

The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by La 
Marmora and expanded into the "Army of It- 
aly" (250,000) Oct., " 

The king visits Naples ; reviews national guard, 
etc Nov. 11-17, " 



I 



ITA 



269 



IVO 



General election ; trinuiph of the moderate party, 

Jau.,lSG-4 

Garibaldi's visit to England amid much enthusi- 
asm April, " 

Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops 
to quit Rome in two j'ears [from Feb. 0, 1805], 
Florence to be the capital of Italy, etc.), Sept.l5, " 

Eiots at Turin in consequence ; many persons 
killed by the military Sept, 21, 2->, " 

Minghetti and his oolleagnes much blamed ; re- 
signs : a ministry formed by La Marmora, 

Sept. 24, " 

The convention denounced by Garibaldi. .Oct. 10, " 

Despciaic rotate of the finances announced by Sel- 
la, the minister ; he proposes stringent reme- 
dies Nov., " 

Eaihvay direct from Turin to Florence opened, 

Nov. 4, " 

The convention approved by the Chamber of Dep- 
uties, Nov. 19; by the senate (after an al)le 
speech by Cialdini, Dec. 6) Dec. 9, " 

Decree for transfer of the capital published, 

Dec. 11, " 

Prince Humbert resides at Naples Dec, " 

Demonstration against the king at Turin ; he goes 
to Florence Feb. 3, " 

Amnesty for political offenses published ; brigand- 
age in the Neapolitan and Roman states in- 
creasing* March, " 

Fruitless negotiations with the pope respecting 
the position of bishops in Italy. . .April to July, " 

The king and court proceed to Florence, May 13 ; 
he opens the Dante festival, the 600th anniver- 
sary of the poet's birth May 14, " 

Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained 
by brigands May 15, " 

45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on the 
charge of a Bourbonist conspiracy June 12, " 

Inaugiiration of a National Ritle Meeting at Flor- 
ence ; the king tires the first shot June 18, " 

Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; Gi- 
arduUo and S brigands captured June 19, " 

The kingdom recognized by Spain Jn'y, " 

Mr. Moens released after a ransom of £5000 had 
been paid Aug. 26, " 

Bank of Italy established Nov. 7,1SG5 

French troops leaving Italy ; general election, the 
moderate party pre^lominate Nov., " 

The new Parliament meets at Ploi'enrcNov. 18, " 

Serious financial deficiency; heavy taxation pro- 
posed, Dec. 13 ; much dissatisfaction ; the min- 
isters resign, I)ec. 21 ; a new ministry formed 
under La Marmora Dec. 31, " 

Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo d'Azeg- 

lio Jan. 15,1806 

(See Germany.) 

KIXG8 OF ITALY. 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, and 
rules it : he was conquered and slain by 

493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths ; an able prince. 
He put to death the philosophers Boethius and 
Symmachus, falsely accused, about 525. 

526. Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. 

534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

536. Vitiges elected. 

540. Theodebald elected ; assassinated. 

541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in battle 

against the imperial army under Narses. 

552. Theras falls in battle. Italy subject for a short 
time to the Eastern Empire. 

568. Alboin, king of the Lorhbards, with a huge mixed 
army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by his wife Ro- 
samond for compelling her to drink wine out 
of a cup fomied of her father's skull. 

573. Cleiiph; assassinated. 

5".'). Aulh.iris; poisoned. 

491. Agilulph. 

Cil.x Adaloald ; poisoned. 

625. Arioald. 

» In Doc, 1S64, it was stated that .'UB briirands had been killed in ac- 
tion : 453 taken in action, and \Xi surrendered. About 300 remained 
to be tracked. Many pretend to be subjects of the Ex-king Francis II., 
ol' ^'aplca. 



636. Rotharis ; married the widow of Arioald ; pub- 
lished a code of laws. 
6.'32. Rodoald (son) ; assassinated. 
().'/3. Aribert I. (uncle). 

(■)61. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 
662. Grimoald, duke of Beneveuto. 
671. Bertharit re-established. 
686. Cunibert (son). 

700. Luitbert ; dethroned by 

701. Raginibert. 

701. Aribert II. (son). 

712. Ausprand elected. 

712. Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favorite of 
the Church. 

744. Ilildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 

744. Rachis, duke ofFriuli, elected; became a monk. 

749. Astolph (brother). 

756. Desiderius ; quarreled with the Pope Adrian, who 
invited Charlemagne into Italy; by whom De- 
siderius was deposed, and an end put to the 
Lombard kingdom. 

777. Pepin (sou of Charlemagne). 

812. Bernard. 

820. Lothaire (sou of Louis le Debounaire). 

EMl'EKOES. 

875. Charles the Bald. 
877. Carloman. 
879. Charles the Fat. 
8SS. Bereuger I. 
889. " and Guy. 

894. Berenger I. and Lambert. 
921. " and Rudolph of Burgundy. 

926. Hugh of Provence. 
945. Lothaire II. 
950. Bereuger II.; deposed in 

961. By the Emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy 
to the German Empiie. 

MODERN KINGS OF ITALY. 

1805. Napoleon proclaimed King of Italy, March 18 ; 

crowned at Milan, May 26; abdicated, 1814. 
1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia), born March ■ 

14, 1S20. Ilcir : Humbert, prince of Savoy, bom 

March 14, 1844. 



AL ITALIAN AUTUOES.* 

Died Born Died 

1321 Goldoui 1707 1795 

]374Parini 1729 1799 

1375Alfleri 1749 1803 

1533Volta 1745 1S26 

1527 Leopardi 1798 1837 

1540 Monti 1754 1828 

1595> Gioberti 1801 1852 

1642iNicolini 1782 1861 

1782|Manzoni 1784 



PKINCIP. 
Born 

Dante 1265 

Petrarca 1304 

Boccaccio 1313 

Ariosto 1474 

Machiavelli...l469 
Guicciardiui..l4S2 

Tasso 1544 

Galileo 1564 

Metastasio 1698 

ITINERARIES. The Roman Itinerarium was a ta- 
ble of the stages between two important places. The 
"Itineraria Antoniui," embracing the wh^le Roman 
Empire, usually ascribed to the Emperor Aurelius An- 
toninus and his successors, A.D. 138-80, was probably 
based upon the survey made by order of Julius C;esar, 
44 B.C. The "Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum" was 
drawn up for the use of the pilgrims about 333. 

IVRY (near Evreux, N.W. Prance). Here Henry IV. 
totally defeated the League army, March 14, 1590. 

IVORY was Ijrought to Solomon from Tarshish about 
992 B.C. (1 Kmijs x., 22). The colossal statues of Jupi- 
ter, Minerva, etc., by Phydias, were formed of ivory and 
gold, B.C. 444. 



* The IVdlowinK terms are often used with reference to certain periods 
in the history of Italian literature and art. 1. Treeentoiihreehnnired), 
from the birth of Dante (1265) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), which 
two, with Petrarca, are styled " the triumvirate of tlie Trecento. 2. 
Quattrocento ({ovir hundred), from 1376 to the revival of Italian litera- 
ture by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th century. Durinff this period 
Latin was revived, to the prejudice of Italian. 3. Cinquecenio (five 
hundred), from about 1480 to 1690. A sensuous style of art, founded 
on the heathen mythologv, began to prevail. 4. Seicento (six hun- 
dred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad taste which prevailed during this 
period is' ascribed to the influence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits 
throughout Italy. SctMnlisti is a term of reproach. The Trecento aud 
Cinquecento were the most flourishing periods. 



270 



JAP 



J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars of 
the 16th ceutury, and introduced into the alphabet by 
Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. — Dufresnoy. 

JACOBINS, the original name of the Dominicans 
(which nee). The Jacobin Club (first called " Club 
Breton") consisted of about forty gentlemen and men 
of letters, who met in the hall of the Jacobin friars, at 
Paris, in Oct., 17S9, to discuss political and other ques- 
tions. Fraternal societies were instituted in all the 
principal towns of the kingdom.— Burke. The club 
was closed Nov. 11, 1794. 

JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from Jacob 
BaradiEUS, a Syrian, about 541. See Eutyehians. The 
partisans of James 11. (Latin, Jacobus II.) were so 
named after his expulsion from England in 16SS. 

JACOBUS. A gold coin, so called from King James 
I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, 16U8-25. 

JACQUARD LOOM. See Loom. 

JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of revolted 
peasants: lirst given to a body of them (headed by one 
Caillot, called Jacques Bonhomme) which ravaged 
France during the captivity of King John in 135S. 

JAFFA, a sea-port of Syria, celebrated in Scripture 
as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 B.C.), 
and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead (A.D. 
3S); in Mythology, the place whence Perseus delivered 
Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the Caliph Omar, 
A.D. 636; by the Crusaders, 1090; and by Bonaparte, 
March 7-10, 1799 ; the French were driven out by the 
British in June, the same year. Here, according to 
Sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3S00 prisoners by 
Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered by an 
earthquake in Jan., 1S37, when it is said that 13,000 
persons were killed. 

JAGELLONS, a dynasty which at times reigned over 
Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, beginning 
with Jagellon, duke of Bohemia, loSl. It ended with 
John II. of Poland in 166S. 

JAIL DISTEMPER. See note under Old Bailey Ses- 
sions Court. 

JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by Colum- 
bus, May 3, 1494. It was conquered from the Spaniards 
by Adniirial Penu, with land forces commanded by 
Venables, May 3, 1655. Population in 1861, 18,816 
whites ; 81,074 colored ; 340,374 blacks. 

An awful earthquake here June 2,1692 

The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settle 

in the north of the island 173S 

De.solating hurricanes in 1722, 1734, and 1751 

In June, 171)5, the Maroons rose against the En- 
glish, and were not quelled till March, 1790 

Many transported to Sierra Leone ISOO 

Slave-trade abolished May 1,1807 

Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island 
was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, 
vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drown- 
ed Oct., 1815 

Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous plan- 
tations burnt ; the governor. Lord Belmore, de- 
clared martial law Dec. 22,1831 

Emancipation of the slaves Aug. 1,18.34 

About 50,000 die of cholera in 1850 

In May, 1S53, the dissension between the colonial 
Legislature and Sir Charles Grey, the governor, 
occasioned his recall ; his successor, SirH. Dark- 
ly, arrived Oct.,lS53 

Charles Henry Darling appointed governor 1857 

Edward John Eyre appointed Governor 1804 

Negro insurrection begins at Morant Bay by re- 
sisting the capture of a negro criminal, Oct. 7 ; 
the court-house tired on ; Baron Ketelhoklt, Rev. 
V. Herschel, and many others, cruelly murdered 

and mutilated ".Oct. 11, 12,1865 

Eebellicm spreads, and many atrocities are com- 
mitted; it is suppressed by the energy of the 
governor, the military and naval olHcers, volun- 
teers, the maroons, aiid the loyal negroes,* 

Oct. 13-24, " 

* The chief instigators, Geo. Wm. Gordon, a roloreii member of the 
Legislative Assembly, and Moses Bogle, with many others, were tried 
and executed in a summary manner. Above 200 rebels were shot ; and 
on Oct. 24, above 200 men'and 65 women remained to be tried. These 
proceedings excited severe comment in England, 



Sir Henry Storks was summoned from Malta and 
sent to Jamaica (Dec. 11) as commissioner to in- 
quire respecting the disturbances, and the meas- 
ures taken in suppressing them. Governor Eyre 
was temporarily suspended. Sir Henry Storks 
arrives in Jamaica Jan. 6,1866 

JAMES'S HALL, St., near Piccadilly, erected for 
public meetings, etc., was opened on March 25, 1858, 
with a concert for the benefit of the Middlesex Hospi- 
tal. Mr. Owen Jones was the architect. 

JAMES'S PALACE, St., London, was built by Hen- 
ry VIII. on the site of a hospital of the same name, 1.530. 
It has been the official town-residence of the English 
court since the fire at Whitehall in 1695. The Paek 
was a marsh till Henry VIII. inclosed and laid it out 
in walks, 1530. 
Much improved by Charles II., who employed Le 

Notre to plant lime-trees, and to lay out "the 

mall" for the purpose of playing a game with a 

ball called a mall 166S 

William III. granted a passage into it from Spring 

Gardens 1099 

A grand display of flre-works took place here at 

the peace, when the pagoda bridge erected here 

by Sir W. Congreve was burnt Aug. 1,1814 

The Park improved by George IV., 1827 et scq. 
The iuclosnre first opened to the public in Jan., 

1829 ; the opening by Carlton-step.s in 1831 

The marble arch that "fronted Buckingham Palace 

removed to Cumberland Gate, Hyde Park, 

March 29,1851 
An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 

stnicted. . . .". 1S5T 

JAMESTOWN, Battle at. Fleeing slowly before 
Lafayette and Wayne from the interior of Virginia 
toward the coast, in the summer of 17S1 Cornwallis 
crossed the James River at old Jamestown, to make 
his way to Portsmouth. As he was about to cross, he 
was attacked by the Americans under Wayne, and a 
severe conflict ensued. Wayne struck his blow and 
fell back to the main army. His loss was inconsider- 
able, but he seriously damaged the British army. 

JANISSARIES (Turkish ietii tcJieri, new soldiers), 
an order of infantry in the Turkish army; originally 
young prisoners trained to arms ; were first organized 
by Orcan about 1330, and remodeled by his son Amu- 
rath I. about 1300; their numbers were increased by 
later sovereigns. In later days they degenerated from 
their strict discipline, and several times deposed the 
sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on 
June 14, 1826, Vvhen nearly 3000 of them were killed, 
the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was 
issued on June 17 abolishing the Janissaries. 

JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the doctrines 
of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Y]u-es, who died in 1638. 
He was a prelate of piety and morals, but his " Augiis- 
timi.%" a book in which he maintained the Augu.stin- 
ian doctrine of free grace, kindled a fierce contfoversy 
on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a 
bull of Pope Urban VIII. in 1642. Through the Jesuits, 
its vehement opponents, Jansenism was condemned 
by Innocent X. in 1653, and by the bull Unigenitns, 
issued by Clement XL in 1713. This bttll the French 
Church rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht 
and Haarlem. See Port lioyalists. 

JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an early 
Roman divinity. January was added to the Roman 
calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it about the 
winter solstice, and made it the first month, because 
Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of 
all business. In 1751 the legal year in England was 
ordered to begin on Jan. 1 instead of March 25. 

JANUS, TEMrLE OF, at Rome, was erected by Rom- 
ulus, and kept open in time of war, and closed in time 
of peace. During above 700 years it was shut — under 
Numa, 714 B.C. ; at the close of the first Punic War, 
235 B.C. ; and under Augustus, 29, and 25 B.C. ; dur- 
ing that long period of time the Romans were contin- 
ually employed in war. 

JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, composed of five large 
and many small islands {Niphon the principal). It 
was visited by Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler, in 
the 13th century ; and b^f Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, 



I 



JAR 



271 



JER 



abont 1535 or 1542, whose conutrymen shortly after ob- 
tained permission to found a settlement. The Jesuit 
missiouaries who followed made a ■,n-eat nuniber of 
converts, who sent a deputation to Pope Gregory XIII. 
in 158-2 ; but a tierce persecution of the Christians be- 
gan iu 1590, aggravated, it is said, by the indiscreet 
zeal and arrogance of the Jesuits: thousands of the 
converts sufl'ered death; and iu 1039 the Portuguese 
were utterly expelled from the empire. The Dutch 
trade with Japan commenced about 1600 under severe 
restriciioiis, and has since been frequently suspended. 
The learned Engelbert Kcempfer visited Japan in 1690, 
and published an account of it, with plates. In 1860, 
an embassy, niimbcriug about 70 persons, was sent by 
the Tycoon of Jeddo, or supreme ruler of Japan, to the 
United States, for the purpose of exchanging treaties. 
They arrived iu Washington, D. C, by the way of Cal- 
ifornia and the Isthmus. This was the first embassy 
ever sent by the Japanese to a Christian nation. 
An American expedition, under Commodore Per- 
ry, reaches Jeddo, and is favorably received; but 

remains only a few days July 8,1853 

A treaty of commercial alliance comcluded be- 
tween the two countries March, 1854 

A smiilar treaty with the British Oct., " 

Nagasaki and Haliodadi opened to European com- 
merce ;t85g 

Commercial treaty with Russia. ....'..'..'. '.Ang. 19^1858 
Lord Elgin visits Japan with a present of a steam- 
er for the emperor, and is honorably received, 
July ; obcaius the treaty of Jeddo, opening Ja- 
pan to British commerce Auo- 26 " 

The secular emperor dies (aged 36) Sept 16^ " 

An attempt made to assassinate the regent, Mar., 1860 
Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo ; some 

persons wounded July 5,1861 

Japan quiet Dec u 

Another attack on the English charg6 d'affaires 

frustrated ji,„e 20, 27,1802 

b oreign ministers transfer the residence from Jed- 
do to 1 okohama Juue 27 " 

A Japanese embassy received by Napoleon III."at 
Pans, April 13 ; in London, June ; iu Holland, 

Prussia, etc July-Sept. " 

Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions cru- 
elly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, 
mi, T i. . , Sept. 14, " 

Ihe batteries and vessels of the Prince of Nagato 
fire on an English and a French vessel at the en- 
trance of the Straits of Simonosaki.. Nov. 15,19, " 
Some English, French, and American vessels bom- * 

bard his forts and his vessels July 15, 19 1803 

Reparation demanded; £100,000 paid by the gov- 
ernment ; the Prince of Satsuma resists payment 
of £25,000, his portion ; Admiral Kuper enters 
the Bay of Kagosima, and is fired upon, where- 
upon he bombards the town and burns the 

prince's steamers Auo- 15 " 

He pays the £25,000 '.'. Dec! 14* ' ' 

The Japanese minister announces that the pijrts 

opened by virtue of the treaties will be closed 
„, - June 24, " 

me Japanese government refuse to abide by the 
treaties ; a combined fleet enters the Straits of 
Simonosaki, Sept. 4, and attacks and destroys 

the Japanese batteries Sept. 5, 6,1864 

Major Baldwin and Lieut. Bird murdered, Nov. 20 

for which two assassins were executed iu Dec! " 
The Japanese government are stated to be en- 
deavoring to reduce the power of the nobles, 

Aug., 1865 



JARNAC (W. France). On March 13, 1569, the Duke 
of Anjou, afterward Henry III. of France, here defeat- 
ed the Iliigueuots under Louis, prince of CondcS who 
was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. The victor 
(sevent«-n years of age), on account of his success 
here and at Moucontour, was chosen King of Poland. 

JASMINE, OK Jessamine, Jnswinum nfflcinnlc a na- 

befo.^'ml'''The'r'f /'''""^''^^ '""^"- f"-"^ Cir'casshi 
Deioie 1548. The Catalonian asm iie came from the 
East Indies in 1629, and the yellow Indian jasmSe in 

k/m^^tT' ^^^ capital of Moldavia, frequent] v occupied 
by the Russians; taken by them in 1739 and 1769. A 

Jan 9, ITor^" '^*"" ""'* *^^ '^"'''' "^"^ ''e"^*^ ^^'"^ 

JAVA, a large island in the Eastern ArchiiielaEro, is 
said to have been reached bv the Portugese in 1511 
and by the Dutch in 1.595. the latter, who now posl 
ses.s It, built Ratavia, the capital, about 1619. See /?«- 
tavm. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarm- 
ed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor 



children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740. 
Ihe island capitulated to the British, Sept IS 1811 
The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the he- 
reditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. 
Java was restored to Holland in 1814. In Aucr.! 1860 
the Swiss soldiers, aided by the natives here, muti- 
nied, but were soon reduced, and many suffered death. 
JEAN DE LUZ, St. (S. France, near the Pyrenees). 
b(Hilt s strong position here was taken by General 
Hill and Marshal Beresford, Nov. 10, 1813. 
-icf?^?"^; the port of Mecca, Arabia. On June 15, 
1S58, the fanatic Mohammedans rose and massacred 
twenty-six of the Christian inhabitants, among them 
the English and French consuls and part of their fam- 
ilies ; but many fled to the shipping. On the delay 
ot justice, Commodore Pullen bombarded the town 
July 25 and 26. On Aug. 6 eleven of the assassins 
were executed ; the ringleaders also were afterward 
executed. 

JEDDO, OR Yeddo, the capital of Japan, on the isl- 
and of Niphon, contains about 2,000,000 inhabitants. 
The emperor's palace is said to have a hall of audience 
supported by pillars of massive gold, and three towers, 
each nine stories high, covered with gold plates Ou 
Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 1855, severe earthquakes oc- 
curred : during the latter, 57 temples, 100,000 houses, 
and about 30,000 persons were destroyed. See Japan. 

JE MAINTIENDRAI, "I will maintain," the motto 
of the house of Nassau. When William IIL came to 
the throne of England he continued this, but added 
" the liberties of England and the Protestant relio-- 
ion," at the same time ordering that the old motto of 
the royal arms, "Dieu et mon droit," should be retained 
on the great seal, 1689. 

JEMAPPES (N. W. Belgium), the site of the first 
pitched battle gained by the French Republicans (un- 
der Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops forced 
19,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in woods and 
mountains, defended by redoubts and many cannon, 
Nov. 6, 1792. The number killed ou each side was 
reckoned at 5000. 

JENA AND Atjekstaut (Central Germany), where 
two battles were fought, Oct. 14, 1806, between the 
French and Prussians. The French were commanded 
at Jena by Napoleon, and at Auerstadt by Davoust ; 
the Prussians by Prince Hohenlohe at the former 
place, and the King of Prussia at the latter. The 
Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 20,000 killed 
a-ud wounded, and nearly as many prisoners, and 200 
field-pieces ; the French lost 14,000 men. Napoleon ad- 
vanced to Berlin, and issued the Berlin decree (which 
see). 

JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded 1803. See 
I accination. 

JERSEY. The chief island of the Channel Archipel- 
ago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alderuey, etc.), 
formerly held by the Romans in the 3d and 4th centu- 
ries after Christ— Jersey being termed Cassarea. The 
isles were captured by Rollo, and thus became an ap- 
panage of the duchy of Normandy, and were united to 
the crown of England by his descendant, William the 
Conqueror. The inhabitants of the Channel Islands 
preferred to remain subjects of King John at the pe- 
riod of the conquest of Normandy by Philip Augus- 
tus, and, while retaining the laws, customs, and (until 
lately) the language of their Continental ancestors, 
have always remained firm in their allegiance to En- 
gland. Almost every war with France has been char- 
acterized by an attack on Jersey, the most successful 
of which, under the Baron de Rullecour, was defeated 
by the English garrison and Jersey militia, command- 
ed by Major Pierson, Jan. 6, 1781. Mr. J. Bertrand 
Pa}T3e, in his "Armorial of Jersey" and his "Gossip- 
ing Guide," has exhaustively treated the general and 
family history of the island. The population of the 
isles in 1861 was 91,147. 

JERUSALEM, called also Salem, 1913 B.C. (Gen. 

xiv., 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 B.C. It 

was taken by David 1048 B.C., who dwelt iu the fort, 

calling it the city of David. See Jews. 

The first Temple founded by Solomon, 1012 B.C., 
and solemnly dedicated on Friday Oct. .'iOjlOOi 

Jerusalem taken and razed to the ground by Ti- 
tus: more than 1,100,000 of the Jews perished, 

A.D. Sept. 8, 70 

A city (called ^lia) built on the ruins by Julius 
Severus, in the time of Adrian 130 

The walls rebuilt by the Empress Eudoxia 437 

Jerusalem taken by the Persians, 614 ; l)y the Sar- 
acens, 687 ; and by the Crusaders, when 70,000 



JER 



272 



JEW 



infidels were put to the sword; a new kingdom 

founded July 15,1099 

The "Assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws estab- 
lished by Godfrey of Bouillon 1100 

Jerusalem taken from the Christians by Saladin..llST 
By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens 

1-21T and 1239 
Surrendered to the Emperor Frederick II. by trea- 
ty 1228 

Taken by the Turks ^ 1517 

Held by the French under Bonaparte Feb. ,1799 

The Protestant bishopric of Jerusalem erected, 
under the protection of Great Britain and Prus- 
Bia : S. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop, 

IS ov. 7,1841 
Jerusalem and the neighborhood was surveyed by 
a party of royal engineers between 

Sept., 1S64, and June, 1805 

CnEISTIAN KINGS OP JEKUSALE.M. 

Sibyl, then his son Bald- 
win V 11S5 

• Guy de Lusignau IISG 

Henry of Champagne.. 1192 
Amauri de Lusignan. . .1197 

Jeanne de Brienne 1210 

Emperor Frederick II., 

1229-39 



Godfrey of Bouillon. . 1099 

Baldwin 1 1100 

Baldwin II 1118 

Fulkof Anjou 1131 

Baldwin III 1144 

Amauri (or Almeric)..1162 
Baldwin IV 1173 



"JERUSALEM DELIVERED," the great Italian 
epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 

JESTER is described as "a witty and Jocose per- 
son, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, 
and those of other men, under the disguise of a wag- 
gish story." Several of our kings, particularly the 
I'udors, kept .jesters. Rayhere, the founder of St. Bar- 
tholomew's Priory, West Smithtield, London, 1133, is 
said to have been a court jester and minstrel. There 
was a jester at court in the reigns of James I. and 
Charles I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterward. 
JESUITS, the society or company of Jesus, was 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. 
of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and aft- 
erward canonized. Having been wounded in both 
legs at the siege of Pampelnna in 1521, he devoted 
himself to theology, and renounced the jnilitary for 
the ecclesiastical profession. He dedicated his life to 
the Blessed Virgin as her knight; made a pilgrimage 
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the founda- 
tion of his society at Paris, Aug. IC, 1534. He present- 
ed its institutes in 1539 to Pope Paul III., who made 
many objections ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of 
chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit 
submission to the Holy See, the institution was con- 
firmed by a bull, Sept. "27, 1540; the number of mem- 
Isers was not to exceed sixty. That restriction was 
taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes 
Julius III., Pius v., and Gregory XIII. granted great 
privileges. Francis Xavier,"and other missionaries, 
the first brothers, carried the order to the extremities 
of the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- 
tion in Europe, particularly in Paris. See Paraguay 
and Janscnists. 

The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
1554; expelled from France, 1594 ; readmitted, 
1604; but, after several decrees, is totally sup- 
pressed in France and its property confiscated, 17C4 
Ordered by Parliament to be expelled from En- 
gland, 1579, 15S1, 1586, 1602; and finally by the 

Relief Act in 1829 

Expelled from Venice, 1607 ; Holland, 1708 ; Portu- 
gal, 1750 ; Spain 1767 

Abolished by Clement XIV. (at the meeting of the 

Bourbon sovereigns) July 21,1773 

Restored by Pius Vl Aug. 7,1814 

Expelled from Belgium, 1818 ; Russia, 1820 ; Spain, 
1820, 1835; France, 1831, 1S45; Portugal, 1834; 
Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848; Italy 

and Sicily ISGO 

The chief of the order appeals to the King of Sar- 
dinia for redress of grievances Oct. 24, " 

JESUIT'S BARK, called by the Spaniards fever- 
wood; discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit about 1535 
(and used by the order). It is taken from the cincho- 
na or chinchona tree. Its virtues were not generally 
known till 1G33, when it cured of fever the lady of the 
viceroy at Peru. It was sold at one period for its 
weight in silver, and was introduced into France in 
1649; and it is said to have cured Louis XIV. of fever 
when he was dauphin. It came into general use in 
1080, and Sir Hans Sloane introduced it here about 
1700. The cinchona plant was largely planted in the 
Nilgherry Hills, India, in ISOl, and is thriving greatly. 
See Quinvie. 



JESUS CHRIST, the Savior op the WoELn, stated 
to have been born on Monday, Dec. 25, A.M., 4004, in 
the year of Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated 
four years before the commencement of the common 
era. See Xativitij. The following dates are given by 
ecclesiastical writers. Christ's baptism by John, and 
his first ministry, A.D. 30. He celebrated the last Pass- 
over and instituted the sacrament on Thursda}', April 
2, 33 ; was crucified on Friday, April 3, at three o'clock 
in the afternoon; arose April 5; ascended to heaven 
from Mount Olivet on Thursday, May 14 ; and the Holy 
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunda}', the day 
of Pentecost, May 24. The divinity of Christ, denied 
by the Ariaus, was affirmed by the Council of Nice, 
325. 

JEWELRY, worn by most of the early nations. 
Pliny the Elder says he saw Lollia Paulina (the most 
beautiful woman other time, and wife of Caius Cresai', 
and afterward of Caligula) wearing ornaments which 
were valued at i;322,916 sterling. Jewels were worn 
in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and extensively en- 
couraged in England about 1685. The standard of 
gold for jewelry was lowered by Parliament in 1854. 

JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era 
of the Seleucidaj until the 15th century, when a new 
mode of computing was adopted. They date from the 
creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years 
and 3 mouths before the commencement of our era. 
To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 3'ears. 

JEWS, a people who derive their origin from Abra- 
ham, with M'hum God made a covenant, 1S98 B.C. {Gen. 
xvii.). 

Call of Abram B.C.1921 

Isaac born to Abraham 1896 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 

Death of Abraham 1822 

Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 

The male children of the Israelites thrown into 

the Nile ; Moses born 1571 

The Passover instituted. The Israelites go out of 

Egypt and cross the Red Sea 1491 

The'law promulgated from Mount Sinai " 

The tabernacle set up 1490 

Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan 1451 

The first bondage (Othniel, 1405) 1413 

The second bondage (Ehud, 1325'i 1343 

The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) .... 1304 

The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) 1252 

The fifth bondage"(Jephthah, 1187) 1206 

The .sixth bondage 115T 

Samson slays the Philistines 1136 

Samuel governs as judge, about 1120 

Samson pulls down the Temple of Dagon 1117 

Satti. made kinir 1095 

David slays Goliath, about 1063 

Death of Saul ; David made king 1055 

David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes 

it his capital 1043 

Solomon lays the foundation of the Temple 1012 

Which is dedicated 1004 

Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided 975 

KINGDOM OP ISKAEL. 

Jeroboam establishes idolatry 975 

Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites 

slain 957 

Israel afllicted with the famine predicted by Eli- 
jah 906 

The Syrians besiege Samaria 901 

Elijah translated to heaven 896 

Miracles of Elisha the prophet 895 

The Assyrian invasion under Phul 771 

Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 

Samaria taken by the King of Assyria: the ten 
tribes are carried into captivity, and an end is 
put to the kingdom of Israel 721 

KINGDOM OP JUDAH. 

Shishak, king of Egj-pt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- 
lages the Temple 971 

Abijah defeats the King of Israel; 50,000 men are 
slain in battle 957 

Ilazael desolates Judah S57 

Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day, 741 

Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying an- 
gel enters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one 
night destroys 185,000 of them 710 

Holofernes is killed at the siege of Bethulia by 
Judith C56 

In repairing the Temple, Hilkiah discovers the 
book of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn 
Passover C24 



JEW 



273 



JEW 



75S. Jotham. 



Nebuchadnezzar invades Jiidea 605 

lie bcsieLTUis Jenisaleni 5'.)y 

He agaiu invades Judea, and takes Jerusalem a^- 

er ii long .siei^e 5SS 

Jerusalem tired, the Temple burnt, the walls razed 

to the ground, and the city reduced to ashes 587 

Kiiif;9. Prophets. 

Saul began to reign B.C. 1005 Samuel. 

David " 1055 Nathan. 

Solomon " 1015 

B.C. Khiqc of Judali. K'nitjs if Israel. 

975. Kchoboam Jeroboam I Ahijah. 

95S. Abijah " 

955. Asa Nadab (954) Azariah. 

953. " Baasha " Hanaui. 

930. " Elah " Jehu. 

929. " Zirari " 

925. " Omri " 

918. " Ahab Elijah. 

914. Jehoshaphat " " 

S9T Ahaziah Elisha. 

890 Jehoram or Joram. . Jahaziel. 

8S9. Jehoram " 

885. Ahaziah " 

SS4. Athaliah Jehu. 

e-c (Joash or Je-) n 

^^^- \ hoahaz. / 

857. " Jehoahaz. 

840. Amaziah Jehoash (830). 

8i;5. " Jeroboam II Jonah. 

Q.„ (Uzziah or) i, (Hosea. 

'*^^'- \ Azariah. / t Amos. 

784. " Anarchy. 

773. " Zechariah Joel. 

,,7„ „ (Shallum. 

"^- tMenahem. 

7G1. " Pekahiah. 

759. " Pekah. 

II . ( Isaiah and 

( Micah. 

742. Ahaz " 

730. " Hoshea. 

726. Hezckiah [Captivity, 721.] Nahum. 

608. Manasseh. 

643. Amou Jeremiah. 

641. Josiah Zephaniah. 

(Jehoahaz ) 
610. \ (Shallum), V Habakkuk. 

( Jehoiakim.) 

(Jehoakin j Daniel 

599.^ (Coniah), V -Uamei. 

( Zedekiah. ) Ezekiel. 

BA15TI.0NISU CAPTIVITY. 

Daniel prophesies at Babylon B.C. C03 

ShadachjMeshach, and Abeduego, refusing to wor- 
ship the goldt'u image, are cast into a liery fur- 
nace, but are delivered by the augel 587 

Obadiah prophesies " 

Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 

against Belshazzar 538 

He is cast into the lions' den; he prophesies the 
return from captivity, and the coming of the 
Messiah " 

EETUKN FKOM CAPTIVITY. 

Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for 
the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the 

Temple 536 

Ilaggai and Zechariah prophets 520 

The second Temple finished March 10, 515 

The Jews delivered from Ilaman by Esther 510 

Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 

abuses 45S 

Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of 

the Itcdccmcr 457 

The walls of Jerusalem built 445 

Malachi the prophet. 415 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according 
to Euscbiua, in 442 B.C. ; and from this time Jo- 
sephus and the Roman historians give the best 
account of the Jews.] 

THE GRECIAN EMPIKE. 

Alexander the Great passes out of Europe into 
Asia 335 

He marches against Jerusalem to besiege it, but it 
i.s said, on seeing Jaddus, the high-priest, clad in 
his robes, he dccliircs he had seen such a figure 
in a vision in Macedonia, inviting him to Asia, 
and promising to deliver the Persian Empire 
into his hands ; he now goes to the Temple, and 
ofl'ers sacrifices to the God of the Jews 332 

Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320 

S 



Ptolemy Philadclphns said to employ 72 Jews to 

translate the Sci-iptures 277 

Antiochus taki's Jemsalem, pillages the Temple, 

and slays 40,000 of the inhabitants 170 

Government of tlie Maccabees begins 106 

Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record with 

the Jews I6I 

Judas Hyrcanus assumes the title of "King of the 

Jews" 107 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under 

Pompey 63 

KOMAN EMPIRE. 

Antipater made inteudant of Judsea by Julius 

Ca;sar 49 

Ilcrod, sou of Antipater, marries Miriamne, daugh- 
ter of the king 42 

Invasion of the Parthians 40 

Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree 

him to be the king " 

Jerusalem taken by Ilcrod, and by the Roman 

General Sosius 37 

Herod rebuilds the Temple 18 

Jesus Christ, the long-expected Messiah, is said 
to be born on Monday, Dec. 25, four years before 

the common era A.D. 4 

Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea 26 

John the Baptist begins to preach " 

John the Baptist beheaded 31 

Christ's ministry and miracles 31-33 

The crucifixion and resurrection of the Redeemer, 33 
The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Ca- 
ligula 38 

Receive the right of Roman citizenship 41 

Claudius banishes Jews from Rome 50 

Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and Temple are 
sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews per- 
ish, multitudes destroying themselves 70 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it .^lia Capi- 

tolina), and erects a temple to Jupiter 130 

Rebellion of Bar-cochba ; final desolation of Judea, 

135-136 
More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the Ro- 
mans in 135-136 

[They are now banished from Judea by an edict 
of the emperor, and are forbidden to return, or 
even to look back upon their once-flourishing 
and beloved city, on pain of death. From this 
period the Jews have been scattered among all 
other nations.] 

general history. 

Jews first arrive in England 1078 

The Rabbi Maimonides lives about " 

The Jews massacred in London on the coronation 

day ofRichard I., at the instigation ofthepriests,1189 
500 Jews besieged in York Castle by the mob, cut 

each other's throats to avoid their fury 1190 

Jews of both sexes imprisoned; their eyes or teeth 
plucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered 

by King John 1204 

They circumcise and attempt to crucify a child at 
Norwich ; the offenders are condemned in a fine 

of 20,000 marks 1235 

They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which IS are 

hanged 1255 

700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced 
a Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as 

interest on a loan of 20s. (Stow) 1262 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold 

passed .1269 

Every Jew lending money on interest compelled 
to wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he 

was a usurer, or to qirit the realm (Stou') 1274 

2G7 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping coin,1278 

15,060 Jews banished from England {PMpin) 1200 

Much pillaged and persecuted in France during 

the 14th and l.^th centuries. 
A fatal distomixn- raging in Europe ; they are sus- 
pected of having poisoned the springs, and num- 
bers are massacred (Lenglet) 1348 

Jews are banished from Spain, Portugal, and 
France (considered by them as great a calamity 

as the destruction of Jerusalem) 1492-94 

Edicts against Jews rescinded by Pope Sixtus V.,1588 

Jews favored in Holland 1603 

After having been banished England 370 years, 
they are permitted to return by Cromwell, who 

crrants a pension to Manassah Ben Israel 1657 

Statute to compel them to maintain their Protest- ^ 

ant children enacted 1702 

Jews acquire right to possess land in England. ..1723 
Bill to naturalize the professors of the Jewish re- 
ligion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then resided) 
refused the royal assent 1746 



JOA 



274 



JUB 



Statute to naturalize them passed 1753 

This act repealed on the petition of all the cities in 
Euf,'land 175-1 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- 
clared to be citizens of France 1790 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened 
by the Emperor Napoleon Sept. 1S,1S0G 

London society for promoting Christianity among 
the Jews ISOS 

Alexander of Russia grants land on the Sea of Azof 
to converted Jews Sept. 1,1820 

Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the 
flrst Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable him to 
act June 21,1835 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on 
the second reading by a majority in the Com- 
mons, 228 against 165 May 17,1836 

Moses Monteliore, Esq., elected sheriff of London, 
and knighted by the queen, being the flrst Jew 
on whom that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9,1837 

Ukase of the Emperor of Russia, permitting the 
title of citizen of the flrst class to be held by any 
Jew who renders himself worthy of it 1830 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a 
persecution of the Jews began at Damascus (see 
Damascus) Feb. 1,1840 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices 
from taking oaths, etc., 9 Vict 1846 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild* returned to Parlia- 
ment for the city of London by a majority of 6619 
votes; his opponent, Lord John Manners, polling 
only 3104 July 3,1849 

Alderman Salomons* elected member for Green- 
wich June 28,1851 

The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration Bill passed the 
House of Commons July 3, " 

Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
London at the general elections, July, 1852; 
March, 1857 ; July, 1857 ; and July,lS65 

Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stockholm, 

Sept. 3,1852 

The Jewish Oath Bill passed in Commons, April 
15 ; thrown out in the Lords April 29,1853 

Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor 
of London Nov. 9,1855 

The Jewish Oath Bill several times passed in the 
Commons and thrown out in the Lords 1854-7 

Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken 
from his parents by order of the Archbishop of 
Bologna, on the plea of having been baptized 
■when an infant by a Roman Catholic maid-serv- 
ant June 24,1858 

An act passed enabling Jews to sit in Parliament 
by resolution of the House July, " 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild takes his seat as M.P. 
for London on July 26, " t 

The French government having in vain urged 
Mortara's restoration to his parents. Sir Moses 
Monteflore proceeds to Rome (but obtains no 
redress Dec. 22, " 

Alderman Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich, 
and Baron Meyer de Rothschild for Hythe, 

Feb. 15,1859 

Protest respecting the seizure of the boy Mortara 
signed at London by the Apb. of Canterbury, and 
bfshops, noblemen, and gentlemen, sent to the 
French ambassador, Oct. ; and presented to Lord 
John Russell Nov., " 

Oppressive laws against the Jews in the Austrian 
Empire annulled Jan. 6, 10,1860 

Act passed permitting Jewish M.P.'s to omit from 
the oath the words'"ou the faith of a Chri.stian," 

Aug. 6, " 

Additional political privileges "irauted to the J'ews 
in Russia, Jan. 26 ; and in Poland Juue,lSC2 

Jews persecuted at Rome Dec, 1864 

Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips second Jew- 
ish lord mayor Nov. 9,1865 

JOAN OF ARC, the Maid of Orleans, was born at 
Domremy. Thr EngKsh, under the Duke of Bedford, 
closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended that 
ehe had a divine commission to expel them, and 
Charles VIL intrusted her with the command of the 
French troops. She raised the siege and entered Or- 
leans with supplies, April 29, 1429 ; and the English, 
who were before the place from Oct. 12 preceding, 
abandoned the enterprise May 8 following. She cap- 
tured several towns in the possession of the English, 
•whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 18,1429. 
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty 

* Neither were permitted to sit. 

+ To commemorote this event, the baron endowed ft scholarship in 
the City of London School. 



ever stained her conduct. She was vyounded several 
times herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
hand.^ She was taken at the siege of Compicgne, May 
25, 1430; and, to the great disgrace of the English, after 
a trial, was burnt for a witch at Rouen, May 30, 1431. 
A statue of Joan of Arc, chiseled by the late Princess 
Mane of France, was inaugurated at Orleans, Sept. 13, 
1S51, and the 435th anniversary of its deliverance was 
celebrated in the same city on May 14, 1865. See Patay, 
Battle of. 

JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of Charles 
IL, is mentioned in Heber's "Racing Calendar," 175S. 
JOHN, St., Kniguts of. See Malta. 

JOHN'S, St. See Newfoutidland, Camlridge, and Ox- 
ford. 

JOHN'S GATE, St., St. John's Sqnare, Clerkenwell, 
London, a flue vestige of monastic building, was the 
gate of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem (suppressed 
in 1540), and was the place where the Gentleman's Mag- 
azine was flrst published, March 6, 1731. The house 
was often visited by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their 
friends. 

JOHN DOE AND RicHAKi) Roe, names well known 
as standing pledges for the prosecution of suits. In 
early times real and substantial persons were required 
to pledge themselves to answer to the crown for an 
amercement or fine set upon the plaintifl' for raising a 
false accusation, if he brought an action without caiise, 
or failed in it. And in 1285, 13 Edw. I., sheriflTs and 
bailifl's were, before they made deliverance of the dis- 
tress, to receive pledges for the pursuing the suit, and 
for the return of the beasts, if return were awarded. 
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious 
names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was 
declared to be no longer necessary by the Common 
Law Procedure Act, 1852. 

JOHN O'GROAT'S HOUSE, an ancient house for- 
merly situated on Duncan's Bay Head, the most north- 
erly point in Great Britain, deriving its name from 
John of Groat, or Groot, and his brothers, originally 
from Holland, said to have settled here about 1489.* 

JOHNSON'S CLUB. See Literary Chib. 

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (good and bad) have 
been very numerous during the present century (espe- 
cially in 1825 and 1840). Many acts have been passed 
for their regulation, the most important in 1857 and 
185S.t See 'Comxianiea and Limited Liability. 

JOURNALS. See Kev:siia2}crs. 

JOURNALS, THE, of tue HonsE or Commons, com- 
menced in 1547, first ordered to be printed in 1752, 
when i;5000 were allowed to Mr. Hardinge for the exe- 
cution of the work. The journals of "the House op 
Peers (commencing 1509) were ordered to be printed 
in 1767. 

JOLTINALS OP THE United States Congress have 
been kept and published from the flrst assembling of 
delegates at Philadelphia in Sept., 1774, to consider 
the state of the colonies, until the present time. 

JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the Pacific, 
named from its discoverer in 1507. Alexander Sel- 
kirk, a native of Scotland, was left on shore here by 
his captain for nnrtiny in 1705. He lived alone more 
than four years, till he was discovered by Captain 
Rogers in 1709. From his narrative De Foe is said to 
have derived his Adventures of Robinson Criisoe, pub- 
lished in 1719. 

JUBILEES. The Jews were commanded to cele- 
brate a jubilee every fifty years, 1491 B.C. (Jjev. xxv., S). 
Among the Christians a jubilee every century was in- 
stituted by Pope Boniface VIII. in the year 1300. In 
the IGth century it was celebrated every fifty years by 
command of Pope Clement VI. ; and was afterward 
reduced by I'rban VI. to every thirty-third year ; and 
by Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year. 

Skaks23eare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Shakspeare's birthplace, Strat- 

ford-on-Avon Sept. 6, 7, 8,1769 

Another Shakspeare festival at Stratford, April 23,1836 
National jubilee in England on account of George 
III. entering into the 50th year of his reign, 

Oct. 25,1809 



* This house was of an octafron shape, bein^ one room, witli eipht 
windows and ei;jht doors, to admit eijxlit members of the family, the 
heads of different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for prece- 
dence at table, which on a previous occasion had nigh proved fatal. 
Each came in by this contrivance at his own door, and sat at an octa- 
gon table, at wliich, of course, there was no chief place or head. 

t An important act for the incorporation, regulation, and winding-up 
of trading companies and other associations was passed in 1862. 



JUD 



275 



JUS 



Jubilee in celebration of tlie general peace, and of 
the centenary of the accession of the Brunswick 

fiiinilj' Aug. t,18U 

The St)th anniversary of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence was celebrated as a jubilee in isjo. 
On that day two of the signers of that instru- 
ment (Thomas Jefferson, who framed it, and 
John Adams, its principal advocate) died. 
JUDAII. See Jeu's. 

JUDO ES appointed by God, when the Israelites were 
in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. till the election of 
Saul as king, 10'J5. See Jews, Justices, Circuits, Lords 
Justices, and Vicc-clMnceUors. 
Judges punished for bribery, and Thomas de Wey- 

hmd banished 1289 

William de Thorp hanged for bribery 1351 

John de Cavendish beheaded by the Kentish 

rebels 1382 

Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favoring des- 
potism, and other judges condemned 1388 

The Prince of Wales said to have been committed 
by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the 

bench 1412 

Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, beheaded, 

July 0,1535 
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berke- 
ley taken off the bench and committed by the 

Commons on a charge of treason Feb. 13,1041 

Three judges impeached 1080 

Judge JeftVeys committed by the lord mayor to 

the Tower, where he died 1089 

The judge's office made tenable for life (during 
good behavior) instead of during the pleasure 

of the crown (by 13 Will. III., c. 2) 1702 

Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
standing the demise of the crown (by 1 Geo. III., 

C. 23 1T61 

Three additional judges appointed, one to eaca 

law court, 1T84 ; and again in 1830 

A uewjudge took his seat as vice-chaucellor,May 5,1813 

Two new vice-chancellors appointed 1841 

A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 

judges (styled lords justices) appointed 1851 

JUDGES IN THE Uniteb States. There are eight 
judges of the Supreme Court of the United States, ap- 
pointed for life or during good behavior by the Presi- 
clent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. 
There have been, since the beginning of the govern- 
ment, 17S9, only six chief justices, namely: John Jay, 
of New York, appointed in 1T89; William Gushing, of 
Massachusetts, 1790 ; Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut, 
1790; John Marshall, of Virginia, ISOl ; Roger B. Taney, 
of Maryland, 1830; and Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio, 1804, 
present chief justice. The judges of the several states 
are appointed, some by the Legislatures, some by gov- 
ernors and Legislatures, someoy the governors alone, 
and in New York, Pennsylvania, and Mississippi they 
are chosen by the popular vote for a specified time. 

JUDICIAL COiOnTTEE of the Pkivy Council. 
See Pricij Council. 

JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married persons may 
now be decreed by the Divorce Court, established l)y 
act of Parliament in 1857. The persons separated 
may not marry again. 

JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the World," one of the 
incarnations of Krishna, is an idol formed of an irreg- 
ular pyramidal black stone, with two rich diamonds to 
represeut eyes; the nose and mouth are painted ver- 
milion. Tlie number of pilgrims that visit the god is 
stated at 1,200,000 annually^ some are crushed by the 
wheels of the car (so lately as Aug., 1804) ; a great 
many never return ; and, to the distance of fifty miles, 
the way is strewed with human bones. The temple 
of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. The state 
allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian 
government in June, 1851. 

JUGURTIIINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered his 
cousin Ilicmpsal, king of Numidia, and usurped his 
throne, US B.C. He gave him a share in the govern- 
ment, but killed him in 112. He then provoked the 
Romans to war. Crecilius Mctcllus was first sent 
apinst hiin, and defeated him in two battles; and 
Marius brou^dU him in chains to Rome to adorn his 
triumph, 100 B.f;., where he was put to death in 104. 
Thi.s war has been immortalized by the pen of Sallust. 

JULIAN PERIOD (invented by Joseph Scaliger 
about 15S.3), a term of years produced by the multipli- 
cation of the Lunar Cycle 19, Sohir Cycle i>s,;iiid Roman 
ludiction 15. It c(nisists df TOsd years, and bcLran 4713 
years before our era. It has been emi)loyed in com- 
puting time to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant 



on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an ad- 
vantage which it has in common with the mundane 
eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from 
the Julian Pciiod, our era is found ; if before Christ, 
subtract tlieJuliaii Period from 4714. For Julian Era, 
see Calendur and Year. 

_ JULIERS, a Prussian province, was made a duchy 
in 1350; became the subject of contention on the ex- 
tinction of the ruling family in 1009; was allotted to 
Neuburg in 1059; seized by the French in 1794; and 
ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman mouth, 
named by Marc Antony from Julitis, the surname of 
CiEsar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 

JUNE, the sixth month, owes its name to Junius, 
which some derive from Juno, and others from Ju- 
niores, this being for the young, as the mouth of May 
was for aged persons. Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces 
Juno as claiming this month. 

JUNIUS'S LETTERS began in the Public Adver- 
tiser, Jan. 21, 1709.* 

JUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for young nohle), 
a term applied to the aristocratic party in Prussia, now 
in power under Otho von Bismarcli-Schiinhausen, ap- 
pointed prime minister Oct. 9, 1802. Their political 
organ is the Kreuz-Zeitunr/. 

JUNO, the planet, discovered by M. Harding, of 

Lilieuthal, near Bremen, Sept. 1, 1S04. Its distance 
from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it accom- 
plishes its revolutions in four years and 128 days, at 
the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. Its diameter 
is estimated by German astronomers at 1424 English 
miles. 

JUNONIA. Festivals in honor of Juno, celebrated 
at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 

JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldreaus, it 
is said 3000 B.C. The discovery of the satellites is 
attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1009, but more 
generally to Galileo on Jan. 8, 1010. See Planets. Juri- 
TEE Ammon's celebrated temple in Libya was visited 
by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses's army sent against 
this temple perished miserably, 525 B.C. 

JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in Feb., 
1855, and opened with an address by Sir R. Bethell on 

May 12 following. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into En- 
gland during the Saxon Heptarchy, mention being 
made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen ap- 
pointed to try causes between the English and Welsh 
men of property, and made responsible, with their 
whole estates real and personal, for false verdicts. — 
Lamhard. But by most authorities their institution is 
ascribed to Alfred about SSG. In Magna Clutrta, juries 
are insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's 
liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury 
shall be one half denizens and the other half aliens, 
statute 28 Edw. III., 1353. By the common law a pris- 
oner upon indictment or appeal might challenge per- 
emptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a 
lord of Parliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to 
be tried by his peers, can not challenge any of his 
peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate 
and amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland was 
passed 4 Will. IV., 1833. The Constitution of 1791 es- 
tablished the trial by jury in France. An imperial 
decree abolished trial" by jury throughout the Austrian 
Empire, Jan. 15, lS52.t 

" JUSTE MILIEU," according to Louis Philippe (in 
1830), is the only principle of government which can 
secure the welfare of France. 



* They have been aspriherl to Mr. Burlte, Mr. William Gerard Ham- 
ilton, ciimmniily called Sinele-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. 
nunning (afterward Lord Ashburton), Serpeant Adair, the Rev. J. 
Rosenhasen, .John Roberts, Charles Llovd, Samuel Dj-er, General Lee, 
the Duke of Portland, Hunh Bovd, Lord Georp;e SackviUe, and Sir 
Philip Francis. The last-named is generally considered to have been 
the author. Junius said, " I am the depositary of my oivn secret, and / 

it shall perish with me." 

t Coercion of Juries.— About the year 927, the plaintiff and defend- 
ant used to feed the jurv impanneled in their action, and hence arose the 
common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the 
evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if 
thev can not agree upon a verdict, and may be confined without meat, 
drink, or fire, candlelight excepted, tUl they are unanimous. —Some 
jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets when they were 
withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not eat it.— 
Lnni. jyi/er, KT. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and bav- 
in" heeli some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where 
tlu.y were locked up, and went homo, Oct. 9, 1791 .—r!ii!!!;>s. In Scot- 
land, Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a majority; in 
France, since iSSl, a majority of two thirds is required. 



JUS 



276 



KAR 



JUSTICES OF TUE Peace are local magistrates, iu- 
vestecl with exteusive powers iu minor cases, but sub- 
ject to supersession aud punislimeut by tlie King's 
Bcncli for an abuse of tlieir authority. They were 
tirst nominated by William I. iu 1076. — Stoxo. Persons 
termed conservators of the peace iu each county were 
appointed by 1 Edw. III., c. 2, 1327; and their duties 
were deliued iu 1300. The form of a commission of 
the peace settled by the judges, 23 Eliz., 15S0. — Ilmo- 
Iciiis. See £!ijre. 

JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by English sov- 
ereigns to govern during their absence. Two lords 
justices of the Court of Appeals iu Chancery were ap- 
pointed to give more efliciency to the admiuistratiou 
of justice in the Court of Chancery, having rank next 
after the chief baron of the Escliequer, from Oct. 1, 
1S51. The Rt. Hon. J. L. Knight-Bruce and Lord Cran- 
worth (afterward lord chancellor) were the first lords 
justices ; the latter was succeeded by Sir G. J. Turner 
in 1S53. 

JUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings of En- 
gland used to hear and determine causes ; but it is 
declared by law that if the king can not determine 
every controversy, he, to ease himself, may divide the 
labor among persons, men o/ wisdom and fearing 
God, and out of such to appoint judges. The Saxon 
kings of England appointed a judge after this man- 
ner,"" who was, iu fact, the king's deputy. After the 



Normau Couquest, the person invested with that pow- 
er had the style of Ctipitalia Jxisticim, or Justiciarius 
Anglice. These judges continued until the erection 
of the courts of King's Bench and the Common Pleas. 
The first justiciars of England were Odo, bishop of 
Bayeus, and William Fitz-Osbom, in 1067 ; and the 
last was Philip Basset, iu 1261. 

JUSTINIAN CODE (compiled under the direction 

of the Emperor Justiuiau 1.), wherein was written 
what may be termed the statute law, scattered thron<'h 
2000 volumes, reduced to fifty; it was promulgated ui 
52S. To this code of laws Justinian added the Pan- 
dects, the Institutes, and Novels. These com])ilatious 
have since been called, collectively, the body of civil 
law {Corpus Juris Civilis). A digest was made in 533. 
—Blair. 

JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and is- 
bund {Corchorus olitorins and corchoriis capsularis), 
since 1S30 extensively cultivated in Bengal for making 
gunny-cloth, etc. Jute has been much manufactured 
at Dundee as a svtbstitute for flax, tow, etc., and in 
July, 1S02, assertions were made that it could be em- 
ployed as a substitute for cotton. In 1S53, 275,578 
cwts., and in 1861, 904,002 cwts. of iradressed jitte were 
imported into the United Kingdom. 

JUTLAND (Denmark). The Jutes settled in the 
southern counties of Britain. South Jutland was taken 
by the Allies in 1813, and restored in 1814. 



K. 



KABYLES. See. Algiers. 
KADSEAH. See Parsees. 

KAFPRARIA, au extensive country in S. Africa, ex- 
tending from the north of Cape Colony to the south 
of Guiuea. Our war with the natives began in 179S. 
In 1S19, headed by Mokanna,^ prophet, they attacked 
Grahamstown, and were repulsed with much slaugh- 
ter. 

A savage invasion of the Kaffirs or Caffres, in the 
vicinity of Grahamstowu, Cape of Good Hope, 
was eventirally suppressed by the colonial au- 
thorities Oct., 1831 

Slighter annoyances to the colonists occurring. 
Sir Harry Smith, the then governor, proclaimed 
martial law, and ordered the inhabitants to rise 
e7irnasse for the defense of the frontier. .Dec. 31,1850 
Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
Waterkloeff followed, and Colonel Fordyce and 
several officers and men of the 74th regiment 

were killed Nov. 6,1851 

Wreck of the Birkenhead with re-enforcemeuts 

from England (see Wrecks, 1852) Feb. 26,1852 

The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all 
the features of regitlar warfare, the governor 
general, Cathcart, attacked and defeated them, 

Dec. 20, " 
The conditions offered by Cathcart were accepted, 
and peace was restored March 9,1853 

KAGOSIMA. See Ja27an, 1863. 

K AINARD JI, Bulgaria. Here a treaty was signed, 
1774, between the Turks and Russians, which opened 
the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea to the latter. 

KALAFAT, oti the Danube, opposite the fortress of 
Widdin. This place was fortified by the Turks under 
Omer Pacha when they crossed the "river, Oct, 28, 1S.53. 
In December, Prince GortschakofF, with the Russian 
army, determined to storm their intrenchments. The 
conflict lasted from Dec. 31 to Jan. 9, 1854, when the 
Russians were compelled to retire. Among these con- 
flicts one occurred at Citate, Jan. C. See Citate. Kal- 
afat was invested Jan. 28, and General Schilders at- 
tacked it vigorously on April 19, without success, and 
the blockade was raised April 21. 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, which, by 
an arrangement of mirrors, produces a symmetrical 
reflection' of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. 
(now Sir David) Brewster, of Edinburg : it was sug- 
gested in 1814, and perfected in 1817. See Dehvscope. 

KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Russians defeated 
the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706, and here the Saxons, under 
the French General Reynier, were beaten by the Rus- 
sians under Winzingerode, Feb. 13, 1813. 



KALMAR. See Calmar. 

KALMUCK. See Tartar. 

KALUNGA FORT (E. Indies), attacked unsuccess- 
fully by the Company's forces, and General Gillespie 
killed, Oct. 31, 1814; and again unsuccessfully, Nov. 
25. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese Nov. 30, same 
year. 

KAMPTULICON, a substance used for flooring, 
patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, and manufac- 
tured since 1851 by Messrs. Tayler, Harve}', And Co. 
It is composed of India-rubber and cork, combined by 
masticating machines. 

KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of Asia, 
was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, 1690 ; 
taken possession of by Russia in 1C97 ; and proved to 
be a peninsula by Behring iu 1728. Four mouths, com- 
raencing at our midsummer, maybe considered as the 
spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year 
being dreary winter. The amiable Captain Clarke, a 
companion of Captain Cook, died iu sight of Kamt- 
schatka, Aug. 22, 1779, and was buried in the town of 
St. Peter and Paul, in the peninsula. 

KANGAROOS, animals indigenous to Australia 
(first seen by Captain Cook, June 22, 1770), were bred 
at San Donato, the estate of Prince Demidofl", in 1853, 
and since. 

KANSAS, a Western state in N. America, was or- 
ganized as a Territory May 30, 1854 ; admitted into the 
Union Jan. 29, 1861 ; and was left open to slavery in 
opposition to the Missotxri Compromise. See Slavery 
in America. During the greater part of 1855 this state 
was a scene of anarchy aind bloodshed through the ef- 
forts of the slavery party to make it a slave state. 

KARRACK. See Carrack. 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, renowned for its 
defense by General (now Sir William) Fenwick Wil- 
liams, with 15,000 men, and with three months' pro- 
visions and three davs' ammunition, against the Rus- 
sian General Mouravieff, with an army of 40,000 in- 
fantry and 10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from June 
IS to Nov. 28, 18.55. The suff"erings of the garrison 
were very great from cholera and want of food. The 
Russians made a grand assault on Sept. 29, but were 
repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the gar- 
rison were overcome by famine alone.* — Sandwifh. 
Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug., 18.56. 

* On jtccepting General Williams's proposal for surrenderinp, Gen- 
eral Mouravieflf said : ** General Williams, you bave made yourself a 
name in history ; and posterity will stand amazed at the endurance, the 
courage, and the discipline which this siege has called forth in the re- 
mains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the 
demands of war without outraainpr humanity." In iSoG the general 
was made a baronet, with the title of Sir William Fenwick Williams of 
Kars, and granted a pension. 



KEE 



277 



KIL 



KEEPER (LORD) of the Great Seat, of Exgland 
differed only from the lord chancellor iu that the lat- 
ter had letters-patent, whereas the lord keeper had 
none. Richard, a chaplain, was the lirst keeper under 
Ranulph, in 1116. The two offices were made one by 
5 Eliz., \b6->.—Coiccll. See Chancellor. The office of 
lord keeper of the great seal of Scotland was estab- 
lished in 1T08, after the Union. 

KEEPER OF THE King's Conscience. The early 
chanc4?lli>rs were priests, and out of their moral con- 
trol of the king's mind probably grew up the idea of 
an equity court iu contradistiuctiou to the law courts. 
A bill in Chancery is a petition through the lord chan- 
cellor to the king's conscience for remedy in matters 
for which the king's common law courts afford no re- 
dress. The keeper of the king's conscience, therefore, 
at the present day, is the officer who presides in the 
Court of Chancery. See Chancellor and Lord Keeper. 

KENILAVORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire) was built 
about 1120 bv Geoffrey de Clinton, whoso grandson 
sold it to Henry IIL It was enlarged and fortified by 
Simon de Moutfort, to whom Henry gave it as a mar- 
riage portion with his sister Eleanor.* Queen Eliza- 
beth conferred it on her favorite, Dudley, earl of Lei- 
cester. His entertainment of the queen commenced 
July 19, 15T5, and cost the earl daily £1000. 

KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The Chartist 
demonstration, April 10, 1S4S, took place on the com- 
mon, which was directed to be laid out as a public 
pleasure-ground in 1S52. 

KENSINGTON PALACE was purchased by Wil- 
liam IIL from Lord Chancellor Finch, who made the 
road through its park. The gardens were improved 
by Queens Mary, Auue, and Caroline, who died here. 
Here died George, prince of Denmark, and George II. ; 
and here Queen Victoria was born, May 24, 1819. t 

KENT. See Britain and IIolij Maid. Odo, bishop 
of Bayeux, brother of William the Conqueror, was 
made Earl of Kent, 10G7 ; and Henry Grey was made 
Duke of Kent in ITIO ; he died without male heirs iu 
1740. Edward, sou of George HI., was created Duke 
of Kent in 1799. He was father of Queen Victoria, and 
died iu 1S20. See England. 

KENTISH FIRE, a term giveu to the continued 
cheering common at the Protestant meetings held in 
Kent ahout 1S2S and 1S29, \^h tlie view of preventing 
the passing of the Catholic Relief Bill. 

KENTUCKY, a Western state of N.America, admit- 
ted 1792. It declared for strict neutrality in the con- 
flict between the North and South in April, 1S61, but 
was invaded by the Southern troops in August. On 
their refusal to retire, after much correspondence, the 
Legislature of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the 
Union, Nov. 27, ISOl. Iu the campaign that ensued 
sharp skirmishes took place, and ou Jan. 10, 1802, the 
Confederates under Zollicoffer were defeated and him- 
self killed at Mill Spring, and iu March no Confeder- 
ate soldiers remained iu Kentucky. See United States. 

KEROSELENE, a new auieslhetic, derived from the 
distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, of Boston, 
U. S., was tried and made known early iu ISOl. 

KERTCH, capital of the ancient kinrrdom of Bos- 
porus, late a flourishing town ou the Stnaits of Yeni- 
kale. Sea of Azof. It was entered by the Allies (En- 
glish and French) May 24, 1855; the Russians retired 
after destroying stores, etc. The place was totally dis- 
mantled by the Allies, and the inhabitants removed. 

KET'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 1549, insti- 
gated by William Ket, a tanner, of Nin-folk. He de- 
manded the abolition of inclosures and the dismissal 
of evil counselors. The insurgents amounted to 20,000 
men, but were quickly defeated by the Earl of War- 
wick. More than 2000 fell ; Ket was tried, aud handed 
Aug. 27, 1549. 

KETTLE CREEK, Battle of. Early in 1779, a 
band of Tories, under Col. Boyd, were desolating the 
upper Carolina frontiers. \ATiile ou their wav, on the 
Georgia side of the Savannah River, to join the Brit- 



• After the battle of Evealmnl, and defeat and death of Simon de 
Montfort by Prince Edward (afterward Edward I.), l'26o, Montiort's 
younger son, Simon, shut himself up in Kenilworth Castle, which sus- 
tained a sieRc for six montlis against tlie royal forces of Henry III., to 
whom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was issued the 
"Pielum de Kaiilworth," or " Ban of Kenilworth," enacting that all 
■who took up arms against the king should pay him the value of their 
lands for five years. 

t In Aug., 1855, by permission of the government, a military hand 
played iu Kensington Gardens on Sundays, in presence of about 60,000 
persons. The practice was discontinueil in 1856, being objected to by 
many persons; but bands were ordered to play in other parks during 
tha week. 



ish at Savannah, they were attacked and utterly de- 
feated at Kettle Creek by Col. Pickens on the 14th of 
Feb., 1779. Boyd lost 70 killed aud 75 made prisoners. 
Pickens lost iiS men. 

KEW (Surrey). The palace w-as successively occu- 
pied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux : by Fred- 
erick, prince of Wales, 17iiU, and George III. Queeu 
Charlotte died here, Nov. 4, 1818. A uew palace, erect- 
ed by George III., under the direction of Mr. Wj'att, 
was pulled down in 1S27. The gardens contain a very 
fine collection of plants, and are decorated with orna- 
mental buildiugs, most of them erected by Sir William 
Chambers, about 17G0.* The meteorological observa- 
tory was presented to the British Association in 1842. 

KEYS. The iuveution is ascribed to Theodore of 
Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B.C. 

KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving its 
name from Chersouesus, a peninsula), came under the 
sway of the great Mithridates about 120 B.C., and aft- 
erward of that of Rome, A.D. 30. It continued im- 
portant, aud its possession was long disputed by the 
Russians and Greeks. It was taken by Vladimir, 
grand-duke of Russia, in 988, when he aud his army 
received Christian baptism, and he married the em- 
peror's sister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her 
dowry. The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; 
aud the Turks found it deserted when they took pos- 
session of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains 
the Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russians con- 
veyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. Since 
the foundation of Odessa in 1792, Khersou has de- 
clined. Potemkiu, the favorite of Catharine, who died 
at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, aud John Howard, the 
English philanthropist, who died here Jan. 20, 1790, is 
buried about three miles from the towu, where au ob- 
elisk has been erected to his memory. 

KHIVA, in Turkistan, Asia, governed by a khan. 
An expedition sent against it by the Emperor Nicho- 
las of Russia iu 1839, perished through the rigor of the 
climate in 1840. 

KHYBER PASS, Afghanistan. See India, 1S39, 1S42. 

KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), renowned for 
its carpet manufactiu'es, established about 1735. 

KIEL, chief town of Holstein, a sea-port, aud a mem- 
ber of the Hauseatic League iu 1300. The University 
was founded iu 1665. By a treaty between Great Brit- 
ain, Sweden, aud Denmark, signed here Jan. 14, 1814, 
Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Nor- 
wegians had been deserted by the King of Denmark, 
and had sent a deputation to England, to interest that 
country iu their favor. Ou the contrary, the English 
blockaded the ports of Norway, and the Swedes en- 
tered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave 
actions, but they were defeated. The Prince of Den- 
mark quitted Norway, and the Diet elected the King 
of Sweden to be their king. Au extraordinary assem- 
bly of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, 
met here Sept. 9, 1850. By a convention between Aus- 
tria and Prussia, the former is to govern Holstein, but 
Kiel is to be held by Prussia as a German federal port 
(Aug.,lS65). 

KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body of the 
insurgent Irish defeated the British forces command- 
ed by^General Duudas, May 23, 1798. The general, iu 
a subsequent engagement, overthrew the I'ebels near 
Kilculleu Bridge, when 300 were slain. 

KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh, or race- 
course here, was once a forest of oaks, ilere was the 
nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her iu the 5th cen- 
tury, and here was' a building called the fire-house, 
where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the inextinguish- 
able fire which existed till the Reformation. The see. 
was one of the earliest episcopal foundations in Ire- 
land ; St. Conlreth, who died 519, the first prelate. The 
first Protestant bishop was Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. 
The see is valued, by an extent returned, 30 Hen. VIII., 
at £69 U.S. 4(7. Irish per vear. Kildare was united to 
Dublin iu 1846. See Dublin. The insurrection in Kil- 
dare, which swelled into the rebellion, commenced 
May 23, 1798. On that night, Lieut. Giflord, of Dublin, 
and a number of other gentlemen, were murdered bj' 
insurgents. This rebellion was quelled iu 1799. 



* The botanic gardens contain mnnv magnificent conservatories, etc. 
Mr. Aiton retired from his otSce of director of the Botanic Gardens in 
1841, after fifty years' service. He\vas succeeded by Sir William Hook- 
er, at whose recommendation the gardens were opened to the public 
daily. In 1847 the royal kitchen and forcing gardens were incorpora- 
ted with the botanic gardens. The collections in the Museum of Eco- 
nomic Botany began with the private collection of Sir William Hooker, 
given by him in 1847. Under his charge the gardens were greatly im- 
proved. He died Aug. 12, 1863, and was succeeded by his son, Dr. Jo- 
seph D. Hooker. 



KIL 



278 



KIN 



KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to have been 
fouuded by St. Fachuau. Cardinal Paparo, iu 1152, 
rendered it a suffragan see to Cashel ; but in 1060 it 
was annexed to Tuam, and afterward united to Killa- 
loe. 

KILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English settlement 
about 1071. The Statutes of Kilkenny enacted, among 
other things, "That the alliance of the English by 
marriage with any Irish, the nurture of infantes, and 
gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high treason." 
And again, " If anie man of English race use an Irish 
name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize or fashion of 
the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his body im- 
prisoned, till he shall conform to English modes and 
customs." 

KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French force, 
landing from three frigates, under General Humbert, 
Aug. 22, 179S. The invaders were joined by the Irish 
insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar andColooney 
followed ; and the French were defeated at Ballyna- 
muck, Sept. S, same year. 

KILLIECRANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). Here 
the forces of William III., commanded by General 
Mackay, were defeated by the adherents of James II., 
under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, who 
fell iu the moment of victory, July 27, 1GS9. 

KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was founded 
here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about 645, and an 
abbey of Dominicans was built iu the loth century.— 
Ware. A charter was granted to Kilmallock by Ed- 
ward VI., and another by Elizabeth in 1.5S4. The town 
was invested by the Irish forces iu 1508, but the siege 
was raised by the Duke of Ormond. There was much 
fighting here in 1641 and 1642. 

KILSYTH (Central Scotland). Here Montrose de- 
feated the Covenanters, Aug. 15, 1645, and threatened 
Glasgow. 

KINBURN, a fort at the confluence of the rivers 
Bug and Dnieper, taken by the English and French, 
Oct. 17, 1S55. Three floating French batteries, said to 
be the invention of the emperor, on the principle of 
horizontal shell-firing, were very efi'ective. On the 
ISth the Russians blew up Oczakofl", a fort opposite. 

KINDER-GARTEN (children's garden), a system 
of education devised by Froebel, but practically car- 
ried out by Mr. and Mrs. Rouge, in Germany, in 1849, 
and iu Englaud in 1851. The system, founded mainly 
on self- tuition, and enlivened by toys, games, and 
singing, is set forth in Rouge's "Kinder -Garten," 
published in 1S58. 

KINDRED, Table of, in the Book of Common 
Prayer, was set forth iu 1563. 

KING: German Konig, Latin Rex, Scythian Reis, 
Spanish Re;/, Italian Re, and French Roii, all come 
from the Hebrew Roach, chief or head. Nimrod was 
the first founder of a kingdom, 2245 B.C.— X>".fresj)or/. 
Misraim built cities iu Egypt, and was the first who 
assumed the title of king iu that division of the earth, 
2188 B.C. The " manner of the king" is set forth in 
1 Savmcl viii., 1112 B.C. Saul was the first King of Is- 
rael, 1095 B.C. Most of the Grecian states were gov- 
erned by kings ; and kings were the first rulers in 
Rome. 

King of England.— T)Ae style was first used by Eg- 
bert, 828; but the title Rex gcntin Anglonim, 
king of the English nation, existed during the 
Heptarchy. See Britain. 
The plural phraseology, we, us, our, was first adopt- 
ed among English kings by King John 1199 

The title of "King of France" assumed, and the 
French arms quartered, by Edward III., in right 

of his mother 1340 

Pope Leo X. conferred the title of "Defender of 

the Faith" on Henry VIII Oct. 11,1521 

Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king 1542 

The style " Great Britain" was adopted at the 

union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne 1707 

That of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland" at the Union, when the royal style 
and title was appointed to run thus : " Gcorgius 
Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Rex Fidei De- 
fensor," " George the Third, by the Grace of God, 
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, king. Defender of the Faith" (France being 

omitted) Jan. f,lS01 

Hanover was omitted in the queen's style, June 21,1837 

The queen was proclaimed in all the important 

places in India as "Victoria, by the Grace of 

God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 

and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies 



thereof iu Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and 
Australia, queen," etc Nov 1,1853 

The National Assembly decreed that the title of 
"King of France" should be changed in the 
person of Louis XVI. to that oi " King of the 
French" Oct. 16,1789 

The royal title abolished 1792 

Louis XVIII. styled "by the Grace of God, King 
of France and Navarre" 1814 

Louis Philippe I., the late sovereign, was invited 
to the monarchy under the style of the "King 
of the French" (see France) Aug. 9,1830 

The Emperors of Germany, in order that their 
eldest sons might be chosen their successors, iu 
their own life-time politically obtained them the 
title of "King of the Rmnans." The first emper- 
or so elected was Henry IV 1055 

Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was in- 
duced to go to Germany, where he disbursed 
vast sums under the promise of being elected 
next emperor ; he was elected "King of the Ro- 
mans" (but failed in succeeding to the imperial 
crown) 125C 

The style " King of Rome" was revived by Napo- 
leon I., who conferred it on his son upon his 
birth March 20,1811 

KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bencu, Coukt of, ob- 
tained its name from the king sometimes sittiug here 
on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judica- 
ture belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his 
feet. This court in ancient times was called Curia 
Domini Regis. 

CniEF JUSTICES OF TUE KING'b OE QUEE:<'S BEIiOU LN 

E^.•flLA^'n. 
1526. John Fitz James. 

1539. Sir Edward Montagu. 

1540. Sir Richard Lvster. 

1552. Sir Roger Chohnely. 

1553. Sir Thomas Bromley. 

1554. Sir William I'ortman. 
1556. Sir Edward Saunders. 
1559. Sir Robert Catlyn. 
157.S. Sir Christopher Wray. 
1591. Sir John Popham. 
1607. Sir Thomas Fleming. 
1613. Sir Edward Coke. 
1616. Sir Henry Montagu. 
1620. Sir James Ley. «• 
1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
1631. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
1635. Sir John Brampston. 
1643. Sir Robert Heath. 

1648. Henry Rolle. 
1655. John Glyn. 

1659. Sir Richard Newdigate. 
" Robert Nicholas. 

1660. Sir Robert Foster. 
1663. Sir Robert Hyde. 
1665. Sir John Kelyug. 
1671. Sir Matthew Hale. 
1676. Sir Richard Raynsford. 
167S. Sir William Scroggs. 
1681. Sir Francis Pemberton. 

1688. Sir Edmund Saunders. 

" Sir George Jefteries, afterward Lord Jefferies 
and lord chancellor. 
1085. Sir Edward Herbert. 
1687. Sir Robert "Wright. 

1689. Sh- John Holt. 

1709. Sir Thomas Parker, afterward Lord Parker and 
Earl of Macclesfield and lord chancellor. 

1718. Sir John Pratt. 

1725. Sir Robert Raymond, afterward Lord Raymond. 

1783. Sir Philip Yorke, afterward Lord Hardwicke and 
lord chancellor. 

1737. Sir William Lee. 

1754. Sir Dudley Ryder. 

1756. William Murray, lord Mansfield, afterward Earl 
of Mansfield. 

1788. Llovd, lord Kenyon, June 9. 

1802. Sir Edward Law, April 12 ; created Lord Ellen- 
borough. 

1818. SirCharTesAbbott, Nov. 4; afterward Lord Ten- 
terden. 

1832. Sir Thomas Denman, Nov. 7 ; created Lord Den- 
man : resigned. 

1850. John, lord Campbell, March 5 ; afterward lord 
chancellor. 

1S59. Sir Alexander Cockburn, June. 

CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING's OE QUEEx'S BEXCII I'M 
IRELAND. 

1690. Sir Richard Reynell, Dec. C. 



KIN 



279 



KNI 



1605. Sir Richard Pvnc, June T. 

1709. Allan lirodi-ick, IK-c. 24. 

1711. Sir Kichard Cox, July 5. 

1714. William Wliitshcd, Oct. 14. 

1727. Johu KoLTi-'i-sdn, April 3. 

1741. Thomas Marlay, Dec. 2!>. 

1751. St. Geori,'c Caulticld, Aug. 2T. 

1769. Warden I'^lood, July 31. 

1704. John Gore, Aujj. 24 ; afterward Earl Annaly. 

17S4. John Scott, Apiil 29 ; afterward Earl of Cloumel. 

179S.- Artluir Wolfe, June l:! ; afterward Lord Kilwar- 

den (killed in Emmet's insurrection, July 23, 

1S0.S). 
1S0.3. Wm. Downes, Sept. 12 ; afterward Lord Dowues. 
1822. Charles Kendal Bushe, Feb. 14. 
1S41. Edward Pennefathcr, Nov. 10. 
1S4C. Francis Blackburne, Jan. 23. 
1S52. Thomas Lefroy, March. 

KING'S COLLEGES. See A berdeen and CamhrMge. 
King's College, London, incorporated Aug. 14, 1829, 
and opened Oct. 8, 1831. It was incorporated with 
the University of London in 1837. The hospital was 
founded in 1839. 

KING'S EVIL, formerly supposed to be cured by the 
king's touch; the lirat being Edward the Confessor, iu 
10.58. Iu the reign of Charlen II., 92,107 persons were 
touched; and, according toWii^eman, the king's phy- 
sician, they were nearly" all cured ! (^uceu Anne offi- 
cially announced iu the Londmi (^((zctfi', March 12, 1712, 
her intention to touch publicly. The custom was 
dropped by George I., 1714. 

KING'S MOUNTAIN, Battle op. Major Patrick 
Ferguson was sent by Cornwallis to embody the loyal 
militia west of the Broad River, in South Carolina. 
With 1500 of them he was on his way to join the main 
army, when, on the 7th of October, 1780, while encamp- 
ed upon a spur of Kiiitx's Mountain, he was attacked by 
1800 Republican militia under several colonels, and to- 
tally defeated. Shelby, Cleveland, and Campbell were 
the chief leaders of the Republicans. Ferguson was 
killed, and a small monument marks the spot of his 
burial. 300 of his men were killed or wounded, and 
about 800 of them made prisoners, with 1500 stand of 
arms. The Americans lost only 20 men. 

KING'S SPEECH. The first from the throne is said 
to have been by Henry I., 1107. 

KING PHILIP'S WAR. Philip, son of Massasoit, 
the friend of the Pilgrim Fathers at New Plymouth, 
New England, was induced by real and imaginary 
wrongs to make war upon the European settlers in 
order to exterminate them. His home was at Mount 
Hope, R. I. He struck his first blow at Swansea on the 
4tli of July, 1675. The white settlers sprang to arms. 
Philip ordered other New England tribes to join him, 
and during the remainder of that year and the spring 
of 1670, there was alarm and bloodshed iu nearly all 
the more remote New England settlements. The In- 
dians were finally subdued ; Philip was chased from 
one hiding-place to another, and finally, in 1076, he was 
shot in a swamp by a faithless Indian. His head was 
carried in triumph to Plymouth, and his little sou, the 
last survivor of his family, was sold for a bond-slave 
iu Bermuda. 

KINGSTON, the shire town of Ulster county, New 
York, was settled by the Dutch and Huguenots. It is 
memorable in the United States as the place where the 
first Constitution of the State of New York was framed, 
in 1777, and the first Legislature was convened under 
it; also as having been wantonly destroyed by a Brit- 
ish marauding expedition up the Hudson in the au- 
tumn of the same year. 

KINGSTON, Jamaica, was founded in 1693, after the 
great earthquake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal, 
and constituted a city, 1802. Au awfiil fire here rav- 
aged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
i;.'500,000 of property, Feb. 8, 1782 ; another fire iu 1843. 
See Jamaica. 

KINGSTON TRIAL. The Duchess of Kingston was 
arraigned before the Lords iu Westminster Hall on a 
charge of bigamy, havini; married first Cajitain Her- 
vey, afterward Earl of Bristol, and next, during his life- 
time, Evelyn Pierrepoint, duke of Kingston, April 15- 
22, 1776. She was found guilty, but, on her pleading 
the privilcife of peerage, the punishment of burning 
in the hand was remitted, and she was discharged on 
paying the fees of office. 

KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian cus- 
tom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among the 
Jews, 1 Samuel x., 1, etc. The "kiss of charity," or 
"holy kiss," comraaudcd iu the Scriptures {liomans 



xvi., 16, etc.), was observed by the early Christians, and 
is still recognized by the Greek Church and some oth- 
ers. Kissing the pope's foot began with Adrian I. or 
Leo III., at the close of the 8th century. 

KIT-CAT CLUB, of about thirty noblemen and gen- 
tlemen, instituted in 1703 to promote the Protestant 
succession. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were 
members. It took its name from Christopher Kat, a 
pastry-cook in King's Street, Westminster. 

KITT'S. See Christopher's, St. 

KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be bent at 
the name of Jesus (see PMllijip. ii., 2) about tlie year 
1275, by the order of the pope. The ceremony of a 
vassal kneeling to his lord is said to have begun in 
the Sth century. 

KNIGHTHOOD. The word knight is derived from 
the Saxon Cniht, a servant (?'. e., servant to the king, 
etc.). The institution of the Roman knights {equites, 
or horsemen, from eqitvs, a horse) is ascribed to Rom- 
ulus, about 750 B.C. Knighthood was conferred iu 
England by the priest at the altar, after confession and 
consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptar- 
chy. The first knight made by the sovereign with the 

sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfred,' A.D. 900 

Spelnian. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the 
honor of knighthood was suppressed in a syuodTheld 
at Westminster in 1100. — Ashmole's Institutes. All 
persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged 
to be knighted, or pay a fine, 38 Hen. III., 1251.— ,SaJ- 
mon. On the decline of the empire of Charlemagne, 
all Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the 
proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; 
his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by 
a guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made 
by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length 
the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress these ma- 
rauders, to make property secure, and to protect the 
ladies; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn 
vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. Cer- 
vantes's "Don Quixote," a satire on knight-errantry, 
was published in 1005. See Chivalry, Tournaments. 

rBINClPAL MILITARY, EELIGIOITS, ANT) HONOEAEY OEnEES 
OF KNIGUTUOOD.* 

Alcantara, instituted about 1156 

Amaranta, Sweden (female) 1645 

Angelic Knights, Greece 1191 

Annonciada, Savoy, about 1360 

Annunciada, Mantua 1618 

Avis, Portugal, about 1147 

Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed (see Banner- 
ets) 1485 

Bath, England, 1399. Renewed (see Bath) 1725 

Bear, Switzerland 1213 

Bee, France 1703 

Belgic Lion 1815 

Black Eatrle, Prussia, instituted by Frederick I. . .1701 

Blood of Christ, Mantua 1008 

Broomflowers, France 1234 

Brotherly (or Neighborly) Love, Austria 1708 

Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Saucho III 1153 

CharlesIII. (or the Immaculate Conception), Spain, 1771 

Charles XIII., Sweden 1811 

Chase, M^iirtemberg 1702 

Christ, Livonia 1203 

Christ, Portugal 1317 

Christian Charity, France 1.55S 

Cincinnati, America 17S3 

Conception of the Virgin 1018 

Concord, Prussia 1660 

Crescent, Naples, 1268. Revived 1464 

Crescent, Turkey ISOl 

Cross of Christ 1217 

Cross of the South. Brazil 1822 

Crown Royal, France (Frieslaud) 802 

Crown, Wiirtemberg 1818 

Danebrog, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 

1219 ; revived by Christian V 16T1 

Death's Head (female), by the widow Louisa Eliz- 
abeth of Saxe-jNIasburg 1709 

Doe: and Cock, France. .' 500 

Dove of Castile 1379 

Dragon, Hunsrary 1439 

Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 

Eas;le (see Black, Mexican, Bed, White). 

Ear of Corn and Ermine, Brittanv, about 1442 

Elephant, Denmark, about 1190; by Christian L..1458 
Elizabeth Theresa, Austria (female) 1750 



* EnLirgrc'l ami coi-rpctod frnin Edmondsnn and Carlisle; the early 
dates are doiihtf'ul. Many orders were instituted after the settlement 
of Europe iu 1815. 



ICNI 



280 



KNI 



Fidelity, Baden i-r-^^ 

Fidelity, Denmark 1732 

Fools, Cleves io^q 

Frederick, Wurtemberg iqoq 

Frieslaod (or Crown EuyfJ), France.' ..'.'. S02 

Garter (ivhich see), England I349 

Generosity, Brandenburg 1 csk 

Genet, France f ^i!|° 

Golden Angel (afterward St. George)', about 312 

Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Ph'lip eiir- 

named the Good -,Aon 

Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel 1770 

Golden Shield and Thistle, France 1 rto 

Golden Spur, by Pius IV jS™ 

Golden Stole, Venice, before 737 

Guelphic, Hanover jt;]^5 

Heury the Lion, Brunswick .'..." iqoi 

Holy Ghost, France 1570 

Holy Vial (St. Kemi), France 490 

Hospitalers (ivhich sec), 1099; of Rhodes, 1308 : of 

Malta ; ^521 

Iron Crown, Lombardy 1 sin 

Iron Helmet, Hesse-Cassel '..'..'. 1S14 

Jerusalem (see Malta) .' 104^ 

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXi'l.' '1320. 
Reformed, as Jesus and Mary, by Paul V. IGI5 

Knot, Naples " _ 2352 

La Calza, Venice, about '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.. 7,37 

Lamb of God, Sweden .'..'. 1554 

Legion of Honor, France, instituted by 'Na'pol'e'ou 

Bonaparte jgQ2 

Leopold, Austria .'. ...'!!!". l.igog 

Leopold, Belgium '...'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..' 1832 

Lily of Aragon '.'.'..'.'.'.'.'." 1410 

Lily of Navarre .'.'..'.'.' 1043 

Lion and Sun, Persia .ISOS 

Lion of Ziihringen, Baden '.'...'.'. isi2 

Lioness, Naples, about 1399 

Loretto, Lady of j5i;;7 

Louis, Bavaria ..'...'.'.'. 1S27 

Louis, Hesse-Darmstadt 1 807 

Malta (see Hospitalers). 

Maria Louisa {female), Spain 1792 

Maria Theresa, Austria 17,57 

Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria ismk 

Martyrs, Palestine 1024 

Merit, Hesse-Cassel 176O 

Merit, Prussia \\\ 274^ 

Mexican Eagle '.'..'....'..'." 1S05 

Montjoie, Jerusalem, before liso 

Noble Passion, Saxony 1704 

Oak of Navarre, Spain 7.:i2 

Our Lady of Montesat "1317 

Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Viciosa! .*!".!' 1818 

Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 

Palatine Lion 2703 

Palm and Alligator, Africa, granted' to 'Go'v'.'CainiD- 

bell m 28.37 

Passion of Jesus Christ, France. I3S4 

Peter I., Brazil 2S26 

Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg. ....'.'.'.'.'. 1838 

Pius, founded by Pius IV I559 

Polar Star, Sweden. Revived '." '1748 

Porcupine, France ' .' " 1393 

Realc, Naples, about. '. 23^)9 

Red Eagle, Prussia, 1T34. Revived ...'.'.'.'. "l792 

Redeemer (or Savior), Greece " '1833 

Rosary, Spain \\\\ 2212 

Rose, Brazil \ 28''9 

Round Table, England, by Alfred (see Garter) '5I& or 5h 

bt. Alexander Nevskoi, Russia 17-52 

St. Andrew, Russia .' lor^s 

St. Andrew, Scotland (see Thistle) .'s'o9,"l546,'l6S7 

St. Anne, Holstein, now Russia 1738 or 173.5 

St. Anthony, Hainault 2382 

St. Anthony, Bavaria '.'.'.... 1382 

St. Beuto d'Avis (see Avis above). 
St. Blaise, Armenia, 12th century. 

St. Bridget, Sweden ISGg 

St. Catharine, Palestine 1063 

St. Catharine, Russia {female) ..'.\ '1714 

St. Charles, Wiirtemberg \\ ."1759 

St. Constantine, Constantinople, about 313 ; 'Par*. 
ma, 1699 : since removed to Naples. 

St. Denis, France 1<)C,7 

St. Elizabeth, Brazil '.. ... ! "iROi 

St. Esprit, France .'."."!.'.'!] 579 

St. Ferdinand, Naples ..., [isoo 

St. Ferdinand, Spain ^1811 

St. George and the Reunion, Naples !l819 

St. George, Angelic Knights 1191 

St. George, Austria 1470, 1494 

St. George, Defender of the Immaculat'e Concep- 
tion. Bavaria 1729 



St. George, England (see Garter) iqiq 

St. George, Genoa.... \l% 

St. George, Rome i-no 

St. George, Russia \tj, 

St. George, Spain \l7t 

St. George, Venice ■>%(! 

St. Gerion, Germany jfon 

St. Henry, Saxony i ioR 

St. Hermenegild,"Spain '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. isu 

St. Huljert, Germany, by the Duke of"Juii'e'rs"and 

Cleves i^<^ 

St. Isabella, Spain 1S35 ; Portugal "(/mai^) .';;;;; iigoi 

St. James, Holland 1290 

St. James, Portugal !!.'!."!! 1310 

St. James, Spain, about * " 227Q 

St. James of the Sword, Spain and Portugal 837 

St. Januarius, Naples " '1738 

St. Joachim, Germany i7rre 

St. John of Aeon, after '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 137? 

St. John of Jerusalem (see EosiJitalers) 104S 

St. John, Prussia ' 'isiq 

St, Joseph, Tuscany '." 1307 

St. Julian of Alacantara ugg 

^'' i'S?''^-J?^' France, before 1154; unit'e'd'with'tliat 

ot St. Maurice, Savoy 1 cto 

St. Louis, France igoo 

St. Mark, Venice, about 82S. Renewed.' '.'.'.'.'.'.." '1562 

St. Mary de Merced, Spain 1213 

St. Maurice, Savoy i^n, 

St. Michael, France \7Z 

St. Michael, Germany \m9. 

St. Nicholas, Naples 1000 

St. Patrick, Ireland '. \ilt 

St. Paul, Rome i^^n 

St. Peter, Rome \^r. 

St. Remi (or Holy Vial), about . . . .'.'.'.'.'.V.V. 490 

St. Rupert, Germany '1701 

St. Sepulchre, Palestine loon 

St. Stanislas, Poland '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.^6 

St. Stephen, Hungary .".""l764 

St. Stephen, Tnsc'iiny .'.' legi 

St. Thomas of Aeon, after 1377 

Savior, Aragon \\\\ 2223 

Savior, Greece icqq 

Savior of the World, Sweden. '..'.'.'.'.'.'. \km 

Scale, Castile, about \'^%, 

Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 

Seraphim, Sweden -.nnV 

CTiI.^ «.,,! ri „ i. T7t l..>0'i 



Ship and Crescent, France .'.']] 2269 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany {female) .' I662 

Star, France " •, ^J( 

Star, Sicily ..'.'.'::.".:::::'.:: ml 

star of the Cross, Austria {female) ^rrq 

Star of India....! ' joj;? 

Swan, Flanders '.'.\l\\V.'.'.'.'. 500 

Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, about 1192 

Sword, Sweden, 1525. Revived. . 1 740 

Templars (see Templars) 2119 

Teste Morte (Death's Head), Wurtemberg! '. 1652 

1 eutonic, Prussia, about 1190. Renewed "1 599 

Thistle of Bourbon {370 

Thistle, Scotland, 809. Revived " ' '1546 "losr 

Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Revived 'isos 

Tusin, or Hungarian knights, about " "l5fi2 

Vasa, Sweden -.779 

Virgin Mary, Italy '.'.'.'.'.'..'. 1233 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France '.. irot 

White Cross, Tuscany ^\ 

White Eagle, Poland, about 1325. Revived! 1 705 

White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar {7=9 

Wilhelm, Holland |d?5 

Wing of St. Michael, Portugal !!!!!!! 1172 

Wladimir, Russia ".'."' '1752 

Female Knights — It is said that the first were the 
women wh(5 preserved Tortosa from falling into the 
hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout resistance. 
Large immunities and favors were granted to the 
women and their descendants. Several female or- 
ders appear in the previous list. 
Knights of Gi.vn and Kerky, in Ireland— The heads 
of two branches of the family of Fitzcerald, who still 
eujoy the distinctions bestowed on" their ancestors 
by the ancient sovereigns. 
Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; summon- 
ed by the king's writ and chosen by the freeholders, 
first summoned by Simon de Montfort in 1254, and 
m a more formal manner, Jan. 20, 1265 There are 
writs extant as far back as 11 Edward I., 1283. The 
knights are still girded with a sword when elected, 
as the writ prescribes. 

KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire has been re- 
nowned for its cutlerv for five centuries- Chaucer 
speaks of the "Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that 



KNO 



281 



LAB 



Richard Mathews, on tlie Fleet Bridge, was the first 
En;,'lishmau who made fine liiiives, elc. ; aud that he 
obtained a i)rohil)ilion of forciijii oues, ISOB. Cla.>-p 
or spriii-,' knives became common about 1C5U, coming 
originally from Flanders. — Knife -cleaning tnachines 
were patented by Mr. George Kent in IS-W aud 185'J ; 
others have been invented by Masters, Price, etc. See 
Forks. 

KNOW-NOTniNGS, a society which arose in 1S53, 
in the I'liited States of N. America. Their principles 
were eniboiUed in the following propositions (at New 
York, ls,')5). They possessed several newspapers, and 
had much political influence. 

1. The Americans shall rule America. 

2. The union of these states. 

3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 

4. The United States of America— as they are— one 

and inseparable. 

5. No seftarian interferences in our legislation or in 

the administration of American law. 
C. Hostilitv to the assumptions of the pope, through 
the bishops, etc., iu a republic sanctitied by Prot- 
estant blood. 

7. Thorough reform in the naturalization laws. 

8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects 

aud classes, with the Bible, God's holy word, as a 

universal text-book. 
A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the 
above, called Know Soinethimjs. Both bodies were 
absorbed into the two parties. Democrats and Re- 
publicans, at the presidential election in Nov., 1S56. 

KNOXVILLE (Tennessee), Siege of. General Burn- 
side, with the Army of the Ohio, occupied Knoxville 
on the 3d of September, 1S63. The Confederate Gen- 
eral Buckner, upon his advance, evacuated East Ten- 
nessee aud joined Bragg at Chattanooga. Early iu 
November, General Lougstreet, with 1T,0U0 men, ad- 
vanced against Knoxville. On the 14th he crossed 
the Tennessee. Burnside engaged him on the 16th 
at Campbell's Station aud repulsed his attacks, thus 
gaining time for the concentration of his army in 
Knoxville. Longstreet advanced aud laid siege to the 
town. He made two furious assaults upou the place 
(November IS and 29), in both of which he was re- 
pulsed. But, iu the mean time. Grant had defeated 
Bragg at Chattanooga, and Sherman, with 25,000 men, 
was on the way to relieve Knoxville. Lougstreet, 
compelled to raise the siege, retired up the Holston 
River, but did not entirely abandon East Tennessee 
nntil the next spring, when he again joined Lee in 
Virginia. 

KOIIINOOR, or "Mountain of Light." The East 
India diamond. See Diamonds. 

KOLIN or Koi.LiN (Bohemia). Here the Austrian 
General Daun gained a signal victory over Frederick 
the Great of Prussia, June IS, 1T5T. In commemora- 
tion, the military order of Maria Theresa was insti- 
tuted by the empress-queen. 

KOMORN or Comokn (Hungary), an ancient fortress 
town, often taken and retaken during the wars with 
Turkey. Near It the Hungarians defeated the Aus- 
trians, July 11, lS-19, but surrendered the town, Oct. 1, 
1849. 

KONIEH (formerly Iconium). Here the Turkish 
army was defeated by the Pacha of Egypt, after a long 
sanguinary fight, Dec. 21, 1S02. The grand vizier was 
taken prisoner. 

KOXIGSBERG, the capital of East Prussia, was 



founded by the Teutonic knights in IQ.W, and became 
the residence of the grand master iu 1457. It joined 
tlie llauseatic League iu 13C5. It was ceded to the 
Elector of Brandenburg in 1057, and here Frederick 
III. was crowned the tirst king of Prussia iu ITOl. It 
was held by the liussians 175S-64, and by the French 
in 1S07. Here the present kiugand queen were crown- 
ed, Oct. IS, 1S61. 

KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), most ca- 
pacious, was built by Frederick Augustus, king of Po- 
land, in 17-25. It was made to hold 2U3,CU7 gallons of 
wine ; and on the top, which was railed in, was ac- 
commodation for twenty persons to regale them- 
selves. The famous tuu of St. Bernard's holds 800 
tuns. See Ileidelbcnj Tun. 

KORAN or Alcoran (Al-Kuean), the sacred book 
of the Mohammedans, was written about CIO, by Mo- 
hammed, who asserted that it had been revealed to 
him by the angel Gabriel in twenty-three years, and 
published by Abubeker about 635. Its general aim 
was to unite the professors of Idolatry and the Jews 
and Christians in the worship of one God (whose uni- 
ty was the chief point iuculcated), under certain laws 
aud ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mohammed as 
the prophet. The leading article of faith preached is 
compounded of an eternal truth aud a necessary tic- 
tiou, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mo- 
hammed is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran 
was translated into Latin in 1143; into French 1647; 
into English, by Sale, 1734 ; aud into other European 
languages 1763 et seq. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, 
divided into 114 sections. See Mohammedanism, etc. 

KOREISH, an Arab tribe which opposed the pre- 
tensions of Mohammed, and was defeated by him and 
his adherents, 630. 

KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian 
refugee, wheu iu the United States in 1S50, declared 
his intention of becoming an American citizen, and 
went through the preliminary forms. In 1S53 he vis- 
ited Smyrna, and on June 21 was seized by a boat's 
crew from the Austrian brig Ruzzar. By direction of 
the American minister at Constantinople, Captain In- 
graham, of the American sloop St. Louis, demanded 
his release ; but, having heard that the prisoner was 
to be clandestinely transferred to Trieste, he demand- 
ed his surrender by a certain time, and prepared to at- 
tack the Austrian vessel on July 2; Koszta was then 
giveu up. On August 1 the Austrian government pro- 
tested against these proceedings in a circular address- 
ed to the European courts, but eventually a compro- 
mise was eflected, aud Koszta returned to the United 
States. , 

KRASNOI (Central Russia). Here the French army 
under Marsha! Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, was total- 
ly defeated by the Russian army commanded by Prince 
Kutusoff (who died iu 1S13). 

KREMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by Demetri, 
grand-duke of Russia, in 13T6. It was burnt down in 
1812, aud rebuilt in ISIO. 

KUNNERSDORF, Battle of. See Cunnersdorf. 

KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John Hunnia- 
des, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, Dec. 24, 1443. 

KURRACHEE, a flourishing port in N.W. India, 
was taken by the British, Feb.3, 1S.B9. 

KUSTRIN or Custrin (Prussia), a fortified town, 
licsiefrcd and burnt by the Russians, Aug. 22, 175S ; 
taken by the French iu 1806 ; giveu up, 1S14. 



L. 



LABORATORY. The Royal Institution laboratory, 
the first of any importance in London, was establish- 
ed in IMKt. In it were made the discoveries of Davy 
aud Faraday. See Roual Institution. 

LABRADOR (N. America), discovered bv Sebastian 
Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte Real iu 1500 ; made a 
Moravian missionary station in 1771. 

LABUAN, an Asiatic island N.W. Borneo ; occupied 
by the British iu 1S46, and given up to Sir James Brook 
in 1S4S. See Borneo. 

LABURNUM, called also the golden chain and Cii- 
tisus Laburnum, was brought to these countries from 
Hungary, Austria, etc., about 1576.— vl&7ic. 



LABYRINTH. Four are mentioned : the first, said 
to have beeu built by Daidalus, in the island of Crete, 
to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B.C. ; the second 
in Egypt, in the isle of Maris, by Psammetichus, king 
of that place, about 6*3 B.C.; the other, the third, at 
Leninos, remarkable for its sumptuous pillars, which 
seems to have 1>een a stalactite grotto ; and the fourth 
at Clusium, in Italv, erected bv Porsenna, king of Etru- 
ria, about 520 M.C.—Plini/. The beauty and art of the 
labyrinth of Mendcs were almost beyond belief; it 
had 12 halls and ."".oon chambers, with ])illars, was in- 
crusted with marble, and adunicd with sculpture. — 
Herodotus. The labyrinth of AN'oodstock is connected 
with the story of Fair Rosamond. ^e&RosamoM. The 



LAC 



282 



LAN 



Maze, at Hampton Court, was formed at the end of 
the Kith century. 

LACE was of very delicate texture in France and 
Flanders in 13-20. Its importation into England was 
prohibited in 14S.3, but it was general in the'court cos- 
tume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresdeu, Valenciennes, 
Mechlin, and Brussels have long been famous for 
their tine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread 
has been frequently sold for four pounds in London ; 
and its value, when manufactured, has been increased 
to forty pounds, ten times the price of standarcl gold. 
A dissipated framework knitter of Nottingham, named 
Hammond, is said to have invented a mode of ai)ply- 
ing his stocking-frame Jo the manufacture of lace from 
studying the lace on his wife's cap, about 170S. — Mac- 
culloch. So many improvemeiilg have been made in 
this mamtfacture, particularly byTIeathcote (1S09, 1817, 
etc.), Morley, and Leaver (ISll, etc.), that a piece of lace 
which about 1809 costXlT, may now be had lor 7s. (1S53). 
— Urc. The process of "gassing," by which cotton lace 
is said to be made equal to hue linen lace, was invent- 
ed by Samuel Hall, of Basford, near Nottingham. He 
died in Nov., 1S62. 

LACED^MON. See Sparta. 

LA COLLE MILLS, Attack on, in Lower Canada, 
not far from House's Point, by 3000 Americans of Gen. 
Wilkinson's division, on the 30th March, lsl4. The 
mill was fortified, and garrisoned by 200 British sol- 
diers under Major Hancock. The Americans lost 10 
killed and 122 wounded ; the British loss was 10 lulled 
and 46 wounded. 

LACONIA (S.E. Peloponnesus), the ancient name 
of Sparta ; in the 8th century called Tzakonia. 

LACTEAL VESSELS were discovered in a dog by 
Jasper Asellius, of Cremona, 1U22, and in birds and 
other animals by Mr. Uewson, of London, about 1770. 

LADRONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to Spain, 
discovered by IMagellan in 1520. He first touched at 
the island of Guam. The natives having stolen some 
of his goods, he named the islands the Lculrones, or 
Thieves. In the 17th century they obtained the name 
of Marianne's Islands from the Queen of Spain. 

LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor- 
houses, in former times, served out bread to the poor 
weekly, and were therefore called Lafords and Lef- 
days, signifying bread-r/ivers (from Ma/, a loaf ) ; hence 
lords and ladies. Tooke considers lord to signify high- 
horn. Ladies first came into court in France in 1499. 
Lady-bay (March 25), a festival instituted about 350 
according to some authorities, and not before the 7th 
century according to others. See Annunciation. The 
year was ordered to begin on Jan. 1st in France in 
1564, and in Scotland, by proclamation, on Dec. 17, 1599; 
but not in England till Sept. 3, 1752, when the style was 
altered. 

LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was assault- 
ed and taken by the'boats of a British squadron, under 
Commodore Bruce, Dec. 26 and 27, 1S51. This aftair 
arose out of breaches of a treaty for the suppression 
of the slave-trade. In 1S62 the place was ceded to the 
British government, and created a settlement ; Henry 
Stanhope Freeman to be the first governor. 

LAGOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a battle 
between Admiral Boscawen and the French Admiral 
De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the engagement, 
and died next day, Aug. 17, IS, 17.'59. The C'mtavr and 
Modeste were taken, and the Rkhmbtcthle and Ocean run 
on shore and burnt; the scattered remains of the 
French fleet got into Cadiz. 

LA HOGUE (N. W. France), Battle or.May 19, 1692, 
between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
Admirals Russell and Rooke, and the French fleet com- 
manded by Admiral Tourville. The English attacked 
the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid victory, 
burning thirteen of the eneiny's ships, destroying eight 
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a 
threatened descent upon England. 

LAHORE (N.W. India) was taken by Baber in l.'>24, 
and was long the capital of the Mongol Empire. It fell 
into the power of the Sikhs in 179S. It was occupied 
by Sir Hugh Gough Feb. 22, 184C, who in March con- 
cluded a treaty of peace with them. 

LAKE CHAMPLAIN, a long and narrow body of 
water in Northern New York, discovered by Cham- 
plain, an eminent French navigator, in 1609. In the 
French and Indian War, the American War for inde- 
pendence, and the last war between the United States 
and Great Britain, this lake became the theatre of im- 
portant events. Upon its western shore stood the 



fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, where first 
the French and English, and then the English and 
Americans, contested for dominion. On the lake be- 
low these fortresses, naval engagements between Brit- 
ish and American vessels, the 'latter uuder General 
Arnold, took place in 177C. In front of Plattsburo- 
British and American vessels had a sharp conflict on 
the 11th of Sept., 1814, when the latter were victorious. 
See Battle of I'lattuburg. See Battles, Naval Battles. 

LAKE ERIE. On the shores and waters of this lake 
great historical scenes have transpired. Once French 
expeditions sailed to place missionaries and trading 
stations in the West, and military ones at the close of 
the Indian War, in cpnnection with the important post 
of Detroit. Along its shore, from Detroit to Buftalo, 
were stirring scenes during the last war between the 
United States and Great Britain ; and near its western 
end an important naval engagement took place on the 
loth of Sept., 1813, between an American fieet under 
Commodore Perry, and a British fleet under Commo- 
dore Barclay. The Americans were victorious. Then 
Perry sent to General Harrison his noted dispatch, 
"We have met the enemy, and they are oitrs 1" See 
Battles, Naval Battles. 

LAKE ONTARIO, the most easterly of the chain of 
great American lakes. Its shores and waters were the 
scenes of engagements betvs'een the Americans and 
British during the last war between the United States 
and Great Britain, in 1812-14. See York, SackctVs Har- 
bor, Osweijo, Sandg Creek, Fort Niagara, Naval Battles. 

LAKE REGILLUS (Italy), where the Romans de- 
feated the Latin auxiliaries of the expelled Tarqiiins, 
499 B.C. 

LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable portion was 
built in the 12th and i:!th centuries, by Hubert Walter, 
archbishop of Canterbury. The chapel was erected in 
1196. The tower of the church was erected about 1375; 
and other parts of the edifice in the 15th century. Simon 
of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, was barbarously 
put to death here by the followers of Wat Tyler, who 
attacked the palace, burnt all the furniture and books, 
and destroyed all the registers and public papers, June 
14, 1381. The domestic portion of the palace was great- 
ly enlarged for Archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by 
Mr. Blore, at an expense of X52,000. See Canterbury 
and Articles. 

LAMIAN WAR, B.C. 323, between Athens and her 
allies (excited by Demosthenes, the orator), and An- 
tipater, governor of Macedon. Autipater fled to La- 
mia, in 'The.ssaly, and was there besieged. He escaped 
thence, and defeated his adversaries at Cranon,322 B.C. 

LAMMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, one of our four 
cross quarter-days of the year. Whitsuntide was for- 
merly the first of these quarters, Lammas the second, 
Martinmas the third, and .Candlemas the last; and 
such partition of the year was once equally common 
with the present divisions of Lady-day, Midsummer, 
Michaelmas, and Christmas. Some rents are yet pay- 
able at each of these quarterly days in England, and 
very generally in Scotland. Lammas comes from the 
Saxon hlanimcesse, loaf-mass, because formerly upon 
that day our ancestors offered bread made of new 
wheat; anciently, those tenants that held lands of the 
Cathedral Church of York were by tenure to bring a 
lamb alive into church at high mass. 

LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the phi- 
losopher sold after his death for 3000 drachmas, 161. 
Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. 
London streets were first lighted with oil-lamps in 
1081, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A lamp " construct- 
ed to produce neither smoke nor smell, and to give con- 
siderably more light than any lamp hitherto known," 
was patented by"M. Aime Argand in 1784, and was 
brought into general use in England early in the pres- 
ent century. On his principle are founded the lamp 
invented by Carcel about 1803, and since 1825, the Mod- 
erateur lamps of Levavasseur,Hadrot, andNeuburger. 
See Safetu-lamj). 

LANARK (W. Scotland) was a Roman station, and 
made a royal burgh 1103. 

LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine by 
Edward HI. for his son John of Gaunt, who had mar- 
ried the daughter of Henry, first Duke of Lancaster, in 
1.^59, and succeeded him "in 1361. The court of the 
Duchy Chamber of Lancaster was instituted in 1376. 
On the accession of Henry IV. in 1.399 the duchy merged 
into the crown. See under article Cotton. 

LANCASTER, supposed to have been fhe Ad Alau- 
nmn of the Romans. Lancaster was granted by Wil- 
liam I. or 11. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle 



'i'' upon its liili 



LAN 



283 



LAR 



npon its hill. It was taken by the Jacobites, Nov., 
1715, aiul Nov., 1745. 

L.\ND w;is let generally in Eiitrlaiid for Is. per acre, 
36 Heu. Vlll., 1.544. The "wliolc rciitnl of the kingdom 
was about. €0,(10(1, (Mid in U'.iki; al)out.£14,(i(i(i,iH)0iu lOSS; 
iu 1798 Mr. I'itt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per 
cent, ou au estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent 
of land at 50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, 
and the i)roHts of trade at 40 millions ; but iu his esti- 
mate were exempted much land and the inferior class 
of hous'es. The rental of the United Kingdom was 
estimated at i;50,.500,000 in 1S51.* Au act for render- 
ing more easy the transfer of laud was passed iu 1S62. 
See Aijriculturc. 

A species of land-tax was exacted in England in 
the 10th century, which produced i:S2,000 (see 

Daiiciidt) iu 1018 

Land Banks were proposed by Yarrauton in 1648 

The land-tax imposed 1G93 grew out of a .subsidy 
scheme of 4s. iu the pound, which produced 

i;500,000 in 1692 

A Land Credit Company for Silesia was establish- 
ed by Frederick the Great (see Credits Fancier es),11&Z 
Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the 
pound, but introduced his plan for its redemp- 
tion April 2,1793 

Landed Estates Court, established to "facilitate 
the sale and transfer of laud iu Ireland" (see 

Eiicnmbi'i-cd Estates Act) 1858 

The Land Registry Office was opened iu 1802 

Prom the ReVolutiou to the year ISOO, the laud- 
tax had yielded £227,000,000. 
Ministers were left iu a minority iu the House of 
Commons ou the Land-tax Bill in 1707, it being 
the first instance of the kind ou a money-bill 
since the Revolution. Its rate varied iu difl'er- 
ent years from Is. to 4s. iu the pound. 
The tax iu 1819 produced Xl,418,3.37 ; iu 1S20, 
£l,3:i8,420; in 1830, £1,423,618; iul840, £1,298,622; 
in 1852, £1,151,613. 

LANDEN or Neer\vi:nden, Belgium. Near here the 
French under Marshal Luxembourg defeated the Al- 
lies, commanded bv William III. of England, chiefly 
through the cowardice of the Dutch, July 19 (N.S. 29), 
1093. The Duke of Berwick, illegitimate sou of James 
II., fighting ou the side of Frauce, was taken prisoner. 

LANDGRAVE (from land and grave, a count), a 
German title, which commenced in 1130 with Louis 
III. of Thuringia, and became the title of the house of 
Hesse about 1263. 

LANDLORD. See Rent. 

LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians were de- 
feated by the Austrians under Marshal Laudohn, June 
23, 1700. 

LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces of the 
reirent of Scotland, the Earl of Murray, defeated the 
army of Mary tAueen of Scots, May 13, 1508. Mary tied 
to England and crossed the Solway Firth, landing at 
Workington, iu Cumberland, May 10. Soon afterward 
she was imprisoned by Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE must either have been revealed origi- 
nally from heaven, or the fruit of human invention. 
The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, 
Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; 
the former by the Jews and Christians, and many pro- 
found modern philosophers. Some suppose Hebrew 
to have been the lauguage spoken by Adam ; others 
say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic are only di- 
alects of the original tongue. "And the whole earth 
was of one language aud of one speech," Genesis xi., 
1. The original European languages were thirteen, 
viz. : Greek, Latin, German, Sclavouiau, spoken iu the 
East; Welsh; Biscayau, spoken iu Spain; Irish; Al- 
banian, iu the mouutaius of Epirus ; Tartarian, the 
old lllyrian; the Jazygian, remaining yet iu Libur- 
nia: the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary; and the 
Finnic, iu East Friesland. From the Latin sprang 
the Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The 
Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From 
the Teutonic sprang the present German, Dauish, 
Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, etc. There are 
30(54 known languages, of rather dialects, in the world. 
Of these, 937 are Asiatic, 587 Eurojiean, 276 African, 
and 1624 American languages and dialects. — Adelvng. 
George I. iu 1724, and George II. in 1730, appointed 



* The allotment of land to cottacera becan with Lord Brayhrooke's 
Buccessfui experiment in Essex of aUottinK enjall portions o'f land to 
poor families, to assist them and relieve the parish poor rates in 1K19. 
The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, but afterward New 
Village, and it is calculated that j£20U jier annum were saved to the 
^ parish. 



regius professors of modern languages and of history 
to each of the universities (if England. In 1S61 and 
1802 Professor ISlax Miillcr lectured on the "Science 
of Lauguage" at the Royal Institution, Loudon.* He 
divides lauguage into three families : 

I. Aryan (in Sanscrit, noble). 
Southern Division. India (Prakrit and Pali; Sanscrit; 

dialects of India; Gipsy). 
Irauic (Parsi ; Armeuiau, etc.). 

Northern Division. 

Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, Manx, Gaelic, Breton, 
etc.). 

Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; Italian, Spanish, Por- 
tuguese, French, etc.). 

Illyi-ic (Albanian). 

Hellenic (Greek and its dialects). 

Windic (Lettic : Old Prussian. Sclavonic dialects— Bo- 
hemiau, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, etc.). 

Teutonic (High-Germau : Modern Germau ; Loio-Ger- 
mau: Gothic; Anglo-Saxon; Dutch; Frisian; En- 
glish. ScatidiiuiDian: Old Norse, Dauish, Swedish, 
Norwegian, Icelandic). 

II. SuEMiTio : Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopia 
and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samari- 
tan, PhcEuician inscriptious). Sortliern. Aramaic 
(Chaldee, Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon 
and Nineveh). 

III. Turanian (from Tiira, swiftness). 

Northcr7i Division. Tungusic (Chinese, etc.) ; Mougol- 
ic ; Turkic; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 

Southern Division. Talc (Siamese, etc.) ; (Himalayas) ; 
Malayic (Polynesia, etc.) ; Gangetic ; Lonitic (Bur- 
mese, etc.) ; Munda ; Tamulic. 

LANGUE D'OC. See Troubadours. 

LANSDOWN (Somersetshire). The Parliamentary 
army, under Sir Wm. Waller, was here defeated, July 
5, 1643. 

LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented iu En- 
gland, it is said, by Alfred ; and it it is supposed that 
horn was used for window-lights also, as glass was 
uot known iu Alfred's reign, 872-901. — Stow. Loudon 
was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 
1415. 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered iu the ox- 
ide of cerium, by Mosauder, iu 1839. 

LAOCOON, an exquisite Grecian work of art, exe- 
cuted in marble, was modeled by Agesauder, Atheno- 
dorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes', aud about SO em- 
inent statuaries ; it represents the death of the Trojan 
hero Laocoilu, priest of Neptune, aud his two sons, as 
described by Virgil, jEneis ii., 200. It was discovered 
in 1500 iu the Sette Salle near Rome, and pm'chased 
by Pope Julius II. It is now in the Vatican. 

LAODICEA. See Seven Churches. 

LAON (N. France). Here a succession of actions be- 
tween the Allies (chiefly the Prussians) aud the French 
was fought under the walls of the town, which ended 
iu the defeat of the latter with great loss, March 9, 10, 
1814. 

LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La Perouse 
sailed from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole 
and Astrolabe under his command, and was last heard 
of from Botany Bay, in March, 17SS. Several expedi- 
tious were subsequently dispatched in search of Pe- 
rouse, but no certain information was had until Cap- 
tain Dillon, of the East India ship Research, ascertain- 
ed that the French shijjs had been cast away ou the 
New Hebrides, authenticated by articles which Cap- 
tain Dillon brought to Calcutta, April 9, 1828. 

LAPLAND, or Sameland, N. Europe, uomiually sub- 
ject to Norway in the 13th century, and now to Swe- 
den and Russia. 

LARCENY. (French, larcen; Latin, latrocinium). 
See Theft. 

LA EOTHIERE (France), B.vttle of, between the 
French, commanded bv Napoleon, and the Prussian 
aud Russian armies, which were defeated with great 
loss after a desperate cnL,'ag(;'meiit, Feb. 1, 1814. This 
was one of Napoleon's last victories. 

LARYNGOSCOPE, au instrument consisting of a 
concave mirror, by which light is thrown upon a small 
plane mirror placed iu the posterior part of the cavity 
of the mouth. By its means the vocal chords of the 
interior of the larynx, etc., are exhibited and have 
been photographed. One constructed by Dr. Turck, 



» Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (I774-1S4S) l(new 114 lanprnatres or 
dialects ; aud NiebuUr knew '20 languages iu 1S07, and more afterward. 



LAT 



284 



LAW 



In 1S57, was modified by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited 
it iu action in London in ISG'2. A similar apparatns 
is said to have been constructed by Mr. John Avery, a 
surgeon lu London, iu 1S4G, and used by M. Garcia. 

LATERAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to St. 
John, was originally a palace of the Laterani, and 
was given to the bishops of Rome by Constantine, 
and inhabited by them till their removal to the Vati- 
can iu 1377. Eleven councils have beeu held here. 

LATHAM HOUSE, Lancashire, was heroically de- 
fended for three mouths against the Parliamentarians 
by Charlotte, countess of l)erby. She was relieved by 
Prince Rupert, May, 1644. The house was, however, 
surrendered Dec. 4, 1645, and dismantled. 

LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, a 
grandson of Dredalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny ascribes 
It to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.C. 

LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, etc. See Latium; 
Eastern Empire, 1204 ; and Jerusalem. 

LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, Etrus- 
can, and Greek), one of the original languages of Eu- 
rope, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and 
Spanish. See Latium. A large portion of our lan- 
guage is derived from the Latin. It ceased to be 
spolien In Italy about 5S1, and was first taught iu En- 
gland by Adelmus, brother of lua, in the 7tli century. 
The use of Latin in law deeds in England gave way 
to the common tongue about 1000 ; was revived in the 
reign of Henry II. ; and again was replaced by En- 
glish iu the reign of Henry III. It was finally discon- 
tinued iu religious worship in 1558, and iu conveyan- 
cing and in courts of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II., c. 25). 
A corrupt Latin is still spoken iu Roumelia. 

PKINOIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 
Died 



Plautus B.C.1S4 

Ennius 169 

Terence ( fiourishes)l(i(i 

Cato the Elder 140 

Lucilius 103 

Lucretius 52 

Julius Caesar 44 

Cicero.: 43 

Catullus 40 

Sallust 34 

Vitruvius {flour.) 27 

Propertius " 26 

Virgil 19 

Tibullus 18 

Horace 8 

Celsus (flour.) A.Ti. 17 

Livy IS 

Ovid IS 

Paterculus 31 

Persius 62 

LATITUDE 



Died 

Lucan 65 

Seneca 65 

Pliny the Elder 79 

Quintilian (flour.) SO 

Valerius Flaccus " SI 
Pliny the Younger " 100 

Statins '. . {ahout)W(i 

Tacitus {flour.)im 

Silius Italicus 101 

Martial (/o!!r.)104 

Suetonius (a6owi()120 

Juvenal 128 

Aulus Gellius. . . (/o!/r.)169 

Apuleius " 174 

Ammianus Marcellinus 390 

Claudian 408 

Macrobius 415 

Boethius 524 

(See Fathers of the 
Church.) 
First determined by Hipparchus of 



Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent of the earth, or 
of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either 
pole. Maupertuis, in 1737, in latitude 66"20, measured 
a degree of latitude, and made it 69-493 miles. Swan- 
berg, in 1S03, made it 09-292. At the equator, in 1744, 
four astronomers made it 68-732; andLambton, iu lat- 
itude 12, made it 61-743. Mudge, in England, made it 
09-148. Cassini, in France, iu 1718 and 1740, made it 
69-12; and Biot, 68-769; while a recent measure in 
Spain makes it but 68-63— less than at the equator, 
and contradicts all others, proving the earth to be a 
prolate spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, 
Beruouilli, Euler, and others) instead of an oblate 
spheroid. 

LATIUM, now Campania (Italy), the country of 
Latinus, king of Jauiculum, 1240 B.C. Laurentum was 
the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, La- 
vinium under ^neas, and Alba under Ascauius. See 
Itali/ and Rome. 

LA TRAPPE. See Trappists. 
LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormonites. 
LAUDANUM. See Oinum. 

LAUENBLTRG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was conqiaer- 
ed from the Wends by Henry the Lion of Saxony about 
1162; ceded to Hanover, 1689; incorporated with the 
French Empire, ISIO ; ceded to Denmark, 1815 ; annex- 
ed by Prussia, Aug. 14, 1S65 ; possession taken Sept. 15 
following. See Gastein. Population in 1855, 50,147. 

LAUREATE. See Poet Laureate. 

LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; and 
from the earli^^st times the poets and generals of ar- 
mies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. Pe- 



trarch was crowned with laurel, April 8, 1341. — The 
Prumts laurocerasus was brought to Britain from the 
Levant before 16-J9 ; the Portugal laurel, I'rumis lusi- 
tanica, before 1648; the royal bay, Lauras indica, from 
Madeira, 1605 ; the Alexandrian laurel, li^tscus racemo- 
sus, from Spain, before 1713; the glaucous laurel, Lau- 
rus aggregata, from China, 1806 or 1821. 

LAURENTALIA were festivals celebrated at Rome 
in honor of Acca Laurentia, who is saidto have beeu 
either the nurse of Romulus or Remus, or a rich disso- 
lute woman, who bequeathed her property to the Ro- 
man people. They commenced ^bout 621 B.C., and 
were held on the last day of April and the 23d of De- 
cember. 

LAURUSTINE, Vibiumum Tiiiits, an evergreen 
shrub, was brought to England from the south of Eu- 
rope before 1596. 

LA VALETTA. See Malta. 

LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lavalette, for aid- 
ing the Emperor Napoleon on his return in 1815, was 
condemned to death, but escaped from prison in the 
clothes of his wife, during a last interview, Dec. 20, 
1815. Sir Robert Wilson, Michael Bruce, Esq., and 
Captain J. H. Hutchinson, were convicted of aiding 
the escape, and sentenced to three months' imprison- 
ment in the French capital, April 24, 1816. Lavalette 
was permitted to return to France in 1820, and died in 
retirement in 1830. 

LA VENDEE (W. France). The French Royalists of 
La Vendee took to arms in March, 1793, and were suc- 
cessful in a number of hard-fought battles with the 
Republican armies between July 12, 1793, and Jan. 1, 
1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Their 
leader, Henri, comte de la Rochejaqueleiu, was killed, 
March 4, 1794. The war was terminated by Cieneral 
Hoche in 1796. Atreaty of peace was signed at Lufon, 
Jan. 17, ISOO. See Chouans. 

LAVENDER, Lavandula spica. Brought from the 
south of Europe before 1568. 

LAW'S BUBBLE. John Law, of Ediuburg (1081), 
became comptroller general of the finances of France 
upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, 
and an East India and a Mississippi Company, by the 
profits of which the national debt of France was to be 
paid off. He first oftered his plan to Victor Amadeus, 
king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful 
enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accept- 
ed it; and iu 1716 he opened a bank in his own name, 
under the protection of the Duke of Orleans, regent of 
France, and the deluded rich of every rank subscribed 
for shares both in the bank and the companies. In 
1718 Law's was declared a royal bank, and the shares 
rose to upward of twenty fold the original value, so 
that in 1719 they were worth more than eighty times 
the amount of all the current specie in France. Iu 
17'20 this fabric of false credit fell to the ground, 
spreading ruin throughout the country. Law died in 
poverty in 1729 at Venice. — The South Sea Bubble iu 
England occurred in the fatal year 1720. See South Sea. 
LAWS. See Codes, Canons, ani Civil Laiv. The Jew- 
ish law was given by God, and promulgated by Moses, 
1491 B.C. 

The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 
(1807 B.C.), were the first Attic laws; they were 
reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athenians, 
623 B.C., whose code was superseded by that of 
Solon, 594 B.C. 
The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about 
844 B.C. ; they remaiued in full force for 700 
years, and formed a race totally difi'ereut from 
all others living iu civilized society. 
The Roinau laws, the Twelve Tables, were pub- 
lished 449 B.C., and remained in force till Jus- 
tinian, uearly 1000 years. 

BRITISH LAWS. 

The British Laws of earliest date were translated 

iuto Saxon in A.D. 590 

Saxon laws of Ina published about 700 

Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the com- 
mon law of England, is said to have beeu ar- 
ranged about (see Common Law), 886 

Edwa1-d the Confessor collected the laws iu 1065 

Stephen's charter of general liberties 1136 

Henry II.'s confirmation of it 1154 and 1175 

The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) 1194 

Magna Charta, by King John, 1215 ; confirmed by 

Itenry III. 1216 et seq. See Magna Charta and 

Forest's Charter. 

Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the King's 

Bench, declared "That no fiction of law shall 



LAY 



28i 



LEE 



ever so far prevail against tlie real truth of the 
fact as to pievcnt the executiou of justice," 

]May21,lTS4 

LAWYKKS. 

Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have 

been first appointed by Edward 1 1291 

Scry;eauts, the hii^hest members of the bar, were 
afoiic permitted to plead in the Court of Com- 
mon Pleas. The tirst king's counsel under the 

degree of sergeant was Sir Francis Bacon in 1C04 

Law Associatii)U Charity founded in 1817 

lucorporated Law Society formed in lSi!.-5; plan 
enlarged, 1825 ; a charter obtained, 1831 ; renew- 
ed, 1845. The building in Chancery Lane, from 

the designs of Vulliamy, was commenced in 1829 

Juridical society established in 1855 

(See Barristers, Counsel.) 
Law AMrMiMTNT Society was founded in 1S13. It 
holds nicetnigs during the session of Parliament, 
and publishes a journal and reports. Its tirst chair- 
man was Lord liroughara, who introduced the sub- 
ject of Law Keform by a most eloquent speech in 
the House of Commons on Feb. 7, 1828. Many acts 
for Law lieform liave been passed since, and vigor- 
ous measures were proposed by the late Lord Chan- 
cellor Westbury. 

LAYAMON'S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, a poet- 
ical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of Wace, made 
i)etweeu 1100 and 12:iO, was published with a literal 
translation by Sir Frederick Madden iu 1S47. 

LAYBACII (near Trieste, in Illyria). A congress 
met here in Jan., 1821, and was attended by the" sov- 
ereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Naples. It 
broke up in May, after having issued two circulars, 
stating it to be their resolution to occupy Naples with 
Austrian troops, and put down popular insurrections. 

LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher Layer, a 
barrister, conspired with other persons to seize George 
I., the Prince of Wales, Lord Cadogau, and the princi- 
pal officers of state, to take the Tower by surprise, to 
plunder the Bank, and linally to bring iu the Pre- 
tender, lie was hanged. May 17, 1723. 

LAZZARO, St. (N. Italy.) Here the King of Sar- 
dinia and the Imperialists defeated the French and 
Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, June 4, 1746. 

LAZZARONI (from lazzaro, Spanish for a patiper or 
leper), a term api)lied by the Spanish viceroys to the 
number of degraded beings in Naples, who live like 
cattle, half clothed and houseless. No man was born 
a lazziiro; and he who turned to a trade ceased to be 
one. The viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a 
chief, with whom he conferred respecting the imposts 
on the goods brought to the markets. In 1647 Ma- 
saniello" held the office. See Sapks. In 1793 Ferdi- 
nand IV. enrolled several thousands of lazzaroni as 
pikemen (spoutoueers), who generally fiwored the 
Court party. On May 15, lS4S,"they were permitted, 
on the king's behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the 
ill-fated ciiy.—Collctta. 

LEAD is found iu various countries, and Is abun- 
dant in various parts of Britain, and in some places 
richly mixed with silver ore. Pattinson's valuable 
method for extracting the silver was made known in 
1S29. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered 
in 1513. The lead-mines of Cumberland and Derby- 
shire yield about 15,000 tous^«'rn»»)nH. British mines 
produced 6.5,521) tons of lead in IS-W, and 69,266 tons in 
1S57. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water Avere 
brought into use in 12:!0. In 1859, 23,690 tons of pig 
and sheet lead were imported, and 18,414 tons ' ex- 
ported. 

LEAGL'ES. Four kings combined to make war 
against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.). The kings of 
Canaan combined against the invasion of the Israel- 
ites, 1451 B.C. The more eminent Greek leagues were 
the yEtolian, powerful about 320 B.C., which'lasted till 
1S9 B.C., and the Achtean, revived 280 B.C., which was 
broken uj) by the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 
146 B.C. Ttie fall of these leagues was hastened by 
dissension. 
Lombard leagues against emperors (see Lombards), 

1176 and 1225 
League of the Public Good was between the dukes 

of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other 

princes .■lu'aiiist Louis XI. ofFrance 1465-72 

League of Caml)ray against Venice 1508 

Uolv League (the pope, Venice, etc.), against Louis 

XII 1510 

Leatrue of SmalcaUl 1529 

League of the Beggars {Gueux; the Protestants 



so called, though Roman Catholics joined the 
league) to oppose the institution of the Inquisi- 
tion in Flanders 1565 

The Holy League, so denominated by way of emi- 
nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of 
France, who was then of the Reformed religion, 
was commenced at Peroune iu 1576, and lasted 
till 1593, when Henry embraced Romanism. 
League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, by 

Protestants leiO ■ 

League against the emperor '.. . .1620 

Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland agaiiist 
the episcopal government of the Church, and the 

regal authority (see Corenant) 1638 

League of Augsburg against France 1686 

LEAP-YEAR, or Bissextile, originated with the 
astronomers of Julius Ctesar, 45 B.C. They fixed the 
solar years at 365 days hours, comprising, as they 
thought, the period from one vernal equinox to an- 
other ; the six hours were set aside, and at the cud of 
four years, forming a day, the fourth year was made 
to consist of 3C6 days. . The day thus added was call- 
ed intercalary, and was placed a day before the 24th 
of February, the sixth of the calends, which was reck- 
oned hoice, hence called bissextile, or twice sixth. This 
added day with us is Feb. 29th. See Calendar. This 
arrangement makes the year nearly three minutes 
longer than the astronomical year: to obviate this, 
1700 and 1800 were not, and 190O will not be leap-year, 
but 2000 will be one. See Julian Year, Grctjorian Cal- 
endar, etc. 

LEARNING ant> the Arts flourished among the 
Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 537 B.C., and Per- 
icles, 444 B.C. ; and with the Romans at the commence- 
ment of the Cliristian era, under Augustus. The Greek 
refugees caused their revival in Italy, particularly after 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and 
the invention of printing shortly before the period of 
the Renaissance. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) 
greatly promoted learning in Italy in the 16th century, 
when "literature revived iu France, Germany, and En- 
gland. See Literature, and lists of authors under 
Greek, Latin, English, and other languages. 

LEASE (from the French laisser, to let), a kind of 
conveyance invented bv Sergeant Moore soon after 
the Statute of Uses, 27 Henry VIIL, 1535. Acts relat- 
ing to leases were passed iu 1856 and 1858. 

LEATHER was very early known in Egyjit and 
Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides were 
used for ropes, harness, etc., by all ancient nations. 
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 
B.C. A leather cannon was proved atEdinburg, fired 
three times, and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1778. — Phil- 
lips. The duty on leather produced annually in En- 
gland i;450,000, and in Ireland aliout X50,000. It was 
abolished ^lay 29, 1830. Many bankruptcies were de- 
clared in the leather trade iu the autumn of ISOO in 
England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore & Co., 
enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were disclosed. 
A plau for making artificial leather out of cuttings, 
etc., was made known in 1860. — Leather-cloth is un- 
bleached cotton coated with a composition of boiled 
linseed oil and turpeutine, colored with various pig- 
ments, invented by Messrs. Crockell, of Newark, U. S., 
and patented in 1849. 

LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which the cruel 
General Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under 
Gustavus Adolphus, April 30, 1632. Tilly died of his 
wounds soon after. 

LECTURES. Those on physic were instituted by 
Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians 
(founded by Henry VIIL), about 1502. Clinical lec- 
tures, at the bedside of the patient, were begun by Sir 
B. C. Brodie (1813-17) ; Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, 
gave surgical clinical lectures iu connection with a 
dispensary. See Gresham College, Boyle's Lectures, Jtoi/- 
al and London InstitHtions, etc. The political lectures 
of Thelwall, commenced in January, 1795, were inter- 
dicted by an act of Parliament. In the autumn of 1857 
and since, manv distinguished noblemen and gentle- 
men lectured at Mechanics' Institutes. An act passed 
in 1835 prohibited the publication of lectures without 
the consent of the lecturers. Public lectures are very 
popular in the United States. They are given in al- 
most every city and village in the Northern and West- 
ern States during the winter months. The names of 
over two hundred professed lecturers appeared in the 
public prints at the close of 1S60. 

LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a Roman 
station, received a charter iu 1627. Population iu 1S61, 
207,165. 



LEE 



286 



LEP 



Sheufieicl grammar-school founded 1552 

Colored Cloth-hall built 1T5S 

Literary and Philosophical Society established.. ilS20 

Enfranchised by the Reform Act 1832 

Magnificent new town hall opened by the queen, 
auol the mayor, Peter Fairbairu, knighted, Sept. 7,1858 

LEEK is the Welsh emblem, in consequence of a 
command from Dewi, or David, afterward Archbishop 
of St. David's, in 519. On the day that King Arthur 
won a great victory over the Saxons, Dewi is said to 
have ordered the soldiers to place a leek in theii' caps. 

LEESBURG HEIGHTS. See Ball's Bluff. 

LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies were sub- 
jected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the legacy duty 
was imposed. The impost was increased several 
times subsequently, particularly in 1805, 1808, and 1845. 
The revenue derived from it varies considerably in 
amount in consecutive years ; but it may be said to 
average from about one and a half to two millions 
anunally. In 1853 the legacy duty was extended to 
lauded or real property. See' Sttccession Dutij Act. 

LEGATES. Ambassadors from the pope : the leg- 
ate's court was erected in 1516 by Cardinal Wolsey, to 
prove wills, and for the trial of offenses against the 
spiritual laws. — Laiu Diet. It was soon discontinued. 

LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative divis- 
ions in the States of the Church, governed by legates. 
They rebelled in 1859-60, and are nearly all included 
in the kingdom of Italy. See Rome. 

LEGHORN, Livorno, in Tuscany, a mere village in 
the 15th centurj', owes its prosperity to the Medici 
family. It suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 
1741 ; was entered by the French army, July 27, 1790, 
but the British property had been removed. It was 
evacuated by the French in 1799, and retaken in 1800. 
It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- 
ian forces, Dec, 1813. The Austrians took this city 
from the insurgents. May 12 and 13, 1849, and quelled 
a slight insurrection, July, 1857. In June, 1857, above 
60 persons were killed at the theatre, through an alarm 
of fire. 

LEGION, Le(;io, a coi-ps of soldiers in the Roman 
armies, first formed by Romulus, when it consisted of 
3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 B.C. When Hanni- 
bal was in Italy, 210 B.C., the legion consisted of 5200 
soldiers; and under Marius, in SS B.C., it was 6200 sol- 
diers, besides 700 horse. There were ten, and some- 
times as many as eighteen, legions kept at Rome. 
Augustus had a standing army of 45 legions, together 
with 25,000 horse and 37^000 light-armecl troops,"about 
5B.C. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was 
thirty of these formidable brigades. The peace of 
Britain was protected by three legions. A legion was 
divided into ten cohorts, and every cohort into six cen- 
turies, with a vexillum, or standard, guarded by ten 
men. The French army has been divided into legions 
since Francis I. See Thunderimj Lcr/ion. 

LEGION OF HONOR, a French order embracing 
the army, civil officers, and other individuals distin- 
guished for services to the state ; instituted by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte when First Consul, May 19, 1802. On 
the restoration of the Bourbons, Louis XVIII. con- 
firmed this order in April, 1814. The honor was con- 
ferred on many British subjects who distinguished 
themselves in the Russian War, 1854-0, and in the 
Paris Exhibition of 1S55. 

LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied to those 
who support the claims of the elder branch of the 
Bourbon family to the throne of France ; whose rep- 
resentative is Henry, due de Bordeaux, called Comte 
de Chambord, born Sept. 29, 1S20. They held a Con- 
gress at Lucerne on June 24-29, 1862, when about 3850 
persons were present, including the Duchess of Par- 
ma. They agreed to continue a pacific policy. 

LEGNANO (in Lombardy), where the Emperor Fred- 
erick Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese and 
their allies. May 29, 1176, which victory led to the trea- 
ty of Constance in 1183. 

LEICESTER (Central England) returned two mem- 
bers to Parliament in the Veign of Edward I. Here 
Richard III. was buried, Aug. 25, 14S5; and here Car- 
dinal Wolsey died, Nov. 29, 1.530. During the Civil 
War it was taken by Charles L, May 31, and by Fair- 
fax, June 17, 1645. The stocking manufacture was in- 
troduced in 1680. 

_ LEIGHLIN (W. Cariow), a see founded by St. Lase- 
rian about 028. Burchard, the Norwegian, the son of 
Garmond, founded or endowed the pl-iory of St. Ste- 
phen of Leighlin. Bishop Dorau, a worthy prelate, I 



appointed in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, 
Maurice Cavenagh, who was hauled for the crime on 
the spot where he had committed the murder. — Beat- 
son. In 1000 Leighlin was united to Ferns; the com- 
bined see united to Ossory in 1836. See Ferns and 
Bislw]}S, 

LEINSTER, a kingdom in 1167, now one of the four 
provinces of Ireland, divided into four archbishoprics 
by Pope Eugenius HI. at a national synod, held at 
Kells, March"9, 1151-2, and in which his holiness was 
represented by Cardinal Paparo. The abduction of 
Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruave, a lord of Connaught, by 
Dermot, king of Leinster, in 1152, is asserted to have 
led to the landing of the English and the subsequent 
conquest. The province of Leinster gave the title of 
duke to Schomberg's son in 1C90. The title became 
extinct in 1719, and was conferred on the family of 
Fitzgerald in 1760. 

LEIPSIC (Saxony). Famous for its University 
(founded in 1409) and its fair. Here Gustavus Adol- 
phus, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists un- 
der Tilly,"Sept. 7, 1631, and here the Imperialists were 
again defeated by the Swedes under Torstensen, Oct. 
13, 1642. Here took place, on Oct. 16, 18, 19, 1813, " the 
battle of the nations," between the French army and its 
allies, commanded by Napoleon (160,000), and the Aus- 
trian, Russian, and Prussian armies (240,000 strong). 
The French were beaten, chiefly owing to 17 Saxon 
battalions, their allies, turning upon them in the heat 
of the engagement. 80,000 men perished on the field, 
of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 
05 pieces of artillery and many standards. The victo- 
ry was followed by the capture of Leipsie, of the rear- 
guard of the French army, and of the King of Saxony 
and his fttmily. 

LEITH. The port of Ediuburg was burnt by the 
Earl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the French 
partisans of Queen Mary iu 1560, and surrendered to 
the English. The " Agreement of Lcith" between the 
superintendents and ministers was made Jan., 1572. 
The docks were commenced iu 1720. 

LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited Laco- 
nia about 1490 B.C., and, after many contests, merged 
into the Hellenes. 

LEIMURES. The ancients supposed that the soul, 
after death, wandered over the world, and disturbed 
the peace of the living. The happy spirits were called 
Lares famiiiares, and the unhappy I/CHt^trcs. The Ro- 
man festival called Lcmuralia, kept on May 9, 11, 13, 
was instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C., probably 
to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. 

LENT (from the Saxon, Icncten, spring). The forty 
days' fast observed in the Roman Catholic Church 
from Ash- Wednesday to Easter day, said to have been 
instituted by Pope Telesphorus, 130. — The early Chris- 
tians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
which is now called the first Sunday in Lent ; and the 
four days beginning with Ash-Wednesday were added 
by Pope Felix III. in the year 487, in order that :he 
number of fasting days should amount to forty. Lent 
was first observed in "England by command of Erconi- 
bert, king of Kent, in 640 or 641. — Baker's Chron. Flesh 
was proliibited during Lent ; but Henry VIII. permit- 
ted the use of loliite meats by a proclamation in 1543, 
which continued in force until, by proclamation of 
James I. in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I. in 1627 and 
1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden. See Quadra- 
gesima. 

LEON, Kingdom of. See Sixdn. 

LEONINES. Hexameter and pentameter verses, 
rhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have 
been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the mid- 
dle of the 12th century, or by Pope Leo II. about 682. 

LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle op, Oct. 7, 1571 ; 
when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, Genoa, 
Malta, and Pius V., commanded by Don John of Aus- 
tria, defeated the whole maritime force of the Turks, 
and checked their progress. 

LEPROSY, a skin disease described in Leviticus xiii. 
(B.C. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times through- 
out Asia. It has now almost disappeared from Eu- 
rope, except in the south and in Norway. It chiefly 
affected the lower classes, yet occasionally has proved 
fatal to the very highest personages. Robert Bruce, 
of Scotland, died of leprosy in 1329. A hospital for 
lepers was founded at Granada by Queen Isabella of 
Castile about 1504, and a large number of leper houses 
were founded in Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with a 
case iu Edinburg in 1809. 



LET 



287 



LIB 



LETTERS. See AlpJiahet, Bclles-Lettrcs, Marqw, aud 
Privcitccrs. 

LETTRES DE CACIIET, sealed letters Issued by 
the King of France, beginning about IGTO, by virtue 
of wiiich those per.^ons against whom they were di- 
rected were thrown into prison or sent into exile. 
The National Assembly decreed their abolition, Nov. 
I.ITS!). 

LETTUCE, introduced into England from Flanders 
about 15'20. It Is said that when Queen Catharine 
wished for a salad, she had to send for lettuce to Hol- 
land or Flanders. 

LEUCTRA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a battle 
when the Thebans, under Epaminondas, defeated the 
superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, July 8, 
STl B.C. 4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. 
The Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
Greece. 

LEUTHEN (S. Prussia). Sec Lissa. 

LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, Tur- 
key, Asia jMinor, etc. Levant companies, in Loudon, 
were established in 15S1, 15'.>3, aud 1005. 

LEVELERS, a fanatical party in Germany, headed 
by Muncer and Storck in the ICth century, who taught 
that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the 
rights of mankind. At the head of 40,000 men, Mun- 
cer commanded the sovereign princes of Germany and 
the magistrates of cities to resign their authority, and 
on his march his followers ravaged the country. The 
Landgrave of Hesse at lengtli defeated him; 7000 of 
the enthusiasts fell in baitic, and the rest fled; their 
leader was taken aud beheaded at jMulhauseu in 1525. 
The English "Levelers," powerful in Parliament in 
1647, were put down by Cromwell in 1049, and their 
leader Lilburu imprisoned. At the period of the 
French Revolution some knots of persons, styled Lev- 
elers, appeared in England. A " Loyal Association" 
was formed against them and Republicans, by Mr. 
John Reeves, Nov., 1702. 

LEVELS. The Great Level of the Fens is a low-ly- 
ing district of about 2000 square miles, iu Lincolnshire, 
Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, aud Norfolk, said 
to have been overflowed by the sea during an earth- 
quake, SOS. It was long afterward an inland sea in 
winter, and a noxious swamp in summer, and was 
gradually drained — by the Romans, the Saxons, aud 
especially by the monks during the reigns of the Plan- 
tagenet kings. One of the first works on a large scale 
was carried out by Morton, bishop of Ely, lu the reign 
of Henry VII. A general drainage act was passed by 
the advice of Lord Burghley iu 1001, but little work 
was done till the reign of James I., who iu 1021 in- 
vited over the great Dutch engineer, Cornelius Ver- 
muyden, to assist in the general drainage of the coun- 
try. After completing several great works, Vermuy- 
deu agreed (in 1629) to drain the "Great Level." He 
■was at tirst prevented from proceeding with his un- 
dertaking through a popular outcry against foreign- 
ers ; but eventually, aided by Francis, eTirl of Bedford, 
iu spite of the great opposition of the people, for 
whose benefit he'was laboring, he declared his great 
work complete in 1052. Much, liowever, still remained 
to be done ; and the drainage of the Great Level em- 
ployed the talents of Renni'e (about ISO"), and of Tel- 
ford (T^22), and of other eminent engineers since. In 
1S44 the ]SIiddle Level commission cut through certain 
barrier banks, and replaced them by other works. 
These latter were i-eported unsound in March, 1S02 ; 
and on May 4, the outfall sluice at St. Germain's, near 
King's Lynn, gave way. High tides ensuing, about 
6000 acres of fertile land were inundated, causing a 
loss of about £2.5,000. After unwearied, and, for a 
while, unsuccessful eftbrts, a new cofl'or-dam was con- 
structed under the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, 
which was reported sound in July. Another inunda- 
tion, begun through the bursting of a mar.sh-land 
sluice, near Lynn,"Oct. 4, was checked. The Levels 
are distinguished as the Middle, Bedford, South, and 
North Levels. 

LEWES (Sussex), where Henry IIL, king of En- 
gland, was defeated by Montfort, earl of Leicester, and 
the barons, ^lay 14," 1204. — Ilhiainr. The kins:, his 
brother Richard, king of the Romans, and his sou Ed- 
ward, afterward Edward I., were taken prisoners. One 
division of Jlontfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave 
way to the furious attack of Prince Edward, who, pur- 
suing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. 
See Evesham. 

LEXICON. See DMimmrics. 

LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle of, between 
Great Britain and the United States of America, in the 



War of Independence. The British obtained the ad- 
vantage, and destroyed the stores of tlie revolted col- 
onists, but lost in the battle 273 men, killed and wound- 
ed, April 19, 1775. — The hostilities thus commenced 
continued to 17S3. — Lexington, a town in Missouri, 
U. S., fortified by the Federals, was attacked by the 
Confederate General Price ou Aug. 29, aud, after a gal- 
lant resistance l3y Colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 
Sept. 21, ISOl. See United States. 

LEYDEN (Holland), Lufidunum Batavorum, impor- 
tant iu the 13th century. Prom Oct. 31, 1573, to Oct. 3, 
1574, when it was relieved, it endured a siege by the 
armies of Spain, during which 6000 of the inhabitants 
died of famine aud pestilence. In commemoration 
the University was founded, 1575. In 1099 two thirds 
of the population perished by a fever, which, it is said, 
was aggravated by the improper treatment of Profess- 
or De la Boe. The University was almost destroyed 
by a vessel laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder 
blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, 
and killing numbers of people, Jan. 12, 1807. IhaLey- 
den jar was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muscheu- 
broek, and others. See Electricity. 

LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the Twelve 
Tables), libels which affected the reputation of another 
were made capital oflenses. In the British law, what- 
ever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the 
opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. 
"The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the 
well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now 
disputed. Act against blasphemous and seditious li- 
bels, punishing the offender by banishment for the 
second offense, GO Geo. IIL, 1820. Lord Campbell's 
Act, G & 7 Vict, c. 90 (1843), greatly softened the strin- 
geucv of the law of libel respecting newspapers. See 
Trials, 17SS, 1790, 1792, 1803, 1S08 et scq., aud 1803. 

LIBERIA, the negro republic on the coast of Upper 
Guiuea, W. Africa, was founded by the American Co- 
lonial Society, which was established by Henry Clay 
in 1810. Liberia was made independent in 1847 ; rec- 
ognized iu 1S4S ; aud was flourishing in 1863. The 
president visited the International Exhibition of Lou- 
don in 1S62. 

LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their sons) 
was a sect headed by Quiutin and Corin about 1525, 
who held various monstrous opinions. 

LIBRARIES. The first public library of which we 
have any certain account in history was founded at 
Athens by Pisistratus about 544 B.C. The second of 
note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. 
It was partially destroyed when Julius Csesar set fire 
to Alexandria, 47 B.C. 400,000 valuable books in.MS. 
are said to have beeu lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. 
According to Plutarch,- the library at Pergamos con- 
tained 20(5,000 books. It came into the possession of 
the Romans at the death of Attains III. (133 B.C.), who 
bequeathed his kingdom and wealth to the Roman 
people. It was added to that of Alexandria by Marc 
Antony. The first private library was the property of 
Aristotle, 334 B.C.—Strabo. The first library at Rome 
was instituted 167 B.C. ; it was brought from Macedo- 
nia. The library of Appellicon was sent to Rome by 
Sylla from Atheiis, 80 B.C. This library was euriched 
by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's works. A 
library was founded at Coustautinople by Constantine 
the Great about A.D. 335^ and was destroyed 477. A 
second library was fornied from the remaius of the 
first at Alexandria* {ivliich sec). Pope Gregory I. or- 
dered that the library of the Palatine Apollo should 
be committed to the flames, under the notion of con- 
fining the attention of the clergy to the Scriptures. 
The early Chinese literature is said to have snftered a 
similar misfortune to that of the West in the destruc- 
tiou of the Alexandrian library ; their Emperor Che- 
whang-tee ordered all w^ritings to be destroyed, that 
everything might begin anevv as from his reign ; and 
books and' records w-ere afterward recovered by suc- 
ceeding emperors with great difficulty. 

■LIURARIES OF EUROPE. 

The first public library in Italy was founded at 
Florence bv Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great 
restorers of learning. At his death, he lelt his 
library to the public, 14.".0. Cosmo de' Medici 
euriched it with the invaluable Greek, Hebrew, 
Arabic, Chaldaic, and Indian MSS about 15G0 

The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by Pope 
Nicholas V. in 1440, and improved by Sixtus V., 
15SS ; contains about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 - 
manuscripts. 



* This statement hns been disputed. Theophilus, aph. of Alexan- 
dria, is said to have destroyed many hooks when he demolished tho 
Temple of Sevapis, S50 years' previously. 



LIB 



288 



LLF 



Imperial Library of Vienna, fonnded by Frederick 
III. in 1440, and by Maximilian 1 1500 

Koyal (now Imperial) Library of Paris, by John 
(1350-13(io), an d by I'rancis I. about 1520. It was 
said to contain 815,000 volumes and 84,000 man- 
uscripts iu 1800. A new reading-room has been 
built. 

Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the founda- 
tion of that sumptuous palace by Philip II 1557 

Library of the University of Munich is said to con- 
tain 400,000 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts ; 
and that of Gottingeu, 300,000 volumes and 0000 
manuscripts. 

Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (consisting prin- 
cipally of the spoils of Poland) was founded iu . .1714 

LIISUAEIE8 IN GEEAT BKITAIN. 

Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of 
England, so early as 1341 raised the tirst private 
library in Europe. lie purchased thirty or forty 
volumes of the Abbot of St. Albau's for lifiy 
pounds' weight of silver. 

Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 40 Eliz., 1598: 
opened iu 1602 ; contains nearly 400,000 volumes, 
and upward of 30,000 manuscripts. 

Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert Cotton 
about 1000; appropriated to the public, 1701; 
partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the 
British Museum 1753 

Sion College 1C23 

Royal Soctety iu 1007 

Radcliffeian, at Oxford, founded by the will of Dr. 
Radcliffe, who left £40,000 to the University, 
1714 ; opened 1749 

University Library, Cambridge, 1720, when George 
I. gave i;5000 to purchase Dr. Moore's collection. 

British Museum {which see) 1753 

The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803), the London Institution (1805), and the Roy- 
al College of Surgeons (17SG), have classified cat- 
alogues. 

Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
Advocates' Library in Ediuburg (1080), are exten- 
sive and valuable.* 

Free Librabies have been successfully established 
since 1850 at Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, etc. 
Many others have been formed under acts pass- 
ed in 1845, 1S50, and 1856. 

On Nov. 5, 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Li- 
brary in the city of London was negatived, and 
1857 that in Maryleboue was closedfor want of 
support. 

(See Circulating Library.) 

LIBRARIES OF the United States. In the United 
States there are the following public libraries: 

Foiinrled Volumes. 

Astor Library, New York City 1839 100,000 

Mercantile Library, New York City 1820 54,000 

Society Libraiy, New York City 1754 40,000 

Historical Library, New York City 1804 25,000 

Union Theol. Seminary, New York City, 1836 24,000 

State Library, Albany, N. Y 1818 53,500 

Atheureum, Boston, Mass 1S04 78,000 

Public Library, Boston, Mass 1852 70,000 

Antiquarian Library, Worcester, Mass.. 1812 26,000 

Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. .1803 22,700 

Athenfeum, Providence, R. 1 1753 22,002 

Library Company, Philadelphia, Peuu. .1731 04,900 

Acad. Nat. Science, Philadelphia, Penn..l812 25,000 

Am. Phila. Society, Philadelphia, Penn . .1743 20,000 

Congress'l Library, Washington, D. C . . .1851 50, 700 

Smithsonian lust., Washington, D. C. . .1849 25,000 

Library Society, Charleston, S. C 1748 25,000 

State Librarj', Annapolis, Md 1826 20,000 

State Library, Indianapolis, Ind 1825 20,000 

These libraries are exclusive of the libraries of the 
difierent colleges, which are many of them very exten- 
sive, that of Harvard numberiug'123,400 volumes, not 
couuting pamphlets, etc. 

LIBYA (Africa) was conquered by the Persians 524 
B.C., and by Ptolemy Soter 320. 

LICENSES. This mode of levying money was in- 
troduced by Richard I. about 1190, but was then con- 
fined to such of the nobility as desired to enter the 
lists at tournaments. 



* In 1609 the Stationers' Company a^eed to give a copy of every 
hook published to tlie Bodleian Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II., c. 
33 (1662), three copies were required to be given to certain public li- 
braries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19 (1709), the number was increased to nine ; by 
41 Geo. III., c. 107, to eleven ; which number was reduced to five by 5 
& 6 Will. IV., c. 110 (1835): viz., the British Museum, the Bodleian, 
Oxford, the Public Library, Cambridge, the Advocates' Library, Ediu- 
burg, and Trinity College, Dublin. 



1 

.1620 ^B i 
.1600 "3 



Games and gaming-houses licensed in London. 
License system for excisable articles enforced in 

various reigns, from the 12th Charles II. . 

Plays ordered to be licensed in 1737 

Lotterj'-office-keepers to take out licenses, and pay 

X50 for each ; tliis reduced the number from 400 

to 51 Aug.,177S 

General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV., c. 61 1828 

Licenses for public houses granted in 1551, and for 

refreshment-houses, with wine licenses, iu 1860 

The licensing system was applied to India as a 

kind of income tax, 1859 ; ceased in 1801 

LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of Mercia, aft- 
erward Lichfield, was founded in 656. In 1705 the see 
was removed to Chester; in 1102 it was removed to 
Coventry, and afterward back to Lichfield, but with 
much opposition from the monks of Coventry. See 
Covcntrij. Dr. Samuel Butler, in 1837, was the first 
Bishop of Lichfield only. This see has given three 
saints to the Romish Church, and to the'British na- 
tion one lord chancellor and three lord treasurers. It 
is valued in the king's books at £559 18s. 2(1. Lichfield 
Cathedral was first built about 656. The present struc- 
ture was built by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bishop, in 
1148.* In Lichfield Castle, King Richard II. kept his 
Christmas festival, 1397, when 200 tons of wine and 
2000 oxen were consumed. A charter was granted to 
Lichfield, constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. 
Present income, £4500. 

LICHTENSTEIN, a constitutional principality, S. 
Germany. Population, in 1858, 7150. Prince John, 
born Oct. 5, 1840, succeeded his father Alois-Joseph, 
Nov. 12, 1858. 

LICINIAN LAW, Licinia Lex (375 B.C.), forbade 
any person to possess more than 500 acres of laud, or 
more than 100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in 
the Roman states; another law, 56 B.C., of this name, 
imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or societies 
assembled for election purposes; and another, about 
103 B.C., limited the expenses of the table. 

LIEGE (Belgium), a bishopric under the German 
Empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege fre- 
quently revolted against its prince-bishops. In 1467, 
after a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at 
Brnsthem, and their «ity taken by Charles the Bold, 
duke of Burgundy, who treated them with great se- 
verity. In 1482 Liei'e fell into the power of De la 
Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed the bishop, 
Louis of Bourbon, and was himself beheaded two 
years after. Liege was taken by the Duke of Marl- 
borough, Oct. 23, 1702, and by the French and others 
at various times up to 1796, when it was annexed to 
France. It was incorporated with the Netherlands in 
1814, and with Belgium in 1830. Iron-works were es- 
tablished at Liege in the 16th century. 

LIEGNITZ. See Pfaffendorf. 

LIEUTENANTS, Lokd, for counties, were instituted 
iu England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in Irelaud in 1831. 
For the lords lieutenants of Ireland, see Ireland. 

LIFE-BOAT, etc.t It was stated in Sept., 186.5, that 
there were 185 life-boats on the coasts of the United 
Kingdom. 3019 lives were saved Iu 1864 by means of 
rocket apparatus, life-boats, etc. In the ten years 
1855-64, 30,261 lives were saved. See Wreckn. 
A patent was granted to Mr. Lukin for a life-boat 

in 1785 

A reward off"ered by a committee of gentlemen iu 
South Shields for a life-boat, 1788, obtained by 

Mr. Henry Greathead, of that town 1789 

It was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790; and Mr. Great- 
head received £1200 from Parliament for this 
great means of saving life in cases of shipwreck. 
31 life-boats were built and 300 lives saved up to 1804 



* Walter de Langton (bishop in 1?96) built the chapel of St. Mary, 
now taken into the choir, and under Bisliop Heyworth (1420) the cathe- 
dral W.1S perfected. The building was despoiled at the Reformation, 
and was scandalously injured in the Parliamentary War (when its 
monuments, its fine sculptures, and beautifully painted windows were 
demolislied); but it was repaired at the Restoration, and again thor- 
oughly in 1788. 

\ LiFE-pRESKRVKR, the apparatus of Captain Manby (brought into 
use in Feb., 1808), effects a communication with the distressed vessel by 
a rope, thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line attached to it. 
For the night, a night-ball is provided with a hollow case of thick 
pasteboard, and a fuze and quick match, and charged with fifty balls, 
and a sufiiciency of powder to inflame them. The fuze is so ^aduated 
that the shell shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The balls 
spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, and give a clear view of 
every surrounding object. In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews 
and passengers bad been saved. Captain Manby died Nov. 18, 1854, 
aged 89. 

The BoAT-LOWEKiNG Appaeattts, invented by Mr. Charles Clifford, 
of London, in lS66,ha3 been much approved of, and is generally adopt- 
ed in the royal navy. 



LIF 



28a 



LIM 



The Dnke of Northumberland ofTorcrl a rewfird of 
i;l()5 for a lifo-boiU fiillilliiii: cntaiii couditioiis, 
1S50; obtiiiiK'd by Mr. Jaiacs JU'i'chiug, of Yar- 
mouth 1S51 

The tubular lift;-boat of Mr. II. Richardson, the 
Cliatlctiiii'i; patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made 
by him'fioni Liverpool to Loudon in it 1S52 

Tlie SatHDial IJj\'-bua( /ii.-<titiiti<jn fouuded in 1S24; 
its journal, the " Lil'c-boat," published, 18.52. In 
1850 its funds were eularj,'ed by a bequest of 
XIO.OOO from Hamilton Fitzgerald, Esq. 

LIFE-GUARD, Washington's. This corps, varying 
in numbers, at difl'ereut times, from 60 to 250 men, was 
fiirmed in tlie spring of ITTC. The men were not less 
than 5 feet '.» iiiciics, nor more than 5 feet 10 inches in 
lK'ii,'ht, and selected from the various regiments of the 
Continental army for their moral and personal per- 
fections. Their usual duty was to protect the jiersou, 
baggage, and papers of the commaiider-in-chief. The 
last survivor of this corps was LTzal Kuapp, of Orange 
County, New York, who died in Jan., 1S56, and was 
buried at the foot of the flag-stafl", in front of Wash- 
ington's head-quarters at Newburg, on the Hudson. 
A neat freestone monument erected over his remains 
was dedicated on the 18th of June, ISUO, at which time 
there was a large civic and military procession. 

LIFE-GUARDS. See Guards. 

LIFE INSURANCE. See Insurance. 

LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by Snel- 
lius about 1024. The motion and velocity of light dis- 
covered by Reaumur, and after him by Cassiui, and 
calculated by Roemer (1076, and Bradley (1720). Its 
velocity ascertained to be about 190,000,000 of miles in 
sixteen minutes, or nearly 200,000 miles in a second, 
which is a million of times swifter than the velocity 
of a cannon ball, about 1007. The light of the sun is 
eight minutes and eight seconds in its transmission 
through the space from that orb to the earth. The 
undulatory theory of li^ht, its polarization, and its 
chemical action, have all been made known in the 
jn-eseut century by Drs. Thos. Young, Fresnel, Mains, 
Arago, Biot, Brewster,Wheatstoue,Ritter,Niepce, Da- 
guerre, Talbot, etc. See Optics, Photography. 

LIGHT-HOUSES, anciently called Pharos (and now 
2>hare, French ; faro, Italian), from one erected at 
Pharos, near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, said to 
have been visible forty-two miles, about 2S5 B.C. 
There was one at Messina, at Rhodes, etc. The light 
was obtained by fires. The first true light-house 
erected in England was the Eddystone Light-house iu 
1758-CO. 

BRITISn LIGHT-nOUSES. 

By the report of the Commissioners on Lights, etc. 
(1861), we learn that there was then 171 shore-lights 
in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 iu Ireland (total 
357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 

The French have 224 light-houses on shore. 

The source of light in our light-houses is principally 
oil ; but in harbor-lights gas has been successfully 
used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and cop- 
per ones in 1807. A common coal fire-light was dis- 
continued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. Fresnel's 
Dioptric* system (devised about ISl'.t) was adopted 
for the first time in England by Messrs. Wilkins, at 
the direction of the Trinity Board, July 1, 1836. 

The most brilliant artificial light ever produced— de- 
rived from magneto-electricity by a machine devised 
by Professor Holmes — was first employed at the 
South Foreland Light-house, near Dover, on Dec. 8, 
18.58 ; and at Dengeness (or Dungeness) iu 1862. Mr. 
Holmes's arrangement, and a similar one construct- 
ed by M. Serin, were shown at the International Ex- 
hibition, London, in 1802. 

Lime-light {irhich see) employed at the South Foreland 
light-house in ISOl. 

The cost of erecting the three great British light- 
houses — viz., the Skerrv-Vore (west coast), 1.58 feet 
high, was £S:i,126 ; the IBishop Rock, Scilly Isles, 145 
feet high, i;36,.559 ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 
feet high, X61,331. 

LIGHT-HOUSES in the Unite-d States. Unlike 
other nations, the United States lights her coast at the 
expense of the government. The coast is divided into 
districts, each district under the care of a light-house 
inspector, whose duty it is to see that every thing is 
done, and well done. In 1860 there were 491 light- 
stations on the coast of the United States, which 

* From the Greek (Ua, tliroiicti, and optotiiaiy I see ; the lipht being 
condensed by and transmitted thruu[;h lenses. The system is an adap- 
tation of the discoveries of liutlbn, Coudorcet, Brewster, and others. 

T 



showed 576 lights. The cost of lighting the coast and 
buoying the harbors is nearly as follows: 

Light-houses $,594,033 99 

Light-vessels 211,910 14 

Buoys and beacons 120,988 77 

Total $932,932 90 

Many of the light-houses of the United States are 
unsurpassed by any in the world, and are of exceed- 
ingly dithcult construction. The most noted is that 
of Minot's Ledge, in Massachusetts Bay. The diffi- 
culties of erecting this light-house can not be exao-- 
gerated. The first one was erected in 1847. It was 
supported on iron piles 12 inches in diameter. These 
were firmly braced and tied together with wrought 
iron bands. The structure was fiuished in 1849, and 
stood till the terrible storm of April, 1S51, when the 
iron supports were twisted as if they had been made 
of straw, and the whole structure was swept away. In 
1852 Congress appropriated money to rebuild the 
light. The design was a granite tower in the shape 
ot the frustrum of a cone. The base is 30 feet in di- 
ameter, and the whole height 88 feet. The lower 40 
feet are solid. Some idea of the difliculty of the work 
may be formed when it is known that, though every 
moment when the tide left the rock uncovered was 
taken advantage of, it was a year before the first layer 
of stones for the foundation was securely laid. It was 
first lighted in 1860. 

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS were first set up for 
the protection of buildings by Franklin shortly after 
1752, when he brought down electricity from a thun- 
der-cloud. The first in England was set up at Payne's 
Hill by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one was placed on the 
tower of St. Mark, at Venice, which has since escaped 
injury, although frequently consumed by lightning 
previously. A powder magazine at Glogau, in Silesia, 
was saved by a conductor in 1782 ; and, from the want 
of one, a quantity of gunpowder was ignited at Bres- 
cia in 1767, and above 3000 persons perished. In 1702, 
Dr. Watson recommended conductors to be used in 
the navy; and they were employed for a short time, 
but soon fell into disuse from want of skill and atten- 
tion. Mr. (since Sir William) Snow Harris devoted 
his attention to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and pub- 
lished a work in 1843 detailing his experiments. In 
1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his con- 
ductors, and iu 1842 his plans were adopted, and his 
conductors are now manufactured in the royal dock- 
yards. In 1854 Parliament granted him j;5000. In 
the United States, Quimby's lightning conductors are 
considered the most efficacious, and are generally 
used. 

LIGNY (Belgium), -sphere a battle was fought, June 
16, 1815, just previously to that of Waterloo, between 
the Prussian army under Blucher, and the French 
army commanded by Napoleon, in which the former 
was defeated. Blucher, however, arrived on the field 
of M'aterloo in the evening at a most critical moment. 

LIGLTORIANS, ok Redejiptorists, a Roman Catho- 
lic order, established in 1T32 by Alfonso de Liguori, 
and approved by Pope Benedict XIV. iu 1759. 

LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded the 
Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C. They 
were not subjugated till 172 B.C. The Liguman Re- 
public, founded in May, 1797, upon the ruins of the 
republic at Genoa, was incorporated with France in 
1805, and then merged into the kingdom of Italy. 

LILAC-TREE. Syringa. The Persian lilac from 
Persia was cultivated in England about 1638; the 
common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 

LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was 
brought to England before 1460 ; the Martagou from 
Germany, 15l!6. 

LILY'B^UM, a strong maritime fortress of Sicily, 
was besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirns, 276 B.C., and 
was relieved by the Carthaginians 275 B.C. It was 
taken by the Romans 241 B^C, after a siege of nine 
years, which led to the end of the Second Punic War. 

LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching through 
Peru, was struck with the beauty of the valley of Ki- 
mac, and there he founded this city, and gave it the 
name ofCvudad de los Jieiics, or city of the kings, 1535. 
Here he was assassinated, June 26, 1541. Awful earth- 
quakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 1687, and Oct. 28, 1746. 
In 1854-5 thousands perished by yellow fever. Mr. 
Sullivan, the British consul, was assassinated at Lima, 
Aug. 11, 1857. 

LIME OE Linhen-teee, probably introduced in the 
16th century. The lime-trees iu St. James's Park are 



LIM 



290 



LIS 



said to have been planted at the suggestion of Evelyn, 
who recommended multiplying odoriferous trees in his 
work "Fumifugium" (1061). One of these trees, plant- 
ed in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 1720, the trunk 
being 36 feet in circumference. 

LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion of oxy- 
gen and hydrogen or carbureted hydrogen on a sur- 
face of lime. This light evolves little heat and does 
not vitiate the air. It is also called Drummoud Light, 
after Lieut. Drummond, who successfully produced it 
as a first-class light about 1S26, and employed it on the 
ordnance survey. It is said to have been seen at a dis- 
tance of 112 miles. It was tried at the South Foreland 
Lighthouse in 1861. 

LIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S.W. Ireland). 
About 550, StMuuchin is said to have founded a bish- 
opric and built a church here, which latter was de- 
stroyed by the Danes in S53. Donald O'Brien, king of 
Limerick, founded the cathedral about 1200. Limerick 
obtained its charter iu 1195, when John Stafford was 
made first provost; and its first mayor was Adam 
Servant, in 1198. It was taken by Iretou after sis 
mouths' siege in 1655. In Aug., 1091, it was invested 
by the English and Dutch, and surrendered on most 
honorable terms, Oct. 3, same year.* Au awful explo- 
sion of 218 barrels of gunpowder greatly shattered the 
town, killing 100 persons, Feb. 1, 1694. Another ex- 
plosion of gunpowder here killed many persons, Jan. 
2, 1837. Awful and destructive tempest, Jan. 6-7, 1S39. 

LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limiting the li- 
ability of joint-stock companies, 18 & 19 Vict, c. 133 
(passed 1855), was amended 1856-7-8. On May 31, 18G4, 
" 3830 joint-stock companies had been formed and reg- 
istered on the limited liability principle, and 938 had 
ceased to exist." 



iron railings about 1737. The new buildings were 
opened Oct. 30, 1845, and the square planted. The the- 
atre in Lincoln's Inn Fields was built iu 1095; rebuilt 
in 1714 ; made a barrack in 1756, and pulled down in 
1848. 

LINDISFAENB, ok Holt Island, on the coast of 
Northumberland, became a bishop's see, 635. It was 
ravaged by the Danes under Regnar Lodbrok in 793, 
and the monastery was destroyed by them in 875 ; the 
see was removed to Chester-le-street iu 900, and final- 
ly to Durham in 995 (or 990). 

LINEN. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine 
linen, 1716 B.C. {Gen. xli., 42). 
First manufactured iu England by Flemish weav- 
ers, under the protection of Henry III 1253 

A company of linen weavers established in Londoul36S 

The art of staining linen became known 1579 

A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and oth- 
er Presbyterians who fled from persecution in 
succeeding reigns, planted themselves in the 
northeast part of Ireland, and there established 
the linen mauufacture, which was liberally eu- 
couraged by the Lord Deputy Wentworth iu 1634: 

by Wniiam III. in 1C08 

Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, 

permitted to be exported duty free 1696 

Irish Linen Board established iu 1711 ; the Linen- 
hall, Dublin, was opened 1728; the board abol- 
ished iu 1S28 

A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch liu- 

eu manufacture established in 1727 

Duufermline, iuFifeshire; Dundee in Augusshire; 
and Barusley, in Yorkshire, are chief seats of our 
linen manufacture. 

Duty on linen was taken off iu England iu 1860 

LINLITHGOW BRIDGE (near Ediuburg), rear 



and Dutch armies defeated the French, Aug. IS, 1793. 
General Lake commanded three battalions of brave 
foot-guards. 

LINCOLN, the Roman Linchmi Colonia, and at the 
period of the Conquest rich and populous. It was 
taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The castle 
was built by William L iu 1086. Without Newport 
Gate was fought, upon Lincoln Plain, the battle be- 
tweeu the partisans of the Empress Maud, command- 
ed by the Earl of Gloucester, and the army of Stephen, 
in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner, 
Feb. 2, 1141. Louis, dauphiu of France, having been 
invited over by the discontented barous in the last 
year of King John's reign, was acknowledged by them 
as King of England here ; but the nobility, summoned 
by the^Earl of Pembroke to Gloucester to crown Hen- 
ry III., marched against Louis and the barons, and de- 
feated them in a most sanguinary fight (called the Fair 
of Lincoln), May 20, 1217, and Louis withdrew. 

LINCOLN, BisnopEio of. Siduacester, or Lindesse 
and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, were unit- 
ed about 107S, and the see was removed to Lincoln by 
Bishop Remigius de Feschamp, who built a cathedral 
<1086), afterward destroyed by fire, but rebuilt by Bish- 
op Alexander (1127) and Bishop Hugh of Burgundy. 
The diocese is the largest in the kingdom, notwith- 
standing that the dioceses of Ely, Oxford, and Peter- 
borough, formerly parts of it, aud now distinct sees, 
were farther enlarged from Liucoln iu 1S37. The see 
was valued at the dissolution of monasteries at £2065 
per annum; and after many of its manors had been 
seized upon, it was rated in the king's books at X894 
10s. Id. Present income, £5000. It has given three 
saints to the Church of Rome, and to the civil state of 
England six lord chancellors. The great bell of the 
cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, weighs four 
tous eight pounds. 

LINCOLN'S INN (London) derives its name from 
Henry de Lacy, earl of Liucoln, who erected a mansion 
on this spot iii the reign of Edward I., which had been 
the Bishop of Chichester's palace. It became an inn 
of court, 1310. The gardens of Lincoln's Inn Fields 
were laid out by Inigo Jones about 1020, and errone- 
ously said to occupy the same space as the largest pyr- 
amid of Egypt, which is 764 feet square ; Lincoln's Inn 
Square being 821 feet by 625 feet 6 inches. Lord W. 
Russell was beheaded in Lincoln's Inn Fields, July 21, 
1G83. The square (formed iu 1618) was inclosed with 



LINCELLES (N. France), where the allied English which the forces of the Earl of Angus, who held James 

-- ' --- -._ .. -- V. iu their power, defeated the forces of the Earl of 

Lennox, who, after receiving promise of quarter, was 
killed by Sir James Hamilton, 1526. Mary Queen of 
Scots was born iu the palace of Linlithgow, James V., 
her father, dyiug of a broken heart the same year, 1542. 

LINN^ AN SYSTEM of Botany, arranged by Linne 
or Linnfous, a Swede, iu 1725-30. He classed the plants 
according to the number and situation of the sexual 
parts, and made the flower aud fruit the test of his 
various genera. Linnfeus lived from 1707 to 1778. His 
library and herbarium were purchased by Sir James E. 
(then Dr.) Smith, and given to the Linnoian Society in 
Loudon, which was instituted In 1788, and incorpora- 
ted March 26, 1802. 

LION AND UNICORN, the former English, the lat- 
ter Scottish, became the supporters of the royal arms 
on the accession of James I. in 1603. 

LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N.W. Germa- 
ny). Populatiou, Dec, 1861, 108,513. Reigning prince, 
Leopold, born Sept. 1, 1821 ; succeeded his father, Leo- 
pold, Jau. 1, 1851. 

LIPPSTADT. See Lutzen. 



* By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property, and estates 
should be restored ; all attainders aniui lied, and all outlawries reversed ; 
and that no oath but that of allegiance should be required of high or 
low ; the freedom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from pe- 
cuniary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; permission to 
leave the kingdom was extended to ail who desired It; and a general 
pardon proclaimed to all then in arms. — Burns, 



LISBON (Olisippo, aud Felicitas Julia, of the an- 
cients) was taken by the Arabs in 716, and became im- 
portant under the Moorish kings, from whom it was 
captured by Alfonso I. of Portugal in 1147. It was 
made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lis- 
bon has sufiered much by earthquakes, and was al- 
most destroyed by one, Nov. 1, 1755. See Earthquakes. 
The court iled to the Brazils, Nov. 10, 1S07, aud on 
Nov. 30 the French, under Junot, entered Lislion, and 
held it until the battle of Vimiera, in which they were 
defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, 
Aug. 21, 1808. A military insurrection at Lisbon, Aug. 
21, 1831, was soon suppressed, aud many soldiers were 
executed. Massacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Por- 
tugal. 

LISLE (now Lille, N. France) has a strong citadel by 
Vauban. It was besieged by the Duke of Marlborough 
and the Allies ; aud, though deemed impregnable, was 
taken after a three mouths' siege in 1708. It was re- 
stored by the treaty of Utrecht^in 1713, in considera- 
tion of the demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. 
Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from the Aus- 
triaus, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 

LISMORE (S. Ireland). St. Carthage, first bish9p, 
636, says: "Lismoreis a famous and holy city, of which 
nearly oue half is an asylum where no woman dare en- 
ter." The castle (built by King John when Earl of 
Moreton, 1185), burut iu 1645, was rebuilt with great 
magnificence by the Duke of Devonshire. The Cathe- 
dral, built 036, was repaired by Cormac, son of Mure- 
tus, king of Munster, about 1130 ; and the bishopric 



LIS 



291 



LIV 



was nuited to that of Watcrford aboiit 1SG3, and both 
to Caishel iu 18:!9. 

LISSA (or Leutheu, Silesia), Battle op, iu which the 
Kiug of Prussia vauquishcd Prince Charles of Lor- 
raine ; GOOO Austrians were slain, Dec. 5, 1757. — Lissa, 
iu Poland, was laid iu ruins by the Kussian army iu 
the canipaii^n of 1707. See German-Italian War. 

LITANIES (Greek Litaiwia, supplication) were first 
used iu processions, it is said, about 409; others say 
about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first in- 
troduced by Pope Gregory I. about SQ."?. The first En- 
glish lilany was conimauded to be used in the Re- 
lornied Churches by Henry VIII. in 1543. 

LITERARY CLUB (at first called "The Club" and 
"Johnson's Club"), bei,'an in 17<'i:i by Goldsmith, Reyn- 
olds,Burke, Gibbon, Jones, (Jarrick, Bennett, Langton, 
and Topham Beauclerk, with Br. Johnson for presi- 
dent. The opinion formed of a new work by the Club 
was speedily known all over Loudon, and had great 
influence. The Club still exists. Ilallam, JFacaulay, 
the Marquess of Lansdowne, and Bishop Blomtiefd 
were members ; Dr. Milman, dean of St.Paul's, was iu 
the chair at the ceuteuary dinner on June 7, 1SU4. 

LITERARY FUlStD, Roval, was founded iu 1790, to 
relieve literary men of all nations, by David Williams,* 
the friend of Benjamin Frankliu. It had its origin in 
this way: Floyer Sydenham, an eniiueut Greek schol- 
ar of Wadham College, Oxford, and translator of some 
of the works of Plato, having no patronage, was in- 
volved iu embarrassment, and arrested and thrown 
into prison for a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, 
and there, in 17SS, died of a broken heart iu want and 
misery, when nearly eighty years of age. The sympa- 
thy excited gave rise to this instittition, since bounti- 
fully supported. It was incorporated in ISIS. Since 
1855 various alterations in its management have been 
annually proposed and negatived. 

LITERARY' PROPERTY. See Coi->yHght. 

LITERARY SOCIETIES. See Societies. 

LITERATURE, called also Letters and Belles-Let- 
tres, is held to comprehend Eloquence, Poetry, Histo- 
rj'. Language, and their subordinates. See [fible, and 
also Greek, Latin, England, France, Italy, S2}ain, and 
Gerjnany. 

LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance in nature 
except the gases (its specific gravity being 0-59), is 
obtained from an alkaline sulistance termed lithia; 
discovered by M. Arfwedsou, a Sv^'ede, in 1817. 

LITHOGRAPHY (engraving on stone). The inven- 
tion of it is ascribed to'Alois Sennefelder, whose first 
essays were executed about 1790 ; and shortly after- 
ward the art was announced iu Germany, and was 
known as polyantography. It became partially known 
in England iu ISOl, et seq., but its general introdttction 
may be referred to Mr. Ackermanu, of London, about 
1S17. Sennefelder died iu 1S41. Improvements iu the 
art have been made by Engelmauu aud many others. 
It is carried to great perfection iu the United States. 
See Printing in Colors. 

LITHOTO^MY. The surgical operation of cutting 
for the stone was performed by the ancients. The 
" small apparatus," so called from the few instruments 
used in the operation, was practiced by Celsus about 
17. The operation called the "high apparatus" is said 
to have been invented by De Franco, and it is thought 
to be the most ancient. The "great apparatus" was 
invented by John de Romauis about 1500. 

LITIIOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The appara- 
tus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolles iu 1822 has since 
been improved. 

LITHUANIA, formerly a gi-aud-duchy, N.E. of Prus- 
sia. The natives (belonging to the Slavonic race) long 
maintained their independence against the Russians 
and Poles. In 13S0, their Grand^duke Jagellon be- 
came King of Poland, and was baptized : "Lithuania 
was not incorporated with Poland till 1501, when an- 
other Duke Casimir became king of that cotmtry. 
The larger part of Lithuania now belongs to Russia, 
the remainder to Prussia. 

LITURGIES (from the Greek lifai, prayers, and er- 
gon, work). The Greek and Roman liturgies are very 
ancieut, having been committed to writing about the 
4th and 5th centuries. The Romish Church recog- 
nizes four : the Roman or Georgian, the Ambrosian, 

* He was in enrlv life h dissentinK ininieter, and wrote on education. 
He was consulted 'h\ the earlv I^'volutionary party in France as to 
the form of a Constitution for that country, he, Dr. Priestley, Sir 
James Mackintosh, nnd otlier distinguished JCndlishmen having been 
previously declared French citizens. He died July 29, 1S16. 



the Gallician, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. The 
Greek Church has two principal liturgies: St. Chry- 
sostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller ones. 
Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the apostles, 
to St. If'natius, 250, and to St. Ambrose (died 397), and 
to St. Jerome (died 420). The present Englisu Lit- 
UKttv was first composed, and was approved aud con- 
firmed by Parliament in 1547-S. The oflices for morn- 
ing and evenmg prayer were then put into nearly the 
same form in which we now have them. At the so- 
licitation of Calvin and others, the Liturgy was re- 
viewed and altered to very near its present state, 1551. 
It was first read m Ireland, in the English language, 
in 1550, and in So tl.md, where it occasioned a tumult, 
in 1037, and was withdrawn, 1038. The Liturgy was 
revised by Whitehead, formerly chaplain to Anna Bo- 
leyn, and by Bishops Parker, Grinclall, Cos, and Pil- 
kmgton. Dean May, and Secretary Smith. See Com- 
inon Prayer. 

LIVERIES. The term is derived from the custom 
of the retainers of the lord mayor and sherifi's of Lou- 
don bearing habiliments of the form and color display- 
ed by those functionaries. It was usual for the ward- 
ens of companies to deliver a purse containing 20s. 
to the lord mayor on the 1st of Dec. to obtain for in- 
dividuals so desiring sufficient cloth to make a suit, 
and the privilege of wearing the livery. This added 
to the splendor of the mayor's train when the civic 
court went forth. — Ashe. Liveries were regulated by 
statute iu 1392, aud frequently .since. 

LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire) is supposed to be no- 
ticed in Domesday Book under the name Esmechine, 
or Smcdune.* Soon after the Conquest, William grant- 
ed that part of the country situated between the Riv- 
ers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of Poitiers, who, ac- 
cording to Camden, built a castle here about the year 
10S9. To this circumstance is attributed the origin of 
the town. It afterward was held by the Earls of Ches- 
ter and the Dukes of Lancaster. "Population in 1851, 
375,995; in 1801, 443,874. 
Liverpool made a free burg by King Henry III. . .1229 

Made an independent port 1335 

Liverpool a "paved town" (Lcland) 1558 

"The people of her majesty's decayed town of 

Liverpool" petition Elizabeth to be relieved 

from a subsidy 1571 

Separated from the duchy of Lancaster. 1628 

Town rated for ship-money in only X26 by Charles 

1 1G30 

Besieged by Prince Rupert, aud surrendered, 

June 20,1644 

Made a separate parish 1698 

The old clock, the first iu England, constructed 

and opened 1099 

Blue-coat Hospital fottnded 1709 

The town opposes the Young Pretender, and 

raises several regiments 1745 

A most destructive fire 1762 

Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the 

war against France, 120 privateers, carrying 1986 

guns, aud 8754 seamen 1778 

Memorable storm raged 1789 

Awful fire, whose ravages exceeded £1,000,000 

sterling Sept. 14,1S02 

Great fire ; property valued at £300,000 destroyed, 

Jau.l,lS33 
The LiverjMol steamer, of 4Gl-horse power, sails 

for New York Oct. '28,1833 

Awful storm raged Jan. 6,1839 

Immense fire ; property worth more than half a 

million sterling destroyed Sept. 25,1S42 

Procession of Orangemen at Liverpool, and fatal 

riot July 14, 1S51 

Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ through 

the frost) Feb. 19, 1S55 

Gigantic landing-stage for large steamers com- 
pleted 1S5T 

Many commercial failures Sept. to Nov., " 

Association for Social Science meets Oct., 1858 

Explosion of 11,^ tons of gunpowder in the Lottie 

Sleigh, in the Mersey, causing much damage, 

Jan. 10, 1864 

LIVERPOOL ADMINISTRATION. Shortly after 
the assassination of Mr. Perceval {Mny 11, 1S12), the 
Earl of Liverpool became first minister of the crown.t 

* In other ancient records its appellations are Litherpul and Lt/rpjti, 
sipnifvinp probably, in tlie ancient dialect, the lower pool ; tliouph 
some nave deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic 
fowl called the " Liver,"" or from a sea-weed of that name ; and others 
from its having belonged to a family of the name of Lever, whose an- 
tiquity is not sufficiently established to justify their conclusion. 

t Robert Jenkinson.born Jan. 7, 1770, entered the House of Com- 
mous under Mr, Pitt ; opposed the abolition of the slave-trade in 1795 ; 



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292 



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His administration terminated when he was attacked 

by apoplexy, Feb. 11, 1S27, and Mr. Canning succeeded 

as prime minister, April. In fifteen years there had 

been many changes. 

Lord Eldon, Lord Chancellor. 

Earl of Harrowby, Lord J^resident of the Council. 

Earl of Westmoreland, Lord Privy Seal. 

Mr. Vansittart, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

Earl of Mulgrave, Master General of the Ordnance. 

Lord Melville, First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Visconnt Sidraouth, Viscount Castlereagh, and Earl 

Bathurst, Home, Foreign, and Colonial Secretaries. 
Lord Palmerston, Marquess of Camden, Earl of Clan- 

carty. Earl of Buckinghamshire, etc. 

LIVONIA, a Kussian province on the Baltic Sea, 
first visited by some Bremen merchants about 115S. 
It has belonged successively to Denmark, Sweden, Po- 
land, and Russia. It was finally ceded to Peter the 
Great in 1T21. 

LLANDAPP (Wales). The first known bishop was 
St. Dnbritius, said to have died in G12. The see is val- 
ued in the king's books at X154 14s. Id. per annum. 
Present income, X4200. 

EEOENT BISnOrS OP LLANDAFF. 

1T82. Richard Watson; died July 4, 1816. 
1S16. Herbert Marsh; translated to Peterborough, 1S19. 
1S19. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1S2G. 
1S26. Charles Richard Sumner; translated to Winches- 
ter, 1827. 
1S2T. Edward Copleston ; died Oct. 14, 1849. 
1849. Alfred Ollivaut, present bishop. 

LLOYD'S (London). The coffee-housekept by Lloyd, 
in Abchurch Lane, in 1710, afterward removed ; was 
established finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and 
remained there till the fire in 1833. Here resort emi- 
nent merchants, underwriters, etc. ; and here are ef- 
fected insm'ances on ships and merchandise. Lloyd's 
is supported by subscribers who pay annually X4 4s. 
The books kept here contain an account of the arrival 
and sailing of vessels, and are remarkable for their ear- 
ly intelligence of maritime affairs. In 1803 the sub- 
scribers instituted the Patriotic Fund.* 

LOADSTONE. See Magnetism. 

LOANS for the public service were raised by Wol- 
eey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth Ijorrowed 
i;200,000 of the city of Antwerp to enable her to re- 
form her own coin, and Sir Thomas Gresham and the 
city of London joined in the security. — Rapin. The 
amount of the English loans during several memora- 
ble periods was as" follows: 

Seven Years' War 1755 to 17G3. ...^52,100,000 

American War 1770 to 1784. 75,500,000 

French Revolutionary War 1793 to 1802 108,500,000 

War against Bonaparte 1803 to 1814.... 206,300,000 

War against Russiat 1855 to 18.50. . . . 10,000,000 

For deficiency in revenuet 1856 10,000,000 

Besides the property-tax, in 1813 were raised two loans 
of twenty-one millions and twenty-two millions ; and 
it deserves to be recorded that a subscription loan to 
carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- 
don in 15 hours and 20 minutes, to the amount of eight- 
een millions, Dec. 5, 1790. InlSSS, the East India Com- 
pany raised a loan of i;S,000,OOO.t 

LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on an island 
in the celebrated Lake of Loch Leven, it is said by the 
Picts, was a royal residence when Alexander III. and 
his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It 
was besieged by the English in 1301, and again in''l334. 
Patrick Graham, first Archbishop of St. Andrew's, was 
imprisoned for attempting to reform the church, and 
died within its walls, about 1478. The Earl of Nor- 

in 179G became Lord Hawkesbury ; became foreign minister under Mr. 
Addiiigton in 1801 ; succeeded his father as Earl of Liverpool in 1808 • 
died Dec. 4, 1828. 

* The Austrian Lloyd^s, an association for general, commercial, and 
industrial purposes, was founded at Trieste, by Baron Eruck, in 1S.^3. 
It has established regular communication between Trieste and the Le- 
vant by means of a fleet of steamers, carrying the mails, and publishes 
a. journal. 

t Both taken by the Rothschilds alone. 

X French Loan on July 9, 1855, on account of the war with Russia. 
The French Legislature passed a bill for raising by loan 750 million 
francs (^£30,000,000 sterling). On the 30th the total subscribed amount- 
ed to 3,652,591,985 francs (about .£146,103,679), nearly five times the 
amount required. About 6U0 millions came from foreign countries; 
2,533,888,450 from Paris; from the departments, 1,118,703,535. The 
number of su^bscribers was 316,864. No less than 231,920,165 francs 
was made up by subscription of 50 francs and under. The English sub- 
scription of 150,000,000 francs was returned, as double the amount re- 
quired had been proffered. In May, 1859, the French government raised 
a loan of i:20,000,000 for the Italian War from its own people without 
difficulty. A Turkish loan of £5,000,000, on the security of England 
and France, was taken up by Rothschild in Aug., 1855, and was well 
received ; the stock rose to a small premium. 



thnmberland was confined in it, 1569. It is, however, 
chiefly remarkable as the place of the unfortunate 
Queen Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape 
on Sunday, May 2, 1568. 

LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Ro- 
mans were clumsy contrivances. Denon has engraved 
an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks 
and padlocks as early as 1381. Braraah's locks were 
patented in 1784. Mr. Hobbs, the American, exhibited 
his own locks in the Crystal Palace in 1861, and showed 
great skill in picking others. 

LOCOMOTIVES. See Railways. The use of steam 
locomotives on ordinary roads is regulated by acts 
passed in 1801 and 1805. 

LOCRI, a people of Northern Greece. They resisted 
Philip of Macedon, were aided by the Athenians and 
Thebans, and defeated by him at Chferouea, Aug. 7, 
338 B.C. 

LOCUSTS formed one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 
B.C. {Exod. X.). Owing to the putrefaction of vast 
swarms in Egypt and Libya, upward of 800,000 per- 
sons are said to have perished, 128 B.C. Palestine was 
infested with such swarms that they darkened the air; 
and after devouring the fntits of the earth, they died, 
and their intolerable stench caused a pestilential fever, 
A.D. 400. A similar catastrophe occurred in France in 
837. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the 
ground about London, and consumed the vegetables; 
great numbers fell in the streets, and were preserved 
by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers, but were 
three times the size, and their colors more variegated, 
x\ug. 4, 1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland 
in 1750, and Warsaw in June, ISIG. They are said to 
have been seen in London in 1857. Russia was infest- 
ed by them in July, 1800. 

LODI (N. Ital)')- Napoleon Bonaparte, command- 
ing the French army, totally defeated the Austrians, 
commanded by General Beaulieu, after a bloody en- 
gagement, at the bridge of Lodi, May 10, 1790. All 
Lombardy was opened'to his army, and the Republi- 
can flag lioated in Milan a few days after. 

LOG -LINE, used in navigation about 1.570; first 
mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided into spaces 
of 50 feet, and the way which the ship makes is meas- 
ured by a half-minute sand-glass, which bears nearly 
the same proportion to an hour that 50 feet bear to a 
mile : the line used in the royal navy is 48 feet. 

LOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of numbers 
one to another, were invented by Baron Napier, of 
Merchiston, who published his work in 1014. The in- 
vention was completed by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Ox- 
ford, who published tables, 1016-18. The "method of 
computing by means of marked pieces of ivory was 
discovered about the same time, and hence called Aa- 
2)ier's bones. 

LOGIC, "the science of reasoning." Eminent works 
on it are by Aristotle ; Bacon, Noviim Organon ; Locke 
on the Understanding ; and the modern treatises on 
Logic, by Archbishop Whately, Sir William Hamilton, 
and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 

LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical education, com- 
menced by J. B. Logier, in Jan., 181.5, and introduced 
into the chief towns of the United Kingdom, Prussia, 

etc. 

LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which the com- 
moner words were cast in one mass, was patented by 
Henry Johnson, and Mr. Walter, of the Times, in 1783. 
Anderson's History of Commerce, vol. iv., was printed 
by these types in 1789. 

LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the French Con- 
vention, Sept. 17, 1793, during the Reign of Terror, fill- 
ed the prisons of Paris. The Public Safety Bill, of a 
somewhat similar character, was passed Feb. IS, 1858, 
shortly after Orsini's attempt on the life of tie em- 
peror. 

LOLLARDS (liy some derived from the German M- 
Icn, to sing in a low tone), the name given to the first 
reformers of the Roman Catholic religion iuEncrlnnd, 
and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- 
liffe. — Chaucer. The original sect is said to have been 
founded in 1315 by Walter Lollard, who was burned 
for heresy at Cologne in 1322. The Lollards are said 
to have devoted themselves to acts of mercy. The first 
Lollard martyr in England was William Sawtree, par- 
ish priest of St. Osith, London, Feb. 12, 1401, when the 
Lollards were proscribed by Parliament, and numbers 
of them were burnt alive.* 

* Among others, Sir John Oldcastle, hnron Cobham, was cruelly pat ' 
to death in St, Giles'a-in-the-Fielda. His crime was the adoption of 



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293 



LON 



LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, were un- 
derstood to be composed of natives of some one of the 
four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. — 
Amlcriiijii. Lombard usurers were sent to England by 
Pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, com- 
munities, and private persons who were not able to 
pay down the tenths which were collected throughout 
the tiingdoni with great rigor that year, 13 lien. III., 
12--"J. 'i'hcy had oflices in the street named after them 
to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their 
expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 

LOMHARDY (N.Italy) derived its name from the 
Langobardi, a German tribe from Brandenburg, said 
(douljifully) to have been invited into Italy by Jus- 
tinian to serve against the Goths. Their chief, Alboiu, 
established a kingdom which lasted from 508 to 774. 
The last king, Desiderius, was dethroned by Charle- 
magne. (For a list of the Lombard kings, see Italij.) 
About the end of the 9th century the chief towns of 
Lombardy fortitied themselves, and became republics. 
The first Lombard league, consisting of Milan, V'enice, 
Pavia, Modena, etc., was formed to restrain the power 
of the German emperors in 1167. On May 29, 1170, 
they defeated the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at 
Legnano, and eventually compelled him to sign the 
peace of Constance in 11S.3. In 12'.'5 another league 
was formed against Frederick II., which was also suc- 
cessful. After this, petty tyrants rose in most of the 
cities, and foreign influence quickly followed. The 
Guelf and Ghibelline factious greatly distracted Lom- 
bardy, and from the 15th century to the present time 
it has been contended for by the German and French 
sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 174S 
and held it till 1797, when it was conquered by the 
French, who incorporated it into the Cisalpine Repub- 
lic, and in 1S05 into the kingdom of Italy. On the 
breaking up of the French Empire in 1S15, the Lo.m- 
liARno-VENETiAx KINGDOM was cstaljlished by the al- 
lied sovereigns and given to Austria, who had lost her 
Flemish possessions. In March, 1S4S, Lombardy and 
Venice revolted, and joined the King of Sardinia: they 
did not support him well; and afte'r his defeat at No- 
vara (March 23, 1849), were again subjected to Austria. 
An amnesty for political offenses was granted in 1S56. 
Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria since 
1849. In 1S57 diplomatic relations were suspended ; 
and in April, 1S59, war broke out, the Austrians cross- 
ing the Ticiuo and entering Piedmont. The French 
emperor declared war against Austria, and immediate 
ly sent troops into Italy. The Austrians were defeat- 
ed at Montebello, May 20; Palestro, May 30,31; Ma- 
genta, June 4; and Solferino, June 24. By the peace of 
Villafranca (July 11), the largest part of Lombardy was 
ceded to Louis Napoleon, who transferred it to the 
King of Sardinia. It now forms part of the new king- 
dom of Italy. 

LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the 
world. Some assert that a city existed on "the spot 
1107 years before the birth of Chri'st, and 354 years be- 
fore the foundation of Rome,* and that it was the caj)- 
ital of the Trinobantes, 54 B.C., and long previously 
the royal seat of their kings. In A.D. 61 it was known 
to the Romans as Lundinium, or Colonia Augusta, and 
became the chief residence of the merchants at that 
period. It is said, but not truly, to have derived its 
name from Lud, an old British king, who wa.s buried 
near where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is 
from IJiiii-Din, the "town on the lake."t It became 
the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, and was 
called Litnilcnccnstcr. In 1S60, London and the sub- 
urbs wci'c estimated to cover 121 square miles, 11 miles 
each way, being three times as large as in ISOO. The 
j)oi)ulatiou of the metropolitan districts in 1851 was 
2,;;6-',2H0 ; in 1861, 2,^03,034. The population of "the 
city" in 1851 was 127,809; in 1861,112,247. Revenue 

■kliflFe. He was misTpnresented 
Henry V. by the bijjoted derjry as a heretic and traitor, who was act- 
imlly at Hie head of 30,000 Lo'llards in these fields. About 100 inof- 
fensive people were found there. Cobham escaped, but was taken 
some tiiTie after in Wales. He sulTered death, beinff hun^r on a pallows 
by a chain fastened round his body, and, thus suspended, burnt alive, 
in Doc, ins.— /'«!nan^ 

* Tlu) fables of Oeoirrey of Monmouth with refrnrd to the oripn of 
London are unworthy of^the attention of the antiquary. Tliat Lon- 
don was f)unded by Brute, a descendant of tlio Trojan ^neas, and 
called New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the time of Lud, who sur- 
rounded it witir walls, arid gave it the name of Caer Lud,orLud'3 
town, etc., may be considered as mere romance. — Lcjfjh. 

t The orifjinal walls of London were the work of th'e Romans. The- 
odosius, povcrnor of Britain, is said to have raised tliem, 879 ; but they 
are supposed to have been built about ."^OB. There were oriprinally four 
principal pates ; but the number increased ; and amonp others were 
the Prretorian way, Ncwp.ate, Dowpate, Cripplepate, Aldpate, Alders- 
pate, Lufipate, Britlepate, Moorpate, liishoppate, the Postern on Tower 
Hill, and the onlv one of the city boundaries bow remaining is Tem- 
ple IJar, rebuilt IG70-2. 



Of the corporation in 1802, i:437,341. The "port" of 
Loudon extends from Loudon Bridge to the North 
Foreland. See Ducks.* 

Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reduces London to 
ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and stran<'ers to 

the sword /-j 

She is defeated by Suetonius^ s6,boo Britoiis'a'c 

massacred, aud she takes poison " oi 

Bishopric said to have been founded by Theauiis' 179 
Loudon rebuilt and walled in by the Romans SCO 

800 vessels said to be employed in the portof Loii- 

dou lor the export of corn 053 

Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus; 'stPaiii'sand " 

Westmiuster Abbey built go4 

A plague ravages London [\[ g^^ 

Great tire, which nearly consumed the'city 798 

London pillaged by the Danes " ' S39 

Alfred repairs aud strengthens London '.". 884 

Easterlings settle in London before 97s 

Another great lire ' 9^2 

Tower built by William I .'.....'.'...'"." lo)s 

First charter granted to the city by the same ki'u'^ 

(see below, London Citizens, note) 1079 

Another great lire ; St. Paul's burnt 10S6 

606 houses thrown down by a tempest 1090 

Charter granted by Henry I .' . .' .1100 

St.Bartholomew's Priory "fouudedby Rahere aboutllOO 

Loudon Bridge built, 1014 ; burnt 1136 

Old London Bridge begun 1176 

Heury Fitz-AIwhyn, th"e first mayor (served twen- 
ty-four years) ns!) 

Massacre of Jews " 

Charter granted by Henry II ii.'54 

First stone bridge finished 1209 

Charter of King John ; mayor and Common Coun- 
cil to be elected anuuallyt 1214 

Foreign merchants invited to settle, and do so, 

1199-1220 

Charter of Henry II 1233 

Aldermen appointed about 1242 

Watch in Loudon, 38 Henry III 1253 

Privileges granted to the Hause merchants {which 

see) 1259 

Tax called murage, to keep the walls and ditches 

in repair about 1282 

Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap 1285 

Expulsion of the Jews (10,511) 1290 

Livery companies incorporated 1327 

Charter granted by Edward III 1328 

Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 

perisht 1348 

London first sends members to Parliament 1355 

William of Walworth lord mayor 1380 

Wat Tyler's rebellion (see Tijler) 1381 

Aldermen elected for life 1394 

Great placrue 30,000 (?) died 1406 

City first lighted at night by lanterns 1415 

Guildhall commenced 1411, finished 1416 

Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz 1397, 1406, 1419 

Jack Cacle's Rebellion (see Cade) 1450 

First civic procession on the water; Sir John Nor- 
man lord mayor 145.0 

Falconbridge attempts the city 1471 

Printing-press set «p by Caxton " 

Sweating sickness rages 1485 

Fleet ditch navigable 1503 

St, Paul's school founded by Dean Colet 1509 

The fatal sweat. Sudor Anglicus 1517 

Evil May-day {which see) " 

Streets first paved ( Vincr's Stat.) 1.55S 

Russian trading company established 1553 

' ' Bills of Mortality" ordered to be kept 153S 



* London Citizens. — To them many privilepes and immunities 
have been pranfed from the time of William the Conqueror, whose first 
charter, pranted in 1079, is still preserved in the city archives. Tbia 
charter is -written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a slip of parch- 
ment six inches ]onp and one broad, and is in Enplish as follov.-s: 
" William the Kinp preeteth William the Bishop, and Godfrey the 
portreve, and all the burpcsses within London friendly. And I ac- 
quaint you that I will that ye bo all there law-worthy as ye were in 
Kinp Edward's davs. And I will that every child be his father's heir, 
after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you 
any wronp. God preserve you." 

i Stow incorrectly states this charter to have been piven in 1 209, but 
it bears date May ioth in the ICth year of Kinp John's reipn, which 
bepan in 1199. This charter was acted on at that period in various 
instances, as many of the mayors were afterward continued in their 
offices for several years topether ; and the same ripht was exerted in 
the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who filled the office of lord mayor 
durinp two succeedinp years, those of 1816 and 1817. — Leigh. 

X This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and, spreading itself 
westward throuph every country on the plobe, reached Enpland. Its 
ravapes in London were so preat that the common cemeteries were not 
sufficient for the interment of the dead, and various pieces of pround 
without the walls were essipned for burial-places. Amonp these was 
the waste land now forminp tlie precincts of the Charter-house, where 
upward of 50,000 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not 
subside till 1357. — Idem. 



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Dissolution of religions houses 1539 

St.Bartholomew's monastery changed to a hospital " 
Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 
city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. 

(there are now 7000) 1553 

Christ's Hospital founded by King Edward VI. . . " 

Coaches introduced about 1563 

Royal Exchange built (see Exchange 15GG 

New buildings in London forbidden " where no 
former hath been known to have been," to pre- 
vent the increasing size* 15S0 

Levant Company established 15S1 

Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 

pipes 15S0-94 

Stow publishes his survey 159S 

Nearly all London yet built of wood 1600 

East India Company incorporated " 

S0,57S persons said to perish by the plague 1603 

Gunpowder Plot {which see) 1605 

Virginia Company established 1616 

Thomas Sutton founds Charter-house School, etc. .1611 

New River water brought to London 1G13 

Principal streets paved 1616 

Hackney-coaches first plied (see Hackney-coaches) .U-15 
Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, etc., 

begun. 1640 

The city held for the Parliament 1642 

London fortified 1643 

Jews allowed to settle in London by Cromwell. ..1650 

The Jews begin to return 1056 

Banking begun by Francis Child about 16G0 

Koyal Society of London chartered 1662 

68,596 persons said to have perished by the great 

plague (see Plagi(es) 1C65 

"Oxford," afterward "London Gazette," publish- 
ed Nov. 7, " 

Great fire of Loudon (see Fires) 1666 

Act for a "new model of building" in the city " 

Hudson's Bay Company chartered 16T0 

Monument erected (see Monument) 1G71-7 

Oates's pretended Popish Plot 1678 

A London Directory published 1679 

Charter granted by Charles II 16S0 

Penny post established 16S3 

Settlement of French Protestants 16S5 

Charter declared forfeited 16S2, but restored 1689 

Bank of England established 1694 

Awful storm Nov. 26, Dec. 1,1703 

Sacheverel's sermon and mob 1710 

Act for the erection of fifty new churches 1711 

South Sea Bubble, commenced 1710, exploded (see 

Soiith Sea Company) 1720 

Chelsea water-works formed 1722 

Bank of England built 1732-4 

Glass lamps in the street between 1694 and 1736 

Fleet ditch covered and Fleet market opened 1737 

" Great Frost," Dec. 25, 1739, to Feb. 8 1740 

London Hospital instituted " 

New Mansion House founded, 1739 ; completed. . .1753 

British Museum established " 

Society of Arts established " 

Shop signs removed 1762 

Westminster Paving Act passed " 

Blackfriar's Bridge opened Nov. 19,1769 

The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the 
Tower by the House of Commons for a breach 

of privilege March 27,1771 

Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob June,17S0 

Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's Cathe- 
dral April 23,1789 

Eoyal Institution of Great Britain foiiuded 1799 

London docks opened Jan. 20, " 

London Institution founded 1805 

Lord Nelson's funeral Jan. 9,1806 

Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall 1807 

Eiots on the committal of Sir F. Burdett to the 

Tower April 6,1810 

The Mint finished 1811 

Eegent Street begun 1813 

Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guild- 
hall June 18,1814 

Custom-house burnt Feb. 12, " 

Gaslight becomes general " 

The city generally "lighted with gas " 

Waterloo Bridge opened June 18,1817 



* This proclamation or decree was dated from Nonesuch, 7th July, 
1580, and it was forbidden to erect new buildings where none had be- 
fore existed in the memory of man. The extension of the metropolis 
was deemed calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; create 
a trouble in governing such multitudes; a dearth of victuals ; multi- 
plying of beggars and inability to relieve them ; an increase of artisans 
more than could live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of 
inhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of room to walk 
and shoot, arose out of too crowded a city. A proclamation to the same 
effect was also issued by James I. 



New Custom-house opened 1S17 

Southwark Bridge opened March 24,1819 

The great increase in building commences 1820 

Bank of England completed by Sir John Soane. ..1821 

Tumults at Queen Caroline's funeral Aug. 14, " 

Cabs introduced 1823 

London Mechanics' Institution founded " 

Bubble Companies' panic 1S25 

London University chartered Feb. 11,1825 

27 turnpikes removed by act of Parliament 1827 

New Post-office completed 1829 

Farringdon Market opened " 

Omnibuses introduced " 

New metropolitan police began Sept. 29, " 

Covent Garden Market rebuilt 1S30 

Memorable political panic, Nov. 5 ; and no lord 

mayor's show Nov. 9, " 

New London Bridge opened A.ug. 1,1831 

General fast on account of the cholera in England, 

Feb. 6, 1832 

Hungerford Market opened July 3,1833 

Houses of Parliament burnt Oct. 1G,1S34 

City of London School founded 1835 

Queen dines at Guildhall Nov. 9,1837 

Koyal E.xchange burnt Jan. 10,1838 

Railway opened from London to Birmiugham, 

Sept.l7; to Greenwich Dec. 28, " 

Penny postage begun Jan. 10,1840 

Railway to Southampton opened May 11, " 

Wood pavement tried ; fails 1841 

London Library established " 

Railway to Bristol opened June 30, " 

Blackwall Tunnel opened Aug. 2, " 

Railway to Brighton opened Sept. 21, " 

Thames Tunnel opened March 25,1843 

Royal Exchange opened Oct. 28, 184^ 

Erection of baths and wash-houses begins " 

Fleet Prison taken down " 

New Building Act begun Jan. 1,1845 

Penny steam-boats begun " 

Model lodging-houses built " 

Railway mania " 

Twopenny omnibuses begun 1846 

Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 

Chartists) Ajjril 10,1843 

Reappearance of the cholera Sept., 1849 

Coal Exchange opened Oct. 30, " 

Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors), March 21,1850 

Attack upon General Haynau Sept. 4, " 

Great Exhibition opened May 1, closed Oct. 11 1851 

Duke of Wellington dies, Sept. 14 ; his funeral at 

St. Paul's {ichich see) Nov. 18,1852 

Cab-strike July 27-29,1853 

Visit of King of Portugal May 19,1854 

Attack of cholera Aug. and Sept., " 

Meeting for Patriotic fund Nov. 2, " 

Visit of Emperor and Empress of the French to 

the lord mayor April 19, 1855 

The queen distributes Crimean medals. . .May 18, " 
Failure of Paul, Strahan & Co. (see Trials), June 5, " 
Metropolitan Local Management Act passed, 

Aug. 14, " 

Visit of the King of Sardinia Nov. 30, " 

Metropolitan Board of Works, first meeting, 

Dec. 22, " 

Peace proclaimed April 29,1856 

Grand display of illuminations and fire-works in 

the parks May 29, " 

The Guards re-enter London July 6, " 

Royal British Bank stops payment (see British 

Bank) Sept. 4, " 

Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smithfield, 

reb.,lS5T 
Many commercial failures ; Bank Charter Act sus- 
pended Nov. 12, " 

James Morrison (originally a poor boy), who 
mainly introduced the S3'stem of quick returns 
and small profits, dies exceedingly rich, Oct. 30,1857 
Metropolis divided into 10 postal districts, Jan. 1,185S 

Leviathan launched (began Nov. 3) Jan. .31, " 

Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its 

purification passed Aug. 2, " 

Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) at re- 
ported French and Russian alliance against 

Austria April, 1859 

A strike among the building trades, and a lock- 
out by the masters, Aug. 8; the latter require 
the men to sign a document declaring that they 
will not belong to any society which interferes 
with the freedom of the workman. The strike 

was dying out in Nov., " 

Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's iu 
the East, through the indiscretion of the Tracta- 
riau clergyman, the Rev. Bryan King, Sept. and 



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295 



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Oct. The church (closcil for a time) reopened ; 
fresh di.sturbnnces on Nov. 6, 1.3, and 20; the ag- 
itation continued till Mr. Kiu;^ retired, when a 
comproniit-c wa.s effected July 20,1800 

Metropolitan railway (underground) commenced 
in spring of " 

Great distress through the severe winter ; thou- 
sands relieved at the police-offices, 

Dec, 1S60, and Jan.,lSGl 

Another strike in the building trades commences 

March 22, " 

A street railway in the metropolis opened near 
Bayswater March 2.3, " 

Great Are near Tooley Street (see Fires) . .June 22, " 

Sale of the East India House June 23, " 

Meeting to establish the "City of London Col- 
lege," the Bishop of London in the chair, Oct. 2, " 

Mr. "George Peabodj', the American merchant, 
srives X150,000 to ameliorate the condition of 
"the poor and needy of London March 12,1SC2 

The International Exhibition opens May 1, " 

Thames Embankment Bill passed, after much dis- 
cussion Aug., " 

The masons' strike not over June, " 

Fights in Hyde Park between the Garibaldians 
and Irish Sept. 28 and Oct. 5, " 

Public meetings there prohibited Oct. 9, " 

The Metropolitan Railway opened Jan. 10,1803 

Pneumatic Dispatch Company begins to convey 
post-office bags Feb. 21, " 

Princess Alexandra, of Denmarl-;, enters London 

March 7, " 

Prince and Princess of Wales present at the city 
ball at Guildhall June 8, " 

Appeal of the Bishop of London on account of 
the spiritual destitution of the metropolis, June, " 

The Common Council vote X20,000 and a site in 
Victoria Street, E. C, for a lodging-house for the 
poor Nov. 10, " 

New street between Blackfriar's and London 
Bridge opened Jan. 1,1804 

Charing Cross railway opened Jan. 11, " 

Garibaldi enters Loudon, April 11 ; receives the 
freedom of the city April 21, " 

Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 

July 1, " 

Great excitement through the murder of Mr. 
Briggs in a carriage of the North Loudon rail- 
way July 9, " 

The iirst railway train enters the city of London 
near Blackfriar's Bridge Oct. 6, " 

North London Industrial Exhibition, Islington, 
opened by Earl Russell Oct. 17, " 

Excitement through the performance of the Dav- 
enport brothers Oct.-Dec, " 

Great bullion robbery in Lombard Street, 

Dec. 3 or 4, " 

South Loudon Industrial Exhibition opened 

Feb. 1,1805 

Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 
Walker's, the jeweler's, Cornhill Feb. 4, 5, " 

The Prince of Wales present at the opening of the 
main drainage works, at the southern outfivll, 
near Frith April 4, " 

Prince of Wales opens the international reforma- 
tory exhibition at Islington May 19, " 

Investigation into the state of the workhouse in- 
firmaries through several paupers dying through 
neglect Aug., " 

Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 

Oct. .31, " 

(See England; and the occurrences not noticed 
here, under their respective heads.) 

LONDON, BisnopKio or, is said to have been found- 
ed in the reign of Lucius, about 179, Theanus the first 
archbishop. Augustin made Canterbury the metro- 
politan see of England. London became a bishopric 
under Mellitus in"604, and has yielded to the Church 
of Rome tive saints, and to the realm sixteen lord 
chancellors and lord treasurers ; it w-as valued in the 
king's books at £1119 8s. id. iicr annum. Present in- 
come, i:iO,ono. 

LONDON BRIDGE. One is said to have existed, 
978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, was partly burned 
in 113C. The late old bridge was commenced about 
1170 by Peter of Colechurch, and completed in 1209, 
with houses on each side, connected together by large 
arches of timber, which crossed the street. In July, 
1212, a tire at the Southwark end brought crowds on 
the bridge: the houses at the north end caught fire 
likewise, and prevented their escape. Thus, it is said, 
upward of 3(100 persons lost their lives, being either 
killed, burned, or drowned. The bridge was restored 



in 1300, and again was destroved by fire in 1471, Feb. 
13, 1032, and Sept., 1725. In 17.50 all the houses were 
pulled down. The water-works were begun in 15&25 
they caught fire and were destroyed in 1774. The toll 
was discontinued March 27, 17s2. After many repairs, 
in 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a 
new bridge : that by John Rennie was approved, and 
the works were executed by his sons John and George. 
The first pile was driven "200 feet to the west of the 
old bridge, March 15, 1824, and the first stone was laid 
by the lord mayor. Alderman Garratt, June 15, 1825. 
The bridge was opened bv William IV. and his queen, 
Aug. 1, 1831. The cost was £500,000.* 

LONDON STONE. A stone said to have been placed 
by the Romans in Cannon Street, then the centre of 
the city, 15 B.C. Chcapside was at this period in the 
suburbs.— CM»-n.s. London Stone is one of the great- 
est antiquities of the city, having been known before 
the time of William I. It was removed from the op- 
posite side of the way in 1742. It was against this 
stone that Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming, 
"Now is Mortimer lord of this city !" 1450. 

LONDONDERRY, or Dekey (N. Ireland), mention- 
ed 540. An abbey here was burned by the Danes in 
783. A charter was granted to the London companies 
in 1015. The town was surprised, and Sir George Pow- 
lettjthe governor, and the entire garrison, were ])utto 
the sword by rebels in 1000. It was besieged by O'Neal 
in 1041. A grant was made of Derry, with 210,000 acres 
of land, to various companies in London, in 1019, when 
it took its present name. The memorable siege of 
Derry by the army of James II. commenced April 20, 
1089. The garrison and inhabitants were driven to 
the extremity of f;tmine; but, under the direction of 
the Rev. George Walker, they defended it until the 
siege was raised by Gen. Kirke on July 30. James's 
army, under the French General Rosen, retired with 
the loss of about 9000 men. 

LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, in Al- 
abama and other Southern states of the North Amer- 
ican LTuion. Its object was declared to be the "ex- 
tension of the institutions, the power, the influence, 
and the commerce of the United States over the whole 
of the Western hemisphere, and the islands of the At- 
lantic and Pacific Oceans." The first acquisitions to 
be made by the order were Cuba and the Sandwich 
Islands. 

LONG ISLAND, Battle op. This engagement, 
which occurred on the 27th of August, 1770, is some- 
times called the Battle of Brookliin,auA Battle of Flat- 
bush. It occurred at a point between those villages. 
The Americans, under General Israel Putnam, were 
partly intrenched at Brooklyn. Parties under Gener- 
al Sullivan and Lord Stirling were in advance of the 
works in diflerent directions^ They were attacked by 
the British and Hessian troops, under Sir Henry Clin- 
ton, Lord Cornwallis, and General De Heister, and, 
after desperate conflicts, were defeated. About 500 
Americans were killed or wounded, and 1100 made 
prisoners of war. Sullivan and Stirling were among 
the latter. The British loss in killed, "wounded, ana 
prisoners was 307. Washington crossed over from 
New York after the battle, and, by judicious manage- 
ment and the aid of a heavy fog, withdrew the rem- 
nant of the American army to New York before the 
British could attack it in its lines. That memorable 
retreat occurred early in the morning of the 30th of 
August. 

LONGEVITY. Meth uselah died, aged 909, 2349 B. C. 
{Gen. v., 27). In these countries the instances of it are 
remarkable, though rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle 
of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept ISO 
Christmases in his own house, and died in the reign 
of Charles L, being the oldest man on any thing ap- 
proaching to authentic records for upward of 3000 
years.— G/T)V/. " In 1014 died Johannes de Tempori- 
bus, who lived 301 years (I)"— .SYoh'. Thomas Parr, a 
laboring man of Shropshire, was brought to London 
by the Earl of Arundel in 1035, and considered the 
wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and 
in perfect health ; but the journey and change of air 
and diet killed him, Nov. 15, the same year. Henry 
Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1070, and was buried 
in Bolton Church -yard, Dec. 0, in that year, aged 
109 years. Most cases of alleged longevity are very 
doubtful. 

OTHER EXTRAOnniNAKY INSTANCES. 

1050. James Bo wles, Killingworth ar!cdl52 

* On Marill 17, 1859, it wiis computed that there passed over Lon- 
don Brid^re '.'U,498 vehicles (of which 4483 were cabs and 4286 omni- 
buses), and 167,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 in vehicles.) 



LON 



296 



LOE 



leni. Lady Eccleston, Ireland aged 143 

1749. A mau named Collier, Dublin 13T 

1757. An Englishman named Ecclesou 144 

1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman 136 

1760. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland 146 

" John Mount, Scotland 136 

17GS. Francis Couceist, Bury thorpe 150 

1772. Mrs. Cluu, Litchfield 13S 

1774. William Beeby, Dungarvou (an ensign who 

served at the battles of the Boyne and 
Aughrim) 130 

1775. Peter" Gordon, Auchterless 131 

" Mary Paton, Lochwiunoch 138 

1776. Mr. Movet, surgeon, Dumfries 139 

" Sarah Brookmau, Glastonbury 166 

1778. Thomas Cockey, Blechingley 132 

1779. M. Lawrence, Orkney 140 

1780. Robert MacBride, Ilerries 130 

" Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool 130 

" Louisa Truxo, a uegress, was liviug in this 

year at Tucuman, South America 175 

1782. Evan Williams, Carmarthen 145 

1780. Cardinal dc Solis 110 

1787. Mary Brook, of Leek 148 

1792. Mr. Johnson, of Birmingham 120 

" Mrs. Judith Scott, Islington 162 

1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow 125 

" Mr. J. Tucker, Ilching Ferry 131 

" Catharine Lopez, of Jamaica 134 

" Sarah Anderson, a free black 140 

1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore 130 

1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Syke 137 

" Mrs. Judith Crawford, Spanish-town 151 

1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath Fields, Clerkenwell..ll6 

1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 

Kildare, Aug. 27 133 

1853. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of ilie late Rt. Hon. 
Rd. Lalor Shiel), Ursuline Convent, Cork, 
March 20 116 

1858. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow 116 

EXAMPLES FURNISUET) BY DE. J. WEUSTEE, r.R.8. 
Pied Buried at Aged 

1568. Numas de Cugna, Bengal 350 

15SS. Jane Britten, Evercreech, Somerset 200 

" Thomas Cam, St. Leonard, Shoreditch 207 

1621. J. Torathe, Glamorganshire ISO 

1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts US^i 

1678. Juan Bustamente, Seville 125 

1688. Elizabeth Torathe, Glamorganshire 177 

1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary'Laue 127 

1723. W. Robertson, Ediubnrg 137 

1724. Peter Torten, Temeswar, Hungary 185 

1726. Juan de Outeyri, Villa de Foflnaues, in Astu- 

rias 146 

1736. John Rousey, Distrey, Scotland 138 

1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westminster,136 
1741. J. Roviu, Temeswar, Hungary 172 

" Jane Rovin, ditto 164 

1757. Alexander M'Culloch, Aberdeen 132 

1759. Donald Cameron. Rannach, Aberdeenshire. .130 

1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly 131 

1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries 136 

" John Hill, LeadhUls, near Edinburg 130 

1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe 121 

1775. Widow Jones, Campbell 125 

1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 

1784. Mary Cameron, Braemai', Aberdeen 129 

1791. Archibald Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire. . .122 
18.51. Jean Golembeski, Hi'itel des Invalides, Paris..l26 

" David Kuniison, Chicago, 111 116 

1860. Dea-wa-nois (Black Snake), Seneca Indian 

chief. South Valley, Alleghany, N. Y 123 

1866. Joseph Crele, Caledonia, Wis 140 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, 
who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 162 B.C. 
Harrison made a time-keeper in A.D. 17.')9 which in 
two voyages was found to correct the longitude with- 
in the "limits required by the act of Parliament, 12th 
Anne, 1714, and obtained the rew.ard. See Harrinon'a 
Time-piece. Other improvements followed. The chro- 
nometers of Arnold, Earushaw, and Broguet are high- 
ly esteemed. Chronometers are now received on trial 
at Greenwich Observatory. The act relating to the 
discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed in 1828. 
The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was established 
in 1795. 

LONG PARLIAMENT met Nov. 3, 1640 ; was forci- 
bly dissolved by Cromwell April 20, 1653. 

LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, was taken 
by the allied army, Aug. 23, 1792, the beginning of the 
great war. 

LOOKING-GLASSES. See Mirrors. 



LOOM. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch 
loom, was brought into use in London from Ilulland 
about 1676. There were, in 1825, about 250,000 hand- 
looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each 
being equal to three hand-looms, making twenty-two 
yards each per day. The Jacquard loom was invent- 
ed about 18U0. The steam loom was introduced in 
1807. See Cotton, Electric Loom, and Pneumatic Loom. 

LOPEZ EXPEDITIONS. General Lopez, a native 
Cuban, formed an expedition in the United States to 
invade Cuba, excite the people to insurrection, and 
secure the independence of the island. He landed at 
Cardenas, in Cuba, with about 600 men, in April, 1850. 
After an obstinate engagement he took the town, but 
in a skirmish with government troops soon afterward 
he lost many men. Lopez, with others, escaped and 
returned to the United States. In the summer of 1S57 
Lopez made another attempt with 4S0 men, chiefly 
Americans. On the 11th of August he landed on the 
northern coast of Cuba, where he left Col. Crittenden, 
a Kentuckiau, and 100 men, and started to the interior, 
expecting to be joined by the people. He was disap- 
pointed. His little army was attacked and dispersed, 
Crittenden and his party were captured, taken to Ha- 
vana, and shot. Lopez and six of his companions 
were also captured, and afterward executed at Havana 
by the garrote. 

LORDS.* The nobility of England date their cre- 
ation from 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn, the first 
peer, is said to have been made by William I. Earl of 
Hereford ; and afterward Walter d'Evreux, Earl of 
Salisbury; Copsi, Earl of Northumberland; Henry de 
Ferrers, Earl of Derby ; and Gerodus (a Fleming), Earl 
of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made in 
this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by pat- 
ent was Lord Beauchamp, of Holt Castle, by Richard 
II., in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created Earl 
of Angus by "Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, Sir John 
de Courcy was created Baron of Kinsale, etc., in 1181, 
the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by 
Henry II. 

LORDS, House of. The peers of England were 
summoned, ad consulendum, to consult, in early reigns, 
and were summoned by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205, but the 
earliest writ extant is 49 Henry III., 1205. The Com- 
mons did not form a part of the great council of the 
nation until some ages after the Conquest. See Par- 
liament. The House of Lords includes the spiritual as 
well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The bishops 
are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies under 
the king, in right whereof they have seats in this 
house. Some of the temporal lords sit by descent, 
some by creation, and others by election, since the 
union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland, 1801. — 
Scotland elects 10 representative peers, and Ireland 4 
spiritual lords by rotation of sessions, and 28 temporal 
peers for life. The House of Lords in Nt)V., 1865, con- 
sisted of 3 princes of the blood, 3 archbishops, 20 dukes, 
21 marquesses, 129 earls, 27 viscounts, 221 barons, and 
28 bishops ; in all, 452. The House of Lords 

At the death of Charles II 176 peers. 

At the death of William III 192 

At the death of Anne 209 

At the death of George 1 216 

At the death of George II 229 

At the death of George III 339 

At the death of George IV 396 

At the death of William IV 456 

In the ISth Victoria, 1855 443 

In the 24th Victoria, 1800 462 

The barons enact the Constitutions of Clarendon, 

in 1164 

Obtain Mairna Charta in 1215 

Held the government 1264-5 

House of Lords abolished by the Commons, Feb. 

6, 1649 ; restored 1660 

Unite with the Commons in making William and 

Mary king and queen 1089 

Reject the great Reform Bill, Oct. 7, 1831 ; pass it, 

June 4,1832 
Oppose successfully the creation of life-peerages,t 
JJ Feb. 7,1856 

* Peers of Entrland are free from all arrests for debts, as being the 
king's liereditary counselors ; therefore a peer can not be outlawed in 
any civil action, and no attachment lies against his person ; but execu- 
tion may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, 
they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheritfs' turns ; or, in 
case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. He can act as a jus- 
tice of the peace in any part of the kingdom. See Baron, Earl, etc. 

t Peerage for life only, with the title of Lord Wensleydale of Wens- 
loydale, was granted to Baron Sir James Parke, Jan. 10, 1856 ; the 
House of Lords opposed his sitting and voting as a peer for life, and on 
July 25, 1856, he was created a peer in the usual way, with the title of 
Lord Wensleydale of Walton. 



LOR 



297 



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LORDS JUSTICES. Sec Justices. 

LOKETTO, iicnr Ancoiin, Italy. Here is the Cam 
f^anta, or Holy House, in which it is pretended the 
Vii-i,Mii Mary lived at Nazareth, and which was carried 
by ani,'els into Dalinatia from (ialilee iu 12'.il, and 
brou,!j;iit here a few years after. The Lady of Loretto, 
gaudily dressed, stands upon au altar holdiiiir the in- 
fant Jesus iu her arms, surrouuded with ljoUI lamps. 
Loretto was taken by the French in ITUT, and the holy 
image, which had been carried to France, was brought 
back with pomp, Jan. 5, 1S03. 

L'OKIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off this port 
defeated the French fleet, June -2S, 1T!I5. The loss of 
the French was severe ; that of the British iucousid- 
erahle. — The French flag-ship, L'Orient, blew up dur- 
ing the battle of the Nile, August 1, IT'JS. Admiral 
Brueys and about 900 men perished. 

LORRAINE (formerly Lotharingia), a French prov- 
ince, became a kingdom under Lothaire (sou of the 
Emperor Lothaire I.) about 855 ; it was divided on his 
death iu 860, part of it being made a duchy. The tirst 
hereditary duke, Gerard, was nominated by the Em- 
peror Henry III. in 104S. From Gerard descended the 
illustrious house of Lorraine, represented now by the 
Emperor of Austria, whose ancestor, the Empress Ma- 
ria Theresa, married in 1T8G Francis, formerly Duke of 
Lorraine, then of Tuscany. Lorraine had been given 
to the dethroned King of Poland, Stanislaus 1., for 
life; at his death iu 17(36 it was united to France. 

LOTS. Casting lots was sacred among the Jews as 
an appeal to God, Proverbs xvi., 33. It was employed 
in the division of the land of Canaan, about 1444 B.C., 
by Joshua (siv.), and iu the election of Matthias the 
apostle, A.D. 33, Acts i. — Lots for life or death have 
been frequently cast. For au instance, see Wales, 1649, 
note. 

LOTTERIES are said to have originated in Florence 
about 1530, and to have been legalized in France iu 
1539. The tirst mentioned in English history began 
drawing at the western door of St. Paul's Cathedral, 
Jan. 11, 1569, and continued day and night uutil May 6 
following. It contained 40,000 "?y?s," at lO.s. each lot. 
The profits were for repairing the harbors on the coast 
of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 
A lotter}', granted by the kingj iu special favor for 
the colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), 

drawn near St. Paul's June 29-July 20,1012 

First lottery for sums of money took place in 1630 

Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 
yielded a large annual reveniie to the crowu) . . .1093 

Lottery for the British Museum 1753 

Cox's Sluseum, containing many rare specimens 
of art and articles of virtu, disposed of by lot- 
tery, by an Act of Parliament 1773 

An act passed for the sale of the buildings of the 

Adelphi by lottery ."June 16, " 

Irish state lottery drawn 17S0 

Lottery for the Leverian Museum 17S4-5 

For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 1801 ; it 
was afterward sold at Christie's auction for 9500 

guineas May 10,1802 

For the collection of pictures of Alderman Boydell, 

by act 1804-5 

Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV., c. 00 Oct., 1826 

The last drawn Oct. IS, " 

Act passed declaring that the then pending Glas- 
gow lottery should be the last 1834 

An act passed imposing a ])enalty of £50 for adver- 
tising lotteries in the British newspapers 1836 

Lotteries suppressed in France 1793 and 1830 

Mr. Dethiers'sTwelfth-cake Lottery, Argyll Rooms, 

Hanover Square, suppressed Dec. 27,1SC0 

LOUDON HILL, or Dkumclog. See Dniviclog. 
LOUIS D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, first 
struck by Louis XIII. iu 1040 : its value fluctuated. In 
ISIO it was superseded by the Napoleon. 

LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United States; 
discovered by Ferdinand de Soto in 1541 ; traversed by 
M. de Salle in 1682, and settled by Louis XIV. (from 
whom it derived its name) in 1718. It formed the basis 
of Law's Mississippi scheme. It was ceded to Spain 
at the jieace when all east of the Jlississippi was given 
to PIngland, 1763. Capital, Baton Rouge. 

Restored to France 1801 

Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state. . .1812 
General Jackson defeated the British at New Or- 
leans Jan. 8,1815 

Seceded from the Union by ordinance Jan. 2.'>,1861 

Admiral Farragut takes New Orleans for the Fed- 
erals April 28,1862 

Louisiana restored to the Union 1805 



LOL \ RE. This renowned edifice in Paris is said to 
have been originally a royal residence in the reign of 
Dagobert, 628. It was a prison-tower constructed by 
Phihp Augustus iu 1204. It afterward became a li- 
brary, and Cliarles VL made it his palace (about 1364). 
Successive kings enlarged and adorned it, particularly 
Louis XIV.— Napoleon L turned it into a museum, and 
deposited here the finest collection of paintin"-s, stat- 
ues, and treasures of art known iu the world The 
chief of those brought from Italy have since been re- 
stored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent 
Duildiugs ot the new Louvre, begun by Napoleon I 
and completed by Napoleon IIL, were inaugurated by 
the latter m great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 

LOWER EAIPIRE. Some historians make it be"-in 
with the reigu of Valerian, 253; others with that°of 
Coustantine, 323. 

LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS. See Life-boats. 

LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the four re- 
publics of the German Confederation, was built in the 
12th century, and was the chief founder of the Ilanse- 
atic Leame about 1240, which lasted till 1630. Liibeck 
was declared a free imperial city about 1226, but was 
frequently attacked by the Daues. The French took 
it by assault, Nov. 6, 1806, and Napoleon incorporated 
It into his empire in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it be- 
came once more a free imperial city. Population in 
1862, 50,614. 

LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, defeated 
Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; were sub- 
dued by the Romans, 227; revolted after the battle of 
Canure, 216 ; were reduced by Scipio, 201 ; again re- 
volted, 90 ; admitted as Roman citizens, 88. 

LUCCA (Central Italy), a Roman colony 177 B.C., a 
Lombard duchy 1327 A.D., became a free city about 
1370, and took an active part in the civil wars of the 
Italian republics. It was united with Tuscany, and 
given in 1805 as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by 
her brother Napoleon I. Lucca, as a duchy, was given 
to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of Etruria, in 
1814. It was exchanged by her son Charles Louis for 
Parma and Placeutia in 1847, was annexed to Tusca- 
nj', and with it became part of the kingdom of Italy in 
1S60. 

LUCIA, St. (West Indies), settled by the French in 
1650; taken by the British several times iu the subse- 
quent w-ars. Insurrection of the French negroes, 
April, 1795. St. Lucia was restored to France at the 
peace of 1802, but was seized by England in 1803, and 
confirmed to her in 1814. Population in 1861, 26,705. 

LUCIFER MATCHES came into use about 1834. In 
March, 1842, Mr. Reuben Partridge patented machin- 
ery for manufacturing the splints. In 1845, Schr(itter, 
of Vienna, discovered his amorphous phosphorus, by 
the use of which lucifers are rendered less dangerous, 
and the manufacture less unhealthy. 

LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude. See India, 1857. 

LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this des- 
ignation commenced their depredations at Notting- 
ham, breaking frames and machinery, Nov., 1811. 
Skirmish with the military there, Jan. 29, 1812. Sev- 
eral serious riots occurred again iu 1814; and numer- 
ous bodies of these people,"chiefly unemployed arti- 
sans, committed great excesses in 1816 et seq. Several 
of these Luddites were tried and executed. 

LUTGDLTSfUM. See Lemlen and Lyons. 

LUNATICS. An eminent authority has traced in- 
sanity, in a thousand male patients, to the following 
causes : 

Drunkenness 11(^1 Religious enthusiasm. 29 

Consequences of dis- (Unnatural practices... 27 

ease 100 Political events 26 

Epilepsy 78, Poisonous eflluvia IT 

Ambitiim 731111 usage 13 

Excessive labor 73 Crimes, remorse, aud 

Born idiots 71 1 despair 9 

Misfortunes 69 Jlalformation ofskull. 4 

Old age 69 Other and unknown 



causes SB 

Pretended insanity,... 5 



Chagrin 54 

Love 47 

Accidents 39 

"The king shall have the custodv of the lands of 
natural fools," etc., 17 Edward 11 1324 

Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II., 
c. 30 1T42 

Act regarding criminal lunatics passed Aug., 1840 

The numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- 
solidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict., c. 70, 96, 
97 1853 



LUN 



298 



LYD 



A new lunacy act for Scotland passed 1858 

An act to amend the law relating to commissions 
of lunacy passed (said to be in consequence of 
the Wyudham case ; see TriaU, 1862) 18G2 

TEEATMENT OP THE INSANE. 

Till the end of the last century lunatics were treat- 
ed with cruel severity. See Conolly"Ou the 
treatment of the lusaue," 1856. 

The insane were exhibited at Bethleta as a show 
for Id. or U. till l^'O 

Enli'Thtened principles of treatment were mtro- 
duced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of Friends' 
"Retreat" at York, and by Pinel, at the Bicetre, _ 
Paris, with very great success .1792 

Esqnirol succeeds Piuel, and strongly recommends 
instruction in the management of mental disor- 
(jers '^^^^ 

Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
Hospital i ■ •: "Z ■ :• : •'^^^^ 

This led to gradual improvements, and at last to 
the total abolition of mechanical restramts at 
Lincoln, 1837 ; and at Hanwell Asylum (unaer 
the superintendence of Dr. John Conolly), and 
*it other pltiCBS. • iooy 

Psychological journal first published by Dr. Forbes 
Winslow ^^'^^ 

Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Buckuill. .1852 

LUNATICS IN OUAEGE IN ENGLAND AND WALES, JAN. 1, 

1855. 





Private. I Paupkk. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female, j Male. 


Female. 


County asylums . . . 


13-2 
895 
1448 


123 
723 
1350 


6008 

91 

1034 


7316 

94 

1279 


13,679 
1,803 
6,111 


Licenaed houses 


•2415 


219S 1 7133 


»BS9 1 20,4113 j 



29,425. 

In 1S51 there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics 
of all classes; in Scotland, in 1S51, 3.'362 in charge; in 
1855, 7403 ; of which only 3328 were under the protec- 
tion of the law. 

LUNATICS IN THE United States. There are 47 
asylums for the insane in the different states in the 
Union, some of them private establishments, others 
supported by contributions of individuals and appro- 
priations by the state. The number of the insane in 
the United States in ISGO was 23,957. 

LUND HILL, near Barnsley, in South Yorkshire. 
While the miners were dining in the pit, Feb. 19, 1857, 
the inflammable gas took fire and exploded. Above 
180 miners perished. In April and May bodies were 
still being extricated. There had been great laxity of 
discipline in the pit. i;7000 were subscribed for the 
bereaved. 

LUNEBURG. See Brunswick. 

LUNEVILLB (Prance), Peace op, concluded be- 
tween the French Republic and the Emperor of Ger- 
many, confirmed the cessions made by the treaty of 
Campo Formio, stipulated that the Rhine, to the Dutch 
territories, should form the boundary of France, and 
recognized the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cis- 
alpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 

LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival* observed at Rome 
on Feb. 15, in honor of Pan, destroyer of wolves (lirpi), 
instituted by the Romau.s, according to Plutarch ; but, 
according to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. 
These feasts are said to have beeu abolished in 496 by 
Pope Gelasius on account of their great disorders. 

LUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, given to 
John of Bohemia, 1319; obtained by Matthias of Hun- 
gary, 1478 ; and ceded to Saxony in 1C35. 

LUSIAD. See Epic. 

LUSITANIA. See Portugal. 

LUSTRUJI, an expiatory sacrifice made for the Ro- 
man people at the end of every five years, after the 
census had been taken, 472 B.C. Every fifth year was 
called a lustrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty years 
were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lus- 
tra. The number of Roman citizens was, in 293 B.C., 



* Naked youths ran through the streets with whips, lashing all 
whom they encountered, even women, who received the stripes with 
inclination, believing that they removed barrenness and eased the pains 
of childbirth. Augustus forbade all persons above the age of fourteen 
to appear naked during this festival. Cicero, in his PIdlifn.ics, re- 
proaches Antony for having disgraced the dignity of the consulship by 
appearing naked on one of these occasions. — Varro, 



272,308; 179 B.C., 273,294; 70 B.C., 450,000; 28 B.C., 
4,164,060 ; A.D. 48, 5,984,072. 

LUTHERANISM,* the form of Christianity profess- 
ed by the majority of the people of the north of Ger- 
many, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The doctrines 
are iiiainly embodied in Luther's Catechisms, in the 
Augsburg Confession, and in the Formula Concordice 
of the Lutherans, published in 1580. Their first uni- 
versity was founded at Marburg, in 1527, by Philip, 
landgrave of Hesse. 

LUTZEN, or Lutzengen (N. Germany). Here Gus- 
tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the Impe- 
rialists under Walleusteiii, Nov. 6, 1032, but was him- 
self killed ; and here the French army, commanded 
by Napoleon, defeated the combined armies of Russia 
and Prussia, commanded by General Wittgenstein, 
May 2, 1813. The battles of Bautzen and Wiirtzchen 
immediately followed (May 19-21), both in favor of 
Napoleon. The Allies were compelled to pass the 
Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterward 
prolonged; but, unfortunately for the French emper- 
or, did not produce peace. 

LUXEMBURG (Holland), capital of the grand-duchy 
of Luxemburg, part of which is subject to Holland and 
part to Belgium since 1839. Luxemburg, once consid- 
ered the strongest fortress in the world, was taken and 
pillaged by the French in 1542-3; by the Spaniards in 
1.544 ; by the French in 16S4 ; restored to Spain in 1697 ; 
taken by the French in 1701 ; given to the Dutch as a 
barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace 
in 1713. It withstood several sieges in the last centu- 
ry. It surrendered to the French after a long and 
memorable siege, June 7, 1795. 
LUXOR. See Thches. 

LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, was 
distinguished for inordinate luxury. See i^mnptuary 
Laws. 

LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo Lyceus, or 
a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son of Apollo) 
was a spot near the Ilissus, in Attica, where Aristotle 
taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught as he 
walked, his pupils were called peripatetics, u-alkers- 
about, and his philosophy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. 
—Stanley. See Theatres. 

LY^'CIA (Asia Minor) belonged successively to Croe- 
sus (about .560 B.C.), the Persians (546 B.C.), to Alex- 
ander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his successors the 
Seleucidoe. The Romans gave Lycia to the Rhodians 
(188 B.C.). It became nominally free under the Ro- 
mans, and was annexed to the empire by Claudius. 
The marbles brought from Lycia by Sir Charles Fel- 
lows were deposited in the British Museum, 1840-6. 

LYDIA, orMseonia, an ancient kingdom in Asia Mi- 
nor, under a long dynasty of kings, the last being Croe- 
sus, " the richest of mankind." The coinage of gold 
and silver money, and other useful inventions, are as- 
cribed to the Lydians. .^sop, the Phrygian fabulist, 
Alcman, the first Greek erotic poet, Thales of Miletus, 
Anaximenes, Xenophaues, Anacreon of Teos, Heracli- 
tus of Ephesus, etc., fiourished in Lydia. 
Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia 

(Herodotus) B.C.1223 

The kingdom of Lydia, properly so called, begins 

under Ardysus I. {Blair) T9T 

Alyattes I. reigns 761 

Meles commences his rule T47 

Reign of Candaules T35 

Gyges, first of the race Mermnadse, kills Candau- 
les, marries his queen, usurps the throne, and ^ 

makes great conquests 718 

Ardysus II. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, 

the capital of Lvdia 635 

The Milesian War, commenced under Gyges, is con- 
tinued by Sadyattes, who reigns 628 

Reign of Alyattes II 617 

Battle upon the River Halys, between the Lydians 

andMedes, interrupted by an almost total eclipse 

of the sun. This eclipse had been predicted many 

years before by Thales of Miletus {Blair) May 28, 585 

CrcEsus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, 

and conquers Asia Minor 560-50 

Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, whose con- 
quests had reached to the borders of Lydia, 
crosses the Halys to attack the Medes, with 
420,000 men and 60,000 horse 548 



* Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, Nov. 10, 1483 ; studied at Er- 
furt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at Wittenberg, 1608 ; resisted 
the sale of indulgences, 1617 j defended himself at Augsburg, 1618 ; at 
Worms, 1620; was excommunicated, June Ifi, 1620 ; began his German 
Bible, 1621 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published his German 
Bible complete, 1534 ; died Feb. 18, 1546. 



LYM 

He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in bis capi- 
tal by Cyrus), who orders him to be l)iirut alive ; 
the pile is already on lire, when Croesus calls 
aloud, tiolon! and Cyrus, hearing him, spares his 
life. Lydia made a province of the Persian Em- 



290 



MAC 



pn-e. 



54G 

Sa'rdis burnt by tlie lonians 499 

Lydia conquered by Alexander 332 

Becomes part of the kingdom of Pergamus 283 

Conquered by the Turks A.D. 1326 

LYMPHATIC VESSELS (concerned in digestion) 
were discovered by Jasper Asellius in lC2ii, and de- 
scribed in 102T. Discovered in oviparous animals by 
Dr. Uewson, who disputed the honor of the discovery 
with Dr. Munro, 1TC2. 

LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by private in- 
dividuals, independently of the legal autliorities, said 
to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who 
exercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals 
dwelling in the "Dismal Swamp," North Carolina, 
when they committed outrages upon persons and 
property which the colonial law could not promptly 
repress. This mode of administering justice began 
about the end of the 17th century, and is still prac- 
ticed occasionally in some parts of the LTnited States. 

LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdnnum, founded 
by M. Plaucus, 43 B.C. The city was reduced to ashes 
in a single night by lightning, A.D. 59, and was rebuilt 



in the reign of Nero. It was a free city till its union 

with France in 13UT. 

Clodius Albinus defeated and slain by Septimius 

Severus, near Lyons Feb. 19, 19T 

Two General Councils held here 1245 Vl'-i 

Silk manufacture commenced 'l515 

Lyons besieged by the Convention army— surren- 
dered— and awful scenes of blood and rapine fol- 
lowed, Oct. 7 ; the National Convention decreed 

the demolition of the city Oct 1'' 1793 

Capitulated to the Austrians March,'isi4 July 1815 

An insurrection among the artisans, which led to 

great popular excesses ; quelled by an army 
„,,,., ^ , , Nov. 21-Dec. 3,1831 

Dreadful riots, put down by military April 15,1834 

Railway to Paris opened April T 1839 

A dreadful inundation at Lyons (see Inundations) 
. ,, . ,. „ , Nov. 4, 1840 

Another insurrection quelled, with much loss of 
'ife June 15,1849 

LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian 
Hermes, the Latin Mercury, who, according to Homer, 
gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with 
method, and accompanied it with poetry. The inven- 
tion of the primitive lyre, with three strings, is ascribed 
to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added sev- 
eral strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 
673 B.C. Phrynis, a musician of Mityleue, added two 
more, making nine, 43S B.C. 



M. 



MACADAMIZING, a system of road-making devised 
by Mr. John Macadam, and published by him in an 
essay in 1S19, having practiced it in Ayrshire. He re- 
ceived a grant of £10,000 from Parliament ; was ap- 
pointed surveyor general of the metropolitan roads in 
1827, and died in 1830. 

MACAO (N. China) was given to the Portuguese as 
a commercial station in 1586, in return for their assist- 
ance against pirates. 

MACARONI. This name was given to a poem by 
Thcop. Folengo, 1509, and it continues to designate 
trilling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagrams, 
"wit without wisdom, and humorwithout senser" His 
poem was so called from an Italian cake of the same 
name, pleasant to the taste, but without any aliment- 
ary virtue. These poems became the reigning taste in 
Italy and France, where they gave birth to Macaroni 
academies, and, reaching England, to Macaroni clubs 
(about 1772), till, in the end, every thing ridiculous iu 
dress and manners was called "Macaroni." 

MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who com- 
menced their career during the persecution of Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes, 107 B.C.,"when Mattathias, a priest, 
resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son, Judas 
MaccabaBUS, defeated the Syrians in three battles, 106, 
165 B.C. ; but fell iu an anibnsh, 161 B.C. His broth- 
er Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lac- 
cdremonians, and, after an able administration, was 
treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. 
His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
1.35 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. 
His son Judas, called also Aristobulus, took the title 
of king, 107 B.C. The history of the Maccabees is con- 
tained in five books of that name, two of which are in- 
cluded in our Apocrypha. Four are accounted canon- 
ical by the Roman Catholic Church; none by Protest- 
ant communions. 

MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry of 
most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung at 
the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces were also 
early ensigns of authority borne before oflicers of state, 
the t(i]) bcinsr made in the form of an o])en crown, and 
commonly of silver gilt. The lord chancel lor and speak- 
er of the House of Commons have maces borne before 
them. Edward III. granted to London the privilege 
of having gold or silver maces carried before the lord 
mayor, sheriffs, aldermen, and corporaticm, 1354. It 
was witli the mace usually carried before the lord may- 
or on state occasions that Walworth, lord mayor of 
London, knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his horse, a 
courtier afterward dispatching him with his dagger, 
for rudely ai)proaching Richard II., 13S1, Cromwell, 
enterin<_' the House of Commons to disjicrse its mem- 
bers and dissolve the Parliament, ordered one of his 



soldiers to "take away that fool's bauble, the mace," 
which was done, and the doors of the house locked, 
April 20, 1653. 

MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom was 
founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. It was an incon- 
siderable country, sometimes under the protection of 
Athens, sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Spar- 
ta, until the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander 
the Great, who, by his wisdom as a politician and ex- 
ploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and 
paved the way for his son's greatness. 
Reigns of Caranus, 814 B.C., or 796, or 748 ; Perdic- 
cas I., 729 ; Argffius I., 6S4 ; Philip I., 640 or 609. 

.^ropus conquers the Illyrians B.C. 602 

Reign of Amy ntas, 540; of Alexander 1 500 

Macedou conquered by the Persians, 513; deliver- 
ed by the victory of Plata3a 479 

Reign of Perdiccas II 4.54 

Potidsea taken by the Athenians 431 

Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the 
legitimate heirs of his father ; seizes the throne, 

and improves the country 413 

He is murdered by a favorite, to whom he prom- 
ised his daughter in marriage 399 

Pausauias reigns 394 

Reign of Amyntas II., 393 ; expelled 398 

Recovers his throne, and kills Pausauias 39T 

The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, 
and niake Argffius, brother of Pausauias, king. . 392 

Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 390 

Macedonians, asemi-Arian sect, "followers of Mac- 
edonius, about 341 ; condemned by the Council 

of Constantinople 381 

Reign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated 367 

Reign of Perdiccas III., 364 ; killed in battle 360 

Reign of Philip II., and institution of the Mace- 
donian phalanx 359 

He defeats the Athenians and IlljTians 360, 359 

He takes Amphipolis (see Archcnj) 35S 

He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly — 356-352 

Birth of Alexander the Great 35G 

Close of the first Sacred War 346 

Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon 348 

Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander " 

War against the Athenians 341 

Philip'besieges Byzantium unsuccessfully 340 

Battle of Cliisronea ; Philip conquers 338 

Philip is assassinated by Pausauias at Mgx during 
the celebration of games iu honor of his daugh- 
ter's nuptials 336 

Alexander III., surnamed the Great, succeeds to 

the throne " 

The Greeks appoint him general of their armies 
against the Persians 335 



MAC 



300 



SIAD 



The Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes to the 

o-rouud ; the houses of Piudar aloue left 335 

He passes into Asia, aud gaius his first battle over 

Darius at the Grauicus May 2-', 334 

Sardis surrenders, Halicaruassus taken, aud cities 

in Asia Minor 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades; Darius takes the 
field with 460,000 infantry aud 100,000 cavalry. . 333 

Darius defeated at Issus {which see) Nov., " 

Alexander, on his way to Egypt, lays siege to 
Tyre, which is destroyed after seven months. . . 332 

Damascus is taken, aud the vast treasures "^ 

Gaza surrenders 

Alexander enters Jerusalem, and Egypt is con- 
quered ■ 

Alexandria founded " 

The Persians totally defeated at Arbela Oct. 1, 331 

Alexander master of Asia; euters Babylon " 

Alexander sits on the throue of Darius at Susa . . 330 

Parthia, Media, etc., overrun by him 329 

Thalestris, queen of the Amazous, visits him " 

He puts his friend Parmeuio to death on a charge 

of conspiracy, supposed to be false " 

His expedition to India; Porus, king of India, is 
defeated aud taken, aud the country as far as 

the Gauges is overrun 327 

Callisthen'es is put to the torture for refusing to 

render divine homage to Alexander. 32S 

Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to 

the'Euphratcs 328-325 

Returns to Babylon, 324 ; dies 323 

Philip Aridseus III. king " 

Alexander's conquests ;xre divided among his gen- 
erals, 323 ; his remains are transported to Alex- 
andria, and buried by Ptolemy 322 

The Greeks defeated by Autipater and the Mace- 
donians near Cranon (ichich see) " 

Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes 315 

Seleucus recovers Babylon 312 

Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 

Alexander's family), and usurps the throne 311 

Battle of Ipsus (which see) ■ Antigonus killed 301 

New division of the empire " 

Death of Cassander 298 

Reign of Alexander V. aud Antipater, his sons " 

Demetrius I., Poliorcetes, sou of Antigonus, mur- 
ders Alexander, and seizes the crowu of Mace- 
don 204 

Achtean league formed against Macedou 281-243 

Governments of Pyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 2S6; 

Ptolemy Ceraunus 281 

Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed 279 

Sosthenes goverus 278 

Reigu of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius... 277 
Pyrrhus invades Macedou, defeats Antigonus, and 

is proclaimed king 274 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored 272 

Antigonus takes Athens 268 

The Gauls again invade Macedou " 

Revolt of the Parthians 250 

Reigu of Demetrius II 239 

Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus Do- 
son 229 

Philip v., 220; wars unsuccessfully against the 

Rhodians 202 

Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalas, 197 

Reigu of Perseus, his son 178 

Perseus defeated by the Romans 171 

The consul JSmilius Paulus enters Macedou, and 

pronounces it a Roman province 1G8 

Perseus and his sous made prisoners, walk in 
chains before the chariot of .<Bmilius in his tri- 
umph for the conquest of Macedou 1C7 

Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
goth A.D. 482 

Conquered by the Bulgarians 978 

Recovered by the Emperor Basil 1001 

Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalouica 

by Boniface of Montferrat 1204 

After various changes, it is finally conquered by 
the Turks under Amurath II., aud annexed to 
his empire 1430 

MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES, those laid down 
by Nicholas Machiavelli, of Florence (born 1469, died 
1527), in liis Practice of Politics and The Prince. By 
some they are stigmatized as "the most pernicious 
maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy ;" 
aud by others as "sound doctrines, notwithstanding 
the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The 
author said that if he taught princes to be tyrants, he 
had also taught the people to destroy tyrants. The 
work appeared at Rome in 1532, and was translated 
into English in 1761. 



M 'HENRY, FoKT, defense op. The British fleet 
that conveyed the troops under General Ross to Bal- 
timore (see North Point) opened a bombardment upon 
Fort M 'Henry, in the harbor, on the IBth of Septem- 
ber, 1814. The fort was garrisoned by about 1000 men, 
under General Armistead. They made a most gallant 
defense duriug a bombardment of 25 hours. The loss 
was trifliug on both sides. 

MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). Here the 
Poles were totally defeated by the Russians, and their 
general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, Oct. 4, 1794. 

MACKINAW, OR Maokinao, Foet, was surprised 
and captured by an allied force of British and Indians 
on the 17th of Jul 3', 1S12. An unsuccessful attempt to 
recapture it was made on the 4th of August, 1S14, by 
5U0 regulars and 400 militia under Lieutenant Colonel 
Georg^e Croghan. The Americans lost 13 killed aud 
01 wounded. 

MADAGASCAR (S.E. coast of Africa), a large, pop- 
ulous island, said to have been discovered by Lorenzo 
Almeida, 1506. 
The French attempted to settle at Autongel Bay 

in 1T74 

Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the 
hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauri- 
tius in ' 1810-11 

The settlements ceded to King Radama on his 

giving up the slave-trade 1818 

Radama, who favored Europeans aud encouraged 

Christianity, died 1828 

A reactionary policy under his energetic queen 
immediately began ; the English missionaries 

who came in 1820 obliged to clepart 1836 

The application of the native laws to the Europe- 
an settlers occasioned au unsuccessfal attack 
on the town of Tamatave by a united expedi- 
tion from the English at the Mauritius, aud the 

French from the Isle of Bourbon June,lS45 

All amicable intercourse ceases for ten yeans, dur- 
ing which the native Christians suffer persecu- 
tion 1848 

The French defeated in au attack on the island, 

Oct. 19,1855 
The Rev.W. Ellis published au interesting account 
of his three visits to the island, on behalf of the 

London Missionary Society, in 1854-5-6 1853 

The queen dies; succeeded by her sou Radama 

II., a Christian Aug.,1861 

A revolution ; the king and his ministers assassin- 
ated ; the queen proclaimed the sovereign, May,18G3 
Embassy from Madagascar arrives at Southamp- 
ton Fcb.,lS64 

Disputes with the French continue Nov.,lSC5 

MADEIRA, an island, N.W. coast of Africa, discov- 
ered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an English gen- 
tleman, or mariner, who fled from France for an illicit 
amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mis- 
tress, a French lady, dyiucr, he "made a canoe, and car- 
ried the news of his discovery to Pedro, king of Ara- 
gon, which occasioned the report that the island was 
discovered by a Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that 
the Portuguese did not visit this island until 1419 or 
1420, nor did they colonize it until 1431. It was taken 
by the British in July, 1801, and again by Admiral 
Hood and General Beresford, Dec. 24, ISO", and re- 
tained in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which 
had emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the 
Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned vinta- 
ges here have been totally ruined by the vine disease. 

MADIAI PERSECUTION. See Tuscany. 

MADISON, FoKT, DEFENSE OF. Fort Madison was 
on the Mississippi River, above St. Louis. On the 5th, 
6th, 7th, aud 8th of September, 1812, Lieutenant Ham- 
ilton defended it successfully against a large force of 
Indians. He had one man killed and oue wounded. 

MADRAS (S.E. Hindostan), called by the natives 
Chennapatam, colonized by the English, 1620. 
Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency. . .1654 

Bengal placed under Madras 1058 

Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a ^ 

presidency ^''^Ol 

Madras taken by the French Sept. 14,1746 

Restored to theEuglish 1T49 

Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, % 

Dec. 12,1758 
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favorable 

treaty April,1769 

Sir John Lindsay arrives July,1770 

He is succeeded by Sir R. Hartland Sept., 1771 

Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- 



MAD 

cil, An?. 24, 17TG; dies in confinement, April IT, 
1777 ; his enemies convicted and lined XIOOO 

each Feb. 11,1780 

Sir Kvre Coote arrives Nov. 5, " 

He defeats Ilyrter July 1,1781 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor June 22, " 

The ISIadras i;ovcrnment arrests Gen. Stuart for 
disobedience, and sends him to England. .Juue,17S3 

Lord Cornwallis arrives here Dec. 12,1790 

Sir Charles Oakley succeeds Gen. Meadows as gov- 
ernor Aug. 1,1792 

Lord Morningtou (afterward the Marquess Welles- 
ley) visits here Dec.,179S 

General Harris, with the Madras army, enters My- 
sore March 5, and arrives at Seringapatara April 
6, which is stormed by the British under Major 
General Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed.. May 4,1799 
Appointment of Sir Thomas Strange, first judge 

of Madras under the charter Dec. 'il),lSOO 

More than loiid houses in Madras burnt Feb., 1803 

The JIadras army, under General Arthur Welles- 
ley (afterward Duke of Wellington), marches for 

Poonah (see /luUa) March, " 

Mutiny among the British forces at Vellore 1806 

600 Sepoys killed ; 200 executed July 10, " 

Mutiny of the Sepoy troops at Madras 1809 

Arrival of Lord Miuto at Madras, who publishes a 

general amnesty Sept. 29, " 

Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor 
were driven into the town and seventy sail 

sunk, many with their crews May,lSll 

Madras attacked by the Piudarees 1S17 

Sir Charles Trevelyan," governor, Jan., 1S59; re- 
called for publishing a'minute in ojiposition to 

Mr. Jas. Wilson's tinaucial schemes May 10,1860 

His successor. Sir H.Wood, dies at Madras, Aug. 2, " 
Sir Wm. Deuison appointed governor, Nov., 1860 ; 

arrives ". Feb. 18,1861 

Lord Nai)ier appointed governor Jan. 31,1866 

(For other events, see India.) 

MADRID (New Castile). Mentioned in history as 
Majerit, a JMoorish castle. 

Sacked by the Moors 1109 

Made the seat of the Spanish court 1516 

Taken by Lord Gal way 1T06 

The Escurial was built 1563 ct seq. 

The old palace was burnt down 1734 

Madrid taken by the French March,1808 

The citizens rise up in arras to expel the French, 

and a dreadful conflict takes place May 2, " 

Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as King of Spain, 

but soon retires July 20, " 

Madrid retaken by the French, Dec. 2, 1808; and 

retained till it is entered by Wellington and his 

army Aug. 12,1812 

Ferdinand VII. restored May 14,1814 

Population in 1857,483,795. 

(See Spain, 1840 et scq.) 

MAESTRICHT (Holland). It revolted from Spain 
1570, and was taken by the Prince of Parma in 1579, 
when a dreadful massacre took place. In 1632 the 
Prince of Orange reduced it after a memorable siege, 
and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648; Louis 
XIV. took it in 1073 ; William, prince of Orange, in- 
vested it in vain in 1676, but in 1078 it was restored 
to the Dutch. In 1748 it was besieged by the French, 
who were permitted to take possession of the city on 
condition of its being restored at the peace then ne- 
gotiating. At the commencement of 1793 Maestricht 
was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they 
became tnasters of it toward the end of the following 
year. In 1814 it was made part of the kingdom of the 
Netherlands ; it now belongs to Holland. 

JL\G.\ZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical pub- 
lication. There are now magazines devoted to nearly 
every department of knowledge. The following are 
the dates of the first publicatiiin of the principal mag- 
azines. In Jan., 1865, 544 magazines were being pub- 
lished in Great Britain and Ireland. See Reviewn and 
Ncwapapcrs. 

Gentleman's Mag'zine,1731 Philosophical Mag 1798 

London 1732 Blackwood's 1817 

Scots 17.39 New Monthly 1814 

Royal 17.59 Eraser's 18.30 

Court 1760 Metropolitan 1831 

Gospel 1768 Penny 1832 

Lady's 1772 Tail's 1S33 

European 1782 Cornhill 1859 

Methodist 1784 Macmillan's " 

Evansrelical 1792 Temple Bar 1860 

Monthl y. . ._. 1796 St. Jam es's " 

* Appointpfl financial secretary and a member of the Indian Council 
at Calcutta, Oct., ISCi. 



301 



MAG 



MAGAZINES in the United States : | 

Harpers' Magazine.. . . 1S4I) I Our Young Folks' Mag.lSCS 

Atlantic 1857 1 Riverside 1867 

These are the principal literary magazines, but there 
are a number of others, devoted to fashion and short 
stories, which have been in circulation a long time. 

MAGDALENS A^n Magdalknettes, communities 
of nuns and women, the latter class consisting chiefly 
of penitent courtesans. The order of penitents of St. 
Magdalen was founded 1272, at Marseilles. The con- 
vent of Naples was endowed by Queen Sancha, 1324. 
That at Metz was instituted in 14.'i2. At Paris, 1492. 
The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by Pope Leo X. 
m 1515, and favored by Clement VIII. in 1594. The 
Magdalen Hosi)ital, Loudon, was founded in 1758, prin- 
cipally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The Asylum 
in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 

MAGDEBURG (Prussia). The archbishopric was 
founded about 967. The city sufTered much during 
the religious wars in Germanv. It was blockaded for 
seven months by the Imperialists, under Wallensteiu, 
in 1629, and was barbarously sacked by Tilly on May 
10, 1631. It was given to Brandenburg in 1048 ; was 
taken by the French Nov. 8, 1806, and annexed to the 
kingdom of Westphalia, but was restored to Prussia 
in 1813.* 

MAGELLAN, Straits op (connecting the Atlantic 
and Pacific Oceans), was passed by Fernando de Ma- 
gelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on Nov. 27, 1520. 
He gave the latter ocean its name on account of its 
calmness. Magellan completed the first voj'age round 
the world, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the 
Emperor Charles V., but was killed in 1521. The Span- 
iards had a fort here, called Fort Famine, because the 
garrison perished for want. 

MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable 
for the victory of the French and Sardinian army over 
the Austriaus, June 4, 1859. The Emperor Louis Na- 
poleon commanded, and he and the King of Sardinia 
were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 55,000 
French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Austriaus, were en- 
gaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4000 kill- 
ed and wounded, and the Austriaus 10,000, besides 
7000 prisoners; these numbers are still doubtful. The 
French generals Espinasse and Clerc were killed. The 
arrival of General M'Mahon during a deadly struggle 
between the Austriaus and the French greatly contrib- 
uted to the victory. The contest near the Bridge of 
Buflalora was very severe. The Austrians fought well, 
but were badly commanded. The emperor and king 
entered Milan on June 8 following; M'Mahon and 
Reguault d'Angely were created marshals of France. — 
The red dye, rosaniline, obtained bv chemists from 
gas tar, is termed magenta. See Aniline. 

MAGI, ouWoRsniPEEs ofFikf. ThePersians adored 
the invisible and incomprehensible God as the princi- 
ple of all good, and paid homage to fire as the em- 
blem of his power and purity. "They built no altars 
nor temples; their sacred fires blazed in the open air, 
and their offerings were made upon the earth. The 
Magi, their priests, are said to have had skill in astron- 
omy, etc. ; hence the term Magi was ajiplied to all 
learned men, till they were finally confounded with 
the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the 
reformer of the sect of the Magi; he flourished about 
1080 B.C. ; others say 5.50 B.C. Their religion was su- 
perseded in Persia by Mohammedanism, A.D. 652. The 
Parsees at Bombay are descendants of the Guebres or 
fire-worshipers. 

MAGIC. See Alchemy, Witchcraft, etc. The inven- 
tion of thcMAGioLAMTEKN IS ascribed to Roger Bacou, 
about 1260, but more correctly to Athauasiiis Kircher, 
who died 1680. 

MAGNA CHARTA. The fundamental parts of the 
great charter of English liberty were derived from 
Saxon charters continued by lieury I. and his suc- 
cessors. It was signed by John at Runuymede, near 
Windsor, June 15, i2]5,t etc. It was many times con- 
firmed, and frequently violated, by Henry III. This 
last king's grand charter was granted iu 1224, and 
was assured by Edward I. See Forests. 



* The Maadebtirff Experiment is shown bj- means of a hollow sphere, 
composed of two Hemispheres, fitting air-tight. When the air is ex- 
hausted by the air-pump, the hemispheres are held together by the 
pressure of the atmosphere, and require great force to separate them. 
The apparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the inventor of the 
air-pump. He died in 16S6.— Bratirfe. 

t On Nov. 20, 1214, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the barons 
met at St. Kdmondsbury. On Jan. 6, 1215, they presented their de- 
mands to the Iiing, who deferred his answer. On May 19 they were 
censured by the pope. On May 24 they marched to London, and the 
king was compelled to yield. 



MAG 



302 



MAL 



MAGNA GR^CIA, the independeut states fouuded 
by Greek colonists iu South Italy, Sicily, etc., begiu- 
muii iu 9T4 B.C. Paudosia and Metapoutum were 
biiift iu 714 B.C. Cuma;, iu Campauia, is said to have 
beeu fouuded iu 1034 B.C. These states were ruined 
through siding with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 
216 B.C. 

Syracuse founded.. B.C.734 LocriEpizephyrii..B.C.673 
"~ -"" Lipara 627 



Agrigcntum 5S2 

Tliurium 432 



Leoutium and Catana. .730 

Sybaris 721 

Crotona 710 

Tareutum 708 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Autiochus the 
Great, king of Syria, was defeated by the Scipios, I'.tO 
B.C.—Maijncsia alba, the white alkaline earth used in 
medicine, of gently purgative properties, was in use 
iu the be"-inning of the'lSth century. Its properties 
were developed by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from magnesia 
by Sir Humphry Davy about 1807, and since produced 
in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, and especially 
by Mn E. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its light, when burnt, 
is very brilliant, and is so rich iu chemical rays that it 
may be used iu photography. Lamps have beeu made 
for burning magnesium wire, which is so employed by 
the excavators of the tunnel through Mount Ceuis. By 
its light photographs of the interior of the Pyramids 
were taken in 1805. 

MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is said to have 
been detained on Mouut Ida by the nails iu his boots. 
The attractive power of the loadstone or maguet was 
early known, and is referred to by Homer, Aristotle, 
and Pliuy ; it was also known to the Chinese and Ara- 
bians. The Greeks are said to have obtained the load- 
stone from Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.C. Roger Bacon 
is said to have been acquainted with its property of 
pointing to the north (1'2;»4). The inventiou of the 
mariner's compass is ascribed to Plavio Gioja, a Nea- 
politan, about 1320 ; but it was known in Norway pre- 
vious to 1266, and is mentioned in a French poem, 1150. 
See under Electrieitij. 
Robert Norman, of Loudon, discovered the dip of 

the needle about 1576 

Gilbert's treatise " De Magnete" published 1600 

Halley's theory published 1083 

Marcel observed that a bar of iron becomes tem- 
porarily magnetic by position 1722 

Artificial magnets made by Dr. G. Knight 1746 

The variation of the compass Avas observed by 
Bond about 16SS ; the diurnal variation by Gra- 
ham, 1722; on which latter Canton made 4000 

observations previous to 1756 

Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- 
mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 
1786 ; also investigated by Michel, Euler, Lam- 
bert, Robison, and others 1750-1800 

The deflection of the magnetic needle by the Vol- 
taic current was discovered by (Ersted 1820 

Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic gtiard for per- 
sons engaged in grinding cutlery 1821 

The magnetic efl'ects of the violet rays of light ex- 
hibited by Morichini, 1S14; polarity of a sewing 
needle so magnetized shown by Mrs. Somer- 

ville 1825 

Mr. Christie proved that heat diminishes magnetic 

force about 1825 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of the 

compass 1831 

Electricity ])roduced from a magnet by Professor 
Faraday, 1831 ; his researches on the action of 
the magnet on light, on the magnetic properties 
of flame, air, and gases (published 184.5), on dia- 
niagnetism (1845), on magne-crystallic action 
(1848), on atmospheric magnetism (1S50), on the 

magnetic force 1851-2 

Magnetic observations established iu the British 
colonies under the superintendence of Col. Ed- 
ward Sabine 1840 ct seq. 

Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-maguetic 

polarity 1856 

In the present century, our knowledge of the phe- 
nomena of magnetism has also been greatly in- 
creased by the laljors of Arago, AmpO're, ilan- 
steen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorff, Sabine, La- 
mout, Du Moncel, etc.* See Animal Magnetism. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the discovery of Pro- 
fessor Faraday. See Eloctricitii. Magneto-electricity 



* In the Roval Institution, London, is a magnet by Lojreman, of 
Haarlem, constructed on the principles of Dr. Elias, which weiffhs 100 
lbs., and can sustain 430 lbs. Ha'cker, of Nuremberfr, constructed a 
magnet weiffhing: 36 f;rains, capable of sustaining 146 times its own 
weight. This was exhibited in 1S51. also at the Royal Institution. 



has been recently applied to telegraphic and to light- 
house purposes.* 

MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glaiica was brought to En- 
gland from N. America, 1688. The laurel-leaved Mag- 
nolia, Magnolia grandijlora, from N. America aboiit 
1734. The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia piimila, from 
China iu 1789; and (also from China) the brown-stalk- 
ed, 1780 ; the purple, 1790 ; and the slender, 1804. 

MAGYARS. See Hungary. 

MAHARAJPOOR (India). Here Sir Hugh Gough 
severely defeated the Mahratta army of Gwalior, Dec. 
29, 1843. Lord Elleuborough was present. 

MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to En- 
gland by Raleigh iu 1595, and to have come into gen- 
eral use about 1720. 

MAHRATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who origin- 
ally dwelt northwest of the Deccau, which they over- 
ran about 1676. They endeavored to overcome the 
Mogul, but were restrained by the Afghans. They en- 
tered into alliance with the East India Company in 
1767, made war against it iu 1774, again made peace iu 
1782, and were finally subdued in 1818. Their last 
prince, Sciudiah, is now a pensioner of the British gov- 
ernment. 

MAID. See Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and Joan 
of Arc, Maid of Orleans. 

ilAIDA (Calabria), where the French, commanded 
by General Regnier, were signally defeated by the 
British under Major General "Sir John Stuart, July 4, 
1806. 

MAIDS OF HONOR. Aune, daughter of Francis IL, 
duke of Brittany, and Queen of Charles VIII. and 
Louis XII. of France, was the first to have young and 
beautiful ladies about her person, called maids of hon- 
or. — Phil, de Comincs. When Charles died (1498), she 
put a cordelier (a black knotted lace) rottud her coat 
of arms as a token of mourning, which introduced the 
custom. The Queen of Edward I. of England is said 
to have had four maids of honor ; Queen Victoria has 
eight. 

MAIL. Coaches for the conveyance of letters Avere 
first set np at Bristol by Mr. John Palmer, of Bath, 
Aug. 2, 1784. They were employed for other routes in 
17Sb, and soon became general iu England. The mails 
were first sent by rail in 1838. 

MAIMING aud WOUNDING. See Coventry Act. 

MAINE, a province N.W. of France, was seized by 
WMlliam I. of England in 1069. It acknowledged Prince 
Arthur, 1199, and was taken from John of England by 
Philip of France, 1204 ; was recovered by Edward III. 
iu 1357, but given up, 13G0. After various changes, it 
was finally united to France by Louis XI. in 1481. — 
Maine (N. America) was discovered by Cabot, 1497, 
and colonized by the English iu 163S ; it became a state 
of the Union in 1820. The boundary-line between the 
British and the United States territories in Maine was 
settled by the Ashburton treaty, concluded Aug. 9, 
1842. The Maine liquor law, prohibiting the manu- 
facture and use of intoxicating drinks, with certain ex- 
ceptions, was enacted in 1851. 

MAJORCA. See Balearic Isles and Minorca. Ma- 
jorca rebelled against Philip V. of Spain in 1714, but 
submitted July 14, 1715. 

MALABAR (W. coast of Hindostan). The Portu- 
guese established factories here iu 1505 ; the English 
did the same in 1601. 

MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, was 
a flourishing Portuguese settlement in 1511. The 
Dutch factories were established iu 1640. It now 
forms part of the British "Straits" settlements, the 
Dutch governmeut having exchanged it for Bencoolen 
in Sumatra. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on which 
was situated an old tower, whicli the Russians strong- 
ly fortified during the siege of 1854-55. The allied 
French and English attacked it on June 17 and IS, 1855, 
and, after a conflict of forty-eight hours, were repulsed 
with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed 
aud 1126 wounded, that of the French 3338 killed and 
wounded. On Sept. 8 the French again attacked the 
Malakhoflf; at eight o'clock the first mine was sprung, 
and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered 
redoubt. See Sebastopol. In the Malakhoft" and Re- 
dan were found 3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, 
and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 

* The South Foreland Light-house, near Dover, was illuminated by 
the maeneto-clcrtro light in the winters of 1858-9 and 1859-60, and at 
Dungeness in 1861-2. The light excels all other artificial lights in 
brilliancy, continuance, etc. 



MAL 



303 



MAN 



MALDON (Essex), built '28 B.C., is supposed to have 
beeu the first Koinau colony in Britain. It was burnt 
by Queeu Boadicca, and rebuilt by the Koraaus. It 
was burnt by the UaueSj A.D. 91)1, and rebuilt by the 
Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and 
Mary. The singular custom of Borough-English is 
kept up here, by'which the youngest sou, and not the 
eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his father's 
death. 

MALEGNANO, or Melegnano, modern names of 
Mariguano, which nee. 

MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law respecting them 
was consolidated and amended by 24 & 25 Vict., c. '.17. 
This act protects works of art, electric telegraphs, etc., 
ISOl. 

jMALO, St. (N.W. France). This port sustained a 
tremendous bombardment by the English under Ad- 
miral Benbow in 1693, and under Lord Berkeley in 
Julj', 1695. In 1T5S the British landed in considerable 
force in Cancalle Bay, and went up to the harbor, 
where they burnt upward of a hundred ships, and did 
great damage to the town, making a number of pris- 
oners. It is now defended by a very strong castle, 
and the harbor is most difficult of access. 

MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the Allies nnder 
the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated 
the French commanded by Marshal Villars, Sept. 11, 
1709. Each army consisted of nearly 120,000 choice 
soldiers. There was great slaughter on both sides, 
the Allies losingl8,000 men, which loss was but ill re- 
paid by the capture of Mons. 

!MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distillation. 
In March, 1858, there were 6157 licensed maltsters in 
the United Kingdom. The duty on malt in 1863 
anwunted to £6,273,727. An act was passed in 18C5 
allowing the excise duty to be charged according to 
the weight of the grain used. 

BUSUELS OF MALT MADE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 
TUE FOLLOWING YEAE3. 



Bushels. 

1S25. England. ...29,572,742 
Scotland... 3,925,847 
Ireland 2,706,862 



36,205,451 



Bushels. 

1840. England.. ..33,370, 720 

Scotland... 4,374,-328 

Ireland . . ... 1,915,584 

39,666,632 



Made in the United Kingdom in 1835, 42,892,012 bush- 
els ; in 1S47, 35,307,815: in 1850,40,744,752; in 1857, 
45,967,461 ; in 1861, 47,514,614. 

MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the Mediter- 
ranean, held successively by the Phoenicians, Cartha- 
ginians, and Romans, wliich last conquered it, 259 B.C. 
The Apostle Paul was wrecked here, A.D. 62 (Acts 
xxvii., xxviii.). Malta was taken by the Vandals, 534 ; 
by the Arabs, 870 ; and by the Normans from Sicily, 
1090. With Sicily it beca"me successively part of the 
possessions of the houses of Ilohenstaufen, Aujou 
(1266), and Aragon (1260.) In 1530 Charles V. gave it 
to the Knights Hospitalers, who defended it most 
courageously and successfully against the Turks in 
1551 and 1565, when the Turks were obliged to aban- 
don the enterprise after the loss of 30,f:0i) men. The 
island was taken by General Bonaparte in the outset 
of his expedition to Egypt, Juno 12, 1798. He found 
in it 1200 pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two 
ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- 
kets, besides an immense treasure collected by super- 
stition, and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at 
liberty. Malta was surrendered to the British under 
PiLTot", Sept. .5, 1800. At the peace of Amiens, it was 
stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. 
The British, however, retained possession, and the 
war recommenced between the two nations ; but by 
the treaty of Paris in 1S14, the island was guaranteed 
to Great Britain. La Valetta, the capital, was found- 
ed in 1557 by the grand master La Valette, and com- 
pleted and occupied by the knights, Aug. IS, 1571. The 
Protestant College was founded in 1840. 

MALTA, Knights of. A military-reliirious order, 
called also Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem, 
Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some 
merchants of Malti, trading to the Levant, obtained 
leave of the Caliph of Eirypt to build a house for those 
who came on pil<_'rimau'e to Jerusalem, and whom they 
received with zeal and charity, 104s. They afterward 
founded a hospital for the reception of pilgrims, from 
whence they were called Hospitalers (Latin, hnxppa, a 
guest). The military order was founded about 1099; 
confirmed by the pope in 1113. In 1119 the knights 
defeated the Turks at Antioch. After the Christians 
had lost their interest in the East, and Jenisali-m was 
taken, the knights retired to Acre, which they defend- 



ed valiantly in 1290. They next followed John, king 
of Cyprus, who gave them Limisso, in his dominions, 
where they staid till 1310, in which year they took 
Rhodes, under their grand master De Vallaret, and 
the next year defended it under the Duke of Savoy 
against an army of Saracens ; since then his success- 
ors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is For- 
tUudo ejus Rhoihim tenuit, or. His valor kept Rhodes 
From this they were called Knights of Rhodes ■ but, 
Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they retired 
into Candia, thence into Sicilv. Pope Adrian VI 
granted them the city of Viterbo for their retreat '• 
and in 1530 the Emperor Charles V. gave them the 
isle of Malta. The order was suppressed in En^-land 
in 1540 ; restored in 1557 ; and again suppressed in 
1559. St. John's Gate, Clerkeuwell, a relic of their 
possessions, still exists. The Emperor Paul of Rus- 
sia declared himself grand master of the order in 
June, 1(99. 

MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Circassian 
slaves, established by the sultan as a body-sruard, 
1230. They advanced one of their own corps to the 
throne about 1250, and continued to do so until Egypt 
became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys 
took them into pay, and tilled up their ranks with ren- 
egades from various countries. On the conquest of 
Egypt by Bonaparte in 179S, they retreated into Nu- 
bia ; but, assisted by the Arnauts, they once more 
wrested Egypt from the Turkish government. On 
March 1, 1811, they were decoyed into the power of 
the Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo 
to the number of 1600. In 1804, Napoleon embodied 
some of them in his guard. 

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. An en- 
tire mammoth, flesh and bones, was discovered in Si- 
beria in 1799. Remains of this animal have since been 
found at Harwich in 1803, and at places in Europe, 
Asia, and America, 

MAN, Antiquity of. In 1846, M. Boucher de Perthes 
found some rude flint implements, which he believed 
to be of human manufacture, mingled with bones of 
extinct animals, in the old alluvium near Abbeville, 
in Picardy, France. Similar flints have since been 
found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by Mr. 
Peugelly, and lately in various parts of the world. 
Hence many geologists infer that man existed on the 
earth many ages earlier than has beeu hitherto be- 
lieved. Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man" was 
published in 1863, and Sir John Lubbock's "Pre-his- 
toric Times" in 1865. 

MAN, Isle of, was subdued by Edwin, king of 
Northumberland, 621 ; by Magnus of Norway, 1092 ; 
ceded to the Scots, 1266 ; and taken from them in 1314 
bv Montacute, afterward Earl of Salisburv, to whom 
Edward III. gave the title of King of Maiij in 1343. It 
was afterward subjected to the Earl of Isorthumber- 
laud, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in fee 
to Sir John Stanley, 1406; it was taken from this fam- 
ily by Elizabeth, but was restored in 1608 to the Earl 
of D<3rbv, through whom it fell by inheritance to the 
Duke of Athol, 1735. He received £70,000 from Parlia- 
ment for the sovereignty in 1765 ; and the nation was 
charged with the farther sum of £132,944 for the pur- 
chase of his interest in the revenues of the island in 
Jan., 1829. The Countess of Derby held the isle against 
the Parliament forces in 1051. The bishopric is said 
to have beeu presided over by Amphibalus about 360. 
Some assert that St. Patrick was the founder of the 
see, and that Germanus was the first bishop, about 
447. It was united to Sodor in 1113. The bishop has 
no seat in the House of Lords; but Lord Auckland 
(bishop, 1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present 
income, £2000. 

MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, United States, 
an important military position, where the Alexandria 
and JIanassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named 
Bull Rdn. It was held by the Confederates in 1861, 
when they were attacked by General Irvin M'Dowell. 
He began his march from ^\'ashington on July 16, and 
gained some advantaL'^e on the 18th at Centreville. On 
the 21st was fought the ni-f<t battle of Bull Run. Tlie 
Federals, who beu;an the fight, had the advantage till 
about four o'clock, P.]\I., wlien the Confederate Gen- 
eral Johnston brought u]) re-enforcements, which at 
first the Federals took for their own troops. After a 
brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden 
panic, and, in siiite of the utmost efforts of their ofli- 
cers,fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large quan- 
tity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confed- 
erate Generals Johnston and Beauregard did not think 
it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till 
they arrived at Washington. The Confederate forces 



MAN 



304 



MAN 



on the field numbered 31,000, the National 28,000. 
Confederate loss, 37s killed, 14S9 wounded, 30 missing 
—total, 1887; National loss, 4S1 killed, 1011 wounded, 
1460 missing:— total, 3051.— In March, 1SG2, when the 
Army of the Potomac, under General M'Clellan, march- 
ed into Virginia, they found that the Confederates 
had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On 
Aug. 30, 1802, this place was the site of another great 
battle between the National and Confederate armies. 
In August, General "Stonewall" Jackson, after com- 
pelling General Pope to retreat, defeated him at Ce- 
dar Mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, 
and, arriving at Manassas, repulsed his attacks on the 
29th. On the 30th Geueral li. E. Lee joined Jackson 
with his army, and Pope received re-enforcements 
from Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which 
ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, 
compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- 
ville. On" the 1st of September, Jackson was pushed 
forward toward Fairfax to turn Pope's right. M'Dow- 
ell, Heiutzelmau, and Reno were sent in that direction, 
and a battle was fought just before dark at Ox Hill, 
near Chantilly, in which Generals Stevens and Kear- 
ney were killed. Both sides claimed a victory ; but, 
before morning of the 2d, Pope's army was in retreat 
for Alexandria. That day it took refuge behind the 
defenses of Washington. The forces engaged in the 
second battle of But] Hun numbered, on the National 
side, 40,000; on the Confederate, 00,000. The Confed- 
erate loss was about 8400, of whom 1400 were killed ; 
the National, about 11,000, besides 7000 missing. Pope 
was at once superseded, and M'Clellan resumed the 
command to march against the Confederates, who 
had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See 
United States. 

MANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of the 
Druids was one of their principal stations, and had 
the privilege of sanctuary attached to its altar, in the 
British language Mcijne, a stone. It was one of the 
seats of the Brigantes, who had a castle, or strong- 
hold, called Mancenion, or the place of tents, near the 
confluence of the rivers INIedlock and Irwell, the site 
of which, still called the "Castle Field," was, about 
79, selected by the Romans as the station of the Cohora 
Prima Frisiorum, and called by them Mancvniwm ; 
hence its Saxon name Manceastre, from which its mod- 
ern appellation is derived. — Lewis. 

Mancenion taken from the Britons 4SS 

Captured by Edwin of Northumbria 620 

The inhabitants become Christians about C27 

The town taken by the Danes, S77 ; retaken 923 

The charter {Magna Charta of Manchester), 

May 14, 1301 

"Manchester cottons" introduced 1352 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester about. ..1541 

Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town 1G43 

The walls and fortifications razed 1652 

Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, 

makes it his quarters Nov. 28,1745 

Cotton goods first exported 1760 

Manchester navigation opened 1761 

Riots against machinery Oct. 9,1779 

Manufacture of muslin attempted here about 17S0 

The Weavers' Riot May 24,1808 

Blanketeers' meeting 1817 

Manchester Reform Meeting* Aug. 16,1819 

At the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, 
upward of 200 persons precipitated into the riv- 
er; 51 perished Feb. 29,1828 

Manchester a Parliamentary borough June 7,1832 

Manchester incorporated by Municipal Reform 

Act 1835 

Charter of incorporation Oct. 23,1838 

• Manchester Police Act Aug. 26,1839 

Great disorders in the midland coianties among 

artisans ; they extend to this town Aug., 1842 

Great free -trade meetings held here (see Corn 

Laws) Nov. 14,1843 

Great Anti-corn Law meeting, at which ^64,984 

were subscribed in four hours Dec. 23,1845 

Manchester made a bishopric Aug. 10,1847 

The Engineers' strike Jan. 3-Apfil 26,1852 

The Guild of Literature entertained at a banquet 

by the citizens Aug. 31,1852 

Great Free-trade Banquet Nov. 2, " 

* Called Peterloo. The assembly consisted of from 60,000 to 100,000 

Eersons, men, women, and children. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, 
ad spoken a few words, when the meeting was suddenly assailed by 
a charge of the Manchester cavalry, assisted by a Cheshire regiment of 
yeomanry, and a regiment of hussars, the outlets being occupied by 
other military detachments. The unarmed multitude were, in conse- 
quence, driven one u])On another, by which many were killed, ridden 
over by the horses, or cut down by'their riders. The deaths were 11 
men, v.-omen, and children, and the wounded about 600. 



Manchester declared to be a city, and formally so 
gazetted April 16,1853 

Great strike of minders and piecers Nov. 7,1855 

Great county meeting; X130,000 subscribed to the 
Lancashire Relief Fund Dec. 2,1862 

Meeting of the Church Congress Oct. 13-15,1863 

MANES, the name applied by the ancients to the 
soul when separated from the body. The Manes were 
reckoned amoug the infernal deities, and were gen- 
erally supposed to preside over the burial-places and 
monuments of the dead. They were solemnly wor- 
shiped by the Romans and invoked by the augurs ; 
Virgil (22 B.C.) introduces his hero as sacrificing to 
theTVIanes. The Romans superscribed then- epitaphs 
with D.M., Dlis Manibus. 

MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, long 
used to decolorize glass, and called Ma<jn£sia nigra, 
was formerly included among the ores of iron. Its 
distinctive character was proved by the researches of 
Pott (1740), Kaim and Winterl (1770), and Scheele and 
Bergmann (1774) ; it was first eliminated by Gahn. 
Manganese combined witli potassium is called min- 
eral chameleon, from its rapid change of color under 
certain circumstances. Forchammer employed it as a 
test for the presence of organic matter in water, and 
Dr. Angus Smith successfully applied this test to air 
in 1858. 

MANICH.^ANS, a sect founded by Manes, which 
began to infest the East about 261. It spread into 
Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into Per- 
sia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, 
left him much wealth, after which he assumed the ti- 
tle of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced 
that he was the Paraclete, or Comforter that Christ 
had promised to send. He maintained two principjes, 
the one good and the other bad ; the first he called 
light, which did uothiug but good, and the second he 
Ccilled darkness, which "clid nothing but evil. He re- 
jected the Old Testament, and composed a system of 
doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the an- 
cient fire-worshipers. He obtained many followers. 
Sapor, king of Persia, believed in him at one time, but 
afterward banished him. He was burnt alive by Bah- 
ram or Varanes, king of Persia, 274. His followers 
spread themselves over the Roman Empire, and sev- 
eral sects sprang from them. 

MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the Philip- 
pine Islands, a great mart of Spanish commerce. Ma- 
nilla was taken by the English in 1757, and again in 
Oct., 1702, by storm. The archbishop engaged to ran- 
som it for about a million sterling; never wholly paid. 
Manilla has sufl'ered greatly by earthquakes. It is 
stated that nearly 3000 persons perished by one in 1645. 
On Sept. 22, 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and ou 
Juue 3, 1863, several thousand lives were lost. 

MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in ICOG, be- 
came the court residence of the Palatine of the Rhine 
in 1719 ; but his becoming Elector of Bavaria in 1777 
caused the removal of the court to Munich. Mann- 
heim surrendered to the French, under command of 
Geueral Pichegrn, Sept. 20, 1795. On Oct. 31, the Aus- 
trians, under General Wurmser, defeated the French 
near the city. Several battles were fought with vari- 
ous success in the neighborhood during the late wars. 
Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, was assassinated at 
Mannheim by a student of Wurtzbm-g named Sand, 
April 2, 1819. 

MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon Constitution, 
and imply a territorial district, with the jurisdiction, 
rights, and perquisites belonging to it. They were for- 
merly called baronies, and still are lordships. Each 
lord was empowered to hold a court called the court- 
baron for redressing misdemeanors and settling dis- 
putes between the tenants.- Cntii«c« Lawyer. 

MANSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis IX. was 
defeated by the Saracens and taken prisoner, April 5, 
1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 livres for his ran- 
som. 

MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greece), Battles here— (1.) 
Athenians and Argives defeated by Agis II. of Sparta, 
418 B.C. (2.) Between Epaminondas and the Thebans, 
and the combined forces of Lacedremon, Achaia, Elis, 
Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. The Thebau general 
was victorious, but was killed in the engagement, and 
from that Thebes lost its power and consequence 
among the Grecian states. The Emperor Adrian built 
a temple at Mantinea in honor of his favorite Alcinoiis. 
Tlie town was also called Autigonia. Other battles 
were fought in the neighborhood. 

MANTUA (N. Italy). Virgil was born at a village 



MAN 



305 UAH 



near this city, 70 B.C. Ilcnce he is often styled the 
Maiituaii hard. Mantua was ruled hy the Gouzagas, 
lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, when it was seized 
by the Emperor Joseph I. It has since been held by 
the Austriaus. Mantua surrendered to the French, 
Feb. 2, 1797, after a siei^e of eight months. It was re- 
tal<en by the Austrian and Russian army, July ."0, 1799, 
after a short siege. In ISOO, after the battle of Maren- 
go, the Frouch again obtained possession of It. It was 
included iu the kingdom of Italy till 1S14, when it was 
restored to the Austriaus. 

MANUFACTURES. See Silk, Cotton, etc. 

MAORIS. See Sew Zealaml 

MAPLE-TREE. The Acer rubnim, or scarlet ma- 
ple, was brought to England from North America be- 
fore 1650. Tlie Acer Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, be- 
fore 1CS8. From the Acer saccliarinuni (introduced 
here in 1735) the Americans make very good sugar. 

MAPS. Sec Charts and Mcrcator. 

MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on Sept. 23 or 29, 
490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,0(iO strong, defeated the 
Persian army amounting to 500,000, who had 200,000 
killed. The former were commanded by Miltiades, 
Aristides, and Themistocles. Among the slain was 
Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army 
was forced to retreat to Asia. 

MARBLE. Dipoeuus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, 
Avere the first artists who sculptured marble and pol- 
ished their works; all statues previously being of 
■wood, 56S B.C. — Pliny. The edifices or monuments 
of Rome were constructed of, or ornamented with, 
fine marble. The ruins of Palmyra are chiefly of 
white marble. The marble arch, London, was re- 
moved from Buckingham Palace to Hyde Park, 
March, 1S51. 

MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral was 
founded 1231 ; and the first Protestant University in 
152T. It suffered much during the Seven Years' War, 
1753-60. 

MARCH, the first month of the year, until Numa 
added January and February, 713 B.C. Romulus, who 
divided tlie year into months, gave to this month the 
name of his supposed father. Mars ; though Ovid ob- 
serves that the i)eople of Italy had the mouth of March 
before the time of Romulus, but that they placed it 
very diftereutly in the calendar. The year formerly 
commenced on the 25th day of this mouth. See Year. 

MARCHES, Lords of, noblemen who lived on 
boundaries settled between England and Wales, and 
England and Scotland, and, according to Camden, had 
their laws, and power of life, death, etc., like petty 
princes. These powers were abolished 1535 and 1547. 

MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar IL of Bo- 
hemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the Em- 
peror Rodolph of Hapsburg, Aug. 26, 127S. See Bo- 
hemia. 

MARCIONITES, heretics, followers of Marcion, 
about 1.50, who preceded the Manichees, and taught 
similar doctrines. — Cave. 

MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Germany, 
expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united witli 
other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were re- 
pelled by the Emperors Antouius and Verus ; defeat- 
ed by the Legion called, from a fabled miracle, the 
Thundering Legion, 179 ; and finally driven beyond 
the Dauulje by Aurelian, 271. 

MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, com- 
manded by Bonaparte, attacked the Austriaus, June 
14, 1800 ; his army was retreating, when the arrival of 
General Desaix turned the fortunes of the day. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian General Melas and Bonaparte, 
signed June 15, the latter obtained twelve strong for- 
tresses, and became master of Italy. 

MARESCHALS, ok Marshals, in France, were the 
esquires of the king, and originally had the command 
of the vanguard to observe the enemy and to choose 
proper places for its encampment. Till the time of 
Francis I. iu 151.5, there were but two marshals, who 
had .Viit livres per annum in war, but no stipend in 
time <if ]}c:ioe. The rank afterward became of the 
highest military imi)ortaucc, the number was without 
limit, and the command supreme. Napoleon's mar- 
shals were renowned for skill and courage. See Mar- 
shal. 

MARIAN PERSECUTION. Qcc Protestants. 

MARIONANO (now Mat.eonano), North Italy, near 
Milan. Three battles have been fought near here : 1. 
U 



Francis L of Prance defeated the Duke of Milan and 
the Swiss, Sept. 13, 14,1515; above 20,00i) men were 
slain. This conflict has been called the Battle of the 
Giants.— 2. Near here was fought the battle of Pavia 
{which see).— 3. After the battle of Magenta, June 4, 
1859, the Austriaus intreuched themselves at Maleo-- 
nano. The emperor sent Marshal Baraguay d'llilliers 
with 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with 
a loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on June 8. 
The Austnans are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 

MARINER'S COMPASS. See Covqmss and Man- 
netisvi. 

MARINES in England were first established with 
the object of forming a nursery to man the fleet. An 
order in council, dated October 16, 1604, authorized 1200 
soldiers to be raised and formed into one regiment. 
In 1684, the 3d regiment of the line was called the Ma- 
rine Regiment; but the system of having soldiers ex- 
clusively for sea-service was not carried into effect un- 
til 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. 
More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; 
and in 1741 the corps consisted often regiments, each 
1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered lS,tlOO men. In 
the latter years of the French War, ending in 1S15. 
they amounted to 31,400, but there were frequently 
more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies, as they 
are called, frequently distinguished themselves. The 
"Royal Marine Forces" now comprehend artillery 
and light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 
marines, inclusive of 1500 artillery.— P. H. Nicolas. 

MARINO, SAN, a republic in Central Italy, has ex- 
isted since the 6th century. Its independence was 
confirmed by Pope Pius VII. iu 1S17. Population in 
1858 about 8000. 

MARK, a silver coin of the Northern nations, and 
the name mark-luhs is still retained iu Denmark. In 
England, the mark means the sum of 13s. id., and here 
the name is also retained iu law courts. 

MARKET. See Smithfield and Metrox>olilan Cattle- 
market. 

MARK'S, St. (Venice). The church was erected in 
S29 ; the piazza in 1592. 

!MARLBOROUGH, Statutes of, were enacted in 
the castle of Marlborough, in Wiltshire, 1267.— Marl- 
liOEOuGu HoDSK, Pall Mall, London, was built by vi^ren 
for the Duke of Marlborough, 1709-10 ; was bought for 
the Princess Charlotte aiid Prince Leopold in 1817; 
held by Queen Adelaide till 1849, and became the resi- 
dence of the Prince of Wales, 1803. 

MARONITES, Christians in the East, followers of 
one Maron in the 5th century ; they are said to have 
embraced the errors of the Jacobites, Nestorians, and 
Mouothelites: iu 1180 they numbered 40,000 living in 
the neighborhood of Mount Libanus, and, being a 
brave people, they were of great service to the Chris- 
tian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the 
Church of Rome about the 12th century. For an ac- 
count of the massacres of the Maronites in 1860, see 
Druses. 

MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to runaway 
negroes. When the island was conquered from the 
Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled to the hills 
and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war 
of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons 
capitulated on being permitted to retain their free 
settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took arms, 
but were speedily put down, and many were trans- 
ported to other colonies. — Brande. 

ISEAR- PRELATE TRACTS, virulently attacking 
episcopac}^, were written, it is believed, by Henry Pen- 
ry, who was cruelly executed, May 29, 1093, for having 
written seditious words against the queen (found 
about his person when seized). The tracts appeared 
about 1586. Some had very singular titles, such as 
"An Almand for a Parrat," "Ilay any Worke for 
Cooper?" etc. They were collected and reprinted in 
1843. 

MARQUE, Letters of. See Privateer. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were discov- 
ered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them after the 
viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendora. They were 
visited by Cooke in 1774, and were taken possession 
of by the French Admiral Dupetit Thenars, May 1, 
1842. 

MARQUESS, a dignity, called by the Saxons Mark- 
iu-Reve, by the Germans Markgrave, took its original 
from Mark or March, a limit or bound (see Marches), 
the office being to guard or govern the frontiers of a 



MAR 



306 



MAR 



province. Marquess is the next place of honor to a 
duke, and was introduced several years after that title 
had been established in England. The first on whom 
it was conferred was the favorite of King Richard 11., 
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created Marquess of 
Dublin, and placed iu Parliament between the dukes 
and earls, 13S5. James Stewart, second son of James 
III. of Scotland, was made Marquess of Ormoud in 
14T6, without territories ; afterward Earl of Ross. 

MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.), and 
confirmed by Christ {Mark x.), who performed a mir- 
acle at the celebration of one {John ii.). Matrimonial 
ceremonies among the Greeks are ascribed to Cecrops, 
king of Athens, f554 B.C. 

Law favoring marriage passed at Rome B.C. IS 

Priests forbidden to marry after ordination.. A.D. 325 

Marriage was forbidden in Lent 304 

It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests 
iu 1015; and these latter were obliged to take 

the vow of celibacy in 10T3 

The celebration of marriage (as a sacrament) in 
churches was ordained by Pope Innocent III. 

about 1199 
Marriages were solemnized by justices of the 
peace under an act of the Commous in Oliver 

Cromwell's administration 1C53 

A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the mar- 
riage of a duke, X50 ; of a common person, 2s. Gd. 1605 
Irregular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Mar- 
riages) 1753 

Marriages were again taxed in 17S4 

New IVIarriage Act, 1822 ; repealed 1823 

Acts prohiljiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
priests in Scotland, or other ministers not he- 
longing to the Church of Scotland, repealed 1834 

Act to render the children of certain marriages 
within forbidden degrees of kindred legitimate; 
and marriage with deceased wife's sister prohib- 
ited 1835 

The present Marriage Act for England, authoriz- 
ing marriages with religious ceremony, by regis- 
trar's certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, pass- 
ed 1836 [amended iu 1837 and 1856] 

Marriage Registration Act 1837 

Amendment acts passed in 1840 and 1S56 

A bill to suppress irregular marriages iu Scotland 

(see Gretna) passed in 

A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes, which has the power of giving sentence 
of judicial separation for adultery, cruelty, or de- 
sertion without cause for two years and upward 

(see Divorce^ 1857 

It has frequently been attempted to legalize a 
marriage with a deceased ^vife's sister, without 
success. The Marriage Law Reform Associa- 
tion was instituted for this exclusive object, 
Jan. 15, 1851. A bill for this purpose passed the 
Commons, July 2 ; was rejected by the Lords, 

July 23, 1S5S: aud again rejected iu 1862 

Iu the case of Brook vT Brook, it was decided that 
such a marriage celebrated iu a foreign country 

was not valid April 17,1858 

This decision confirmed on appeal to the House 

of Lords on March 18,1801 

A commission appointed to inquire into the work- 
ing of the marriage laws ia Scotland and Ireland, 
in^consequence of the Yelverton case (see Trials, 
1861) 1865 

NUMBEK OF KEGISTEKED MAEEIAGE8 IN ENGLAND AND 
WALES. 

11854 159,727 



1750 40,800 

1800 73,228 

1810 84,47 

1815 91,946 

1820 96,883 

1825. 98,378 

1830 102,437 

1840 121,083 

1845. 143,743 

1848 138,230 

1850* 152,744 

1853 164,520| 

Royal Marriage Act was passed in 1772, in conse- 
quence of the marriage of the Duke of Gloucester, 
the king's brother, with the widow of the Earl 



1855 {Crimean War) 152,113 

1856 159,337 

1857 159,0',t7 

1858 156,070 

1859 167,723 

1860 170,150 

1S61 {cotton famine) 163,706 

1862 164,030 

1863 173,510 

1864 180,263 



« Of tbese TnarriaRes, it is stated in the registrars' returns that 47,570 
men and "0,601 women could not write, and that they signed the mar- 
riage register with their marks.— In France, the marriafres were 208,893 
in 1820 ; 243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the 
statistics of that citv, which are very minute and curious, furnish the 
following classes as "occurring in 7764 marriages: Bachelors and maids, 
6456 ; bachelors and widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers 
and widows, 223. 



Waldegrave, and of the Duke of Cumberland with 
the widow of Colonel Horton and daughter of Lord 
Irnham. [By this act, none of the desceudants of 
Geo. II., unless of foreign birth, can marry under the 
age of 25, unless with the consent of the king; at aud 
after that age, the consent of Parliament is necessary 
to render the marriage valid.] The marriage of the 
Duke of Sussex with the Lady Augusta Murray, sol- 
emnized in 1793, was pronounced illegal, aud the 
claims of their son, Sir Augustus d'Este, declared 
invalid by the House of Lords, July 9, 1844. 
Half Maekiage. — Semi-Matrimonium. Among the 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated, but authorized. The concubiue 
had the name of semi-conjitx. Men might have 
either a wife or a concubine, provided they had not 
both together. Constantiue the Great checked con- 
cubinage, but did not abolish it. This ancient cus- 
tom of the Romans was preserved, not only among 
the Lombards, but by the French wheu they held 
dominion in that country. Cujas assures us that the 
Gascons and other people bordering on the Pyreuean 
Mountains had not relinquished this custom in his 
time, 1590. The women bore the name of "wives of 
the second order."— Henault. Bee Morganatic Mar- 
riages. 
Double Marriages. — There are some instances of a 
husband and two wives (but they are very rave) in 
countries where polygamy was interdicted by the 
state. The first Lacedsemonian who had two wives 
was Anaxandrides, the son of Leon, about 510 B.C. 
Dionysius of Syracuse married two wives, viz., Doris, 
the daughter of Xenetus, and Aristomache, sister of 
Dion, 398 B.C. It is said that the Count Gleichen, 
a German nobleman, was permitted, under peculiar 
circumstances, by Gregory IX., iu A.D. 1237, to mar- 
ry and live with two wives. The Mormouites praC' 
tise and encourage polygamy. 
Forced Marriages.— The statute 3 Henry VII. (1487) 
made the principal and abettors in marriages with 
heiresses, etc., contrary to their will, equally guilty 
as felons. By 39 Eliz. (159G) such felons were denied 
the benefit of clergy. This offense was made pun-, 
ishable by transportation, 1 Geol IV. (1S20). The re- 
markable case ofMissWhartou, heiress of the house 
of Wharton, whom Capt. Campbell married by force, 
occurred in William III.'s reign. Sir John Johnston 
was hanged for seizing the young lady, and the mar- 
riage was annulled by Parliament, iC90. — Edward 
Gibbon Wakefield was tried at Lancaster, and fouud 
guilty of the felonious abduction of Miss Turner, 
March 24, 1827 ; aud his marriage with her was im- 
mediately dissolved by act of Parliament. 
Marriages by Sale. — Among the Babylonians, at a 
certain time every year, the marriageable females 
were assembled, aud disposed of to the best bidder. 
This custom is said to have originated with Atossa, 
daughter of Belochus, about 1433 B.C. 
Fleet Marriages. See Fleet. 

MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music 
are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, a French engineer 
officer, who composed it at the request of Marshal 
Luckuow, in 1791, to cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. 
It derived its name from a body of troops frcmi Mar- 
seilles marching iuto Paris in 1792 playing the tune, it 
being then not much known. — Brande. 

MARSEILLES, the ancient Massilia (S. France), a 
maritime city, founded by the Phocjeans about GOO 
B.C. ; was an ally of Rome, 218 B.C. Cicero styled it 
the Athens of Gaiil, on account of its excellent schools. 
Taken by Julius Cassar after a lon^ and terrible 
siege, 45 B.C.; and by Euric, the Visigoth, A.D. 

470 ; sacked by the Saracens A.D. 839 

Marseilles a republic 1214 

Subjected to the Counts of Provence 1251 

United to the crown of France 1482 

The plague rages 1649 aud 1720-1 

[It carried oft'50,000 of the inhabitants. The Bish- 
op Belsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve 
the sufferers.] 

Revolutionary commotions here April 30,1789 

Marseilles opposes the revolutionary government, 

and is reduced Aug., 1793 

MARSHALS. Two were appointed in London to 
clear the streets of vagrants, and to send the sick, 
blind, aud lame to asylums aud hospitals for relief, 
15U7. — Xorthouck. 

MARSHALS, British Field-. This rank was first 
conferred upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl 
of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. See MarescJial. 

MARSHALS op France, etc., appointed by Napo- 
leon I. during his wars, 1804-14: 



MAR 



307 



Arrighi, duke of Padua. 

Augereau, duke of Castiglione. 

Beruadotte, prince of Poute Corvo; afterward kintr of 
Sweden. "^ 

Berthier, prince of NcufchAtel and Wagram, commit- 
ted suicide at Bamberg, 1815. 

Bessiores, duke of Istria. 

Davoust, prince of EckmUhl and duke of Auerstadt. 

Jourdan, peer of Prance. 

Junot, duke of Abrautes, suicide 1813. 

Kellerman, duke of Valmy. 

Laniics, duke of Montebello, killed at Aspern, 1809. 

Lefel)vre, duke of Dantzic. 

Macdonald, duke of Tareuto. 

Marmont, duke of Ragusa. 

Masseua, prince of Essliug and duke of RivoH. 

Moucey, duke of Couegliano. 

Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, July 28, 
1S35. 

Murat, king of Naples, executed Oct. 13, 1815. 

Ney, prince of Moskwa, executed Dec. 7, 1815. 

Oudinot, duke of Eeggio. 

Soult, duke of Dalmatia. 

Suchet, duke of Albuera. 

Victor, duke of Belluuo. 



MAS 



OFFICERS or STATE. 

Cambaceres, duke of Parma. 
Caulaincourt, duke of Vicenza. 
Champagne, duke of Cadore. 
Duroc, duke of Friuli, killed at Bautzen, 1813. 
PouchiS, duke of Otrauto. 
Le Brun, duke of Piacenza. 
Maret, duke of Bassauo. 
Savarj', duke of Rovigo; and 

Talleyrand de Perigord, prince of Benevento, died 1838. 
MARSHALSEA COURT of the Queen's house was 
very ancient, of high dignity, and coeval with the 
common law. Since the decision of the case of the 
Marshalsea (see Lord Cvkc's 10 Bep., 68) no business 
had been done in this court ; but it was regularly 
opened and adjourned at the same time with the Pal- 
ace court, the judges and other officers being the same 
1 hese courts were abolished by Parliament, and were 
discontinued, Dec. 31, 1849. 

MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, after 
several contests, yielded to the Romans, about 301 B C 
During the Civil Wars they and their allies rebelled, 
having demanded and been refused the rights of Ro- 
man citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes and 
reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the 
rights they required, ST B.C. The Marsi being Socii 
Gt the Romans, this was called the Social War. 

MARSTON MOOR (near York). The Scots and Par- 
liamentary army were besieging York, when Prince 
Rupert, joined by the Marquess of Newcastle, deter- 
mined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on 
Marston Moor on July 2, 10-14, and the contest was 
long unclecided. Rupert, commanding the right win- 
?ll]? Ko>''J,''st5 was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, at 
the head of a body of troops disciplined by himself. 
tho^'^'V? /Tf'^ victorious; he drove his opponents off 
the Held, followed the vanquished, returned to a sec- 
owiii?^""®"?"^' '^"'^^ ^, ^^'^'""^ victory. The prince's 
artillery was taken, and the Royalists never recovered 

ItUC DIow. 

MARTELLO TOWERS were circular buildin-s of 
masonry erected m the beginning of the present cen- 
tury on the coast of England as defenses ao-ainst in- 
vasion Thei;e are four of them in the rear of the city 
Rh-crs ^^^^'■^'^^'^ "le St. Lawrence and St. Charles 

Lalf^^'^^'^^ ^^^' ^^^ Courts-martial and Military 

MARTINESTI. See Rimnik. 

Ifi^^'^^Th^n^Y?. ^^'f-"' ^"'^^«^)' ««*"ed by France, 
1635. 1 his and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St 
y ncent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the Bdt- 

n F,MnU"n^^[f ""' "' ^'^'i- ^ '«2- They were restored 
to France at the peace of the following year Thev 
were again taken karch 10, 1T94 ; were restored at the 
?IMao T''""' '," ^?'^-' ""'' we'e again captured Feb. 
vnV ^?<r ^.'■^^•'Ij't'"? took place in this island in fa- 
voi of N.apoleon, but it was linally suppressed by the 
Fronch';n""f ^' ^'l^' '^"'^ MartiniVie '/everted to fts 
in ^707 ami 1S39' '"'^ earthquakes occurred here 

oT?nf ?'^^^'^^^^^• ^.?r- "• ^^^ ^^""^^ °f ^t- Mnrtin, bish- 
op of T.nirs, in the 4th century. In parts of the north 
ot England and in Scotland it is quarter day 
MARTIN'S UALL, St., Long Acre, London, was 



7.T^^^ fl^ff concert-room for Mr. John Hullah on 
1801 ' ""'"^ ^"°" ^^' ^^"°' ^"'^ ^^^^^i^t 

MARTYRS Stephen, the first Christian martyr, 
was stoned, 37. The festivals of the martyrs, of very 
ancient date, took their rise about the tinie of Poly- 
f^thPPn^.ul '"■'''} martyrdom about 166. St. Alban 
Prottmm P™'^°'^'''''fy'"' 280. See Persecutions and 

nf^^'^.^iT^A'^^^' °"^ °^ ^^^ ^'■^t thirteen United States 
of Noith America, was granted in 1G32 to Lord Balti- 
more and settled by a company of English Romanists 
in 1034 It continued m the Union when the other 
slave states seceded in 1860 and 1861. The Confeder- 
ate army, under General Lee, after their victory at Bull 

M^riit'^l- ^%l^^^' ''°'*''^ '^'^ ^"'"'"ac and entered 
Maryland. Ihey were encountered by the Federal 
ariny under M'Clellan. Severe conflicts ensued, espe- 
cially on Sept. IT, at Antietam Creek, with great loss 
on both sides, each claiming the victory. S^ee Antie- 
tarn. 



_ MASKS. Poppjea, the wife of Nero, is said to have 
invented the mask to guard her complexion from the 
sun ; but theatrical masks M'ere in ui-e amono- the 
Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to ^s- 
chylus; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time of 
their introduction were unknown.— Modern masks 
and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were 
devised in Italy, and brought to.Eugland from France 
in 1572.— i8toiu. 

MASQUERADES were in fashion in the court of 
hdward III., 1340; and in the reign of Charles, 1660 
masquerades were frequent among the citizens The 
bishops preached against them, and made such repre- 
sentations as occasioned their suppression, 9 Geo. I. 
1724. [No less than six masquerades were subscribed 
for m a mouth at this time.] They were revived, and 
carried to shameful excess by connivance of the o-ov- 
ernmeut, and in direct violation of the laws, and tick- 
ets of admission to a masquerade at Ranelagh were 
on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-flve o-uin- 
eas each, \~a&.— Mortimer. At the close of a bal masque 
March 5, 1856, Covent Garden Theatre was destroyed 
by fire. •' 

MASS, in the Roman Church, is the office or prayers 
used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in meniory 
ot tlie passion of Christ, and to this every part of the 
service alludes. The general division consists in high 
and lo\y; the first is that sung by the choristers, and 
celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- 
deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers 
are badly rehearsed without singing. Mass was first 
celebrated in Latin about 394; it was introduced into 
England m the 7th century. Prostration was enjoined 
at the elevation of the host in 1201.* 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First 
settled at Plymouth by a colony of English Puritans, 
who had lived some time in Holland, after being driv- 
en out of their own country by persecution, 1020 This 
was called the Plymouth colony. In 1628, others di- 
rect from England settled at Salem and Charlestown, 
and in 1630 at Boston, and this was called the Massa- 
chusetts Bay colony. By this name the whole prov- 
mce was called uutil the Revdlutiou, the two above- 
named colonies having been united in 1692. Here were 
transacted some of the earlier and most important 
scenes of the Revolution. See Boston. It adopted a 
State Constitution in 1780, abolished slavery in 1783, 
and accepted the Federal Constitution in Feb., 1788, 
by which it became a member of the Confederacy. 

MASSACRES. The following are among the most 
remarkable : 

BEFORE CHRIST. 

Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 

2000 Tyriaiis crucified and 8000 'put to the sword for 

not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 

A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, 
near Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 be- 
ing left dead on the spot, 102. 

The Romans throughout Asia, M'omen and children 
not excepted, massacred in one day, by order of 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, 8S. 

A great number of Roman senators massacred by Cin- 
na, Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 

* Dr. Daniel Rock, in his work entitled "The Church of our Fa- 
thers" (1849), gives a full account of an ancient MS. of " The Service 
ot the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," compiled for that cathedral 
hy St. Osmund and others, from the end of the llth to the end of the 
r.*th century. ^ 



MAS 



308 



MAU 



Again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of venge- 
ance, S'2. 

At Penisia, Octavianiis Csesar ordered 300 Roman sen- 
ators and otlaer persons of distinction to be sacri- 
ficed to the manes of Julius Cajsar, 40. 

AFTEE CUEIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of Jews are 
said to have been put to the sword, 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to death 100,000 
Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyreue, 115. 

Cassius, a Roman general, under the Emperor M. Au- 
relius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of Se- 
leucia, 165. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were mas- 
sacred by order of Antoninus, 21.5. 

The Emperor Probus is said to have put to death 
400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 2TT. 

Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 

Of Thessalouica, when 7000 persons invited into the 
circus were put to the sword, by order of Theodo- 
sius, 390. 

Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of 
Andronicus, 1184. 

Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Tou- 
louse, 1208. Thousands perished by the sword and 
gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282. See Sicilian 
Vespers. 

At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
duTvC of Burgundy, 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- 
tian II., 1520. 

Of Protestants at Vassy, March 1, 1562. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France 
(see St. Dartholomeiv), Aug. 24, 1572. 

Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 
were slain, 1592. 

Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, 
, May 27, 16U6. 

Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pre- 
tended legal sentence of the Chancellor of Poland 
for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Ro- 
man Catholic procession, 1724. All the Protestant 
powers in Europe interceded to have this unjust 
sentence revoked, but unavailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were niassacred by the na- 
tives, Oct., 1740, under the pretext of an intended in- 
surrection. 

At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old 
and young "were slain, Dec., 1790. See Ismail. 

Of French Royalists (see Scptembrizers), Sept. 2,1792. 

Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation 
for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1S04, 
and many thousands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, 
May 2, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo, 
March 1, ISll. 

Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May, 1815. 

Massacre at Scio, April 22, 1822. See Chios. 

Destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, June 
14, 1826. 

600 Kabyles' suffocated in a cave in Algeria, June IS, 
1845. See Dahra. 

Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, Oct. 16, 1S50. 

Of Maronites, by the Druses, in Lebanon, June, 1800 ; 
and of Christians, by the Mohammedans, at Damas- 
cus, July 9-11, 1860. See Druses and Damascus. 

MASSACKF.S IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 English nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, 
about 4.50. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by 
Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, in 
the night of Nov. 13, 1002, and the 23d Efhelred II. 
At Loudon it was most bloody, the churches being 
no sanctuary. Among the rest was Gunilda, sister 
of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the 
performance of a treaty but newly concluded.— ZJa/;- 
er's Chronicle. 

Of the Jews in England. Some few, pressing into 
Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were 
put to death by the people ; and a false alarm being 
given that the king had ordered a general massacre 
of them, the people in many parts of England slew 
all they met. In York, 500, who had taken shelter 
in the castle, killed themselves rather than fall into 
the hands of the multitude, 1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists at Cullen's Wood, Ireland (see 
Cullen's Wood), 1209. 



Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dis- 
possess its members of the Spice Islands, Feb., 1024. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's 
rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Upward of 30,000 British 
were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. 
— Sir Williani Pettij. In the first three or four days 
of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were 
destroyed. — Lord Clarerulon. Before the rebellion 
was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants w'ere 
massacred. — Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoc), Feb. 13, 
1692. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, 
burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ; perpe- 
trated by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Sculla- 
bogue, Ireland, in 1798. — Hhisgrave. 

Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, etc., by mutineers of 
the native Indian army (see hidia), May and June, 
1857. 

Of Europeans atKalangan, on the south coast of Bor- 
neo, May 1, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Morant Bay, Jamaica, by the in- 
furiated negroes, Oct. 11, 12, 1865. 

MASSAGETJ3, an ancient Scythian people (proba- 
bly the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded Asia 
about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great 
was killed, 529 B.C. 

MASSANIELLO REVOLUTION, 1647. See XapUs, 
note. 

MASSILIA. See Marseilles. 

MASTER OF THE RoLi.8, an equity judge, derives hia 
title from having the custody of all charters, patents, 
commissions, deeds, and recognizances, made into 
rolls of parchment; his decrees are appealable to the 
Court of Chancery. The repository of public papers, 
called the Rolls, is in Chancery Lane. They were for- 
merly kept in a chapel founded for the converted 
Jews ; but, after the Jews were expelled the kingdom, 
it was annexed forever to the oflice of the mastership 
of the rolls. Here were kept all the records since the 
beginning of the reign of King Richard III., 1483, all 
prior to that period being kept in the Tower of Lon- 
don. See Records. The first recorded master of the 
rolls was either John de Langton, appointed 1286, or 
Adam de Osgodeby, appointed Oct. 1,1295; but it is 
clear that the office was in existence long before. — 
Hardy. The duties were defined in 1833, and the sal- 
ary regulated in 1837. 

MATHEMATICS formerly meant all kinds of learn- 
ing, but the term is now applied to the sciences relat- 
ing to numbers and quantity. See Arithmetic. Among 
the most eminent mathematicians were Euclid, 300 
B.C.; Archimedes, 287 B.C.; Descartes, died 1650; 
Barrow, died 1677; Leibnitz, died 1710; Sir Isaac New- 
ton, died 1727 ; Euler, died 1783 ; Lagrange, died 1813-; 
Laplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858. Dr. 
Whewell, Mr. G. B. Airy (astronomer royal). Professor 
de Morgan, I. Todhuuter, and Mary Somerville, born 
1790, author of the "Mechanism ofthe Heavens," are 
eminent living mathematicians. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in 
the morning or beginning of the day in the Roman 
Catholic Church. The French Matins imply the mas- 
sacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. The Matins 
of Moscoiv Mverc the massacre of Prince Demetrius, and 
the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning 
ofMay 27, 1606. 

MATTERHORN, a part of the main ridge of the 
Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. After 
various fruitless attempts by Professor Tyndall, Mr. 
Whymper, and other eminent climbers, in 1860, the 
summit was reached on July 14, 1805, by Mr. Edwai'd 
Whymper and others. During their descent four of 
the party were killed. Mr. Hadow fell ; the connect- 
ing rope broke, and himself, Lord Francis Douglas, 
the Rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, a guide, slip- 
ped down, and fell from a precipice nearly 4000 feet 
high. 

MAUMEE RAPIDS, Battle of. At the Maumee 
Rapids, in Northern Ohio, Wayne, with American 
troops, fought with, defeated, and completely routed 
2000 Indians, on the 20th of August, 1794. The Amer- 
icans lost 33 killed and 100 wounded. This battle end- 
ed the Indian War in the Northwest. 

MAUND AY-THURSDAY (derived by Spelmau from 
mande, a hand-basket, in which the king was accus- 
tomed to give alms to the poor; by others from dies 
mandati, the day on which Christ gave his grand man- 
date that we should love one another), the Thursday 
before Good Friday.— Wheatley. On this day it was 



MAU 



309 



MEC 



the cnstom of our kings or their almoners to give 
alms, food, and clotliiui; to as many poor men as they 
were years old. It was begun by Kilward III. when he 
was tifty years of age, 1UG3, and is still continued by 
our sovereign. 

MAUR, St. See Benedictines. 

MAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, became 
a Roman province, 4.5 B.C., with Sallust for proconsul. 
Augustus created (30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mau- 
ritania and part of Getulia for Juba II., a descendant 
of the ancient African princes. Suetonius Paulinus 
suppressed a revolt here, A.D. 42. The country was 
subjugated by the Vandals and Greeks, and fell into 
the hands of the Arabs, about GOT. See Morocco and 
Aloors. 

MAURITIUS, or Isle of Franor (in the Indian 
Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, 1505 ; but 
the Dutch were the first settlers in 15'JS. They called 
it after Prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their 
acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope they deserted it, 
and it continued unsettled until the French landed, 
and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in 
France, 1T15. This island was taken by the British, 
Dec. '2, ISIO, and confirmed to them by the treaty of 
Paris in 1S14. Sir Henry Barkly became governor in 
1SG3. Population in ISOl, 313,402. 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemesia married her own broth- 
er, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 3T7 B.C. At 
his death she drank in liquor his ashes after bis body 
had been burned, and erected to his memory at Hali- 
carnassus a monument, one of the seven wonders of 
the world (350 B.C.), termed Mausoleum. She invited 
all the literary men of her age, and proposed rewards 
to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon 
her husband. The prize was adjudged to 1 heopomp- 
Tis, 357 B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mauso- 
lus is among the antiquities brought from Halicarnas- 
sus by Mr. O. T. Newton in lS5t, and placed in the 
British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal family 
of England was founded by the queeu at Frogmore, 
JIarch 15, 1S62. 

MAUVE (French for mrt^yrt, mallow), a dye produced 
by Dr. Slenhouse from lichens in 1S4S; now produced 
fl'om Aniline (which see). 

MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its name, 
some say, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation 
in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who 
were denominated majores; others supposed it was so 
called from Mala, the mother of Mercury, to whom 
they offered sacrifices on the first day. The ancient 
Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Ege- 
ria on May-day. See Evil May-day.* 

MAYORS OP THE Palace were high officers in 
France, and had great influence during the later Ne- 
rovingian kings. They were Pepin the Old (or de Lan- 
den), &21 et sci/. Pepin Heristal, 6S7-7U ; Charles Mar- 
tel, 714-741; Pepin le Bref, 741-752, who shut up Chil- 
deric III. in a monastery, and himself took the king- 
dom. In this quality Charles Martel ruled with des- 
potic sway, 7.35 et.ieq. Mayors of Corporations. — At 
the time of the Norman Conquest, 1060, the chief ofli- 
cer of L(nidon was caWe A jjort-g rave, afterward soften- 
ed into port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief 
governor of a harbor. He was afterward called pro- 
vost ; but in Henry II.'s reign the Norman title of 
Tnaire (soon after niaijor) was brought into use. At 
first the mayor was chosen for life, out afterward for 
periods of irregular duration; now he is chosen an- 
nually, but is eligible for re-election. lie must be an 
alderman, and must have previously filled the office 
of sheriff. His duties commence on Nov. 9. The pre- 
fix LoiiM is peculiar to the chief civic oflicer of London, 
Dublin, Edinburg, and also York (since 13S9, when a 
new charter was granted). 

MEAL-TUB PLOT, against the Duke of York, aft- 
erward James II., contrived by one Dangerfield, who 
secreted a bundle of seditious letters in the lodgings 
of Colonel Maunsell, and then gave information to the 
Custom-house ofticers to search for smuggled goods, 
Oct. 23, 1G79. After Dangerfield's apprehension on 
suspicion of forging these letters, papers were found 

• Mm. Elizabeth Montaftue (who died in 1800) Rave for many years, 
on Muy-day, an entertainment at her house in Porttnan Square to the 
chimney-sweepers of London. Tlicy were rc^raled with roast beef and 
plum pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each 
puest received a shilling from the mistress of the feast. It is said, 
though the statement is much doubted, that this entertainment was in- 
stituted to commemorate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague's having 
once founil a boy of her own, or that of a relation, among the sooty 
tribe. In allusion to this incident, perhaps, a story resembling the a<i- 
ventures of this child is pathetically related by Montgomery in " The 
Chimney-sweeper's Boy.'* 



concealed in a meal-tnb at the house of a woman with 
whom he cohaliited, which contained the scheme to 
be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in 
the Protestant interest, who were against the Duke 
of York's succession, of treason, particularly the Earls 
of Shallesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield 
being whipjied the last time, as part of his punish- 
ment, June 1, 1085, (Hie of his eyes was struck out by 
a barrister named Robert Francis: this caused his 
death, for which his assailant was hanged. 
MEASURES. See Weights. 

MECCA (in Arabia), the birthplace of Mohammed, 
509. The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited 
by pilgrims. On one of the neighburiiii; bills is a cave, 
where it is asserted Mohammed usuallj- retired to per- 
form his devotions, and where the greatest part of the 
Koran was brought to him by the Angel Gabriel, 604. 
Two miles from the town is the hill where, they saj', 
Abraham went to ofl'er up Isaac, 1871 B.C. Mecca, 
after being vainly besieged by Hosein for the Caliph 
Yezid, A.D. 682, was taken by Abdelmelek, 092. lu 
1803 it fell into the hands of the Wahabees, a Moham- 
medan sect. It is said that 100,000 pilgrims visited 
Mecca iu 1858, and only 50,000 in 1859. 

MECHANICS. The simple mechanical powers have 
been ascribed to heathen deities ; the axe, wedge, 
wimble, etc., to Dredalus. See Steam-engine. 

Aristotle writes on mechanics about B.C. 820 

The properties of the lever, etc., demonstrated by 

Archimedes, who died about 2S7 

[He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- 
tions, the farther prosecution of which is the 
boast of our age. — Wallis (1095).] 
The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; 

the Romans found one in Yorkshire * * 

Cattle mills, •molm jumcntarim, were also iu use by 

the Romans * * 

The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; 
the first that was described was near one of the 

dwellings of Mithridates TO 

A water-mill is said to have been erected on the 

River Tiber, at Rome 50 

Pappus wrote on mechanics about A.D. .''.SO 

Floating-mills on the Tiber 530 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 

about 1078 
Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 

century * * 

Saw-mills are said to have been iu use at Augs- 
burg 1332 

Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Car- 
dan about 1540 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus 15S6 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo 1C3S 

Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren about 1608 

Theory of oscillation, Huyghens 1670 

Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer,16T5 
Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he 

died 16T9 

Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallelo- 
gism of forces, laws of motion, etc., Newton, 

Hooke, etc " 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis. Dr. 

Gregory 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inventions), by Dr. 

Rooke, from IGCO to 1T02 

D'Alembert's researches on dynamics, about 1T43 

Borgnis's Dictionnaire de Mecanique appliquee 

aux Arts, 10 vols lSlS-23 

[Among the best modern writers on the science 
of mechanics are Poncelet, Whewell, Barlow, 
Moseley, Delaunaj', and Bartholomew Price.] 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS in Great Britain. 
One was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and an- 
other in Glasgow, ill 1823; and soon after others arose 
in diff"erent parts of the emjnre. They have revived 
since 1S5T, many noblemen and gentlemen giving lec- 
tures in them. There are several flourishing ones in 
the United States. Of these, that of Boston takes the 
lead. 

MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly a princi- 
pality in Lower Saxony, now independent as the two 
grand-duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (population 
iu 1863, 551,884), and Meckleuburg-Strelitz (population 
in 1860, 99,000). The house of Mecklenburg is among 
the most ancient in Europe, as it claims to be de- 
scended from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the 
Western Empire in the 5th century, and died 4TT. 
During the Thirty Years' War Mecklenburg was con- 
quered by Walleiistein, who became its duke, 1628 ; it 
was ivstored to its own duke in 1630. After several 
changes, the government was settled iu ITOl as it now 



MED 



310 



MEL 



exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. 
In 1815, the Dukes of Mecklenburg were made grand- 
dukes. — The royal family of England for a century has 
been intimately allied with the house of Mecklenbury- 
Strelitz. King George III. married Charlotte, a daugh- 
ter of the duke, in 17G1 ; their son, the Duke of Cum- 
berland (afterward King of Hanover), married Prin- 
cess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of the duke, in 
1815; and Princess Augusta of Cambridge married 
June' 28, 1843, Frederick, the present grand-duke. 

GKAND-ISUKEB OF JIECKLENIiUEG-SOU WEKIN. 

1815. Frederick-Francis I. 

1842. Frederick-Francis II., March 7; born Feb. 28, 

1823 (PKESENT grand-duke). 
IHeir: his son, Frederick -Francis, born March 19, 

1851.] 

GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBUEG-STKELITZ. 

1815. Charles. 

1816. George, born Aug. 12, 1779 ; succeeded Nov. 6. 
1860. Frederick, Sept. 6 ; born Oct. 17, 1819 (the tkes- 

ENT grand-duke). 
[Heir: his son, Adolphus- Frederick, born July 22, 
1S48.] 

MEDALS. See Numismatics. There is hardly any 
record of medals or decorations as rewards in the 
army or navy before the time of the Commonwealth. 
The House of Commons resolved to grant rewards 
and medals to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, 
Penn, and Lawson) and men gained a glorious victory 
over the Dutch fleet, oft" the Tesel, in 1653. Blake's 
medal of 1053 was bought by his majesty William IV. 
for 150 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for apply- 
ing the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for medals 
and other rewards for officers, seamen, and marines. 
Subsequent to Lord Howe's victory, June 1, 1794, it was 
thought expedient to institute a naval medal. Medals 
were presented by the queen to persons distinguished 
in the war in the Crimea, May IS, 1S55. In the United 
States, medals of gold and silver have been awarded 
for meritorious services from the foundation of the 
government. The first that was authorized by Con- 
gress was awarded to Washinsjton for his deliverance 
of Boston from British rule in March, 1776. It was of 
gold. 

MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian Empire, revolt- 
ed 711 B.C. 

Kevolt of the Medes B.C. 711 

Deioces, founder of Bcl)atana, reigns 709 

Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns (he conquers Per- 
sia, Armenia, and other countries) 656 

Warlike reign of Cyaxares 632-594 

War with the Lydians (see Halijs) 603 

Astyages reigns 594 

Astyages deposed by Cyrus, 550 ; who established 
the Empire of Persia (which see) 500 

MEDICI FAMILY, illustrious as the restorers of lit- 
erature and the tine arts in Italy, were chiefs or sifjiwri 
of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which year 
Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the 
republic, was recalled and made its chief; he presided 
over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled 
"the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled 
Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope 
Leo X.) was the son of Lorenzo. — Roscoe. From 1569 
to 1737 the Medici family were hereditary grand-dukes 
of Tuscany (which see). Catharine de' Medici became 
queen of France in 1.547, and regent in 1550. She plot- 
ted with the Duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants 
in 1565. 

MEDICINE. See Physio. 

MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the tomb of 
Mohammed, in a large mosque, lighted by rich lamps. 
Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because 
here Mohammed was i)rotected when he fled from 
Mecca, July 15, 622. See Ilcgira. Medina was taken 
by the Wahabees in 1804. 

MEEANEE. The Hyderabad Ameers, amounting to 
30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 5000 cavalry, posted 
in a formidable position at Meeanee, were attacked on 
Feb. 17, 1843, by Lieut. Gen. Sir Charles Napier, with 
2600 men of all arms. This insignificant force fell so 
impetuously upon the enemy, that after a severe con- 
test the Ameers gave way, and retreated in tolerable 
order. Their loss was enormous. 

MEGARA, a city of ancient Greece, was subdued by 
the Athenians in the 8th century B.C. Pericles sup- 
pressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Megarians founded By- 
zantium 057 B.C., and sent a second colony 628 B.C. 
The Megariau (Eristic or disputatious) school of phi- 



losophy was founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of 
Megara. 

MEIGS, Fort, at the Maumee Rapids, was occupied 
by General Harrison, with about 2000 American troops, 
in the spring of 1813. There, on the 1st of May, he was 
besiegedby General Proctor, with a British and Indian 
force amounting m all to about 2S00 men. On the 5th 
they were attacked by a part of General Clay's brig- 
ade, 800 in number, and driven ofl". The victors pur- 
sued, but were turned upon and overwhelmed by the 
British and Indians. During the siege the Americans 
lost 81 killed and 190 wouiided. In the attack and 
pursuit, on the 5th of May, the Americans lost SO kill- 
ed and 490 made prisoners. 

MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20 
and 21, 1800, defeated the Neapolitans under General 
Bosco, who lost about 600 men. Garibaldi's loss being 
167. The latter entered Messina; and on July 30 a 
convention was signed, by which it was settled that 
the Neapolitan troops were to quit Sicily. They held 
the citadel of Messina till "March 13, 1861. 

MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria (which 
see). It was laid out as a town by orders of Sir R. 
Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land-sale took place 
in June, and speculation commenced and continued 
till it caused wide-spread insolvency iu 1841-2. 
Made a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric,lS4T 

First Legislative Assembly of Victoria meets 1S52 

Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles from 
Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense 
numbers of emigrants flocked tltiere in conse- 
quence, causing an enormous rise in the prices of 

provisions and clothing " 

Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 at the end 

of " 

The city greatly improved with public "buildings, 

handsome shops, etc 1853 

The Victoria Bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
i;i4,300 in money and 200 ounces in gold-dust 
carried off [one of the robbers was taken in En- 
gland, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried 

and hanged] Oct. 8,1854 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the 
collection of the gold licenses, followed by riots, 
during which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; 
intervention of the military; 20 rioters and three 

soldiers killed, and many wounded Nov. 30 " 

The mayor comes to London to congratulate the 
queen on the marriage of the princess royal... .1858 
(See Victoria.) 

MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. On the re- 
tirement of Earl Grey, July 9, 1834, Viscount Melbourne 
became first minister of the crown. On the accession 
of Viscount Althorpe to the earldom of Spencer, on 
his father's decease, Nov. same year, Lord Melbourne 
waited on the king to receive his majesty's commands 
as to the appointment of a new chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer, when his majesty said he considered the ad- 
ministration at an end. Sir Robert Peel succeeded, 
but was compelled to resign in 1835, and Lord Mel- 
bourne returned to oflice. His administration finally 
terminated Aug. 30, 1841, Sir Robert Peel again com- 
ing into power. See Administrations. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July, 1834. 

Viscount Melbourne,* First Lord of the Treasury. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord President. 

Earl Mulgrave, Privy Seal. 

Viscount Althorpe, Chancellor of the Excheqtier. 

Viscount Duncannon, Viscount Palmerston, and Mr. 

Spring Rice (afterward Lord Monteagle), Home, For- 

eiffn, and Colonial Secretaries. 
Lord Auckland, Admiralty. 
Mr. Charles Grant (afterward Lord Glonelg), and Mr. 

C. P. Thomson (afterward Lord Sydenham), Boards 

of Control and Trade. 
Lord John Russell, Paymaster of the Forces. 
Lord Brougham, Lord Chancellor. 
Sir John Ilobhouse, Mr. Ellice, Marquess of Con3Tig- 

ham, Mr. Littleton, etc. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 

Lord Melbourne, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord President. 

Viscount Duncannon, Privy Seal, and Woods aiid For- 
ests. 

Mr. Rice, Chancellor of the Excheqtier. 

Lord John Russell, Viscount Palmerston, and Lord 
Glenclg, Home, Foreipn, and Colonial Secretaries. 

Earl of Minto, Admiralty. 

* Wm. Lamb, born in 1779; became M.P. for Westminster, 1819; 
secretary lor Ireland, 1827 ; succeeded his father as Viscount Mel- 
bourne, 1S28 ; died Nov. 24, 1848. 



MEL 



311 



MES 



Sir John Ilobhouse, and Mr. Poulett Thomson, Boards 

of Control and Trade. 
Lord Holliiiul, Diicliii <i/ fMncantcr. 
Viscoiuil Ilowick, ."^ccrctarii at War. 
Mr. Labouchcrc, Sir Henry I'ariicll, Lord Morpeth, etc. 
The (.'liaiK'ellorsliip in coiiniiit^siou ; Sir C. Pojjys (aft- 
erward Lord (Jotteuhum) became Lurd Chaiwellur, 

Jan., IsyG. 

MELEGNANO. See Marignano. 

MELODRAMA originated with or was introduced 
by Mr. Holcroft in ITa^. 

MEMEL, an important commercial port in Prussia, 
built about I'Jiy. It was taken by the Teutonic knights 
about Ij'js. It has sufl'cied much by tire, and was al- 
most totally destroyed October -i, 1S54. The loss was 
estimated at X"1,100,UU0. 

MEMORY. Sea Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of which the 
very ruins are stupendous"), is said to have been built 
by Menes, 3S9U B.C. ; or by Misraim, 2188 B.C. It was 
restored by Septimius Severus, A.U. 2U5. In the 7th 
century, under the dominion of the Saraceus,it fell into 
decay. The invasion of Cambyses, 520 B.C., began the 
ruin of Memphis, and the foimdiug of Alexandria, 332, 
completed it. 

MENAI STRAIT (between the Welsh coast and the 
isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, when he in- 
vaded Anglesey, transported his ti'oops across this 
strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam 
over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their 
last retreat. Their horrid practice of sacriticiug their 
captives, and the opposition he met with, so incensed 
the Roman general that he gave the Britons no quar- 
ter, throwing all that escaped from that battle into 
tires which they had prepared for the destruction of 
himself and his army, A.D. OL— In crossing this strait 
a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty jiersons, chiefly Irish, 
Dec. 4, liS5. The road from Loudon to Holyhead has 
long been regarded as the highway from the British 
metropolis to Dublin ; Mr. Telford was applied to by 
the government to perfect this route by the London 
andllolyhead mail-coach road, which he did by erect- 
ing beautiful suspension bridges over the River Con- 
way and the Menai Strait, commenced in July, 1818, 
and finished in July,lS25. The Britannia tubular bridge 
over the Menai was constructed by Stei)henson aiid 
Fairbairu in 1840-50. See Tubular Dridycs. 

MENDICA^iT FRIARS. Several religious orders 
commenced alms-begging in the 13th ceiJtury, in the 
pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe, 
and embraced many communities; but at length, by 
a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons in 1272, 
were confined to four orders — Dominicans, Francis- 
cans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and 
others branched ofi'. See Franciscans, etc. 

MENDICITY SOCIETY (RedLion Square,London), 
was established in 181S for the suppression of public 
begging and other impositions. Tickets received from 
the society are given by subscribers to beggars, who 
obtain relief at the society's house, if deserving. The 
society has caused above 23,000 vagrants to be con- 
victed as impostors. In 1857, 54,074 meals; in 1860, 
42,012 ; and in 1SG4, 5.5,26.5, were distributed. In 1857, 
S785, and in 1864, 3680 begging letters were investi- 
gated. 

MEXSUEATIOX The various properties of conic 
sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom the 
chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. 
lie also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, 
etc., about 218 B.C. Sec Arithmetic. 

:MEXTZ (S.W. Gennany), the Roman Mofynntiacnm. 
The archbishopric was founded by Boniface in 745. 
Many diets have been held here ; and here John Faust 
established a printing-press in 1442. A festival in hon- 
or of John Guttenberg was celebrated here in 1S37. 

MENU, iNSTiTrTF.s OF, the very ancient code of In- 
dia. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated them into En- 
glish (1794), considers their date should be placed be- 
tween llomer (about 962 B.C.) and the Roman Twelve 
Tables (about 449 B.C.). 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of 
these charts is said to have been a Mr. Wright, who 
made several voyages ; in his absence Gerard Merca- 
tor published the charts in his own name, l.'i.50. They 
are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's 
own ingenuity. 

MERCER, FoKT, Battt.k at. Fort Mercer, at Red 
Bank, on the Delaware, in command of Lieutenant 



Colonel Greene, was attacked on the 22d of October, 
1777, by Count Donop and 2000 Hessian grenadiers. 
They were repulsed with a loss of about 400 men, in- 
cluding their commander. The Americans lost less 
than 50 men. 

MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT was passed in 1S02 
to punish forgeries of tradesmen's marks, whereby 
much injury had been done. " 

MERCHANT. An attempt was made by Queen 
Anne s mmistry to exclude merchants from sittm<r in 
the House of Commons in 1711 ; but it failed The 
Meeouant Adventukers' Society (see Adventurers) 
was established by the Duke of Brabant in 1290; it 
extended to England in Edward IIL's rei" n • and was 
formed into an English corporation in°1564.— The 
Merchant Tailors, a rich company of the city of 
London, of which many kings have been members, 
were so called after the admission of Henry VH into 
their company, 1501, but were incorporated in 1406. 
1 heir school was founded in 1561.— Stow. 

MERCIA. See under Britain. 

MERCURY. See Quicksilver and Calomel. 

MERCY, Order of (in France), was established with 
the object of accomplishing the redemption of Chris- 
tian captives, by John de Matha, in 119S.—Eenault. 
Another order was founded by Pierre Nolasque, Spain. 
1223. ^ > p I 

MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura (built by 
the Romans), was taken by the French, Jan., 1811. 
Near this town, at Arroyos Molinos, the British army 
under General (afterward Lord) Hill defeated the 
French under General Girard, after a severe eutrage- 
ment, Oct. 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the 
French in Jan., 1S12, General Hill leading the com- 
bined forces of English and Spanish troops. 

MERGE, an ancient city and country of inner Africa, 
near the sources of the Nile, said to have flourished 
under sacerdotal government in the time of Herodo- 
tus, about 450 B.C. 

MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French kings, 
418-752. See Mayors and France. 

MERRIMAC. See Hampton Roads. 

MERRY-ANDREW. The name is said to have been 
first given to Andrew Borde, a physician, who lived iu 
the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on some occasions, 
on account of his facetious manners, appeared at court, 
1547. 

MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the barons 
under Henry III., Jan. 23, 1236, held a Parliament 
which enacted the statutes called the Provisions of 
Merton, the most ancient body of laws next after 
Magna Charta. They were repealed in 1S03. See 
Bastards. 

MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a Ger- 
man physician of Mersburg, publishecl his doctrines in 
1700, contending, by a thesis on planetary influence, 
that the heavenly bodies diftused through the universe 
a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of 
animated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris in 1778, 
he gained numerous proselytes to his system in 
Fraiice, where he received a subscription of 340,000 
livres. The government appointed a committee of 
physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences 
to investigate his pretensions. Among these were 
Franklin and Bailly, and the results appeared in an 
admirable paper drawn up by the latter, 1784, expos- 
ing the futility of animal magnetism, as the delusion 
was then termed. Mesmerism excited atteution again 
about 1S4S, when Miss Harriet Martineau and others 
announced their belief iu it.* 

MESSALIANS, a sect (about 310) professing to ad- 
here to the very letter of the Gospel. They refused 
to work, quoting this passage, "Labor not for the 
food that perisheth." 

MESSENIA (now Mattra-Matra), a country of the 
Peloponnesus. The kingdom commenced by Poly- 
caon, 1490 B.C. It had long sanguinary wars against 
Sparta (see next article), and once contained a huu- 
drecl cities, most of whose names even are now un- 
known. It was at first governed by kings ; after its 
restoration to power in the Peloponnesus, it formed a 
republic, under the protection first of the Thebans, 
and afterward of the Macedonians; but it never rose 
to eminence. 



* In 1S59, the Mesmeric Inlirnmry issued its tenth ftnnual report, 
Arclibislion Whntely beinR presiilent, and the Earl of Carlisle and 
Mr. Moncktou Milnes (since Lord Houghton) among the vice-presi 
dents. 



MES 



312 



MET 



The/rsi MessenianWar begau 743 B.C. ; was oc- 
casioned by violeuce ofi'ered to some Spartan 
women in a temple of devotion common to 
both nations, the King of Sparta being killed 
in his efforts to defend the females. Eventu- 
ally Ithome was taken, and the Messenians be- 
came slaves to the conquerors B.C. 723 

The semnd war was commenced about 6S2 B.C., to 
throw off the galling Spartan yoke, ending in the 

defeat of the Messenians, who fled to Sicily 6G2 

The third war took place 490 B.C.; and i\ie fourth, 

4C5-455 
MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, who 
seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.C. It ))e- 
longed for many a^s to the Roman Empire, but fell 
to the Saracens about A.D. S29. — Priestleij. In the 
11th century RoMr the Norman took it by surprise, 
and delivered it from Mohammedan oppression. See 
Sicibj. 
Revolt against Charles of Aujou, and is succored 

by Peter of Aragon 12S2 

Revolt in favor of Louis XVI. of France, Avho is 
proclaimed here, 16TG; the Spaniards punish it 

severely 1G78 

Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption of 

Etna 1093 

Nearly depopulated by a plague 1 740 

Half destroyed by an earthquake 17S3 

Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily prior 

to 1S14 

An insurrection here, subdued Sept. 7,1S4S 

Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at Me- 

lazzo July 20-21,1800 

The citadel surrenders to General Cialdiui, 

March 13,1SG1 

METALS. The metals and metalloids are now 
above tifty in number. Tubal-Cain is mentioned as 
an "instructor of every artificer in brass and iron" 
(Gen. iv.). Moses and Homer speak of the seven 
metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. The Phos- 
niciaus had great skill in working metals. See Mines, 
Iro7i, and the other metals. Buusen and Kirchhoif's 
method of chemical analysis by means of the spectrum 
has added C'jesium, Rubidium, Thallium, and Indium 
to the known metals. 

METAMORPHISTS in the 15th century afHrmed 
that Christ's natural body, with which he ascended 
into heaven, was wholly deified. 

METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract reasoning, 
or that which contemplates the existence of things 
without relation to matter. The term, literally de- 
noting "after physics," originated from these words 
having been put at the head of certain essays of Aris- 
totle, which follow his treatise on Physics. — Mackin- 
tosh. Modern metaphysics arose in the 15th century 
— the period when an extraordinary impulse was 
given to the human mind in Europe, commonly called 
the "revival of learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. 
Coleridge, Dugald Stewart, and Sir W. Hamilton were 
eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, Pas- 
cal, Kant, and Fichte, foreign ones. See Philosojjhi/. 

METAURUS, a river in Central Italy, where Has- 
drubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated and 
slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant re-en- 
forcements. The Romans were led by Livius and 
Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded 
the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother's 
camp. This victory saved Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed to Py- 
thagoras, 528 B.C., supposes the transmigration of the 
soul from one body to another. It is also ascribed to 
the Egyptians, who would eat no animal food lest they 
should devour the body into which the soul of a de- 
ceased friend had passed. They had also an idea that 
so long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, 
the soul would not transmigrate ; and therefore em- 
balmed the dead. 

METEOROLOGY (from the Greek metedros, aerial), 
the science which treats of the phenomena which have 
their origin in the air, such as rain, lightning, meteors, 
fogs, etc. Bacon, Boyle, and Franklin wrote on the 
subject. 

John Dalton's essay on Meteorology appeared in 1793. 
Luke Howard's work on the Clouds appeared in 
1802, and bis " ]?aronietrograi)hia" in 1848. 
Sir W. Reid published his work on the "Law of 
Storms" in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), 
Kwmtz (1845), and Miiller (1847) are esteemed. 
Mr. James Glaisher, the energetic secretary of the 
British Meteorological Society (establishedin 1850), 
is the most eminent meteorologist of the day. By 



his exertions the apparatus at Greenwich was erect- 
ed; and meteorology has appeared in the "Green- 
wich Observations" since 1848. See Balloon — Hcien- 
tiflc Ascents. 

Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 
parts of the globe within the last 20 years. 

The meteorological department of the Board of Trade, 
established in 1855, under Admiral Fitzroy, com- 
menced the publication of reports in 1857.* It has 
issued apparatus and instruction books to captains 
of ships, and established observatories in many 
places in the empire. The Kew Meteorological Ob- 
servatory was given to the British Association in 
April, 1800. 

At the recommendation of M. Le Verrier and Admiral 
Fitzroy, meteorological information, obtained by the 
telegraph from the principal places in the United 
Kingdom, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and 
thence to other parts of Europe since Sept. 1, 1800. 

Meteorological observations appear in the Times daily. 

Storm-warnings first sent to the coast by the Board 
of Trade, Feb. 6 ; and first published, July 31, ISGl. 

Daily international bulletin of the imi)erial observa- 
tory at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, 
first published Nov., 1802. 

(See Barometer, Thermometer, etc.) 
JIETIIODISTS. See Wesleijans. 
METIIUEN TREATY', a treaty for regulating the 

commerce between Great Britain and Portugal, made 

in 1703, concluded by Paul Methueu, our ambassador 

at Lisbon. It was abrogated in 1S34. 
METHYL, a colorless inodorous gas, a compound 

of hydrogen and carbon, was obtained first in the free 

state by Fraukland and Kolbe in 1849. 

METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act passed in 
1855, a mixture of spirits of wine with 10 per cent, of 
its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic alcohol, is al- 
lowed to be made duty free for use in the arts and 
manufiictures, not less than 450 gallons being made at 
one time. In 1861 an act was passed permitting the 
methylated spirits to be retailed by license. 

METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or C940 
days, at the end of which the changes of the moon 
fall on the same days. See Calippicl'eriod. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution there 
was no uniformity in French weights and measures. 
On May 8, 1790, the Constitutional Assembly charged 
the Academy of Sciences with the organization of a 
better system. The committee named for the purpose 
by the Academy included the illustrious names of 
Berthollet, Borda, Dclambre, Lagrange, Laplace, Mc- 
chain, and Prony. Delambre and" Mechain were 
charged with the measurement of an arc of the me- 
ridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from 
their calculations the metre, which is equal to a ten 
millionth part of the distance between the poles and 
the equator (3-2S0S English feet), was made the unit 
of length and the base'of the system by law on April 
7, 1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made 
by law the only legal one on Nov. 2, 1801. A decree 
on Feb. 12 accommodated the old measures to the 
new system ; but on July 4, 1S37, it was decreed that 
after Jan. 1, 1840, the metric and decimal system in its 
primitive simplicity should be used in all business 
transactions. The example of France has been fol- 
lowed by the greater part of Europe, and will proba- 
bly, in time, be adopted in the British Empire. 
Unit of SuKFAOE, ccntiarer=s. square mO'tre=l lOGO En- 
glish yard (a square dicametre or arc=100 square 
metres). 
Unit of Volume or Solidity, stere:=ii cubic metre. 
Unit of Capacity, litre^^a. cubic decimetre (or 10th of 

a metre)=l -70077 English pint. 
Unit of Weight, (;ra7?wnf^weitrht of a cubic centimetre 
(the 100th part of a metre) of distilled water=0-56438 
English dram. 
Unit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 

grammes. 
The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
numerals {deca-,W; hekato-, 100; kilo-jlOOO; myria-, 
10,000. The divisors are expressed by Latiu numer- 
als {deci; 10 ; centi-, 100 ; milli-, 1000). 

Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
Parliament Feb. 25,1824 

A commission of inquiry appointed at the instance 
of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Spring 
Rice (since Lord Monteagle) May,lS38 

Another commission was appointed (both cou- 

* The admiral published his " Weather-book" in 18fi:i. His exertions 
are said to have overworked his brain ; and on April 30, ISCo, he died 
by bia own band. 




MET 



313 



MEX 



sistefl of eminent scientific men, and reported 
stron^'ly in favor oftlie ch:inf,'e) June 20,1843 

A comiuittce of tlie House of Commons reported 
to tlic same cflVct An^'. 1,1S53 

Mr. Gladfitono, admitting the iidvantiiges of the 
system, tli<nii;lit its introduction premature. 

The Decimal Association was formed for tlie pur- 
pose of obtaining the adoption of the system, 

Juue,lS5-4 

Auotlicr commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of Lords Monteagle and Overstone, 
and ]Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who publislicd a prelim- 
inary report (with evidence), but expressed no 
opinion Nov.,lS55 

An International Decimal Association formed in " 

The decimal currency adopted in Canada. .Jan. 1,1858 

The new Weights and ^Measures Bill (an approxi- 
mation to the decimal system) was passed 1S62 

Au act passed "to render permissive the nse of 
the metric system of weights and measures," 

July 29,1804 
METRONOME, to regulate time in the performance 

of music, was patented in England by John Miilzel, 

Dec. 5, 1615. 

METROPOLITAN (from the Greek mctroiJoUs), a 
title given at the Council of Nice, .S25, to certain bish- 
ops who had jurisdiction over others in a province. 
The dignity is said to have arisen in the 2d century, 
through the dissentient bishops in a district referring 
to one of superior intellect. 

METTRAY. See Reformatonj Schools. 

METZ. See Austrasta. 

MEXICAN WAR. The war between the United 
States and Mexico, which commenced in the spring 
of 1S40, was caused, immediately, by the annexation 
of the independent state of Texas (which was once a 
part of Mexico, and had separated by means of a rev- 
olution) to the American Union. Hostilities were 
threatened by Mexico, and General Zachary Taylor 
was ordered by the President of the United States to 
march into Texas, to the borders of the Rio Grande, 
with an army of occupation. In January, 1846, he took 
position opposite the ^Mexican city of Matamoras, 
and commenced a fortification, which he called Fort 
Brown. Soon after this hostilities began, and contin- 
ued nntil near the close of 1847. General Taylor in- 
vaded Central Mexico, and General Scott, beginning 
at Vera Cruz, penetrated the country to the capital, 
gaining victories at every step. He took possession 
of the "city of Mexico on the 14th of September, 1847. 
On the 2d of February, 1S4S, a treaty of peace was 
signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo. By this war the United 
States came into possession of Northern Mexico and 
California. 

MEXICO (N. America), discovered in 151", con- 
quered by the Spaniards under Fernando Cortez, 1521. 
The territory was named New Spain. The mint of 
Mexico was "begun in 1535. This country rebelled in 
war against the viceroy in ISIG; and nuder Iturln'de 
gained its independence in 1S21. Benito Juarez was 
appointed president, Feb. 11, 1858 ; made absolute dic- 
tator, June 30, 1861. See below. Population in 1862 
about 7,500,000. 
Became independent by the treaty of Aqnala, 

Aug. 23,1821 
Angustin Iturbide, president of a provisional jun- 
to; INIexico formed into an empire; the crown 
declined by Spain ; Iturbide made emi)eror, 
Feb., 1S22 ; compelled to abdicate . . . .March 26,1823 

Mexican republic proclaimed Oct. 4, " 

Iturbide went to England; returns, and endeavors 

to recover his dignity; shot July 19,1824 

Federal Constitutichi established Oct., " 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain. . . .April, 1825 

Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed March, 1829 

Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered 

Sept. 20, " 
Mexican revolution: the president Guerrero de- 
posed Dec. 23, " 

Indei)cndence of Mexico recognized by Brazil, 

June, 1830 ; by Spain Dec. 28,1836 

Declaration of war against France Nov. ,30,1838 

This war terminated March 9,18.39 

War with the United States June 4,1845 

The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8; and 

subsequently at I\Iatamoras 184G 

Santa Fc captured, Aug. 22 ; and Monterey, 

Sept. 24, " 
Battle of Buena Vista; the Mexicans defeated by 
General Taylor, with great loss, after two days' 
lighting Feb. 22,1847 



The Americans, under General Scott, defeat the 
Mexicans, making 6000 prisoners April 18 1S4T 

Various actions followed. Treaty between Mex- 
ico and the United States ratified May 19 1S4S 

Political convulsions ggpt, 'is52 

President Arista resigns, Jan. 6 ; and Santa Anna 
IS invited to return pgij 5^553 

Santa Anna becomes dictator March if " 

lie abdicates ; Carrera elected president' Jan ',1355 

\V ho also abdicates ; succeeded tirst by Alvarez 
and afterward by General Comonfort Dec ' " 

Property of the clergy sequestrated March 3i',1856 

New Constitution Feb.5 1S5T 

Comonfort chosen president July " 

Coup d'etat ; Comonfort compelled to retire Jan 
11 ; General Zuloaga takes the government, 

T, ., , , , , Jan. 21-20,1853 

Benito Juarez declared constitutional president at 
Vera Cruz Yeh. 11 " 

Civil war ; several engagements. . . . Aiig. to Nov.! " 

General Miguel Miramon nominated president at 
Mexico by the Junto Jan. 6 1859 

Zuloaga abdicates Feb." 2' " 

In consequence of injury to British subjects, ships 
of war sent to Mexico Feb. " 

Miramon forces the lines of the Liberal generals' 
enters the capital, assumes his functions as gov- 
ernor, and governs without respect to the laws 
of life and property April 10, '• 

Juarez confiscates the Church property . ..July 13, " 

Miramon and the clerical party defeat the Liberals 
under Colima Dec. 21, " 

He besieges Vera Cruz, March 5; bombards it; 
compelled to raise the siege March 21,1800 

General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 
the presidency May 1, " 

Miramon arrests Zuloaga, May 9 ; the diplomatic 
bodies suspend oflicial relation with the former. 

May 10, " 

Miramon defeated by Degollado Aug. 10, " 

He governs Mexico with much tyranny ; the for- 
eign ministers quit the city Oct., " 

He is compelled to retire; Juarez enters Mexico, 
and re-elected president Jan. 19,1801 

Juarez made dictator by the Congress. . ..June 30, " 

The Mexican Congress decides to suspend pay- 
ments to foreigners for two years July 17, " 

Which leads to the breaking oft' diplomatic rela- 
tions with England and France July 27, " 

In consequence of many gross outrages on for- 
eigners, the British, French, and Spanish gov- 
ernments, after much vain negotiation, claiming 
efticient protection of foreigners, and the pay- 
ment of arrears due to fuud'holders, sign a con- 
vention engaging to combined hostile opera- 
tions against Mexico Oct. 31, " 

The Mexican Congress dissolves, after conferring 
full powers on the president Dee. 15, " 

Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, Dec. 8; it sur- 
renders Dec. 17, " 

A British naval and French military expedition 
arrives Jan. 7, 8,1802 

The Mexicans determine on resistance, and invest 
Vera Cruz; their taxes are raised 25 per cent., 

Jan., " 

Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by the 
British admiral Feb., " 

Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy for 
Archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved of 
by the British and Spanisli governments, Feb., " 

Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mex- 
icans: convention between tlie commissaries of 
the allies and the Mexican General Doblado at 
Soledad Feb. 1 9, " 

The Mexican General Marquez takes up arms 
against Juarez, and General Almonte joins the 
French General Lorencez ; Juarez demands a 
compulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of 

siege March, " 

Conference between plenipotentiaries of thi allies 
at Orizaba ; the English and Spanish declare for 
peace, which is not agreed to by the French, 
Apl. 9, who declare war against Juarez, Apl. 16, " 
The Spanish and British forces retire ; the French 
government sends re-enforcements to Lorencez, 

May, « 
The French, induced by Marquez, advance into the 
interior; severely repulsed by General Zarago- 

za, at Fort Guadalupe, near Puebla May 5, " 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Bor- 

go, near Orizaba June 13, 14, " 

The Mexican Liberals said to be desirous of nego- 
tiation Aug., " 

Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers laud, Aug. 28, " 



MEZ 



314 



MIL 



Letter from the Emperor Napoleon to Lorencez, 
disclainiinp; any intention of imposing a govern- 
ment on Mexico announced Sept.,lS62 

Deatli of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, 

Sept. 8, " 

Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at 
Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili- 
tary power to himself. Oct., " 

Ortega takes command of the Mexican army, 

Oct. 19, » 

The Mexican Congress assembles, and protests 
against the French invasion Oct. 2T, " 

The French evacuate Tampico Jan. 13,1SC3 

Forey marches toward Mexico Feb. 24, " 

Siege of Puebla, bravely defended, March 29 ; se- 
vere assault, March 31 to April 3 ; it is surren- 
dered at discretion by Ortega May IS, " 

The Republican government remove to San Luis 
de Potosi May 31, " 

Mexico occupied by the Freuch, under Bazaine, 
June 5; and his army enter June 10, " 

Assembly of Notables at Mexico decide on the es- 
tablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, 
with a Roman Catholic prince as emperor, and 
offer the crown to the Archduke Maximilian of 
Austria; a regency established July 10, " 

The French reoccupy Tampico Aug. 11, " 

Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, 
and returns to France Oct. 1, " 

The Archduke Maximilian accepts the crown, un- 
der conditions Oct. 3, " 

The Mexican General Comonfort surprised and 
shot by partisans Nov. 12, " 

Successful advance of the Imperialists; Juarez re- 
tires from San Luis de Potosi, Dec. IS; it is en- 
tered by the Imperialists Dec. 24, " 

The French occupy various places, Jan. and Feb.,lS64 

The ex-president. General Santa Anna, lands at 
Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, 
Feb. 27; dismissed by Bazaine March 12, " 

Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat 
of the Republicau government Api'il 3, " 

The Archduke Maximilian definitively accepts the 
crown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar, 

April 10, " 

The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, May 
29 ; enter the city of Mexico June 12, " 

The emperor visits the interior ; grants a free 
press Aug., " 

The Republicans defeat the Imperialists at San 
Pedro Dec. 27, " 

Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 
maintain their independence Jan. 1,1805 

The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
Eagle Jan. IS, " 

Surrender of Oaxaca to Marshal Bazaine. .Feb. 9, " 

A temporary Constitution promulgated . . April 10, " 

Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the Re- 
publican army, May; discountenanced by the 
United States government June, " 

The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and 
martial law against all armed bands of men, Oct., " 

EMPEEOU. 

1864. Maximilian I. (brother to the Emperor of Aus- 
tria), born July 0, 1832 ; accepted the crown 
April 10, 18G4 ; married July 27, 1S57, to Prin- 
cess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of 
the Belgians; adopts Augustus Iturbide as^his 
lim-, Sept.,lSG5; executed June 19,1807. 
MEZZOTINTO. See Engraving. 
MIIOW COURT-MARTIAL. See Trials, Nov., 1S63. 
MIAMI (or Mavmce) RIVER, Battles of. These 
were battles fought by Americans, under General Har- 
mar, and a body of Indians, on the extreme western 
borders of Ohio, on the 19th and 22d of October, 1790. 
The Americans were defeated with a loss of 183 killed 
and 31 wounded. 

MICHAELMAS, Sept. 29, the feast of St. Michael, 
the reputed guardian of the Roman Catholic Church, 
nnder the title of "St. Michael and All Angels." In- 
stituted, according to Butler, 487.* 

MICHIGAN, a northwest state of N. America, set- 
tied in 1670; admitted into the Union Jan. 26,1837. 
Capital, Lansing. 

MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument used 
to discover and measure any small distance and the 

* The custom of eating: trnoae at MichaelmaB has been erroneously nt- 
tributert to Queen Elizabeth's eating of the bird at dinner on Sept. 29, 
158S,at tns house of Sir Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard ot' 
the destruction oi the Spanish Armada. The custom is of much older 
date,ana is observed on the Contiuent. — C/auis Caknclaria. 



minuter objects in the heavens, such as the apparent 
diameters of the planets, etc. ; its invention is ascribed 
by some to M. Huyghens, 1652 ; but our countryman ■ 
Gascoyne's instrument is prior to that time. 

MICROSCOPES, said to have been inveuted by Fon- 
tana in Italy, and by Drebbel in Holland, about 1621. 
Those with double glasses were made at the period 
when the law of refraction was discovered, about 1624. 
Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 
England great improvements were made in the micro- 
scope by Benjamin Martin (who invented and sold 
pocket microscopes about 1740), by Henry Baker, F. 
R.S., about 1763, and still greater during the present 
century by Wollaston, Ross, Jackson, Varley, Powell, 
and others. Diamond microscopes were made by An- 
drew Pritchard in 1824; and the properties of "test- 
objects" to prove the qualities of microscopes discov- 
ered by him and Goring in 1824-40. A binocular mi- 
croscope (?. e., for two eyes) was constructed by Pro- 
fessor Bidden in 1851. Wenhani's improvements were 
made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope by 
J. Quekett (1S4S), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856), by Dr. 
Lionel Beale (1858-64), and Griffith and Ilenfrey's ' ' Mi- 
crographic Dictionary" (1856), are valuable. The Mi- 
croscopical Society of London was established in 1839. 
In 1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum micro- 
scope, by which the "millionth of a grain of blood was 
detected. 

MIDDLE CREEK (Kentucky), Battle of, fought 
Jan. 10, 1862, in the valley of the Big Sandy. General 
James A. Garfield, with about 1500 men, here defeated 
General Humphrey Marshall, commanding 3000 Con- 
federates. 

MIDDLE LEVELS. See Levels. 

MIDIANITES, an Eastern people, descendants of 
Midian, a son of Abraham. — Having enticed the Is- 
raelites to idolatrj', they were severely chastised, 1452 
B. C. They invaded Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were 
thoroughly defeated by Gideon. 

MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners 
of this art among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hip- 
pocrates, who practiced medicine in Greece, 460 B.C., 
is styled by some the father of midwifery as well as 
of physic* It advanced under Celsus, who flourished 
A.D. 37, and of Galen, who lived, 131. In England mid- 
wifery became a science about the period of the insti- 
tution of the College of Physicians, 10 Hen. VII., 1518. t 

MIFFLIN, FoET, Capture of. Fort Mifflin was 
upon Mud Island, in the Delaware, just below Phila- 
delphia, and opposite Red Bank, it was garrisoned 
by Americans, under Lieut. Col. Smith, of Maryland. 
After a series of assaults by land and water, and a gal- 
lant defense until the fort was utterly disabled, it was 
surrendered to the British on the 16th of November, 
1777, after a loss of near 250 men. 

MILAN. Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Ligu- 
ria, now Lombardv, is reputed to have been, built by 
the Gauls, about 408 B.C. 

Conquered by the Roman Consul Marcellus, B.C. 222 
Seat of government of the Western Empire, A.D. 286 

Council of Milan 346 

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan 875 

Milan plundered by Attila 452 

Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489; in the 

Lombard kingdom 569 

Becomes an independent republic 1101 

The Emperor Frederick I. takes Milan, and ap- 
points a podesta 1158 

It rebels ; and is taken by Frederick and de- 
stroyed .' . . . .1162 

Rebuilt and fortified 1169 

The Milanese defeated by the Emp. Frederick IL,1237 

The Visconti become paramount in Milan 127T 

John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke. . .1395 
Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- 
conti, subdues Milan and becomes duke 1450 

* Agnodice. an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. 
She was taught by Hierophilus, her father, the art of midwifery, and, 
when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. This 
brought her into so much practice, that the males of ner profession, 
who were now out of employment, accused her before the Areopagus 
of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a law was 
made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. The whole 
story is doubtful. 

+ The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of 
it about lii03; and, after his example, the calling in of men in all difH- 
cnlt cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the emrloyiTient 
of men-midwivesgoes no farther back than the first lying-in of Madame 
de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 1663. She sent for Julian Cle- 
ment, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to the 
house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labors of 
this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives afterward came 
into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 



MIL 



315 



MIN 



Milan conquered by Louis XIT. of France 1499 

The Fremii exiiclled by the Spaniards ]5-i5 

IMihui annexed to llie crown of Spain 1540 

C'edt^l to Austria 1714 

Couiiuered by the French and Spaniards 1T43 

lievcrts to Austria upon Naples and Sicily being 

ceded to Spain 1T48 

Sei/.(Hl by the French June 30,1 T9(i 

Ketaken by the Austriaus 1709 

Kei,'ained by tlie French May 31,1800 

]\Iade the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and Na- 
poleon Bonaparte crowned with the iron crown 

here May 26,1805 

The Milan decree of Napoleon ajraiust all Conti- 
nental intercourse with England Dec. 17, 1807 

Insurrection agaiust the Aus'trians; flight of the 

viceroy March 18,1843 

Another revolt promptly suppressed aud rigorous- 
ly punished Feb. 6 et seq., 1853 

;Milan visited by the Emperor of Austria Nov.,lS5G 

Amnesty for political offenses granted Dec, 1857 

After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, June 
4, Louis Napoleon and the King of Sardinia en- 
ter Milan June 8,1859 

Peace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy 

transferred to Sardinia July 12, " 

Victor Emmanuel enters Milan as king Aug. 8,1860 

Eeactiouary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppi-ess- 

ed April 29, 30, ISGl 

(See Italij.) 

MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, found- 
ed about 1043 B.C. Duriug the war with Persia it was 
taken, 494, but restored, 449. Here Paul delivered his 
celebrated charge to the elders of the Church of Ephe- 
sus, A.D. 60 (.Icfsxx.). 

MILFORD HAVEN (Wales), Here the Earl of Rich- 
mond, afterward Henry VIL, landed on his enterprise 
against Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth, 
14S5. The packets from this port to Ireland, sailing to 
Waterford, were established in 1787. The dock-yard, 
established here in 1790, was removed to Pembroke in 
1S14. 

jNHLITARY ok :MARTIAL LAW is built on no set- 
tled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, and, in truth, 
no law, but sometimes indulged rather than allowed 
as law. — .S'7> Matthew Hale. It has been several times 
proclaimed in these kingdoms, and in 17(is was almost 
general in Ireland, where it was proclaimed in 1S03. 

JIILITARY ASYLUM, Royai,, at Chelsea, England, 
"for the children of the soldiers of the regular army." 
The first stone yfSLS laid by the Duke of York, June 19, 
1801. 

MILITARY KNIGHTS of WINDSOR. See Poor 
Knirfhts of Windsor. ' 

MILITIA, the standing national force of England, 
is traced to King Alfred, who made all his subjects sol- 
diers, 872 to 901. 

First commission of arraj' to raise a militia 1122 

Revived by Henry II 1176 

Again revived 1557 

Said to amount to 160,000 men 1623 

The ))reseiit militia statutes established... 1061 to 16G3 

Stil>plem('ntal militia act passed 179T 

Irish militia offered its services in England, 

March 2S, 1S04 
General militia act for England and Scotland, 1802; 

for Ireland 1S09 

Enactment authorizing courts-martial to inflict 

imprisonment instead of flogging passed 1S14 

Acts to consolidate the militia laws lS52*-4 

Militia embodied on account of the Russian War, 

1854 ; and on account of the Indian Mutiny 1857 

The acrsrregate militia force ofthe United States aud 
Territories is about 2,700,000 men. 

JIILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. Juno is 
paid by the Greek poets to have spilled her milk in the 
heavens after suckling Mercury or Hercules. Democ- 
ritus (about 428 B.C) taught that the Via, Lactea was a 
multitude of stars ; proved by Galileo by means ofthe 
telescope. 

MILL SPRING (KentnckvV Battt.k of. Fought 
January 19, 1862. General Felix Zollicoffer here at- 
tacked General George II. Tliomas, and was defeated, 
with a loss of 300 killed and wounded. General Zol- 
licoffer was killed. 

* Tliia inilitia «ct was consequent npon the then prevailing opinion 
of ilie necessity of strenffthenint: our nntionftl defenses nf^ainst tlie pos- 
sibility of French invasion. The net etnpowereil her mujesty to raise 
« force not exceedinjj 80,000 men, of which number SO,OIIO were to be 
raised in l.S5i?, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the quotas for each county or rid- 
ing to be fixed by an order in council. 



MILLENNARIANS suppose that the world will end 
at the expiration of tlie seven thousandth year froni 
the creation ; and that during a thousand years (mil- 
lennium) Christ and the saints will reign upon the 
earth. See liev. xx. The doctrine was very generally 
inculcated as early as the 2d and 3d centuries by Papi- 
as, Justiu Martyr, aud othavs.— Burnett. 

MILLS. Moses forbad mill-stones to be taken iu 
pawn, because it would be like taking a man's life to 
pledge. — Z;mf. xxiv., 6. The hand-mill was in use 
among the Britons previously to the conquest by the 
Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. 
Cotton mills moved by water were erected by Sir Rich- 
ard Arkwright, at Cromford, Derbyshire. He died in 
1792. 

MIMS, Fop.T. This fort, on the Alabama River, was 
attacked by a large body of Indians on the 30th of Au- 
gust, 1813. About 300 of the inmates (many of them 
old men, women, and children, who had taken refuge 
there) were massacred, and the fort was burnt. Only 
17 escaped. The garrison, under Major Beaseley, 
fought bravely, and killed 200 Indians, and wounded 
400 more. 

MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians 
were repulsed by the French under Brune, Dec. 25-27, 
1800 ; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 1814. 

MINDEN (Prussia), Battle of, Aug. 1, 1759, between 
the English, Hessians, aud Hauoveriaus (commanded 
by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French, 
who were beaten aud driven to the very ramparts 
of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterward Lord 
George Germaine), who commanded the British and 
Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of orders 
was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, 
found guilt}', and dismissed the service, April 22, 1760. 
He was afterward restored to court favor, and became 
secretary of state, 1770. 

MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and 
silver as among the products of England. The earli- 
est instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced 
occurs 47 Hen. III., 1262. It related to mines contain- 
ing gold, together with copper, in Devoushire ; and iu 
Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Ruding, the mines 
iu Ireland, which produced silver, were supposed to be 
so rich that the king directed a writ for working them 
to Robert de Uft'ord, lord justice, 1276. The lead miues 
of Cardiganshire, from which silver has ever since been 
extracted, were discovered by Sir Hugh Middleton in 
the reign of James I. 
A British Mineralogical Society established in... .1800 

Haiiy's "Traite de Mineralogie" appeared in 1801 

The government School of Miues, etc., Jermyu 

Street, St. James's, opened in Nov., 1851 

An act for the regulation of mines passed in 1860 

A Miners' Protection Association proposed by Mr. 

William Gurney and others in March, 1862 

Value ofthe mineral produce ofthe United King- 
dom estimated at i;25,961,049 in 1857; and at 

X39,979,S37 iu 1864 

MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, 
by M. Minie, (born about ISOO). From a common sol- 
dier he raised himself to the rank of chief d'escadrou. 
His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to 
it for accuracy of direction aud extent of range. It 
was adopted by the French, and, with various modifi- 
cations, iDy the British army in 1852. 

MINISTER of war. See War Minister. 
MINISTERS. See Administrations. 

MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets of the 12th 
and 13th centuries, who wrote to entertain knights 
aud barous of the time. The Meistcr-simjers in the 
14th century devoted themselves to citizens. Some of 
their songs have been collected and published. 

MINNESOTA, a Western state ofthe Ignited States, 
was organized as a Territory March 3, 1S49, and ad- 
mitted into the Union in 1857. On Aug. 17, 1862, the 
Sioux Indians commenced a series of outrages at Ac- 
ton, in Messier county, desolating the country and mas- 
sacring above 500 persons, of both sexes and of all 
ages. "General Siblev beat the Indians in two battles, 
and rescued many captives. Thirty-eight Indians were 
executed as assassins. 

MINORCA AND MAJORCA, theBalearicIsles {lehieh 
see). Minorca was captured by Lieutenant General 
Stanhope and Sir John Leake in Aug., 1708, and was 
ceded to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. 
It was retaken by the Spanish and French iu July, 
1756. Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indigna- 
tion for not relieving it. Sec liunr). It was restored 



MIN 



316 



MOB 



to the British at the peace in 1763 ; besieged by the 
Spaniards, and talien Feb. 5, 1782. It was again cap- 
tured by the Hricisli under General Stuart, without the 
loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798, but was given up at the 
peace of Amiens in 1SU2. 

MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by lords 
of manors to divert their copyholders while at work, 
owed their origin to the glee-men or harpers of the 
Saxons, and continued till about 1560. John of Gaunt 
erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 13S0. So 
late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without 
ceremony into all companies, even at the houses of 
the nobility: but in Elizabeth's reign they sank into 
neglect, and were adjudged rogues and vagabonds 
(1597). 

MINT. Athelstan first enacted regulations for the 
government of the Mint about 928. There were sev- 
eral provincial mints under the control of that of Lon- 
don. Henry II. is said to have instituted a mint at 
Winchester, 1125. Stow says the Mint was kept by 
Italians, the English being ignorant of the art of coin- 
ing, 7 Edw. I., 1278. The' operators were formed into 
a corporation by the charter of King Edward III., in 
which condition it consisted of the warden, master, 
comptroller, assay-master, workers, coiners, and sub- 
ordinates. The first entry of gold brought to the Mint 
for coinage occurs in IS Edw. III., 1343. Tin was 
coined by "Charles IL,1684; and gun-metal and pewter 
by his successor James. Sir Isaac Newton was war- 
den, 1699-1727, during which time the debased coin 
was called in, and new issued at the loss of the gov- 
ernment. Between 1806 and 1810, grants amounting 
to i;262,000 were made by Parliament for the erection 
of the present Mint, which was completed in 1813 ; it 
M'as injured by fire Oct. 31, 1815. The new constitu- 
tion of the Mint, founded on the report of the Hon. 
Wellesley Pole, took effect in 1817. 

MINT OF THE UNiTiiD States was established by act 
of Congress in April, 1792, but it was not put into full 
operation until January, 1795. During the interven- 
ing three years its operations were chiefly experi- 
mental, and a great variety of copper and silver coins 
were struck between 1792 and 1795. The act specified 
that the gold coin should be of the fineness of 22 carats, 
or j^J'u'^g ; the silver to be in 14S5 parts in 16G4, or S92-4 
thousandths : and the cent to weigh 264 grains. On 
accouut of the increased value of copper, its weight 
was reduced in 1796 to 168 grains. Since that time no 
alteration has been made in the weight of the copper 
cent. Its coinage was suspended in 1857, when a small- 
er cent, composed of more precious metals, was substi- 
tuted. The total value of coinage at the Mint and its 
branches, from its establishment to the 30th of June, 
1859, is $6.50,969,907 84. The value of the entire de- 
posit of domestic gold at the Jlint and its branches to 
the 30th of June, 1350, was $470,341,478 40, of which 
$451,310,840 26 were from California. The Mint is in 
the city of Philadelphia. There are four branch mints, 
situated respectively at New Orleans, La. ; Dahlone- 
ga, Geo. : Charlotte, N. C. : and San Francisco, Cal. 
There is an assay-oflice at New York. 

MINUS. See Plus. 

MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of 
metal: those of the Jewish women of brass. Mirrors 
in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B.C. Mir- 
rors or looking-glasses were made at Venice, A. D. 1300 ; 
and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 1073. 
The improvements in manufacturing plate-glass, and 
that of very large size, has cheapened looking-glasses 
very much. Various methods of coating glass by a 
solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mercury, so 
injurious to the health of the workmen, have been 
made known by M. Petitjean iu 1851, and by M. Cimec 
in 1861. 

MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious 
orders of St. Dominic, St. Francis, St. Augustin.'etc, 
had missions to the Levant and to America. Marco 
Polo is said to have introduced missionaries into Chi- 
na, 1275. The Jesuits had missions to China {irhich 
see) and to most other parts of the world. Among the 
Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a 
Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. But 
the Moravian Brethren may be said to have led the 
way to the new Christian missions about 1732. The 
London Missionary Society held their first meeting, 
Nov. 4, 1794.* 



* English missionaries abroad have not iini'requently suffered griev- 
ous liardsliips and privations. Commander Allan Gardner, R.N., who 
left England in the Ocean Queen in Sept., 1850, on the Patagonian mis- 
sion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, catechist, and four 
ethers, died on Picton Island, at the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to 



MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America. The Mis- 
sissippi trade was begun in England, iu Nov., 1710. 
The celebrated Mississippi scheme orbubble in France, 
which was commenced about the same period, explod- 
ed in 1720, at which time the nominal capital is said to 
have amounted to i;iOO,000,-000. The ruin of thousands 
of families, dupes of this iniquitous scheme, soon fol- 
lowed iu both countries. See Law's Bubble. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First set- 
tled by the French, at Natchez, and claimed as a part 
of Louisiana, 1716. Colony attacked by the Natchez 
Indians. Indians almost annihilated Ijy the French 
in 1730. Ceded to Great Britain in 1763. Erected into 
a territory (including Alabama) iu 1812. Admitted 
into the Union iu 1817. 

MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, heroically and 
successfully defended against the Turks by Marco Bot- 
zaris in 1822. It was taken in 1826 after a year's siege. 
Here Lord Byron died in 1824. It was surrendered to 
the Greeks iu 1829. 

MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was a part 
of the vast territory of Louisiana, and included in its 
purchase from the French in 1803. St. Louis, its cap- 
ital, settled by the French in 1704. Only a sort of 
trading -post until 1804, when the territorial govern- 
ment was formed. Admitted into the Union in 1821. 
It decided on neutrality in the conflict of 1861, but was 
invaded by both the Confederate and Federal forces 
in June of that year, and became one of the seats of 
war. Capital, Jeflerson City. 

MISSOURI COMPROMISE. During the session of 
Congress in 1818-19, a bill was introduced into Con- 
gress which contained a provision forbidding the in- 
troduction of slavery or involuntary servitude into the 
new state of Missouri, when admitted. This brought 
out violent debates upon the subject of slavery. The 
whole country was greatly agitated by it. Finally a 
compromise was efl'ected (Feo. 28, 1821) by an agree- 
ment that slavery should be allowed in Missouri, and 
iu all territory west of it, south of 30° 30' N. latitude, 
and prohibited in all territory north of this line. This 
act was virtually repealed in 1854 by the act erecting 
the territories of Nebraska and Kansas into states. 

MITIIRIDATE, a physical preparation in the form 
of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to poison 
and Ihe oldest compound known, is said to have been 
invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, about 70 B.C. 

MITIIRIDATIC WAR, caused by the massacre of 
100,000 Romans by Mithridates, king ofPontus, 88 B.C., 
and remarkal)le for its duration, its many battles, the 
destruction of human life it occasioned, and the cruel- 
ties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the 
consul Aquilius, made him rifle on an ass through a 
great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquil- 
ius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately dispatched 
him by ordering melted gold to be poured down his 
throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithridates 
was defeated by Pompe}', 60 B.C., and committed sui- 
cide, 03 B.C. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the 
Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a golden 
plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lorb.'" — Exodus 
xxxix., 28. The most ancient mitre that has the near- 
est resemblance to the present one is that upon the 
seal of the Bishop of Laon, in the 10th century.— Fos- 
broke. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the 
Council of Lyons iu 1245 they were directed to wear 
hats. 

MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was introduced 
by Simonides the younger, 477 'B.C.—Arund. Marbles. 
In modern times mnemonics have been elaborately 
treated; " Mnemonica" was published by John Willis 
in 1618; and the Memoria Tcchnica of Dr. Grey first ap- 
peared in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced 
in Germany in 1806-7. 

MOBILE, Al.abama. T'te city is situated at the 
southwest corner ot the state, at the month of ]\Iobile 
River, and with a harbor on the Gulf. After the cap- 
ture of Vicksburg in 1803, an attack on this city was 
contemplated, biit was given up, the Red River cam- 
paign being strongly urged by the United States gov- 
ernment. Admiral Farragut attacked Forts Morgan 
and Gaines, August 5, 1864. On that day Fort Powell 
was blown up; on the 8th, Fort Gaines was surrender- 
ed, with its garrison, and Fort Morgan was occupied 

the south of Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death, all hia 
companions having previously perished, Sept. 6, 1851.— M. Srhnffler, 
a missionary to Coehin-China, was publicly executed at Son-Tay, by 
order of the' grand mandarin, for preaching Christianity, such preach- 
ing being prohibited by the law oi that country, May 4, 1851. 



MOC 



317 



MON 



ou the 2o(l. After passiiiir the forts ou the 5th, Farra- 
j;ut (.■;ii)Uirc'(l the Confederate ram Tciiuessee. The re- 
biiU of this brief naval eanipai^'ii was the possession 
of Mobile Bay by the nationur forces. After Hood's 
defeat at Nashville (December, 1804), military opera- 
tions aj^ainst ^lobile were commenced. Ou the 25th 
of March, Ueucral Canby had the Tliirteenth and Six- 
teenth Corps (under Gordon d'anijer and A. J. Smith) 
at IJanley's, on FishKiver, east of^lobile. Tlie siege 
of Spanish Fort was commenced on the '27th. A week 
before this. General Steele, with an army which he 
had landed at Pensacola, marched northward against 
Montgomery, and, returning uear the close of the 
monili, Joined the besieging army around Mobile. 
Spanisii Fort was evacuated by the Confederates ou 
the Mil of April, and occupied by the uatioiial troops. 
Tlu! next day Fort Blakely was assaulted and cap- 
tured, and Jlobile was evacuated (April 11-12). This 
was the last campaign of the Civil War. Dick Taylor 
surrendered ou the 4th of May. 

MbC'KERX (Prussia). Here the French army un- 
der Eugene Beauharuois defeated the allied Russian 
and Prussian army with great loss, April, 1S13 ; and 
here Blucher defeated the French, Oct. 16, 1S13. 

MODELS. The first were figures of living persons, 
and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the reputed invent- 
or of those in clay. His daughter, known by the ap- 
pellation of the Corinthian Maid, being about to be 
separated from her lover, wdio was going on a distant 
journey, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall. 
ller father tilled up the outline with clay, which he aft- 
erward baked, and thus produced a figure of the ob- 
ject of her aflectiou, giving rise to an art till then un- 
known, about 9S5 B.C.* 

MODENA (formerly Mutina), till lately capital of 
the duchy in Central Italy; was governed by the house 
of Este from 12SS till 1T90, when the last male of that 
house, the reigning duke Hercules HI., was expelled 
by the French. By the treaty of Camiio Formio, the 
Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cis- 
alpine Republic, 1797. The Archduke Francis of Este, 
sou of the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of 
Mary, the heiress of the last duke, was restored in 1S14. 
Modena, in accordance with the voting by universal 
suffrage, was annexed to Sardinia ou March IS, 1S60. 
Population in 1S57, 604,512. 

KECENT GKAND-BtlKES OF MOPENA. 

1S14. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by Murat 
was defeated, April 11, 1815. He was expelled 
by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by 
the xVustrians. 

184G. Francis V. (born June 1, 1S19) succeeds Jan 21. 
His subjects rose against him soon after the 
Italian War broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 
to Verona, establishing a regency, June 11, 
which was abolished Jiine 13 ; Fariui was ap- 
pointed dictator July 2T; a Constituent Assem- 
bly was immediately elected, which oft'ered the 
duchy to the King' of Sardinia, Sept. 15. He 
incorporated it with his dominions, March IS, 
ISGO. 

MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria) was 
finally subdued by Augustus. It was successfully in- 
vaded by the Goths, 253 B.C., vrho eventually settled 
here. See Goths. 

MOGULS. See Tartary. 

MOHAMIMEDANISM as embodied in the Koran in- 
cludes the unity of God, the immortality of the soul, 
predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual para- 
dise. Mohammed assertecl that the Koran was reveal- 
ed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of 
twenty-three years. He enjoined on his disciples cir- 
cumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablution, and fast- 
ing, and permitted polygamy and concubinage. 

Mohammed, or Mahomet, born at Mecca 569 

Announced himself as a prophet about 611 

Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is call- 
ed the Ileaira) 622 

Overcomes his enemies, the Koreish, the Jews, etc. 623 

Defeats the Christians atMuta 62!) 

Is acknowlcdLTcd as a sovereign 630 

Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by a 

Jew to test his divine character June 7, 632 

The Mohammedans are divided into several sects, 
the two chief being the SiDinitct^, or the Ortho- 
dox, who recognized as caliph Aliubeker, the fa- 



• A beautiful moilel r.f the new town of Edinlnirs;, before the build- 
ing becan, wna formed in wood. A model was iiuide of a bridjje over 
the Neva, of imrommon strencth a8 well as eletrance ; and of the 
monntains of Switzerland, by General PfifTer (1766-85). M. Choffin's 
model of Paris also was remarkable for its precision. 



ther-in-law of Mohammed, in preference to Omar 
and All; and the Shiitcs (Sectaries), or Fatmi- 
itcs, the followers of Ali, who married Fatima, 
the proi)hetV daughter. 

The Ottoman Empire is the chief seat of the Son- 
nites, the sultan being considered the represent- 
ative of the caliphs ; while Persia has been for 
centuries the strong-hold of the Shiites. 

The Mohammedans conquered Arabia, North Afri- 
ca, and part of Asia in the 7th century; in the 
8th they invaded Europe, conquering Spain, 
where they founded the Caliphate of Cordova 
which lasted from 750 to 1031, when it was bro- 
ken up into smaller governments, the last of 
which, the kingdom of Granada, endured till its 
subjugation by Ferdinand in 1492 ; but the Mo- 
hammedans were not finally expelled from Spain 
tin 1G09 

Iheir progress in France was stopped by their de- 
feat at Tours by Charles Martel in 732 

After a long contest, the Turks under Mohammed 
II. took Constantinople; he made it his capita! 
and the chief seat of his religion 1453 

Though considered to be declining, Mohammedan- 
ism is calculated as including 100 millions among 
its votaries. 

Coomroodeu Tyabjee, a Mohammedan, after serv- 
ing his articles, was duly admitted to practice as 
an attorney, having taken the oaths upon the 
Koran. Lord Chief Justice Campbell wished him 
success in his profession Nov. ,1853 

MOHAiNrMERAH, a Persian town near the Euphra- 
tes, captured, after two hours' cannonadins, by Sir Jas. 
Outram, during the Persian War, March 26,"lS57. News 
of the peace arrived there ou the 4th of April. 

MOHATZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis, king of 
Hungary, defeated by the Turks under Sol5'man II. 
with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall 
of his horse in a muddy brook, Aug. 29, 1520. Here, 
also. Prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks, 
Aug. 12, 1CS7. 

MOHTLOW (in Eussia). Here the Russian army, 
uuder Prince Bagration, was signally defeated by tlie 
French under Marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 
July 23, 1812. 

MOHOCKS, ruflTians, who weut about Loudon at 
night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and iude- 
cently exposing the women. One hundred pounds 
were oflered by royal proclamation in 1712 for appre- 
hending au3' one of them. — Northouck. 

MOLDAVIA. See Danuhian PrincijJalities. 

MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of 
Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained the 
leconciliability of the doctriues of predestination and 
fiee-wiil. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean 
(the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by the Portu- 
guese about 1511, and held by them secretly till the ar- 
rival of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1029, 
when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large 
sum of money. The Dutch conquered them iu 1007, 
and have held them ever since, except from ISIO to 
1814, when they were subject to the English. 

MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the Prus- 
sians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a great 
victory over the Imperialists, April 10 (O.S. March 30), 
1741. 

MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible 
metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered molybdic acid in 
a mineral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjehn, 
iu 1732, prepared the metal from molybdic acid; and 
iu 1S25 Berzelius described most of its chemical char- 
acters. — Gmclin. 

MONACHISM (from the Greek movos, alone). Cath- 
olic writers refer to the Prophet Elijah, and the Naz- 
areiies, mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early exam- 
ples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived 
from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was 
very austere, practicing celibacy, etc. About the time 
ofConstantine (306-22)''numbers of these ascetics with- 
drew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, 
and anchorets,* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- 
mius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of 
the Stylitne (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to 
have lived on a pillar thirty years. St.Benedict, the 
great reformer of Western inonachism, published his 



* The anchorites of the )2th, ISth.and 14th centuries roust not be 
confounded with the ancliorets, or hermits. The former were confined 
to solitary cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 



MON 



318 



MON 



rnles and established his monastery at Monte Casino 
about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, etc., are va- 
rieties of Benedictines. lu 904, by decree of King Ed- 
gar, all married priests were to be replaced by monks. 
See Abbeys and Benedictities. 

MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by the Gen- 
oese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty ou Feb. 2, 
1861, the prince ceded the communes of Roquebrune 
andMentone,thechief part of his dominions, to France, 
for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince, Charles III., 
born Dec. 8, ISIS, succeeded June 20, 1856. Population 
about 1200. — A commercial convention between the 
prince and France, signed Nov. 9, 1805, was much dis- 
cussed, as tending toward the abolition of the French 
navigation laws. 

MONARCHY. Historians reckon four grand mon- 
archies—the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman 
(which see). 

MONASTERIES. See Abbeys. 

MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian army, 
commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napoleon Bona- 
parte, April 22, 1796. 

MONEY is mentioned as a medium of commerce in 
Genesis xxiii., 1800 B.C., when Abraham purchased a 
field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The coinage of money 
is ascribed to the Lydians. Moneta was the name 
given to their silver by the Romans, it having been 
coined in the temple of"juno-Moneta,2C9B.C. Money 
was made of different metals, and even of leather and 
other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It 
was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 
1574. See Coin; QoM; Silver; Copper; Mint; Banks, 
etc. For Money Orders, see Post-office. 

MONEYERS are mentioned in Alfred's "Domesday- 
Book." They traveled with our early kings, and coin- 
ed money as required. 

MONGOLS. See Tartary. 

MONK. See MonacMsm. 

MONMOUTH, BATTr.E of. Sir Henry Clinton, at 
the head of the British army, left Philadelphia for 
New York on the ISth of June, 1778, with 11,000 men, 
and an immense baggage and provision train. Wash- 
ington pursued him, harassed him much in New Jer- 
sey, and engaged in battle with him near Monmouth 
Court-house on the 2Sth of June, 1778. The battle 
lasted all day. It was exceedingly sultry weather, 
and more than 50 American soldiers died of exhaus- 
tion. Night closed the conflict. Both armies slept 
upon their arms until toward midnight, when Clinton, 
with his whole force, stole off" in the dark, to avoid an- 
other engagement in the morning, and escaped, leav- 
ing a large number of the sick aiid wounded behind. 
The Americans lost 228 of their men; less than 70 were 
killed. The British left about 300 dead on the field. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of 
Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, April 9, 1649), a nat- 
ural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, was banished 
England for his connection with the Rye-house plot 
in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685 ; 
was proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20; was defeat- 
ed at Sedgmoor, neaV Bridgewater, July 6 ; and behead- 
ed on Tower Hill, July 15. 

MONOLITH, Greek for single stone. See Obelisk. 

MONOPIIYSITES. See Eutyehians. 

MONOPOLIES reached to such a height in England 
that Parliament petitioned against ttiem, and many 
Avere abolished, about 1601-2. "They were farther sup- 
pressed by 21 Jas. I., 1624. In 1630 Charles I. estab- 
lished monopolies of soap, salt, leather, and other 
common things, to supply a revenue without the help 
of Parliament. It was decreed that none should be 
in future created by royal patent, 10 Chas. I., 1G40. 

MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed that Jesus 
Christ had but one will, were favored by the Emperor 
Heraclius,ODO; they merged into the Eutychians (which 
see). 

MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the deter- 
mination expressed by James Monroe, president of 
the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European 
power to interfere in restraining the progress of lib- 
erty in North or South America by exercising sover- 
eignty on this continent. This doctrine has been fre- 
quently reailirmed as a settled political tenet of the 
people and government of the United States. 

MONSTER, The. Renwick Williams, who prowled 
nightly through the streets of London, secretlv armed 
with a double-edged knife, with which he shockingly 



wounded manv females. He was tried and convicted, 
July 8, 1790. See Mohocks. 

MONTALEMBERT'S TRIAL. See France, 1S5S. 

MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of Ardaba, 
in Mysia, about 171, who was reputed to have the gift 
of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the Comforter 
promised by Christ. He condemned second marriages 
as fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage, 
forbade the avoiding martyrdom, and ordered a severe 
fast of three lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, 
one of his women-scholars, before the close of the 2d 
century. — Cave. The eloquent father Tertullian join- 
ed the sect, 204. 

MONT BLANC, in the Swiss Alps, is the highest 
mountain in Europe, being 1.5,781 feet above the level 
of the sea. The summit was first reached by Saussure, 
aided by a guide named Balma, on Aug. 2, 17S7. The 
summit was attained by Dr. Hamel (wlien three of his 
guides perished) in 1820, and by many other persons 
before and since. Accounts of the ascents of Mr. John 
Aldjo, Charles Fellows (1827), and of Professor Tyudall 
(1S57-S) have been published. See Alps. 

MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lan- 
nes defeated the Austrians, June 9, 1800, and acquired 
his title of Duke of Montebello ; and where (May 20, 
18.59), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sar- 
dinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000 
killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French 
lost about 670 men, including General Beuret. 

MONTJE CASINO (Central Italy). Here Benedict 
formed his first monastery, 529. 

MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in Eu- 
ropean Turkey, was conquered by Solymau II. in 1526. 
It rebelled in the last century, and established an hered- 
itary hierarchical government in the Jamily of Petro- 
vitsch Njegosch — endured, but not recognized by the 
Porte. 

The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter 
II., declined to assume the ecclesiastical func- 
tion, and declared himself a temporal prince, 
with the title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and began war 

with Turkey 1852 

Montenegro put in a state of blockade Dec. 14, " 

After several indecisive encounters, tranquillity 
restoied by the influence of the arms and nego- 
tiations of Omar Pacha, the general of the Turk- 
ish army; he left the province Feb. 25,1853 

Blockade raised April 10, " 

War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at Gra- 

hovo June,lS58 

Peace restored Nov., " 

The country much disturbed through the tyranni- 
cal conduct of Prince Daniel, who was assassi- 
nated (aged 35) Aug. 13,1860 

He is succeeded by his nephew Nicolas (married), 

Nov. 8, " 
An insurrection in the Herzegovina, favored by the 
Montenegrines ; the blockade of Montenegro, 

April 4,1861 
Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army 

of 32,000 men in Aug.,1861 

Many conflicts with various success ; but latterly 

in favor of the Turks ; peace made 1863 

(See Herzegovina.) 

MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, memorable 
as being the site of the first victory gained over the 
Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, April 12, 1796. 

MONTEREAU (near Paris). Here the allied armies 
were defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- 
leon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; but it 
was one of his last triumphs, Feb. 18, 1S14. — On the 
bridge of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgiindy, was killed by 
Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This event led to Hen- 
ry V. subduing France, the young Duke Philip join- 
ing the English. 

MONTEREY, Battle of. General Taylor crossed 
the Rio Grande and took possession of Matamoras on 
the ISth of May, 1846. There he remained until the 
close of August, and then marched toward Monterey, 
in the interior. More than 6000 Americans encamped 
near that city on the 9th of September. It was de- 
fended by over 9000 Mexican troops, under General 
Ampudia. Taylor commenced a siege of the town on 
the 21st, and on the 24th it was surrendered, with the 
entire garrison that survived. The Americans lost in 
killed, wouuded, and missing, 561 ; the Mexicans over 
1000, besides the prisoners. 

MONTE VIDEO (S. America) was taken by storm 
by the British forces under Sir Samuel Auchmuty, but 



MON 



319 



MOR 



with the loss of uearly one third of his brave troops, 
Feb. 3, 1807. It was evacuated July 7 the same year, 
in cousequence of the severe repulse the British met 
Vfith at Bueuos Ayres. See Buenos Ajjn-i^. Monte 
Video, a subject of dispute between Brazil and Buenos 
Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, IS'JS. See Brazil for 
recent war. 

MONTPERRAT (Lombardy), House or, celebrated 
in the history of the Crusades, began with Aldcran, 
who was made Marquis of Montfcrrat by Otlio about 
967. Conrad of l\Iontferrat became Lord of Tyre, and 
reigned from 11S7 till 1101, when he was as.sai^sinated. 
William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been 
thus imprisoned nineteen months, V>'i->. Violaute, 
daughter of John II., married AudronicusPalasologus, 
enijicror of the East. Their descendants rnled in Italy 
amid pori)etual contests till 15:;3, when John George 
Paheologus died without issue. His estates passed 
after niucli contention to Frederick II. Gonzaga, mar- 
quis of Alantua, in 153G. 

MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United States, 
founded 1S17. Here the State Convention passed the 
ordinance of secession from the Union on Jan. 11, 1861 ; 
here the Confederate Congress met on Feb. 4, and 
elected Jefferson Davis president, and Alexander H. 
Stephens vice-president of the Confederate States of 
North America ; and here they were inaugurated on 
Feb. 18. On May 21, the Congress adjourned to meet 
on July 20 at Richmond, in Virginia, tliat state having 
joined the Confederates and become the seat of war. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for ad- 
vancing money on pledges, were first established at 
Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 
1462 ct .seq. The Franciscans, in 14'.»3, first began to 
receive interest, which was permitted by the pope in 
151.5. Monts lie Piete were not established in France 
till 1777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, 
but restored, 1804; regulated by law, 1851-2. See 
Paionhrokinrj. 

MONTIEL (Spain), Battle op, March 14 (or 23) 1369, 
between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his broth- 
er Henry ofTrastamare, aided by the French warrior, 
Bertram du Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and 
afterward treacherously slain. 

MONTLHERY (Seine-et-Oise, Prance), site of an in- 
decisive battle between Louis XL and a party of his 
nobles, termed "The League of the Public Good," July 
10, 1405. 

3I0NTREAL, the second city in Lower Canada, 
built by the French. 

Surrendered to the English Sept. 8,17C0 

Taken bv the Americans, Nov. 13, 1T75 ; retaken 

by the British June 15,1776 

The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 

buildings burnt down June 6,1803 

Great military aflfray Sept. 29,1833 

The self-styled "Loyalists" of Montreal assault 
the governor general, Lord Elgin; enter the 
Parliament House, drive out the members, and 

set fire to the building April 20,1849 

A destructive fire Aug. 23,1850 

Another, destroying 1200 houses ; the loss esti- 
mated at a million sterling July 12,1852 

At an anti-p.apal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- 
sued, and many lives were lost June 10,18.53 

The cathedral destroyed by fire Dec. 10,1850 

Victoria Railway Bridge (which see) formally open- 
ed by the Prince of Wales Aug. 25,1800 

MONTREAL, Battle near, on the 25th of Sep- 
tember, 1775, between a small party of 80 Americans 
under Colonel Ethan Allen, who had crossed the St. 
Lawrence to join Colonel John Browu in an attack 
npon the city, and some troops sent out by Colonel 
Present!, the commandant of the garrison. Allen was 
defeated, made prisoner, and, with some of his men, 
was sent in chains to England. 

MONTSERRAT, a West India Island, discovered by 
Columbus in 1493, and settled by the British in 1682. 
It has several times been taken by the French, but 
was secured to the British in 1788. 

MONUMENT of LONDON, built by Sir Christo- 
pher Wren, 1071-7. The pedestal is forty feet high, 
and the editice altogether 202 feet, that being the dis- 
tance of its base from the spot where the fire which it 
commemorates commenced. It is the loftiest isolated 
column in the world. Its erection cost about i;l4,.50n. 
The staircase is of black marble, consistinir of 345 
steps.* Of the four original inscriptions, three were 

* William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, June 25, 1150. 



Latin, and the following in English— Cut in 1681, ob- 
literated by James IL ; re-cut in the reign of William 
III. ; and finally erased by order of the Common 
Council, Jan. 26, 1831.* 

TUIS PILLAK WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAT. REMEMBRANCE 
OP THAT MOST nREADPUL BURNING OP THIS PROTEST- 
ANT CITY, BEGUN AND OAKBYEI) ON BY Y^ TREACHERY 
AND MALICE OP Y" POPISU FACTION, IN Y<= BEGINNING 
OP SEPTEM. IN V<= YEAR OF OUR LORD 1006, IN ORDER 
TO Y"= CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIR- 
PATING Y= PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH 
LIBERTY, AND Y'= INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 

MOODKE (India). Here, on Dec. 18, 1845, the Sikhs 
attacked the advanced guard of the British, and were 
repulsed three miles, losing many men and fifteen 
pieces of cannon. Sir Robert Sale was mortally 
wounded. Lady Sale signalized herself during the 
two menioTable retreats from Afghanistan. The bat- 
tle followed that of Ferozcshah {which see). 

MOOLTAN (India). Ilfere Moolraj Singh, ruler of the 
Sikhs, murdered Mr. Vans Airnew and Lieutenant An- 
derson, April 21, 1S4S. This'led to a siege. A conflict 
took place between the British and the Sikhs, in which 
the latter was driven to the town of Mooltan with 
great loss, Nov. 7, 1848. It was taken after a protract- 
ed bombardment, Jan. 2-22, 1849. 

MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true causes 
of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B.C. Hippar- 
chus made observations on the moon at Rhodes, 12T 
B.C. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the 
motion of the moon, 79 B.C. — Dior/. Laert. Maps of 
the moon have been constructed by Hevelius (1047), 
Cassini (1080), and others. Beer and Miidler's map 
was published in 1834. In 1862 Professor John Phil- 
lips invited the British Association to make arrange- 
ments to obtain a "systematic representation of the 
physical aspect of the moon." Photographs of the 
moon were taken and exhibited by Mr. Warren de la 
Rue in 1S57. Hansen's "Tables of the Moon," calcu- 
lated at the expense of the British and Danish gov- 
ernments, were published at the cost of the latter in 
1S57. See Eclipse. 

MOORE'S CREEK BRIDGE, in North Carolina. 
Some Tory Scotch Highlanders, living at Fayetteville 
and vicinity, took up arms, and went out in search of 
the Republican troops that were collecting in that vi- 
cinity. They met at Moore's Creek Bridge, on the 
27th of February, 1776, and had a severe engagement. 
The Highlanders were led by Donald M'Donald; the 
Americans by Colonels Caswell and Lillington. The 
Scotch were 1500 strong; the Americans numbered 
about 1000. The Loyalists were defeated. They lost 
70 men in killed and wounded ; the Americans lost 
none. They had only two wounded. 

MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania {which 
sec), but afterward the name given to the Numidians 
and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco 
and the ueighborhootl. They assisted Genseric and 
the Vandals^in their invasion of Africa, 429, and fre- 
quently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They 
resisted for a time the progress of the Arab Moham- 
medans, but were overcome by them in 707 ; and in 
1019 introduced into Spain to support the Arabs, 
where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 
they were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. The 
Moorish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237, and 
lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand V. of Cas- 
tile, mainly owing to internal discord. The expulsion 
of the Moors from Spain Avas decreed, but not fully 
carried into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip 
III. inflicted this great injury to his country. About 
1518 the Moors established the piratical states of Al- 
giers and Tunis (which, see). In the history of Spain, 
the Arabs and Moors must not be confounded. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY, defined as the knowledge 
of our dutv, the science of ethics, the art of being vir- 
tuous and happ3'. Socrates (about 430 B.C.) is regard- 
ed as the father of ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) of 
modern moral philosophy. See Philosophij. 

MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of 
Burgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, June 
22, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of 



A man named Thomas Craddock, a balier, precipitated himself from its 
summit, July 7, 1780. Mr. Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, 
of considerable respectability, threw himself from it, Jan. 18, 1810, as 
did more recently three other persons ; in consequence of which, a fence 
was placed round the railiners of the prallery in 1S39. 
* They produced Pope's indignant lines : 

" Where London's column, pointing at the slsies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts the nead, and lies." 



MOR 



320 



MOR 



the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, 
who erected a stone column in its place. 

MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by the 
Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the Avars and 
Bohemians, who submitted to Charlemagne. About 
lOOO it was subdued by Boleslas of Poland, but recov- 
ered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various 
changes, Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated 
into the Austrian dominions in 1526. 

MORAVIANS, United Beetheen, said to have been 
part of the Hussites who withdrew into Moravia in the 
15th century, while the Brethren say that their sect 
was derived from the Greek Church in the 9th century. 
In 1722 they formed a settlement (called Hcrrnhutt, the 
watch of the Lord) on the estate of Count Ziuzeudorf. 
Their Church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. They 
were introduced into England by Count Zmzendorf 
about 17:i7 ; he died at Chelsea in June, 1760. In 1851 
they had thirty-two chapels in England. They set- 
tled at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1746, and immedi- 
ately begun successful missions among the Indians. 
They are, indeed, the pioneers of the great missionary 
movements of this time. In 1850 they had 331 church- 
es in the United States, with a total value of church 
property estimated at $443,347, and church accommo- 
dations for 112,188 persons. 

MORAY FLOODS. See Inundations, 1829. 

MORDAUNT. See Administrations, 1GS9. 

MOREA, the Peloponnesus. See Greece. 

MORETON BAY (New South Wales). The colony 
founded here in 1859 has since been named Qrteen's- 
land {which see). 

MORGANATIC MARRIAGES. When the left hand 
is given instead of the right, between a man of supe- 
rior and a woman of inferior rank, in which it is stip- 
ulated that the latter and her children shall not enjoy 
the rank or inherit the possessions of the former. The 
children are legitimate. Such marriages are frequent- 
ly contracted in Germany by royalty and the higher 
nobility. George I. of England was thus married : 
and later, the King of Denmark to the Countess of 
Danner, Aug. 7, 1850. 

MORGARTEN (Switzerland), Battle of. Here 1300 
Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the 
Duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated,'Nov. 
16, 1315, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking 
the defile through which the enemy was to enter their 
territory from Zug. 

MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance peculiar to 
some of the country .parts of England, and, it is said, 
also to Scotland : it was performed before James I. in 
Herefordshire. 

MORMONS (calling themselves the Church of Jesus 
Christ, or Lattee-bay Saints). This sect derives its 
origin from Joseph Smith, an illiterate religious en- 
thusiast, who assumed to be a prophet sent from God, 
and the receptacle of direct divine revelations. He 
was living at Palmyra, in New York, when, at the age 
of IS years, he announced that he had been visited by 
the angel Moroni, who told him of a hidden book writ- 
ten on plates of gold, which contained a record of the 
lost tribes of Israel, and directions for the promulga- 
tion of the true Gospel concerning the millennial era. 
In 18-27 he announced that he had found the book — 
the book of Mormon. Then he had pretended special 
revelations, by which he procured money and secured 
followers. The book was translated and published in 
1830, under the title of The Book of Mormon. This was 
afterward proved to have been based upon a sort of 
religious romance, written in Scripture style, about 
the year 1813, by an invalid clergyman named Solo- 
mon Spaulding, whose manuscript, by some means, 
fell into the hands of Smith and his confederates. 

The Mormon Church was formally established at 
Manchester, Ontario County, New York, on the Cth of 
April, 1830. At a conference in June, Smith found 
himself at the head of a visible church of 30 men and 
women. This was the "grain of mitstard-seed" now 
grown to a vast shrub. Under the auspices of Sidney 
Rigdon and others, preparations were made to plant 
the new church in the Western wilderness. They first 
settled at Kirtland, Ohio, where, in 1831, they num- 
bered more than 1000. That place was made a " stake," 
but they chose a place in Missouri for their Zion— the 
New Jerusalem. Their conduct excited the opposi- 
tion of the Missourians, as well as those of Ohio, and 
the " Saints" were greatly persecuted. They were 
driven out of Missouri. Schisms and quarrels arose 
among themselves, and for a while "the church was 
peeled." The Mormons, in 1837, settled in Illinois, on 



the Mississippi River, where they built a temple in 
1S41, and named the place Nauvoo— (beautiful city). 
In 1844, Joseph Smith and his brother Hiram, while • 
in prison on a charge of treason, were murdered by a 
mob, and Brigham Young was chosen "seer." Har- 
assed by the exasperated people in that vicinity, they 
resolved to abandon Nauvoo, and flee to the interior 
of the continent. After an exodus equaled only by 
the great one of the Israelites out of Egypt, the Mor- 
mons entered the Great Salt Lake Va ley, full 1000 
miles from the Mississippi, in the Territory of Utah, in 
July, 1847, and there they built a city near the Great 
Salt Lake. The United States government surveyed 
that valley in 1849. In the spring of that year the 
Mormons held a convention, and organized a state 
which they called Deseret. The United States govern- 
ment erected it into a territory, and appointed Brig- 
ham Young governor, which ofhce he still holds (1869). 
The population in 1851 was 11,354. Polygamy is not 
only allowed, but practiced and enjoined. Their mu- 
nicipal government is hierarchal. Brigham Young is 
their spiritual head. They send missionaries to all 
parts of the world, and converts are continually mak- 
ing their way to the Great Salt Lake. They have ap- 
plied for admission into the Union as a sovereign 
state, but their social system is a bar to their recogni- 
tion. The United States government has had much 
trouble with them, for, under the direction of Young, 
they have been very insubordinate. They are repre- 
sented as a most licentious community. The women 
are degraded by the system of polygamy, and thou- 
sands of the members would escape if they could. 
Early in 1860 a new movement among them took 
place. A sou of the founder, Joseph Smith, has as- 
sumed the prophetic mantle of his father. He is op- 
posed to polygamv, and has expressed his determina- 
tion to reform the'Mormon Church. He has the sym- 
pathies of a greater portion of the people. It is sup- 
posed that the Mormons, at home and abroad, now 
number about 200,000 souls. 

MOROCCO, an empire in North Africa, formerly 
Mauritania {which see). In 1051 it was subdued for 
the Fatimite caliphs by the Almoravides, who event- 
ually extended their dominion into Spain. These 
were succeeded bv the Almohades (1121), the Merinites 
(1270), and in 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descend- 
ants of Mohammed, the now reigning dynasty. See 
Tancjiers. The Moors have had frequent wars with the 
Spaniards and Portuguese, due to piracy. 

Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 
with his army at the battle of Alcazar. . .Aug. 4,1573 

The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the in- 
stigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the Prince de Join- 
ville bombards Tangiers, Aug. 6, and Mogador, 

Aug. 16, 1844 

Marshal Bugeaud signally defeats the Moors at 
the River Isly, and acquires the title of duke, 

Aug. 14, " 

Peace signed between France and Morocco, 

Sept. 10, " 

The Spaniards, who possess several places on the 
coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penou de Valez, etc.), 
having suft'ered much annoyance by Moorish pi- 
rates, declare war against the sultan in Oct., 1859 

Negotiations had proved fruitless ; the Spanish 
government increasing their demands as the 
sultan yielded. The English government in- 
terfered in vain. For the events of the war, see 
Spain 1859-60 

A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of 
Charles II.) in London. (He gave X200 to the 
lord mayor for the London charities), 

June-Aug.,18G0 

The British government gave a guarantee for a 
loan of i;426,000 to the "sultan to meet his en- 
gagements with Spain Oct. 24,1861 

SULTANS. 

1822. Muley Abderahraan. 
1859. Sidi Mohammed, Sept. 

MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium by 
Sertiirner in 1803. 
MORRILL TARIFF. See United States, 1861. 
MORTALITY. See Bills of Mortality. 
MORTARA ABDUCTION. See Jews, 1S5S. 

MORTAR, a short gun with a large bore and close 
chamber, used for throwing bombs ; said to have been 
used at Naples in 1435, and first made in England in 
1543. The mortar left by Soult in Spain was fixed in 
St. James's Park in Aug., 1816. On Oct. 19, 1857, a co- 
lossal mortar, constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was 



MOR 



321 



MUM 



tried at Woolwich ; with a charge of 70 lbs. it threw a 
shell wcighiuf^ 2550 lbs. 1}4 luile horizontally, and 
about ^.i mile in height. 

' MORTIMER'S CROSS (Herefordshire). The Earl 
of Pembroke and the Laiicastrians were severely de- 
feated by the yoiiug Duke of York, afterward Edward 
IV., Feb. •-', UOl. lie assumed the throne as Edward 
IV. iu March followiug. 

MORTMAIN ACT {vwrt main, dead hand). When 
the survey of all the land in England was made by 
William I., 1085-0, the whole was found to amount to 
6-','_'ir> kuiu'lits' fees, of which the Church then pos- 
sessed 28,01."), to which additions were afterwiird made 
till tlic 7th of Edward I., 1279, when the statute of 
mortmain was jiassed, from a fear that the estates of 
the (Munch niii^lit ^^row too bulky. By this act it was 
made unlawful to ^ive any estates to the Church with- 
out the king's leave ; and this act, by a supplemental 
provision, was made to reach all lay fraternities or cor- 
porations in the 15th of Richard 11., 1391. Mortmain 
is such a state of possession as makes it inalienable, 
whence it is said to be in a dead hand. Several stat- 
utes have been passed on this subject; legacies by 
mortmain were especially restricted by the 10th George 
II., 17J0. 

MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tessellatum) is of 
Asiatic origin, and is probably referred to in Bather, 
ch. v., 6, about 519 B.C. It had attained to great ex- 
cellence in Greece iu the time of Alexander and his 
successors, when Sosos of Pergamus, the most re- 
nowned Mosaic artist of antiquity, flourished. He ac- 
quired great ftime by his accurate representation of an 
"nnswept floor after a feast." The Romans also ex- 
celled in Mosaic work, as evidenced by the inntimerable 
specimens preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from 
the 4th century after Christ. The art was revived iu 
Italy by Tati, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who design- 
ed Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th 
century. In the 10th century, Titian and Veronese also 
designed subjects for this aft. The practice of copying 
paintiugs in Mosaics came into vogue in the 17th cen- 
tury; and there is now a workshop in the Vatican 
■where chemical science is employed in the production 
of colors, and where 20,000 different tints are kept. In 
1861, Dr. Salviati, of Venice, had established his manti- 
facture of "Enamel -mosaics," and in Jtily, 1864, he 
fixed a large Enamel -mosaic picttire in one of the 
spandrils under the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, Lon- 
don. Ho has since executed commissions for the queen 
aud other persons. 

MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was found- 
ed, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The occupa- 
tion of the south of Russia by the Mongols iu 1235 led 
to Moscow becoming the capital, and beginning with 
Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes became the reigning dy- 
nasty. Moscow has been frequently taken in war: it 
was plundered bv Timour in 1382 ; by the Tartars in 
1451 and 1477 ; .and by Ladislas of Poland in 1611. The 
massacre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents on 
May 27, 1600, is termed the "Matins of Moscow." This 
city was entered by Napoleon I. and the French, Sept. 
14, 1812, and the Russian governor, Rostopchin, order- 
ed that it should be set on fire in 500 places at once. 
In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were 
burnt to tlte ground, besides palaces and churches. 
The French, thus deprived of quarters, evacuated Mos- 
cow, Oct. 19, aud it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 
22 following. Since then, Moscow has been rebuilt 
with great splendor. Although St. Petersburg (built 
in 1703) has become the capital, yet Moscow is the 
more beloved by the Russians, who regard it as a holy 
city. The railway to St. Petersburg was opened in 
1851. An industrial exhibition held at Moscow closed 
July 16, 1865. 

MOSKWA, or Boeobino, Battle op. See Borodino. 

MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). The In- 
dians inhabiting this coast were long under the pro- 
tection of the British, who held Belize and a group of 
islands in the Bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the 
United States long existed on this subject. In April, 
18.50, the two governments covenanted not "to occti 
py, or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any 
dominiim over any part of Central America." In 18.55 
the United States charged the British government with 
an infraction of the treaty, on which the latter agreed 
to cede the disputed territory to the republic of Hon- 
duras, with some reservation.* The matter was final- 
ly settled in Feb., 1857. 



* St..Timn del Norte (Greytown) was held liy the British on hehalf 
of the I\IosquitoC9 till the American adventurers, under Cnl. Kinney, 
took possession of it in Sept., 185.i. He joined Walker ; and on Feb. 



MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers and law- 
less soldiers, secreting themselves in the mosses on 
the borders of Scotland. They were finally extirpated 
m 1009. 

MOTTOES, Royal. Dieu et mon Droit, first used by 
Richard I., 1198. Ich dien, " I serve," adopted by Ed- 
ward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy 1346 
Iloni soit qui mal ypemi\ the motto of the Garter 1349 
Je maintiendrai, " I will maintain," adopted by Wil- 
liam III., to which he added, in 1088, "the liberties of 
England and the Protestant religion." Sem-per eadevi 
was assumed by Queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by 
Queeu Anne, 1702. E i-luiiibus cni:m, manti in one, 
was adopted for the great seal of the United States in 
1(82. Hee them never allij. 

MOUNTAIN PARTY. See CTm&s, French. 

MOUNTS. See Etna, Uecla, Vemviiis, Bernard, Cal- 
vary, and Olivet. ' 

MOURNING ron the Dead. The Israelites neither 
washed nor anointed themselves during the time of 
mourning, which for a friend lasted seven days ; upon 
extraordinary occasions a month. The Greeks and 
Itomans fasted. The ordinary color for motirnino- in 
Europe is black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, violet ; 
iu Ethiopia, brown; it was white in Spain until 149S.' 
—Herrera. Anne of Brittany, the queen of two suc- 
cessive kings of France, mourned iu black, instead of 
the then practice of wearing white, on the death of her 
first husband, Charles VIII., April 7, U9S.—Uenault. 

MOUSQUETAIRES, or Mhsketeees, horse-soldiers 
under the old French regime, raised by Louis XIII., 
1622. This corps was considered a military school for 
the French nobility. It was disbanded in 1646, but 
was restored in 1657. A second company was created 
in 1600, aud formed Cardinal Mazarine's guard.— i/tJ- 
nault. 

MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludowic Mng- 
gleton, a tailor, known abottt 1041, and prominent 
about 1050. He aud John Reeve afflnned that God 
the Father, leaving the government of heaven to Ell- 
as, came down and suffered death in a human form. 
They asserted that they were the two last witnesses 
of God which should appear before the end of the 
world. Jiev. xi., 3. A sect of this name still exists. 

MtfHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here the Ger- 
man Protestants were defeated by theEmperor Charles 
v., April 24, 1547. 

MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place Frederick, 
duke of Austria, was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Louis of Bavaria, Sept. 28, 1322. 

MULBERRY-TREES. The first planted in England 
are in the gardens of Sion House. Shakspeare plant- 
ed a mulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford- 
upon-Avon, and Garrick, Macklin, and others were 
entertained under it in 1742. Shakspeare's house was 
afterward sold to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, 
who cut down the mulberry-tree for fuel, 1705; but a 
silversmith purchased the whole, and manufecttiredit 
into memorials. 

MULE, a spinniug machine invented in 1779 by 
Samuel Crompton, born at Boltou, Lancashire, in 1753; 
named, from Crompton's residence, Uall-in-the-wood^ 
lohcel ; vmslin-icheel, from its giving birth to the Brit- 
ish muslin aud cambric manttfacture ; and mule, from 
its combining the advantages of Hargreaves's spin- 
ning jenny and Arkwright's adaptation. It is stated 
that Crompton at the time knew nothing of the latter. 
He did not patenthis invention, but gave it up in 1730. 
It produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
softer than any ever before produced iu England. Par- 
liament voted him £5000 in 1812, now considered a 
most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts invent- 
ed the self-acting mule in 1825. 

MULHOUSE, or MtiLnAcsEN (N.E. France), an im- 
perial city under Rodolph of Hapsburg; joined the 
Swiss Confederation in 1515, and annexed to France 
iu 1798. 

MUMMIES (from the Arabic mrmi, wax). See Em- 
halminq. The mummies in the British JIuseum, with 
other Egyptian autiqtiities, were placed there about 
1803. Mr. Alex. Gordon in 1737 published an essay on 
three Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought 
to England in 1722 by Capt Wm. Lethieuliier ; two 
others came in 1734, one of which was retained by Dr. 
Mead, the other was given to the College of Physicians. 
In 1834, Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published a "History of 
Eg yptian Mummies." 

10, ISSB, their associate Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the 
Mosnuito territory to Nicaragua. 



MUN 



322 



MUS 



MUNICH, the beautiful capital of Bavaria, was 
founded, it is said, 96'2. It was taken by Gustavus 
Adolplius of Swedeu iu 1G32 ; by the Austriaus iu ITO-t, 
1741, aud 1743 ; and by the French under Moreau, July 
2, ISUO. It abounds iu schools, institutions, and mau- 
ul'actories. The University was founded by King Louis 
in 1826. 

MUNICIPAL COEPOKATIONS, etc. See Corpora- 
tions. 

MUNSTER (Westphalia). The bishopric, said to 
have been founded by Charlemague, 780, was secular- 
ized iu 1S02, and ceded to Prussia iu 1815. The Ana- 
baptists, under John of Leydeu, the king of Munster, 
held the city iu 1534 and 1536. Here was signed the 
treaty of Westphalia {which see) or Miinster, Oct. 24, 
1648.— MuNSTEK, the southern province of Ireland. Iu 
1568 a commissiou was issued for its goverument by a 
president aud council, and new colonies were founded 
in 15S8. 

MURCIA, a province, N.E. Spain, was subdued by 
the Moors, 713 ; by Ferdinand of Castile and Aragon, 
1805. 

MURDER, the highest offense against the law of 
God {Genesis ix., 6, 2348 B.C.). A court of Ephetaj was 
established by Demophoon of Atheus for the trial of 
murder, 1179 B.C. The Persians did not punish the 
first ofi'euse. Iu England, during a period of llie Hep- 
tarchy, murder was punished by flues only. So late 
as Henry VIII. 's time the crime was compounded for 
in Wales. Murderers were allowed beueflt of clergy 
in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason (a dis- 
tinction now abolished), happened in three ways : by 
a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and 
an ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25Edw. III., 
1350. The euactmeuts relating to this crime are very 
numerous, and its willful commission has been rare- 
ly pardoned by English kings. The act whereby the 
murderer should be executed on the day next but one 
after his conviction was repealed 1836. See Execu- 
tions and Trials. 

MURIATIC ACID. See Alkali. 

MUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace of Alex- 
andria, like the Prytaneum of Atheus, where eminent 
learned men were maintained by the public. Tlie 
foundation is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. who 
here placed his library about 2S4 B.C. Besides the 
British Museum aud Sloane'sMuseum {which see), there 
are very many others in London. 

MUSIC* " Jubal, the father of all such as handle 
the harp and the organ" (3875 B.C., Gen. iii., 21). Lu- 
cretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the 
winds in hollow reeds ; Franckiuus to the various 
sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal-Caiu; Ca- 
meleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds ; 
and Zarlino to tlie sound of water dropping, etc. The 
flute, aud harmouy, or concord in music, are said to 
have been invented by Hyaguis, 1506. — Aruml. Mar- 
bles. Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 
B.C. — Diifresnoy. 

MUSIC IN England. Before the Reformation there 
was but one kind of music iu Europe worth notice, 
namely, the sacred chant, and the descant built upon 
it. This music, moreover, was applied to one language 
only, the Ijaim.—Ashe. The original English music 
from the period of the Saxons to that era in which our 
couutrymeu imbibed the art, aud copied the manner 
of the Italians, was of a character which neither pleased 
the soul nor charmed the ear. But as all the arts ap- 
pear to have been the companions of successful com- 
merce, our music soon improved, our taste was chas- 
tened, and sweet sounds formed an indispensable part 
of polite education. Prior to 1600, the chief music was 
masses aud madrigals, but dramatic music was much 
cultivated from that time. About the end of James 
I.'s reign, a music professorship was founded iu the 
University of Oxford by Dr. Wm. Hychin ; and the 
year 1710 was distinguished by the arrival in England 
of George Frederick Handel. Mozart came to En- 
gland in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl Maria 
von Weber in 1825. The study of music has been 
greatly promoted in this country since 1840 by the la- 
bors of John Hullah. The Tonic sol-fa system, in 
which at first the letters c?, r, m,/, s, I, t (for do, re, mi, 



* Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the motions of the 
twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to mortal 
ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a Ro- 
man lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an an- 
fel was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of 
_er melody , and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed suffi- 
cient authority to make lier the patroness of music and musicians. She 
<Ued in the 3d century. 



fa, so, la, ti or si) are used instead of notes, Avas invent- 
ed by Miss Glover, of Norwich, and improved by John 
Curweu about 1847. It has been successfully employ- 
ed in schools. 

MusicAi. Notes, etc. — The first six are said to have 
been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictiue monk 
of Arezzo, about 1025. — Blair. The notes at pres- 
ent used were perfected in 133S. Counterpoint was 
brought to perfection by Palsestrina about 1555. Gaf- 
forio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition 
iu the 15th ceutury, and they eft'ected great improve- 
ment in the scieuce. The Italian style of composi- 
tion was iutroduced into these countries about 1616. 

The Musical Pitou was settled in France in 1860. 
The middle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. At 
a meeting on the subject, held at the Society of Arts 
iu Nov. 23, 1860, the concert pitch of C was recom- 
mended to be 528 vibrations in a second. Mr. Hul- 
lah adopted 512 vibrations. 

MiTsiOAL Festivals in England. — Dr. Bysse, chancel- 
lor of Hereford, proposed to the members of the 
choirs a collection at the cathedral door after morn- 
ing service, wheu forty guineas were collected aud 
appropriated to charitable purposes. It was then 
agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and 
Worcester, in rotation annually. Until the year 1753, 
the festival lasted only two days ; it was then e.'j- 
tended at Hereford to three evenings ; aud at Glou- 
cester, iu 1767, to three mornings, for the purpose of 
introducing Handel's " Messiah," which was warm- 
ly receivecf, and has been performed annually ever 
since. Musical festivals on a great scale are now 
annually held at various cathedrals in England, See 
Hamlel and Crystal Palace. 

Musical Institutions. — The Ancient Academy of Mu- 
sic was instituted in 1710. It originated with nu- 
merous eminent performers and gentlemen wishing 
to promote the study of vocal harmouy. 

The Madrigal Society was established iu 1741, aud oth- 
er musical societies followed. 

The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal 
nobility and gentry uniting to promote the perform- 
ance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. 

The Philharmonic Concerts began in 1813. 

The Royal Acad, of Music estalilished 1822 {which see). 

The Musical Society of London established 1858. 

The " Popular Monday Concerts" at St. James's Hall 
began with a "Mendelssohn night" on Feb. 14, 1859. 

The Loudon Academy of Music founded iu 1S60. 

The centenary of the "Noblemen's Catch Club" was 
kept in July, 1861. 

The Ceciliau Society, London, founded about 1785; 
ceased iu 1862. 

The "Musical Education Committee" of the Society of 
Arts, London, with the Prince of Wales as chairman, 
held its first meeting May 22, 1865. 

eminent modekn musical oomposeks. 

Born Died 

Tallis 1585 

Palffistrina 1529 1594 

T. Morley 1604 

Orlando Gibbons 1583 1624 

II. Lawes 1600 1662 

Lully 1633 1672 

Purcell 1658 1C95 

J. Seb. Bach* 1685 1754 

G. F. Handel 1684 1759 

T. A. Arne 1710 177S 

C. Gliick 1714 1787 

W. A. Mozart 17.56 1791 

Joseph Haydn 1732 1809 

C. Dibdin 1748 1S14 

S. Webbe 1740 1817 

J. W. Callcott 1766 1821 

C. Weber 1786 1826 

L. Beethoven 1770 1827 

H. Bishop 1787 1855 

M. Cherubiui 1760 1842 

F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 1809 1S4S 

L. Spohr 1783 1859 

D. T. Auber 1784 

J. Meyerbeer 1704 1864 

J. E. Halevy 1799 1862 

J. Rossini 1792 

M. W. Balfe 1808 

W. Sterndale Bennett 1816 

MUSKETS. See Fire-arms. 

MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is said, as 
not being bare, but having a downy nap on its surface, 
resembling moss, which the French call mousse. Ac- 
cording to others, it was first brought from Moussol, 

* He had eleven sons, four of them distinguished musicians. 



MUT 



323 



NAM 



in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn 
in Eui^hmd in lOTO. — Andcrntm. By means of the 
Mtde (wliich see), British have superseded India mus- 
lins. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand miite when, be- 
ing arraigned for treason or felony, he either makes 
no answer, or answers foreign to the i)urpose. An- 
ciently, a mute was subjected to torture. By 12 Geo. 
III., 177'-', judgiiK'ut was awarded against mutes as if 
they wei-(^ convirted or had contested. A man refus- 
ing to pk'ad was (.•ondonuK'd and executed at the Old 
Bailey on a charge of murder, 1T7S, and another on a 
charge of burglary at Wells, 17'.i2. An act was passed 
in IS'27, by which the court is directed to enter a plea 
of "not guilty" when the jirisoner will not plead.* 

MUTINIES, British. The mutiny throughout the 
fleet at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, April, 
1797. It subsided on a promise from the Admiralty, 
which, not being quickly fullilled, occasioned a second 
mutiny on board the London man-of-war ; Admiral 
Colpoys and his captain were put into confinement 
for ordering the marines to fire, whereby some lives 
were lost. "^The mutiny subsided May 10, 1797, when 
an act was passed to raise the wages, and the king 
pardoned the mutineers. A more considerable one at 
the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the Thames, 
broke out on May '27, 17'.)7, and subsided June 13, 1797, 
when the principal mutineers were put in irons, and 
several executed (including the ringleader, nicknamed 
Kear-admiral Kichard Parker), June 30, at Sheerness. 
Mutiny of the Danae frigate: the crew carried the ship 
into Brest Harbor, March '27, ISOO. Mutiny on board 
Admiral ]\ntcheirs fieet at Bantry Bay, Dec, ISOl, and 
January Ibllowing (see Bantnj Ban). Mutiny atMalta, 
began April 4, lb07, and ended oil the 12th, when the 
mutineers blew themselves up by setting fire to a large 
magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 barrels of 
gunpowder. The most remarkable mutiny of the Uni- 
ted States was in the American naval service, on board 
the brig Somers, Commander A. S. M'Kenzie, when 
Midshipman Spencer and two seamen were hanged at 
the yard-arm. There was a mutiny of the Pennsylva- 
nia and New Jersey troops of the Continental Army in 
17S1; it was fairly justified. The British commander. 
Sir Henry Clinton, sent emissaries to bring the muti- 
neers to the royal cause. The latter gave these agents 
up to the American oificers, and refused rewards, when 
offered, for their protection. These emissaries were 
hanged. See Madras, ISOG, and India, 1857. 

MUTINY. A statute for the discipline, regulation, 
and payment of the army, etc., was passed in 1GS9, and 
has since been re-enacted annually. 

>IUTINY OF THE Bounty, April 28, 17S9. For par- 
ticulars, see Bonnty. 

]\[YCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), Battle of, fought 
between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the king of 
Sparta, and Xanthippus the Athenian) and the Per- 
sians, Sept. 22, 479 B.C., being the day on which Mar- 
donius was defeated and slaiu at Platsea by Pausanias. 



The Persians (about 100,000 men), who had just re- 
turned from tho unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in 
Greece, were completely defeated, thousands of them 
slaughtered, and their camp burnt. The Greeks sail- 
ed back to Samos with an immense booty. 

MYCEN^, a division of the kingdom of the Ardves, 
in the Pelopimuesus. It stood about fifty stadia" from 
Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Hera- 
clidffi. 

Perseus removes from Argos, and founds Mvceufe, 

B.C.1431, 1313, orl2S2 

Reign of Eurystheus 12S9, 1274, or 1258 

[Toward the close of his reign is placed the story 
of the several dangerous enterprises surmount- 
ed by Hercules.] 

.(Egisthus assassinates Atreus 1201 

Agcimemnon succeeds to the throne; "becomes 

King of Sicyon, Corinth, and perhaps of Argos, " 
He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 

going to the Trojan War about 11D3 

^gisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in 
adultery with the Queen Clytemnestra. On the 
return of the king they assassinate him, and 

.^gisthus mounts the throne 11S3 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and 

her paramour 117c 

Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent 1105 

The Achaians are expelled " 

Invasion of the HeraclidEe, and the conquerors di- 
vide the dominions 1103 

Myceua; destroyed by the Argives 468 

MYLjE, a bay of Sicily, where the Komans, under 
their Consul Duilius, gained their first naval victory 
over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their ships, 
200 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex- 
tus Pompeius, 30 B.C. 

MYSORE (S. India) was made a flourishing king- 
dom by Hyder Ali in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo 
Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. Tip- 
poo was chastised by them in 179'2, and on May 4, 1799, 
his capital, Seringapatam, was taken by assault, and 
himself slain. The English now hold the country. 

MYSTERIES. "Mystery" is said to be derived 
from the Hebrew mistar, to hide. The Sacred myster- 
ies is a term applied to the doctrines of Christianity, 
the chief of which is the incarnation of Christ, called 
the "mystery of godliness," 1 Tim. iii., 16. The Pro- 
.fane mysteries were the secret ceremonies performed 
by a select few in honor of some deity. From the 
Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of 
Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusin- 
ian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 
1356 B.C. — Mystery Plays. See Drama. 

MYTHOLOGY (Greek mytho.% fable), the traditions 
respecting the gods of any people. Thoth is supposed 
to have introduced mythology among the Egj'ptians, 
1521 B.C. ; and Cadmus the "worship of the Egyptian 
and Phoenician deities among the Greeks, 1493 B.C. 



N. 



NAAS (E. Ireland), an ancient town. Here a des- 
perate engagement took place between a body of the 
king's forces and the insurgent Irish during the rebel- 
lion of 1798. The latter were defeated with the loss 
of 300 killed and many wounded. May 24, 1798. 

NABONASSAR, Era of, received its name from the 
celebrated Prince of Babylon, under whose reign astro- 
nomical studies were much advanced in Chalda?a. The 
years are vague, containing 365 days each, without in- 
tercalation. The first day of the era was Wednesday 
(said, in mistake, to be Thursdav in L'Art dc Verifier 
le.i Dates), Feb. 26, 747 B.C.— H9(V7, Julian period. To 
find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonassar 
begins, subtract ihe year, if before Christ, from 748; 
if after Christ, add to it 747. 

NAHUM, Fkstival of. Nahum, the seventh of the 
twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.C. ; the festival is 
the 24th of December. 

* Wrtlter Cnlverly, of Calverly, in Yorkshire, Esa., Imvinp murdered 
two of his children,*and stabbed his wife in a fit oi jealousy, beinp ar- 
raifrned for his crime at Yorlt assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon 
pressed to death in the castle, n larpe iron weight being: placed upon 
his breast, Aup. 5, 1605. ■ — Sioir^s Chrnn. Major Stranpeway suffered 
death in a similar manner at Newgate iu 1657 for the murder of his 
brother-ln law, Mr. Fussell. 



NAJARA or Navaeete (N. Spain). Here Edward 
the Black Prince defeated Henry de Trastameie, and 
re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of Cas- 
tile, April 3, 1367. 

NAMES. Adam and Eve named their sons {Gen. 
iv., 25, 20). The popes change their names on their 
exaltation to the pontificate, "a custom introduced by 
Pope Sergius, whose name till then was swine-snout," 
GS7.—Platina. Onuphrins refers it to John XII., 956; 
and gives as a reason that it was done in imitation of 
SS. Peter and Paul, who were first called Simon and 
Saul. In France it was usual to change the name 
given at baptism. The two sons of Henry II. of 
France were christened Alexander and Hercules; at 
their confirmation these names were changed to Hen- 
ry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their entrance 
into monasteries, assume new names, to show that 
they are about to lead a new life. See Surnames. 

NAMUR, in Belgium, was made a county in 932, was 
ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, 
and was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town of 
the T'uited Provinces" in 171)5. Namur was taken by 
the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781 
the Emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 



NAN 



324 



NAP 



1792 it was again taken by the French, who were com- 
pelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they re- 
gained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, 
delivered it up to the Allies in 1814. It was a site of 
a severe conflict in June, 1S15, between the Prussians 
and the French under Grouchy, when retreating after 
the battle of Waterloo. 

NANCY (Lorraine, France), founded in the 12th cen- 
tury. Charles the Bold of liurgundy endeavored to 
conquer Lorraine, and besieged Nancy in 1476; but on 
Jan. 5, 1477, he was defeated and slain by the Duke of 
Lorraine and his Swiss allies. 

NANKIN, said to have been made the central capi- 
tal of China, 420. On Aug. 4, 1842, the British ships 
arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel 
Tae-pings took it on March 19, 20, 1853. It was recap- 
tured by the Imperialists, July 19, 1SU4, and found to 
be in a very desolate condition. 

NANTES. See Edict. 

NAPIER'S BONES. See Logarithms. 

NAPLES, formerly the continental division and seat 
of government of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, be- 
gan with a Greek colony named Parthenope (about 
1000 B.C.), which was afterward divided into Palreop- 
olis (the old) and Neapolis (the 7iew city), from which 
latter the present name is derived. The colony was 
conquered by the Romans in the Samnite War, 320 
'B.C. Naples, after resisting the power of the Lom- 
bards, Franks, and Germans, was .subjugated by the 
Normans under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, A.D. 
1131. Few countries have had so many political 
changes and cruel and despotic rulers, or suffered so 
much by convulsions of nature, such as earthquakes, 
volcanic eruptions, etc. In 1856, the population of the 
kingdom of Naples was 6,886,030 ; of Sicily, 2,231,020 ; 
total, 9,117,050. It now forms part of the revived 
kingdom of Italy. 

Naples conquered by Theodoric the Goth 493 

Retaken by Belisarius 53C 

Taken again by Totila 543 

Retaken^by Narses 552 

Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the Eastern 

Empire 568 or 572 

Duchy of Naples greatly extended 593 

Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made Duke of Apu- 
lia, founds the kingdom of Naples 1059 

Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the Two 

Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II 1131 

The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Gcr- 
manij) obtains the kingdom by marriage ; and 

rules 1194-12G6 

The pope appoints Charles of Anjou king, M'ho de- 
feats the Regent Manfred (son of Frederick II. 
of Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain), 

Feb. 20, " 
Charles also defeats Conradin (the last of the Ho- 
henstaufens), who had come to Naples by invita- 
tion of the Ghibellines, at Tagliacozzo, Aug. 23 ; 

Conradin beheaded Oct. 29,1268 

The massacre called the Sicilian Vespers {which 

«««) ■ March 30,1282 

Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I., mur- 

flered Sept. 18,1345 

He is avenged by his brother Louis, king of Hun- 
gary, who invades Naples I319 

Alphonso V. of Aragou (called the Wise and Mag- 
nanimous), on the death of Joanna II. seizes 

Naples 1435 

Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France". '. '. ! !l494 
And by Louis XIL of France and Ferdinand of 

Spain ;1501 

Naples and Sicily united to Spain 1,504 

Insurrection of Masaniello* !!!'..'.. .1647 

Another insurrection suppressed by Don johii of 

Austria Oct " 

Henry II., duke of Guise, lands and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the 

Spaniards April,1648 

Naples conquered by Prince Eugene, of Savoy, for 

the emperor 1700 

Discovery of Herculaneum {which see) . '. '. .'i7ii'or"l7l3 
The Spaniards, by the victory at Bitonto (May 26), 
having made themselves masters of both kiu>^- 
doms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the King of 

* Occasioncrl by the extortions of the Spanish vicerova. One day an 
impost was claimed on a basltet of figs, and refused by the owner, with 
whom the populace took part, headed by Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), 
a fisherman ; they obtained the command of Naples, many of the no- 
bles were slain and their palaces burnt, and the viceroy was compelled 
to abolish the taxes and to restore the privileges granted by Charles V. 
to the city. Masaniello became intoxicated by his success, and was 
slain by his own followers after a few days' rule, on July 16, 1647. 



Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title 

renewed, of the King of the Two Sicilies 1734 

Order of St. Januarius instituted by King Charles,173S 
Charles, becoming King of Spain, vacates the 
throne of the Two Sicilies in favor of his third 

son Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty 1759 

Expulsion of the Jesuits Nov. 3,1767 

Dreadful earthquake in Calabria Feb. 5,1783 

Enrolment of the Lazzaroni {which see) as pikemen 

or spontoneers 1793 

The king flies on the approach of the French Re- 
publicans, who establish the Parthenopean re- 
public Jan. 14,1799 

Nelson appears: Naples retaken; the restored 

king rules tyrannically. June, " 

Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of 

Nelson June 29, " 

The Neapolitans occupy Rome Sept. 30, " 

Dreadful earthquake felt throughout the king- 
dom, and thousands perish July 26,1804 

Treaty of neutrality between France and Naples 

ratiiied Oct. 9,1805 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to fly to 
Sicily, Jan. 23; the French enter Naples, and Jo- 
seph Bonaparte made king Feb. ,1800 

The French defeated at Maida July 4, " 

Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, 

abdicates for the crown of Spain June,lSCS 

Joachim Miirat made king (rules well) . . . .July 15, " 

His first quarrel with Napoleon 1811 

His alliance with Austria Jan. ,1814 

Death of Queen Caroline of Austria Sept. 7, " 

Joachim declares war against Austria. .March 15,1815 

Defeated at Tolentino May 3, " 

He retires to France, May 22, and Corsica ; he 
madly attempts the recovery of his throne by 
landing at Pizzo, Sept. 28 ; is seized, tried, and 

shot Oct. 13, " 

Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to tyran- 
nical measures June, " 

A plague rages in Naples, Nov., 1815, to June 1816 

Establishment of the society of the Carbonari 1819 

Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under 
General Pepe ; the king compelled to swear sol- 
emnly to a new Constitution .July 13,1820 

The Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king's 

instigation : General Pc-p6 defeated March" 7,1821 

Fall of the constitutional government.. March 23, " 

Death of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) Jan. 4,1825 

[In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by vari- 
ous iiinds of death.] 

Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed 1828 

Accession of Ferdinand II. (as faithless and tyran- 
nical as his predecessors) Nov. 8,1830 

Dispute with England respecting the sulphur 

trade ; settled March,lS40 

Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, with eighteen oth- 
ers, attempting an insurrection in Calabria, are 

shot* Jan. 17,1844 

Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 

grants a new Constitution Jan. 29,1848 

Great fighting in Naples ; the Liberals and the na- 
tiouai guard almost annihilated by the royal 

troops, aided by the Lazzaroni May 1.5, " 

A martial anarchy prevails; the chiefs of the Lib- 
eral party arrested in Dec.,lS49 

Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a 
mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to 

horrible dungeons for life June,1850 

After remonstrances with the king on his tyran- 
nical government (May), the English and French 

ambassadors are withdrawn Oct. 28,1856 

Attempted assassination of the king by Milano, 

Dec. 8, " 

The Cagliarii seized June,lS57 

Italian refugees, under Count Pisaccane, land in 
Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, 

June 27-July 2, " 
A dreadful earthquake in the Apennines (see 
Earthquakes) Dec. 16, " 

* It was asserted, but denied by Lord Aberdeen, that his government 
had given warning of this attempt, of which they had obtained infor- 
mation by opening letters directed to Mazzini. 

t The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steam-boat plying between Genoa 
and Tunis, sailed from the former port on June 25, 1S57, with thirty- 
three passengers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible possession 
of the vessel, and compelled the two English engineers (Watt and Park) 
to steer to Ponza. Here they landed, released some prisoners, took 
them on board, and sailed to *Sapri, where they again landed, and re- 
stored the vessel to its commander and crew. The latter steered im- 
mediately for Naples ; but, on the way, the vessel was boarded by a 
Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew were landed and consigned to dun- 
geons, where they remained for nine months waiting for trial, suffering 
great privations and insults. This caused great excitament in England ; 
and after much negotiation, the crew were released and the vessel giv- 
en up to the British government, i)3000 being given as a compensation 
to the sufferers. 



NAP 



325 



Amnesty granted to political offenders . . .Dec. 27,1S5S 

Poerio aud sixty-six conipauious released and 
sent to North America, Jan. ; on their way they 
seize the vessel ; sail to Cork, March 7 ; aud pro- 
ceed to Loudon March 1S,1S59 

Death of Fcrdiuaud II. after dreadful sufferings. 

May 22, 

Diplomatic relations resumed with England aud 
France June, 

A subscription for Poerio and his companions in 
England amounted to X10,00l) July, 

lusubordiuatiou among the Swiss troops at Na- 
ples ; many shot, July T ; Major Latour sent to 
Naples by the Swiss Confederation July 16, 

Army iucreased ; defenses strengthened Oct., 

Many political imprisonmeuts ; the foreign am- 
bassadors collectively address a note to the king 
stating the necessity for reform in his states, 
March 26 ; the Count of Syracuse recommends 
reform and alliance with England April, 1860 

Revolution in Sicily {wliich .sec) May 11, 14, " 

Francis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a Lib- 
eral ministry; adopts a tricolor flag, etc., 

June 26, " 

Baron Brenier, French ambassador, wounded in 
his carriage by the mob June 27, " 

A Liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the 
commissariat of the police iu 12 districts; state 
of siege proclaimed at Naples; the queen-mother 
flees to Gaeta June 28, " 

Revolutionary committee at Naples June 15, " 

Garibaldi lands iu Sicily, May 11 ; defeats the Nea- 
politan army at Calatirtmi, May 15 ; and at Me- 
lazzo, July 20 ; entersMessiua, July 21; the Nea- 
politans agree to evacuate Sicily July 30, " 

The King of Sardinia iu vain negotiates with 
Francis II. for alliance July, " 

Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of the 
Constitution of 1848, July 2; the army proclaim 
Count de Trani king July 10, " 

Garibaldi lands at Melito, Aug. 18 ; takes Reggio, 

Aug. 21, " 

Defection iu army and navy ; Francis II. retires to 
Gaeta, Sept. 6 ; Garibaldi enters Naples without 
troops Sept. 7, " 

Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, Sejit. 8; and 
gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian 
Admiral Persano, Sept. 11 ; expels the Jesuits ; 
establishes trial by jury; releases political pris- 
oners Sept., " 

He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, Sept. 19, 
aud defeats them thoroughly at the Volturno, 

Oct. 1, " 

The King of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Na- 
ples, and takes command of his army, which 
combines with Garibaldi's Oct. 11, " 

Naples unsettled through intrigues Oct., " 

Cialdiui defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, Oct. 
17 ; at Venafro Oct. 18, " 

The plebiscite at Naples, etc. ; almost unanimous 
vote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to 
10,312) Oct. 21, " 

Garibaldi meets Victor- Emmanuel, and salutes 
him as King of Italy Oct. 26, " 

The first English Protestant Church built on 
ground given by Garibaldi ; consecrated 

March 11,1805 
[History continued under Italij.} 

SOVEREIGN'S OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 

1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130), Xorman. 

11.54. William L,the Bad; son. 

1166. Williani II., the Good; son. 

llStt. Tnncred, natural son of Roger. 

111)4. William III., son, succeeded by Constance, mar- 
ried to Henry VI., of Germany. 

1107. Frederick II., of Germany {Ilohcnstanfen). 

12.50. Conrad ; son. 

12.54. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 

1258. Manfred, natural son of Fiederick II., seizes the 
government ; killed at Benevento in 1266. 

1266. Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
France. 

12S2. Insurrection in Sicily. 

{Heparation of tlie kingdovis in 1282.) 

NAPLES. 

12S2. Charles!., of Anjou. 

12S.5. Charles 11. ; son." 

1300. Robert the Wise; brother. 

1343. Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of 

Hungary), 1343-45; with Louis of Tarento, 

1349-62; Joanna put to death by 
13S1. Charles HI., of Durazzo, grandson of Charles II. : 



13S5. 
1414. 



1435. 

1282. 
12S5. 
1295. 
1337. 
1342. 
1355. 
1376. 
1402. 
1409. 
1410. 
1416. 



NAR 

he becomes King of Hungary, 1586 ; assassin- 
ated there. 

Ladislas of Hungary, son. 

Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her 
dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They are ac- 
quired by 

Alphonsus I. thus King of Naples and Sicily. 

SIOILY. 

Peter L (III. of Aragon). 
James I. (IL of Aragon). 
Frederick II. 
Peter IL 
Louis. 

Frederick HI. 

Maria aud Martin (her husband). 
Martin I. ' 

Martin II. 
Ferdinand I. 
Alphonsus I. 
{t^icparatiun of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) 



NAPLES. 

1458. Ferdinand I. 

1404. Alphouso 11. abdicates. 

1495. Fcidiuaud II. 

1496. Frederick II. expelled by the French, 1501. 

SICILY. 

1458. John of Aragon. 

1479. Ferdinand the Catholic. 



1501. 
1516. 
1556. 
1598. 
1623. 
1665. 
1700. 
1707. 



1713. 



THE CROWNS UNITED. 

Ferdinand III. (King of Spain). 
Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
Philip L (IL of Spain). 
Philip IL (HI. of Spain). 
Philip IIL (IV. of Spain). 
Charles II. (of Spain). 
Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
Charles IIL, of Austria. 

{Separation in 1713.) 

NAPLES. 

Charles IIL, of Austria. 



SICILY. 

1713. Victor Amadeus, of Savoy ; exchanges Sicily for 
Sardinia, 1720. 

THE TWO SICILIES. 

{Part of the Empire of Oermany, 1720-34.) 
173.5. Charles IV. (III. of Spain). 
1759. Ferdinand IV., a tyrannical and cruel sovereign, 
flies from Naples iu 1806 to Sicily. 
{Separation in 1806.) 

NAPLES. 

1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
1808. Joachim Murat, shot Oct. 13, 1815. 

SICILY. 

1806-15. Ferdinand IV. 

THE TWO SICILIES. 

1815. Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of Naples 
and Sicily. 

1825. Francis I. 

1S30. Ferdinand IL, Nov. 8 (termed King Bomba). 

1859. Francis IL, May 12; born Jan. 16, 1836, last King 
OP Naples. 

1861. Victor-Emmanuel IL, of Sardinia, as King of It- 
aly ; March. 

NAPOLEON, CODE. See Codes. 

NARBONNE (S.E. France), the Roman colony, Nar- 
bo Martins, founded 118 B.C., was made the capital of 
a Visigothic kingdom, 462. Gaston de Foix, the last 
vicom'fe (killed at the battle of Ravenna, April 11, 1512), 
resigned it to the king in exchange for the Duchy of 
Nemours. 

NARCEINE AND NARCOTINE, alkaloids obtained 
from Opium (ti'hich sec). Narceine was discovered by 
Pelletier in 1832, and uarcotiue by Derosne in 1803. 

NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the Great, 
of Russia, was totally defeated by Charles XII., of 
Sweden, "the Madman of the North," then in his nine- 
teenth year, Nov. 30, ITOO. The army of Peter is said 
to have amounted to 60,000, some Swedish writers af- 
firm 100,000 men, while the Swedes did not much ex- 
ceed 20,000. Charles attacked the enemy in his in- 
trenchmeuts, and slew 30,000; the remainder, exceed- 
ing that number, surrendered. He had several horses 
shot under him, and as he was mounting a fresh one 
he said, "These people seem disposed to give me ex- 
ercise." The place was taken by Peter in 1704. 



NAS 



326 



NAT 



NASEBY (Northamptonshire), Battle of, between 
Charles I. and the Parliameut army under Fairfax and 
Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was 
commanded by Lord Astley ; Prince Rupert led the 
right wing, Sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the 
king himself held the body of reserve. The victory 
was with the Parliament forces, and was decisive 
against the king, who fled, losing his cannon, bag- 
gage, and 5000 prisoners, June 14, 16-45. 

NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America), was occu- 
pied by the Confederates in ISCl, and taken by the 
Federals Feb. 23, 1SG2. It was, in the autumn of 1S62, 
isolated and besieged. General Negley erected sev- 
eral forts, which made the city almost impregnable 
against assault. On the 15th and 16th of December, 
1S64, there occurred south of Nashville one of the de- 
cisive battles of the war, in which General Thomas at- 
tacked and defeated Hood's army. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by 
the Emperor Frederick I. about USO, for Wolfram, a 
descendant of Conrad I. of Germany, from whom are 
descended the royal house of Orange now reigning in 
Holland (see Oraiuie and Hollaml), and the present 
Duke of Nassau. Wiesbaden was made the capital in 
1S39. On April 2,5, 1860, the Nassau Chamber strongly 
opposed the conclusion of a concordat with the Pope, 
and claimed liberty of faith and conscience. Popula- 
tion of the duchy in ISOo, 4GS,oll. 
ITSS. Count Frederick-William joins the Confedera- 
tion of the Rhine, and is made duke in 1S08. 
1814. William-Geors^e, August 20. 
1839. Adolphus-William-Charles, born July 24, 1817. 
The PRESENT duke. 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco da Gama land- 
ed here on Dec. 25, 1497, and hence named it Terra Na- 
talis. The Dutch attempted to colonize it about 1721. 
In 18-23, Lieut. Farewell and a small band of emigrants 
settled here. It was annexed to the British crown in 
1843, and made a bishopric in 1853, and an independ- 
ent colony in 1856. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Upon the proposition 
of the Abbe SicyOs, the Statci-General of France con- 
stituted themselves as the National Assembly, June 



17, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly 
was shut by order of the king, upon which the depu- 
ties of the Tiers Etat repaired to the .Teu de Paumc, or 
Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had 
digested a Constitution for France. On the 22d they 
met at the church at St. Louis. This Assembly abol- 
ished the state religion, annulled monastic vows, di- 
vided France into departments, sold the national do- 
mains, established a national bank, issued assimats, 
and dissolved itself Sept. 21, 1792. See National Con- 
vention. In 1848 the Legislature was again termed the 
National Assembly. It met May 4, and a new Consti- 
tution was proclaimed Nov. 12. A new Constitution 
was once more proclaimed by Louis Napoleon in Jan., 
1852, after triumphing over the National Assembly. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was formed in 
15S4, headed by the Earl of Leicester, to protect Queen 
Elizabeth from assassination, in consequence of the 
discovery of various plots. Another, for the defense 
of William III. against assassins, was established in 
1696, of which all persons holding office under gov- 
ernment were required to be members. See Social 
Science and Volunteers for two other national associa- 
tions. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION op France, constituted 
in the hall of the Tuileries Sept. 17, and formally open- 
ed Sept. 21,1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the 
National Assembly, repairedthither and announced 
that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was 
then decreed "That the citizens named by the French 
people to form the National Convention, being met to 
the number of 371, after having verified their'powers, 
declare that the National Convention is constituted." 
This Convention continued until a new Constitution 
was organized, and the Executive Directory was in- 
stalled at the little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Di- 
rcctorii. The Chartists (lohich see) in England formed 
a National Convention in 1839. 

NATIONAL DEBT of the United States. The 
following table gives the recapitulation of the Report 
of the Secretary of the Treasury, dated Washington, 
April 1st, 1869, showing the amount of the outstand- 
ing debt, with cash in Treasury on that date : 



comparative eeoapitulatton. 



Debt bearing Interest in Coin. 



Principal. 



Principal March 1st. 



Bonds at 5 per cent 

10.40 Bonds at 5 per cent.. . 
Bonds of 18S1 at 6 per cent. 
5.20 Bonds at 6 per cent 



Amount outstanding 



$27,022,000 00 

194,567,300 00 

288,677,400 00 

1,602,609,950 00 



$337,775 00 

810,097 OS 

4,255,161 00 

32,175,097 00 



$221,589,300 00 

283,077,400 00 
1,602,587,350 00 



$2,107,870,050 00 



$37,579,330 08 



$2,107,854,050 00 



Debt bearing interest in lawful money (ex-) 
elusive of Pacific Railroad bonds) ) 

Debt on which interest has ceased since) 
maturity j 

Debt bearing no interest 



Total debt— principal outstanding 
sive of Pacific Railroad bonds) ". 



(exclu-) 



$68,605,000 00 

6,003,403 64 
414,413,485 00 



$2,590,898,538 04 



$924,075 00 
800,511 56 



$39,303,916 64 



$71,140,000 00 

6,422,463 64 
421,578,180 50 



$2,606,994,694 14 



Total debt, principal and interest $2,636,202,455 28 



Coin belonging to the government 

Coin represented by gold certificates of deposits 
Currency 

Total 



$82,530,865 12 

21,672,500 00 

6,802,628 42 



$111,005,993 54 



I $98,741,260 72 
16,853,529 04 



$115,594,789 76 



Amount of Public Debt, less cash in the Treasury $2,525,196,421 74 



NATIONAL DEBT of England. The first mention 
of Parliamentary security for a debt of the English 
nation occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
national debt occurred in the reign of William III., 
1690. It amounted, in 1697, to about five millions 
sterling, and was then thought to be of alarming 
magnitude. The sole cause of the increase has been 
tvar. 

Debt. 

1702. Anne about £14,000,000 

1714. George 1 54,000,000 

1749. George II. (after Spanish War) 78,000,000 

1763. George IIL (end of Seven Years' War) 139,000,000 

1786. After American War 268,000,000 

1798. Foreign War 402,000,000 

1802. Close of French Revolntionary War. .571,000,000 
1814. Close of war with Napoleon 865,000,000 



Debt. 

1817. English and Irish Exchequers consol- 
idated 848,282,477 

1830. Total amount 840,184,022 

1840. Ditto 789,578,720 

1850. Ditto 787,029,162 

18.54. Ditto 775,041,272 

185.5. Ditto 793,375,199 

18.56. Ditto 807,981,783 

1857. Funded debt 780,119,722 

Unfunded 27,989,000 

1858. Funded debt 779,225,495 

Unfunded 25,011,500 

1859. Funded debt 786,801,154 

Unfunded 18,277,400 

1800. Funded debt 785,962,000 

Unfunded 16,228,300 



NAT 



327 



NAV 



ISOl. Funded debt 785,119,009 

lliifiinded 1G,68'.),()()0 

1SG2. Funded debt 784,252,338 

Un funded 16,517,900 

1SG3. Funded debt * 783,300,739 

rnfunded 16,495,400 

18C4. Funded debt 777,429,2-24 

Unfunded 13,136,000 

1805. Funded dul)t 775,708,295 

Unfunded 10,742,500 

[Exclusive of temiinable annuities.] 
The iinnual interest in 1850 was X23,862,257 ; and 
the total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
£27,099,740. On Jan. 1, IsBl, the total unredeemed 
debt of Great Britain and Ireland was £709,272,562, 
the chari^e on which, for interest and management, 
was X27,620,449. The total charge on the debt iu 1801 
was X2(),090,260. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London (containing now 
about 7.50 pictures), began with the purchase, by the 
British government, of the Angersteiu collection of 38 
pictures'for £57,000, iu ,Tan., 1S24. The first exhibition 
of them took place iu Pall Mall on May 10, 1824. Sir 
G. Beaumont (1820), Mr. Ilolwell Carr (1831), and many 
other gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, 
contributed many tiue pictures, and the collection has 
been since greatly augmented by gifts and purchases. 
The present edifice iu Trafalgar Square, designed by 
Mr. Wilkins, was completed and opened April 9,1838. 

NATIONAL GUARD of France was instituted by 
the Committee of Safety at Paris on July 13, 1789 (the 
day before the destructiim of the Bastile"), to maiutaiu 
order and defend the public liberty. Its first colors 
were blue and red, to A\hich white was added, when 
Its formation was approved by the king. Its action 
was soon paralyzed by the revolutionary factions, and 
it ceased altogether under the Consulate and Empire. 
It was revived by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained 
by Louis XVIII., but was broken up by Charles X. aft- 
er a tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, 
and helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. In 
1848, its reconstitutiou, and its enlargement from 80,000 
to 100,000 men, led to the frightful conflict of June, 
1848. Its constitution was eutirely changed in Jan., 
1852, when it was subjected eutirely to the control of 
the government. Formerly the national guard had 
many privileges, such as choosing its own officers, etc. 
— National guards have been established in Spain, Na- 
ples, and other countries during the present centm-y. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY of England 
was established in Feb., 1857, in pursuance of votes 
from both houses of Parliament. The sura of £2000 
was appropriated for the purchase of portraits of per- 
sons eminent in British history, and apartments were 
assigned for their reception. 

NATIVITY. There are two festivals in the Roman 
and Greek churches under this name. The Nativity 
of Christ, also observed by the Protestants on Decem- 
ber 25th (see Christmas) ; and the Nativity of the Vir- 
gin Mary, not observed by the Protestants "at all. Pope 
"Scrgius I., about 090, established the latter ; but it was 
uot generally received in France and Germany till 
about 1000, nor by the Easteru Christiaus till the 12th 
century. 

NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solomon, 1014 
B.C. (1 Kings iv., 33) and by Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). 
See Botani), Zooltxjy, etc. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. See Philosophy. 

NATURAL SELECTION. See Spceioi. 

NATURALIZATION is defined to be "the making 
a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of any king- 
dom or city, and so becoming, as it were, both a sub- 
.ject and a native of a king or countrv that by uature 
he did not belong to." The first act of naturalization 
passed iu 1437, and various similar enactments were 
made in most of the reigns from that tituo, several of 
them special acts relating to individuals. An act for 
the naturalization of the Jews passed May, 17.53, but 
was repealed iu 17.54, on the petition of all the cities in 
England ; for the privileges since granted them, see 
Jnrs. The act for the uaturalizatiou of Prince Albert 
passed 3 Vict., Feb. 7, 1840. 

NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in im- 
pressing objects, such as j)lauts, mosses, feathers, etc., 
into plates of metal, causnig these objects, as it were, 
to engrave themselves, and afterward taking casts or 
copies fit for iirinting from. Knipliof, of Erfurt, be- 
tween 1728 and 1757, produced his lltrlHiriitiu vinnn 
by pressing the plants themselves (previously iuked) 



on paper, the impressions being afterward colored by 
hand. In l!>33, Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use 
of steel rollers and lead plates. In 1S42, Mr. Taylor 
printed lace. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed grasses, 
ferus, aud plants ; and iu the same year Dr. Branson 
suggested the application of electrotypiufj to the im- 
pressions. In 1S49, Professor Lcydolt, of Vienna, by 
the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, obtained 
impressions of agates and fossils. The first practical 
application of this process is iu Von Ileufler's work on 
the Mosses of Arpasch, in Transylvania ; the second 
(the first in this country) in " The Ferns of Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley, the illustra- 
tions to which were prodticed under the superintend- 
ence of Mr. Henry Bradbury in 1855-0, who also, in 
1859-00, printed "The British Sea-weeds," edited by 
W. G. Johnstone and Alex. Croall. 

NAVAL ASYLUM, United States. It was not un- 
til the year 1835 that a permanent asylum for disabled 
and decrepit navy officers, seamen, and marines was 
established by the Federal government. By an act pass- 
ed in July, 1798, provision was made for the establish- 
ment of naval hospitals, and there are uow five of them 
belonging to the service, situated respectively at Chel- 
sea, near IJoston; Brookljai, New York; Philadelphia; 
Portsmouth, Virginia ; aud Pensacola. The Federal 
Naval Asylum is situated upon the Schuylkill, at Gray's 
Ferry, near Philadelphia, and is surrounded by 25 acres 
of land. It consists of three structures, forming a har- 
monious plan. The main building is three stories in 
height, aud 380 feet front. The establishment is fur- 
nished with every thing necessary for the comfort of 
the iuraates. It is proposed to erect another some- 
where on the sea-shore. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition, 
undertaken by Jason, is the first upon record, 1203 B. 
C. — Dnfresnoij. The first sea-fight on record is that 
between the Corinthians and Corcyrteans, 004 B.C. — 
Blair. The following are among the most celebrated 
naval engagements ; for the details of which, see sep- 
arate articles. 

Battle of Salamis (Greek victory) Oct. 20, B.C. 480 

Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 466 

Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedasmouiau fleet taken 

by Alcibiades, the Atheniau 410 

Battle of Arginusas 406 

Battle of .(Egospotamos (Spartans victors) 405 

The Persian fleet, under Couon, defeats the Spar- 
tan .at Cnidos; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, 
is killed, and the maritime power of the Lace- 
demonians destroyed 394 

Battle of Mylre (Romans defeat Carthaginians) ... 260 
The Roman fleet, oft" Trepanum, destroyed by the 

Carthaginians 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the Consul 

Lutatius 241 

Battle of Actium 31 

The Emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and 

sinks 2000 of their ships A.D. 269 

Battle of Lepauto (Turks defeated) Oct. 7,1571 

Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody 
conflict and decisive victory, giving for a time 
the superiority to the Dutch) April 25,1601 

NAVAI. engagements IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish 
pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire coast. — 
Asser's Life of Alfred 897 

Edward III. defeats the French near Shn's, 

June 24, 1340 

Oft" Winchelsea ; Edward IIL defeated the Spanish 
fleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26. .Aug. 29,1350 

The English and Flemiugs ; the latter signally de- 
featecf. 1371 

Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, 
and captures SO March 24,1387 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, aud de- 
stroy 15 French ships 1405 

Oft" Harfleur ; the Duke of Bedford takes or de- 
stroys nearly 500 French ships Aug. 15, 1416 

In the" Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- 
tured by the Earl of Warwick 1459 

Bay of Biscay : English and French, indecisive, 

Aug. 10,1512 

Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under Pri- 
or John : repulsed and killed April 25,1.513 

The Spanish Armada destroyed July 19,1588 

Dover Straits, between the Dutch Admiral Van 
Tromp and Admiral Blake. The Dutch sur- 
prise the Enslish in the Do^vns, 80 sail engag- 
ing 40 Enirlish, six of which are taken or de- 
strovcd ; and the Dutch admiral sails in tri- 
umph through the Channel with a broom at his 



NAV 



328 



NAV 



mast-head, to denote that he had swept the En- 
glish from the seas Nov. 29,1G52 

The Euglish gain a victory over the Dutch fleet ofl" 
Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of- 
war and 30 merchautmeu. Van Tromp was the 
Dutch, and Blake the English admiral, Feb.lS-20,1653 

Again, oil" the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of- 
war each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; 
Blake, Monk, and Deane, the English. C Dutch 
ships taken, 11 sunk, and the rest ran into Ca- 
lais Roads June 2, " 

Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 
men-of-war, and Admiral Tromp was killed (the 
seventh and last battle) July, " 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth two million 
pieces of eight, were taken by Blake Sept., 1656 

Spanish fleetvauquished, and burnt in the harbor 
of Santa Cruz, by Blake April 20,1657 

English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- 
stroyed bv the Duke of York (afterward James 
II.) : Dec. 4,1604 

The Duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet ofl' Har- 
wich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown up with 
all his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroy- 
ed June 3,1C65 

The Earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 
India ships Sept. 4, " 

A contest between the Dutch and English fleets 
for four days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 
15 ships June 1^,1666 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames ; 
the English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch 
lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 
seamen July 25, 26, " 

The Dutch Admiral De Ruyter sails up the Thames 
and destroys some ships June 11,166" 

Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by Sir Ed- 
ward Spragg May 10,1671 

Battle of Southwold Bay (see Solchay) May 28,1672 

Coast of Holland ; by Prince Rupert, May 28, June 
4, and Aug. 11. Sir E. Spragg killed ; d'Estrees 
and Ruyter defeated 1673 

Off Beachy Head; the English and Dutch defeat- 
ed by the French June 30,1690 

Victory near Cape La Ilogue May 19,1092 

Off St. Vincent; the English and Dutch squadrons, 
under Admiral Rooke, defeated by the French, 

June 16,1693 

Off Carthagena, between Admiral Beubow* and 
the French fleet, commanded by Admiral Du 
Casse. Foui^ht Aug. 19,1702 

Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 
(lohich see) Oct. 12, " 

Off Malatra; bloody engagement between the 
French,'"under the Couiit of Thoulouse, and the 
English, under Sir George Rooke, when the for- 
mer entirely relinquished the dominion of the 
seas to England Aug. 24,1704 

At Gibraltar; French lose 5 men-of-war. . .Nov. 5, " 

In the Mediterranean, Admiral Leake took 60 
French vessels, laden with provisions. . .May 22,1708 

Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by Sir 
George Byng, in the Faro of Messina. . .July 31,1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews and Lestock 
against the fleets of France and Spain. Here 
the brave Captain Cornwall fell with 42 men, 
including oflicers; and the victory was lost by 
a misunderstanding between the Euglish admi- 
rals Feb. 9,1744 

Off Cape Finisterre, the French fleet of 38 sail taken 
by Admiral Anson * May 3,1747 

Off Finisterre, when Admiral Hawke took 7 men- 
of-war of the French Oct. 14, " 

Off Newfoundland, when Admiral Boscawen took 
2 men-of-war June 10,1755 

Off Cape Franroise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 English, 

Oct. 21,1757 

Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the 
East Indies in two actions, 1758, and again 1759 



* In the enpraKemcnt, the other ships of Admiral Benhow's squatiron, 
fallinS astern, left this brave commander alone to maintain the unequal 
■battle. In this situation a chain-shot shattered his lej;, vet he would 
not be removed from the quarter deck, but continued fipfhting till the 
mornins, when the French fleet sheered off. He died in Oct. follow- 
ing, of his wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, he received 
ft letter from the French admiral, of which the following is a literal 
translation : 

" Carthagena, Aug. 22, 1702. 

" Sir,— I had little hopes, on Monday last, but to have supped in 
vour cabin ; yet it pleased God to order it otherwise. I am thankful 
lor it. As for those cowardly captains who deserted you, hang them 
np, for, by G— d, they deserve it. Du Casse." 

Two of those unworthy cowards, Captains Kirhy and Wade, were 
shot on their arrival at Plymouth, havmg been previously tried by a 
court-martial. 



Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under De 
la Clue, oft" Cape Lagos Aug. 18,1759 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
manded by Conflaus, in Quiberon Bay, and thus 
prevents a projected invasion of England (see 
Quiberon Bay.. .». Nov. 20, " 

Keppel took 3 French frigates and a fleet of mer- 
chantmen Oct. 9,1762 

On Lake Champlain, the provincial force totally 
destroyed by Admiral Howe Oct. 11,1776 

Oft" Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel and 
Orvilliers July 27,1778 

In New England ; the American fleet totally de- 
stroyed July 30,1779 

Near Cape St. Vincent ; Admiral Rodney defeated 
a Spanish fleet under Admiral Don Langara (see i 
Rodmy) Jan. 16,1780 '■ 

At St. Jago ; Mous. Suffrein defeated by Commo- 
dore Johnstone April 16,1781 

Dogger Bank, between Admiral Parker and the 
Dutch Admiral Zoutman; 400 killed on each 
side Aug. 5, " 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to at- 
tack Jamaica ; took 5 shijjs of the line, and sent 
the French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prisoner 
to England _ April 12,1782 

The British totally defeated the 'fleets of France 
and Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar Sept. 13, 

East Indies : a series of actions between Sir Ed- 
ward Hughes and Suffrein, viz. : Feb. 17, 1782, 
the French had 11 ships to 9; April 12, they had 
18 ships to 11, yet were completely beaten. 
Again, July 6, oft'Trincomalee, they had 15 to 12, 
and were again beaten, with loss of 1000 killed, 
Sept. 3, 1782 ; again June 20,1783 

Lord Howe defeated the French oft' Ushant ; took 
6 ships of war, and sunk one June 1,1794 

Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail; burnt 7, out of a 
fleet of 35 sail of transports March 8,1795 

French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken by 
Admiral Hotham. Fought March 14, " 

Admiral Cornwallis took'S transports, convoyed 
by 3 French men-of-war. Fought June 7, " 

Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the Seeptre, 
man-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen 
in company June 19, " 

L'Orient; the French fleet defeated by Lord Brid- 
port, and 3 ships of the line taken (see L'Orient), 

June 25, " 

Dutch fleet, under Admiral Lucas, in Saldanha 
Bay, surrenders to Sir George Keith Elphin- 
stone (see Saldanha Bay) Aug. 1T,179C 

Cape St. Vincent {which see) Feb. 14,1797 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; Admiral 
Nelson loses his right arm July 24, " 

Camperdown {ivhich see) Oct. 11, " 

Nile (tvhich sec) Aug. 1,1798 

Oft' the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
full of troops, as succors to the Irish, engaged by 
Sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken . . .Oct. 12, " 

The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen sur- 
renders to Admiral Mitchell Aug. 28,1799 

Capture of the Cerbrre {which see) July 29,lWiO 

Copenhagen bombarded (see C'opeiihagen), A\m] 2,1801 

Gibraltar Bay ; engagement between the French 
and British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, 
lost July 6, " 

Off Cadiz; Sir James Saumarez obtains a victory 
over the French and Spanish fleets; 1 ship cap- 
tured. Fought July 12, " 

Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both 
Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Span- 
ish fleets, off Ferrol July 22,1805 

Off Trafalgar {which see) Oct. 21, " 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 
French ships off Cape Ortegal Nov. 4, " 

In the West Indies : the French defeated by Sir T. 
Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on 
shore Feb. 6,1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, 

March 13, " 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the Dar- 
danelles (see article Dardanelles) Feb. 19,1S0T 

Copenhairen fleet captured Sept. 8, " 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, sur- 
renders to the British Sept. 3,1808 

Basque Roads; 4 sail of the line, etc., destroyed by 
Lord Gambler April 12,1809 

Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken 
or destroyed by Sir J. Samaurez July, " 

French ships of the line driven on shore by Lord 
Collingwood (2 of them burnt by the French 
next day) Oct. 25, " 

Bay of Rosas, where Lieut. Tailour, by direction 



NAV 



329 



NAV 



of Captain Hallowell, takes or destroys 11 war 
aud other vessels (sec Jiomn Jlay) Nov. 1,1S09 

Basseterre ; La Loire aud La Seiiu;, Frcuch frij^ates, 
destroyed by Sir A. Cochrane Dec. 18, " 

The tyjmrtan frigate sallaiitly engages a large 
French force in the Buy of Naples May 3,1S10 

Action between the Tribune, Captain Keyuolds, 
and 4 Danish brigs. Fought May 12, " 

Isle of Kho ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by the 
A rniiilc and CadmiM July 17, " 

Captain Barrett, iu the merchant vessel Curnber- 
liuul, with 2(5 men, defeats 4 privateers, and takes 
ITO ijrisoners Jan. 16,1811 

Twenty-two vessels from Otrauto taken by the 
Cfrbcri(.<i and Active Feb. 22, " 

A^nazun French frigate destroyed off Cape Bar- 
fleur March 25, " 

^Sagone Bay ; 2 French store-ships burnt by Cap- 
tain Barrie's ships May 1, " 

Off .Madagascar; 3 British frigates, under Captain 
.Schomberg, engage 3 Freuch larger-sized, with 
troops on board, and capture 2 May 20, " 

The Tliamcs aud Cephahm capture 36 French ves- 
sels July, " 

The Xaiad frigate attacked in presence of Bona- 
parte by 7 armed praams ; they were gallantly 
repulsed Sept. 21, " 

French frigates Pauline and Povwnc captured by 
the British frigates Alcente, Active, and (Tnite, 

Nov. 29, " 

EiBoli, S4 guns, taken by Victorious, 74 Feb. 21,1812 

L'Oricnt; "2 Fieuch frigates, etc., destroyed by the 
y<irtliiiinbi'rland, Captain Hotham May 22, " 

British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed aud 05 
wouudecl, engaging a Freuch fritrate Feb. 7,1813 

French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the An- 
dromache of 3S guns Oct. 23, " 

French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
Taijm Jan. 6,1814 

French frigates Alcm^ne and Jphigenia taken by 
the Vemrable Jan. 16, " 

Freuch frigate2'c»-jo.s?c/ioretakenbyi)/rt7e.s<?p, Feb. 3, " 

French ship Clorinde taken by the Drijad and 
A chate.i, after au action with the Eurota.% Feb. 25, " 

Freuch frigate VEtoile captured by the Ilcbrus, 

March 27, " 

Algiers bombarded by Lord Exmouth (see Alqicrs), 

Aug. 27,1816 

Navarino {u'hich see) Oct. 20,1827 

Acti(jn between the British ships Volaije aud Hya- 
cinth and 29 Chinese war-juuks, which were de- 
feated Nov. 3,1839 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British squad- 
ron, under Admiral Stopford, achieved this tri- 
umi)h with trifling loss, while the Egyptians lost 
200U killed aud wounded, and 3000 prisoners (see 
Syria) Nov. 3,1840 

Lagos attacked and taken by Commodore Bruce, 
with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, 
Bloodhound, Sampson, and Teazcr, war-steamers, 
aud the Philomel brig of war Dec. 20, 27,1851 

(For naval actions which can not be called regular 
battles, see China aud Japan.) 

61IIP8 TAKEN OB PESTKOYED BY THE NAVAL ANP MAKINE 
FORCES OF GEE AT KBITAIN. 



In the French War, ending IS02. | 


Force. 


French. 


Dutch. 


Spanish. 


Other 
Nations. 


Total. 


Of the line 

Fifties 


45 

2 

133 

161 


25 

1 

31 

32 


11 



20 

55 


2 

7 
16 


83 

3 

191 

264 


Frigates 


Sloops, etc 


Total 


341 1 89 


86 


25 


541 






In the French War, endinc 1814. | 


Force. 


French. 


Spanish. 


Danish. 


Russian. 


Anieri- 


Total. 


Of the line.. 

Fifties 

Frigates .... 

Sloops, etc. . 

Total .... 


70 

7 

77 

188 


27 



36 

64 


23 

1 

24 

16 


4 

6 

7 




1 

5 

13 


124 
9 

148 

288 


342 


127 


64 


17 


19 


569 



NAVAL BATTLES of the Unitet> States. The 
navy, durin<r the Bevohition, was of little account. 
The principal exploits were performed by ijrivateers. 
In Dec, 1775, a navy was established by Congress, aud 
offlrors appointed. Esek Hopkins was made com- 
mander-in-chief, and in the spring of 1776 weut south- 
ward with a small squadron. 

Hopkins captured several British vessels, 

March and April, 177G 



Two battles on Lake Champlain, the Americans 
commanded by Benedict Arnold Oct. 11, 13,1776 

Paul Joues, in Providence privateer, takes 15 prizes 
in the autumn of " 

Manly and others make many prizes on the north- 
east coast " 

Paul Jones's attack on Whitehaven '. . ApriY,1778 

He captures the ISritish frigate Serajns. . .Sept. 23,1779 

U. S. frigate Constdlution captured the French frig- 
ate L'/n.si(ryente Feb., 1799 

Con.-iti'tlation. and La Ventjeaw.e combat Feb., 1800 

Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tripolitans 1803 

Philadelphia fri'^ate destroyed by Decatur. .Feb 3,1804 

Tripoli bombarded by Commodore Preble. .Aug., " 

Chesapeake fired upon by the Leopard for refusing 
to be searched Juue,1807 

Contest between American frigate President aud 
British sloop Little Belt May 10,1811 

U. S. frigate Constitution captures British frigate 
Gucrricrc Aug. 19,1812 

Captain Elliott captured the Detroit aud Caledonia 
on Lake Champlain Oct. 8, " 

Captain Jones, with sloop Wasp, captured the Brit- 
ish brig Frolic, aud both vessels captured by the 
British 74-gun ship Poictiers on the afternoon of 
the same day Oct. 18, " 

Commodore Decatur, with frigate United States, 
captured the British frigate Macedonian.. Oct. 25, " 

Commodore Bainbridge, with the frigate Constitu- 
tion, captured the British frigate .Jara. . .Dec. 29, " 

Captain Lawrence, with the sloop Horiiet, cap- 
tured the British brig Resolute, Feb. 10, 1813 ; 
and the brig Peacock Feb. 24,1813 

Captain Lawrence, with the frigate Chesapeake, 
surrendered to ttie British frigate Shannon, 

June 1, " 

Captain Allen, with sloop Argtts, sitrrendered to 
the sloop Pelican Aug. 14, " 

Lieutenant Burrows, with the U. S. brig Enterprise, 
captured the British brig Boxer Sept. 5, " 

Commodore Perry, with a small fleet, captured 
British fleet on Lake Champlain Sept. 13, " 

Commodore Chauncey, with the Americau flo- 
tilla, captured the British flotilla on Lake Onta- 
rio Oct. 5, " 

Captain Porter, with U. S. frigate Essex, surrender- 
ed to the British frigate Phoebe March 28,1814 

Captain Bainbridge, with U. S. sloop Frolic, sur- 
rendered to the frigate Orphetis April 20, " 

Captain Warrington, with sloop Peacock, captures 
the British brig Epervicr April 29, " 

The U. S. sloop Wasp, Captain Blakeley, captured 
British brig Reindeer Juue 28, " 

Commodore "Hardy, with a British fleet, attacked 
Stoningtou Aug. 9-12, " 

Commodore M'Donough's fleet on Lake Cham- 
plain captures the British fleet ofl" Plattsburg, 

Sept.ll, " 

Commodore Decatur, with frigate President, sur- 
rendered to the British frigate Endymion, Jan. 15,1815 

Captain Stewart, \vith the'U. S. frigate Constitu- 
tion, captured the British ships of war Cyane 
aud Levant Feb. 20, " 

Commodore Biddle, with the sloop Hornet, cap- 
tured the British brig Penguin Feb. 23, " 

Commodore Conner, with U. S. fleet, bombarded 
Vera Cruz, in conjunction with a laud force un- 
der General Scott March, 1S47 

NAVAL REVIEWS, SALUTE, and VOLUNTEERS. 
See under Xavy. 

NAVARINO (S. W. Greece), Battle of, Oct. 20, 1827, 
between the combined fleets of England, France, and 
Russia, under command of Admiral Codriugton, and 
the Turkish navy, in which the latter was almost 
wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of 
them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by 
the Turks themselves, to prevent their falling into the 
hands of their enemies. This destruction oftheTurk- 
i.sh naval power was characterized by the Duke of 
Wellington as being an "untoward event" — a mem- 
orable phrase applied to it to this day. 

NAVARRE, now a province of Spain, formed a part 
of the Roman dominions, and was conquered by 
Charlemagne, 778. His descendants appointed gov- 
ernors, one of whom, Garcias Xinienes, took the title 
of king about SCO. In lOTO, King Sancho IV. was poi- 
soned, and Sancho Ramorez, of Aragon, seized Na- 
varre. In 1134, Navarre became again independent 
under Garcias Ramorez IV. In 12.34, Thibault, count 
of Champagne, became sovereign of Navarre, as neph- 
ew of Sancho VII., and in 12S4, by the marriage of the 
heiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was united 
to Frauce. 



NAV 



330 



NAV 



SOVEEEIGNS OF NAVAKEE. 

12T4. Jane I. and (12S4) Philip-le-Bel of France. 

1305. Louis X., Hutiu, of France. 

1316. Philip v., the Lous;, of France. 

13'2-2. Charles IV., the Fiiir. 

132S. Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.) and her husband, 

Philip d'Evreux. 
1349. Charles II., the Bad. 
1387. Charles III., the Noble. 
1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John 

of Aragon. 
1441. John II., alone, who became King of Aragon in 

1458. He endeavored to obtain the crown of 

Castile also. 
1479. Eleanor de Poix, his daughter. 
1479. Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 
1483. Catharine (his sister) and her husband, John 

d'Albret. Ferdinand of Aragon conquers and 

annexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 

1512. 

LOWER NAVAEEE (in France). 
1516. Henry d'Albret. 
1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de 

Bourbon, who died 1562. 
1572. Henry III., who became in 15S9 King of France, 
to which Lower Navarre was formally united 
in 1609. 
NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoeni- 
cians, about 1500 B.C. The first laws of navigation 
originated with the Ilhodiaus, 916 B.C. The first ac- 
count we have of any considerable voyajre is that of 
the Phoenicians sailing round Africa, 604 B.C. — Blair. 
See under litcavi. 

Plane charts and mariner's compass itsed about. . 1420 
Variation of the compass discovered by Columbus 1492 
That the oblique rhomb lines are spirals, discov- 
ered by Nonius 1.537 

First treatise on navigation 1.545 

The log first mentioned by Bourne 1577 

Mercator's chart 1599 

Davis's quadrant, or baclcstafl", for measuring an- 
gles, about 1600 

Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by Gun- 

ter 1620 

Middle latitude sailing introduced 1628 

Mensuration of a degree, Norwood 1C31 

Hadley's quadrant 1731 

Harrison's time-keeper used 1764 

Nautical almanac first published 1767 

Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass.. 1S20 
(See ComjKiss, Latitude, Longitude, etc.) 

NAVIGATION, INLAND. See Canals. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime laws is 
attributed to Richard I. of England, said to have been 
decreed at the Isle of Oleron, 1194 (see Olcron), and far- 
ther enactments were made by Richard II. in 1.381. — 
In Oct., 1651, the Parliament of Cromwell passed an 
act entitled " Goods from foreign parts, by whom to 
be imported," the principles of which were aftirmed 
by 12 Charles II., c. IS, "An Act for the Encouraging 
and Increasing of Shipping and Navigation." The 
latter act restricts the importation and exportation of 
goods from or to Asia, Africa, or America to English 
ships, of which the masters and three fourths of the 
mariners are to be English. This was followed by 
many acts of similar tenor, which were consolidated 
by 3 .ind 4 Will. IV., c. 54 (1833). These acts were in 
the whole or in part repealed by the act " to amend 
the Laws in force for the Encouragement of British 
Shipping and Navigation," passed 12 and 13 Vict., c. 
29, June 26, 1S49, after much opposition. This last act 
came into operation Jan. 1, 1850. The Steam Naviga- 
tion Act, passed 14 and 15 Vict., c. 79, 18.51, came into 
operation Jan. 1,1852. The act regulating the navi- 
gation of the River Thames was passed in 1786.— In 
Feb., 1865, the emperor recommended the modification 
of the French navigation laws. 

NA'VTIGATORS (or Navvies). These important help- 
ers in the construction of British railways derived their 
name (about 1S30) from their formerly making the in- 
land navigation in Lincolnshire, etc., and are said to 
be descendants of the original Dutch canal laborers. 

NAVy OF England, "whereon, under the good prov- 
idence of God, the wealth, safety, and strength of the 
kingdom chiefly depends." — Act for the government of 
tJm Xav]/. 
The first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, built 

by Alfred 897 

The number of galleys greatly increased under Ed- 
gar, who claimed to be the lord of the ocean sur- 
rounding Britain, about 965 



A formidable fleet equipped l)y the contribution of 
every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred 
II., when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be 
ready to oppose the Danes 1007 

Edward the Confessor collected a fleet to resist 
the Norwegians, 1042 ; and Harold to resist the 
Normans iqqq 

Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws 
about 1191 

[The Cinque Ports and maritime towns frequent- 
ly furnish fleets commanded by the king or his 
officers.] 

Edward III.'s fleet defeat the French at the battle 
of Sluys, June 24, 1340; and the Spanish ofi' Win- 
chelsea Aug. 29,1350 

Henry V. made great eflforts to increase the navy, 

1415-1422 

Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered to 
be the beginning of the Royal Navy 14SS 

The Trinity House established and the Navy Of- 
fice appointed with commissioners (see Admi- 
falty) 1512 

[The navy then consisted of the " Great Harry," 
1200 tons, two ships of 800 tons, and six or sev- 
en smaller.] 

James I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The 
" Sovereign of the Seas" launched 1G37 

Frigates said to have been first built 1049 

James II. systematizes sea-signals and improves 
the navy 1GS5-S 

Reign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- 
creased; copper sheathing adopted for ships of 
every class ; establishments of naval stores pro- 
vided at all dock-yards and naval stations ; and 
various improvements made in ship-building, 

1700-1S20 



Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Nnvy Estimates. 


154G 


58 


12,455 


8,546 


no account. 


1558 


27 


7,110 


3,565 


no account. 


1578 


24 


10,.5(I6 


6,700 


no account. 


1603 


42 


17,055 


8,346 


no account. 


165S 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


168S 


178 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


i;i, 056,915 


1760 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


3,227,143 


1793 


498 


483,226 


45,000 


5,525,331 


1800 


767 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


ISOS 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 



Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of 
the line; and in 1830 she had 621 ships, some of 
140 guns each, and down to surveying vessels of 
two guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed 
on foreign and home service 1814 

The screw propeller introduced in the Royal Na- 
vy 1840 

The total number of ships of all sizes in commis- 
sion, 183 Jan. 1,1841 

The navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 
vessels 1850 

Naval Coast Volunteers' Act passed Aug., 1853 

Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 
paddle steamers April, 1854 

The queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead, 

March 10, 1854, and April 23, 1S56 

Of 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 2.58 
steam vessels, carrying 65S2 guns ; together 573 
vessels, carrying 16,176 guus;"also 155 gun-boats, 
and 111 vessels on harbor service July, '•' 

Proclamation for manning the navy April 30,1859 

N.aval Reserve Force authorized Aug., " 

Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class seamen 
except after a trial Dec, " 

Great excitement respecting the French govern- 
ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see next 
page) 1869 

The Warrior, the first English iron-plated steam 
frigate, the largest vessel in the world except 
the Great Eastern (see Steam), length, 380 feet; 
breadth, .58 feet; iron plate, 4X inches thick; 
6170 tons burden ; cost about i;400,000; launch- 
ed [censured in 1864] Dec. 29, " 

A royal commission recommends the abolition of 
the Board of Admiralty, and the appointment 
of a minister of the Navy Department. . .March, 1S61 

Lord Clarence Paget, Sec'y of Admiralty, states 
that England has 07 steam -ships of the line, 
while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Ita- 
ly 1 April 11, " 

New act for the government of the navy (the Na- 
val Discipline Act) passes. . . Aug. 6, " 

Four iron-plated vessels (400 feet long; 59^ feet 



NAV 



331 



NEE 



wide; and cost about £000,000 each) building, 

])ec,lS01 

Capt, Cowper Coles's mode of constructini; iron- 
plated ve^^scls, witli a cupola for lirint; from, 
m;uU^ known in ISSS, and recommended to the 
Admiralty in liSlil ; adopted by Ericsson in the 
NdiiHiii; is(!2 ; proposed to be adopted by the 
]?rilish Ljovernment 1S62 

Six difl'erent kinds of plated vessels said to be 
constructing ; E. J. Keed authorized to build the 
Jintvrprise as a specimen of an iron-plated sea- 
going vessel April, " 

Boi/al Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chat- 
ham Sept. 10, " 

Twin or double screws for vessels of light draught 
introduced 1SC3 

Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor in the 
Koyal Navy Jan., " 

Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes; SSline- 
of- battle ships, 69 frigates, 30 screw corvettes, 

Jan., " 

Steam ram Valiant launched Oct. 14, " 

Miiiiitaiir iron steamer launched Dec. 12, " 

Eoyal School of Naval Architecture, South Ken- 
sington, established 1SC4 

The turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles's 
principle, put out of commission, and placed 
amoU'j; reserve ships ; this blamed by some, Oct., " 

Naval models from the time of Henry VIII., col- 
lected early in the present century by Sir Rob- 
ert Seppings, removed to South Kensington Mu- 
seum Dec, " 

29 iron-clad vessels building, "to be ready for sea 
this year" March,lSG5 

Belleruphon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the 
Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched j^Iay, " 

A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, 
etc., Aug. 15, etc.; and a French fleet at Ports- 
mouth Aug. 29-31, " 

AjNxn.\i. ExPENinTiTEE OF TUE BRITISH Navv. — In the 
year 1S50, £6,942,397; 1S54, i;G,640,5!l6; 1S5.5 (to March 
31, Jiufixian Hnr), £14,490,10.5; 18.56, £19,654,585; 1859, 
£9,'215,4ST; 1861, £13,331,608; 1862, £12,598,042; 1863, 
£11,370,588 ; 1864, £10,821,596 ; estimate for year 1S65 
-6, £10,392,224. 

Tun Naval Salute to tue British Flag began in Al- 
fred's reign, and, though sometimes disputed, may 
be said to have been'continued ever since. The 
Dutch agreed to strike to the Engli-h colors in the 
British seas in 1673. The honor of the flag-salute at 
sea was also formally assented to by France in 1704, 
although it had beenlong previously exacted by En- 
gland. See Flay and Salutes at Sea. 

Kaval Uniforms. — The first notice of the establish- 
ment of a uniform in the British naval service which 
we have met with occurs in the Jacnbite's Journal 
of JIarch 5,1748, under the head of " Domestic News," 
in these terms : "An order is said to be issued, re- 
quiring all his majesty's sea-officers, from the admi- 
ral down to the midshipman, to wear a uniformity 
of clothing, for which purpose pattern coats for dress 
suits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged 
at the Navy Office, and at the several dock-yards for 
their ins])ection." This is corroborated by the Gft- 
zetti' of July 13, 1757, when the first alteration in the 
uniform took place, and in which a reference is made 
to the order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above 
mentioned, and which, in fact, is the year when a na- 
val uniform was first established. James I. had in- 
deed granted, by warrant of 6th April, 1609, to six 
of his principal masters of the navy, "liverie coats 
of fine red cloth." The warrant is stated to have 
been drawn verbatim, from one signed by Queen 
Elizabeth, but which had not been acted upon by 
reason of her death. This curious document is in 
the British Museum ; but King James's limited red 
]ivcry is supjioscd to have been soon discontinued. 
— Qnartirlij Ueriew. 

The Navy Pay Oifioe, organized in 1644, was abol- 
ished in 1836, when the army and navy pay depart- 
ments were consolidated in the paymaster general's 
office. 

The Navv List was first officially compiled by John 
Fiulaison, the celebrated actuary, and published 
monthly in 1814. 

Naval Reviews. — The queen reviewed the fleet at 
Portsmouth in March, 18.54, before it sailed to the 
Baltic, at the commencement of the Russian War ; 
and again at Portsmouth, on the conclusion of peace, 
in the j)rescnre of the Parliament, etc., on April 23, 
18.5(;. Tin- fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 
miles, and consisted of upward of 300 men-of-war, 
with a tonnage of 150,000, carrying 3S00 gnus, and 



manned by 40,000 seamen. There were about 100,000 
spectators. 
Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). — By 16 and 17 Vict., 
c. 73 (1853), the Admiralty were empowered to raise 
a body of seafaring men to be called the "Naval 
Coast Volunteers," not to exceed 10,000, for the de- 
fense of the coast, and for actual service if required. 
On A.ug. 13, 1859, an act was passed to enable the 
Admiralty to raise a number of meu, not exceeding 
30,000, as a reserve force of seamen, to be called the 
"Royal Naval Volunteers." In November following 
the Admiralty issued a statement of the "qualifica- 
tions, advantages, and obligations" of this reserve. 
The enrolment commenced on Jan. 1, 1860. The en- 
gagement is for five years, and the volunteers are 
entitled to a pension when incapacitated after the 
expiration of the term. At the prospect of war with 
the United States in Dec, 1861, a great number of 
seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee, London, Aberdeen, 
etc., ofl'ered their services. 

NAVY OF France. It is first mentioned in history, 
728, w^hen, like that of England at an early period, it 
consisted of galleys; in this year the French defeated 
the Frisian fleet. It was considerably improved under 
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, 
aboutl 097. The French navy was perhaps in its high- 
est .splendor about 1781 ; but it became greatly reduced 
in the wars with England. See Xaval Battles. It has 
been greatly increased by the present emperor, and iu 
1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels 
and 37 steamers), and 39S other vessels, in all 449, in- 
cluding vessels building, converting, or ordered to be 
built. The new French iron -plated frigate Gloire, 
launched iu 1860, has been subjected to much criticism, 
but appears to be generally considered as successful.* 
The Solferino and Magenta were launched in June, 
1861. Other iron vessels are iu course of construction. 

NAVY OF the United States. In the year 1803 the 
Navy of the United States contained: 

Vessels. No. of Guns. Tonnapre. 

588 4443 467,967 

In 1862 427 326S 340,086 

showing an increase of . . 161 1175 127,931, 

exclusive of those lost. 

Vessels of the Navy lost since 1S62. 

Vessels. No. of Guns. Tonnage. 

Captured 12 48 5,947 

Destroyed to prevent falling) s 20 2 983 

into rebel hands / ' 

Sunk iu battle by torpedoes.. 4 2S 2,201 

Shipwreck, fire, and collision 13 61 4,854 

Total "32 160 15,985 

Vessels placed under Cmistruciion since 1802. 

Desciiption. Tons. Y^"°'g°3_ Q,";,°f Tonnage. 

Double-end iron steamers . . 1030 7 84 7,210 

Single turret iron-clads .... 614 20 40 12,280 

Double " " ....3130 4 16 12,520 

Clip])er screw sloops 2200 12 9G 26,400 

Screw sloops, snar-deck .... 2200 8 100 17,600 

" " of great .speed 3200 5 40 16,000 

" " " " 3000 _2 _10 6.000 

Total 58 452 98,010 

Since the close of the war the navy has been much 
reduced, and a great many of the vessels laid up or 
sold. 

NEBRASKA, a N.W. Territory of North America, 
was organized May 30, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. 
Admitted as a state, March 1, 1867. 

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, put forth by Sir Wm. 
Herschel iu 1811, supposes that the universe was 
formed out of shapeless masses of nebulas or clusters 
of small stars. It has not been generally received. 
In Oct., 1860, Mr. Lassell strictly scrutinized the dumb- 
bell nebula, and stated that the brightest parts did 
not appear to be stars. In 1865 Mr. Wm. Huggins re- 
ported that he had analyzed certain nebula; by their 
spectra, and believed them to be entirely gaseous. 

NECTARINE, the Amygdalis Persica, originally 
came from Persia about 1562. Previously, presents of 
nectarines were frequently sent to the court of En- 
gland from the ^'etherlands ; and Catharine, queen 
of Henry VIIL, distributed them among her friends. 

NEEDLES were first made in England in Cheap- 

* Mr. Srntt Russell savs ■ " The Gluire has Ijeen built by M. Dupuis 
de Lome, after a most exiict calculation of the effect of iron plates upon 
the weight and speed of a vessel. She is perfectly fit to carry a broad- 
side of guns of as heavy a calibre as any that can be carried and worked 
in our own wooden ships, and she is driven at as least as high a speed as 
any vessel of similar dimensions in our own service." 



KEG 



332 



NEW 



Bide, Loudon, iu the time of Mary I., by a negro from 
Spain, but was lost at bis death, and not recovered till 
15t)6, iu the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a 
German, taught the art to the English.— -S'tow, 

KEGRO TRADE. See Slavery. 
NELSON'S VICTORIES, etc. See separate articles. 
Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Nor- 
folk Sept. 29,1758 

Sailed with Captain Phipps to the North Pole 17T3 

Distinguished himself iu the West Indies ITSO 

Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica 1794 

Captured Elba Aug. 9,1796 

With Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, Feb. 14 ; 

made admiral Feb. 20,1797 

Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on 

Sauta Cruz July 25,26, " 

Gained the battle of the Nile, Aug. 1 ; created 

Barou Nelson of the Nile Oct. 6,179S 

Attacks Copenhagen, April 2 ; created viscount, 
May 22; attacks Boulogne and destroys several 

ships Aug.3,lS01 

Appointed to chief command in the Mediterrane- 
an May 20,1S03 

Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to 
Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; reappears at 
Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bav, 

where he is killed Oct. 21,1805 

The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth 

with his remains Dec. 4, " 

The body lay in state iu the Painted Hall, at 
Greenwich, Jan. 5 ; on the Sth was removed to 
the Admiralty; the funeral took place. . ..Tan. 9,1800 
The Priuce of Wales (afterward George IV.), the 
Duke of Clarence (afterward William IV.), and 
other royal dukes ; almost all the peers of En- 
gland, and the lord mayor and corporation of 
Loudon, with thousands of military and naval 
oflicers and distinguished men, followed the fu- 
neral car to St. Paul's. The militaryassembled 
on this occasion amounted to near 10,000 regu- 
Lars, independent of volunteers. The regulars 
consisted chiefly of the regiments that had 
fought and conquered iu Egypt. 
NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, in Achaia, 
were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of 
Archemorus, who died by the bite of a serpent, and 
Hercules some time after renewed them, 1226 B.C. 
The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, 
afterward of green parsley, iu memory of the adveu- 
ture of Archemorus, whom his uurse laid down ou a 
sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third 
year, or, according to others, on the first and third 
year of every Olympiad, 1220 B.C.— Herodotus. They 
were revived by the Emperor Julian, A.D. 302, but 
ceased iu 396. 

NEPAUL (India). The East ludia Company's war 
with the state of Nepaul commenced Nov. 1, 1814, and 
terminated April 27, 1S15. A treaty of peace was 
signed between the parties Dec. 2, 1815. War renewed 
by an infraction of the treaty by the Nepaulese, Jan., 
ISlC ; and after several contests, unfavorable to the 
Nepaulese, the former treaty was ratified, March 15, 
1S16. An extraordinary embassy from the King of 
Nepaul to the Queen of Great Britain arrived in En- 
gland, lauding at Southampton, May 25, and remained 
till Aug., 1850; it consisted of the Nepaulese priuce, 
Jung Bahadoor, and his suite, to whom many honors 
were paid. He supported the English during the En- 
glish mutiny iu 1857. 

NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the 
Greeks, when they offered mead instead of wine to 
the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and to 
Venus ; and burnt any wood but that of the vine, fig- 
tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of drunk- 
enness, 613 B.C. 

NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed on Sept. 
23, 1846, by Dr. Galle,-at Berlin, iu consequence of a 
letter from M. Le Verrier, who had conjectured, from 
the anomalous movements of Uranus, that a distant 
planet might exist nearly in the position where Nep- 
tune is situated. Calculations to the same effect had 
been previously made by Mr. J. Couch Adams. Nep- 
tune is said to have been seen by Lalande, and thought 
to be a fixed star. 

NERWINDEN. See Landcn. 

NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, bishop 
of Constantinople (428-431), who is represented as a 
heretic for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary 
was the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was 
not the mother of God, since no human creature could 



impart to another what she had uot herself; he also 
held that God was united to Christ under one person, 
but remained as distinct in nature and essence as 
though he had never been united at all. He was op- 
posed by Eutyches, and died 439. See Eutijchians. 
Nestorian Christians iu the Levant administer the 
sacrament with leavened bread and in both kiuds, 
permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirm- 
ation nor auricular confession. — Du Pin. A Nestoriiin 
priest and deacon were in London in July, 1862. 

NETHERLANDS. See Flanders, Holland, and Bel- 
gium. 

NEUFCH^TEL, a canton in Switzerland, formerly 
a lordship, afterward a principality. The first known 
lord was Ulric de Feuis, about 1032, whose descend- 
ants ruled till 1373, after which, by marriages, it fre- 
quently changed goveruors. On the death of the last 
of the Longuevilles, the Duchess de Nemours, in 1707, 
there were many claimants ; among them William III. 
He and the Allies, however, gave it to Frederick I. of 
Prussia with the title of prince. In ISOC the priucipal- 
ity was ceded to France, and Napoleon bestowed it ou 
his General Berthier, who held it till 1814, when it fell 
to the disposal of the Allies. They restored the King 
of Prussia the title of prince with certain rights and 
privileges, but constituted it a part of the Swiss Con- 
federation.* 

NEUSTRIA, or West France, a kingdom allotted 
to Clotaire by his father Clovis at his' death in 711. 
His descendant, Charlemagne, became sole king of 
France iu 771. 

NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of Paris, sign- 
ed by the representatives of Great Britain, France, 
Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, and Sardinia, ou 
April 16, 1856, it was determined that privateering 
should be abolished ; that neutrals might carry an en- 
emy's goods not contraband of war ; that neutral goods 
uot contraband were free even under an enemy's flag ; 
and that blockades, to be binding, must be eftective. 
The Presideut of the United States acceded to these 
provisions in 1861. 

NEVADA, a Western Territory of the United States 
of N. America, organized March 2, 1801. Capital, Car- 
son City. Admitted as a state, October 31, 1864. 

NEVILLE'S CROSS, or DuRnAM, Battle of, be- 
tweeu the Scots under King David Bruce, and the En- 
glish under Philippa, consort of Edward III., and Lord 
Percy, Oct. 17, 1340. More than 15,000 of the Scots 
were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 

NEVIS, Island op (W. Indies), planted by the En- 
glish in 1028; taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782; re- 
stored to the English in 1783. The capital is Charles- 
ton. Nevis wasthe birthplace of the celebrated Gen- 
eral Alexander Hamilton, born 1757, died 1804. 

NEWARK (Nottiughamshire), Battle of, in which 
the royal army under Prince Rupert repulsed the army 
of the Parliament, besieging the town. March 21, 1044. 
The church was erected by Henry IV. Here, in the 
midst of troubles, died King John, Oct. 9,1216; and 
here. May 5, 1046, Charles I., after his defeat at Nase- 
by, put himself into the hands of the Scotch army, 
who afterward gave him up to his enemies. Newark 
was first incorporated by Edward VI., and afterward 
by Charles II. 

NEWBERN (North Carolina), Battle of, fought 
Feb. 14, 1862. After the capture of Roanoke Island, 
ou the 8th, Buruside advanced on Newberu. The Con- 
federates under General Branch— consisting of eight 
regiments and 500 cavalry — occupied works five miles 
below Newbern, a mile in extent, protected on the 
river bank by 13 guns, and by redoubts on the oppo- 
site sides. After four hours' fighting the Confederates 
were repulsed, and, abandoning Newbern, retreated 
upon Goldsborongh. The national loss was 91 killed 
and 466 wounded; the Confederate 500, besides 200 
prisoners. 



* After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabitants in 1848 re- 
pudiated their alleffiance to Prussia, and proclaimed Neufcliatel a free 
and independent member of the Swiss C?onfederntion. The King of 
Prussia protested agrainst this ; and in 1852 a protocol was sigTied be- 
tween Enfjland, France, and Austria, recognizinfr his claims. In Sept., 
1856, some of his adherents, headed by the Count de Pourtal^s, broke 
out into insurrection against the Republican authorities, who, however, 
quickly subdued and imprisoned them, with the intention of bringing 
tneni to trial. W^ar was threatened by the King of Prussia, and great 
energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. On the interven- 
tion of the English and French governments, after many delays, a 
treaty was signed on June 11, 1857, by which the King of Prussia virtu- 
ally renounced his claims on receiving a pecuniary compensation, which 
he eventually gave up. He retains the title of Prince of Neufchatel, 
without any political rights. The prisoners of Sept., 1856, were re- 
leased without trial, Jan. 18, 1857. 



NEW 



333 



NEW 



NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova Scotia, 
and received its nainc as a separate colony in 1785. In 
1S(55 it ()pi)c)s(;d tlie plan tor nnitiny; all the Britisli 
North American colonies in a confederation. 

NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were fought 
two desperate battles: (1.) Sept. 20, 1043, between the 
army of Charles I. and that of the Parliament under 
Essex ; it terminated somewhat favorably for the king. 
Amons; the slain was the amiable Lucius Cary, vis- 
count Falkland, deeply regretted. (2.) A second bat- 
tle of dubious result was^fought between the Royal- 
ists and the rarliamcutarians, Oct. 27, 1044. 

NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), discovered by 
Cook on Sept. 4, 1774, was seized by the French and 
colonized in IS.'i'i. The French government, in Dec, 
1S64, redressed the outrajres committed upon the Brit- 
ish missionaries at a station established here in 1854. 
NEWCASTLE uroN Tvne (Northumberland), the 
Roman Pons .Ella. The first coal port in the world,* 
and the metropolis of the north of England. The coal- 
mines were discovered here about 1'234. The first char- 
ter granted to the townsmen for digging coal was by 
Henry III. in 1239. 

The castle built by Robert Courthose, son of Wil- 
liam I lOSO 

The town fortified by William II " 

St. Nicholas Church built about 1091 ; burnt in 
V2\G; restored by Edward I., to whom John 

Baliol did homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt 13.59 

Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch in.. .1040 and 104(5 
Who here gave up Charles I. to the Parliament . .1044 

Occupied by General Wade in 174.5 

153S persons die of cholera, Aug. 31 to Oct. 26 1S53 

Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead 
(which see) Oct. 6, 1S54 

NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, formed April, 

17.54; resigned Nov., 1750; when the Duke of Devon- 
shire became first lord of the treasury. 

Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, First Lord 
of the Treasurij. 

Henry Bilson Legge, Chanccllnr of the Exchequer. 

Earl of Iloldernesse and Sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
ward Lord Grantham), Secretaries nf State. The lat- 
ter succeeded by Henry Fox (aftervi'ard Lord Hol- 
land). 

Lord Anson, First Lord of the Admiralti/. 

Lord (Trenville, Lord President. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the Duke of Marlborough), 
Lord Privy Seal. 

Duke of Grafton, Earl of Halifax, George Grenville, 
etc. 

Lord Ilardwicke, Lord Chancellor. 
NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRATION 

(see Chatham, Admiiiistra/iaii), formed June, 1T57; re- 
signed May, 1702; Lord Bute coming into power. 

Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, First Lord 
of the Treasvrii. 

William Pitt (afterward Lord Chatham), Secretary of 
State for the Northern Department, and leader of the 
House of Commons. 

Lord Grenville, Lord President. 

Earl Temple, Privy Seal. 

Mr. Legge, Chancellor of the Excheqiter. 

Duke ol' Devonshire, Lord Chamberlain. 

Earl of Iloldernesse, Secretary of State for the Southern 
Dejiurtment. 

Duke of Rutland, Lord Steward. 

Lord Anson, Admiralty. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by Lord Ligonier), 
Ordnance. 

Uenry Fox, George Grenville, Viscoiint Barringtou, 
Lord Halifax, James Grenville, etc. 

Sir Robert Henley, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal. 

NEW CHURCH. Sec Swedenhorgians. 

NEW COLLEGE (St. John's Wood, London), erect- 
ed by the Iiidci)eiKlent dissenters for the education of 
their ministcis, Is.^o-i, is founded on the union of 
Homcrtou, Highbm-y, and Coward colleges. See Ox- 
ford. 

NEW ENGLAND (N. America), originally compris- 
ing the states ofMassachusetts, New Hampshire, Con- 
necticut, and Rhode Island, was settled by the Puri- 
tans who were driven fnmi England. The first at- 
tempt to form a settlement was made in 1007, which 
was named New England by Captain Smith in 1014. 



* In 130B the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London by royal 
proclamation, chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel,pr"eat 
Quantities of which "were then prowiDg about the city ; but this inter- 
niction did not lone continue, and we may consider coal as having been 
duR and exported from this place for more than 500 years. 



Settlement of the Plymouth Company in 1620. It now 

includes, besides the t<nir <irigiual states, two others, 
Vermont and New Hampshire. 

NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made ("afi"orest- 
ed") by William the Conqueror, 1079-S5. Many popu- 
lous towns and villages, and, indeed, the whole coun- 
try for above thirty miles in compass, were laid waste, 
and no less than thirty-six churches were destroyed. 
William Rufus was killed in this forest by an arrow, 
shot by Walter Tyrrel, that accidentally glanced against 
a tree, Aug. 2, IIUO, the site of which is how pointed out 
by a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer Removal 
Act was passed 14 & 15 Vict., c. 76, Aug. 7, 1851. 

NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discovered by Se- 
bastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista, June 24, 14'.i7. 
It was formally taken possession of by Sir Heury Gil- 
bert, 1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations 
had the advantage of the English in the fishery. In 
1577 there were lUU fishing ves'sels from Spain, 50 from 
Portugal, 1.50 from France, and only 15, but of larger 
size, from England. — Hakhiyt. But the English fish- 
cry in some years afterward (1625) had increased so 
much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 
ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and 
Italy. The sovereignty of England was recognized in 
1713. Nearly 1000 English families reside here all the 
year ; and in the fishing season (May to September) 
inore than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland (one 
of our finest nurseries for seamen). It obtained the 
privilege of a colonial legislation in 1S45, and the bish- 
opric was established in 1S39. — Appalling tire at St. 
John's, a great portion of the town destroyed, the loss 
estimated at X1,000,000 sterling, June 9, 1S4G.* 

NEWGATE, London. The prison derives its name 
from the gate which once formed a part of it, and stood 
a little beyond the Sessions-house in the Old Bailey. 
It was used as a prison for persons of rank as early as 
1218, but was rebuilt about two centuries afterward by 
the executors of Sir Richard Whittiugton, whose statue 
with a cat stood'in the niche till the time of its demo- 
lition by the great fire of London in 1600. It was then 
reconstructecf in its late form; but the old prison, be- 
ing an accumulation of misery and inconvenience, was 
pulled down and rebuilt between 1778 and 17S0. Dur- 
ing the riots in the latter year the interior was destroy- 
ed"by fire, but shortly afterward restored. In 1857 the 
interior was pulled down, to be re-erected on a plan 
adapted to the reformatory system. The market, es- 
tablished in lOSl, was ordered to be abolished by an 
act passed in 1801. A meat and poultry market is to 
be erected in Smithfield. 

NEW GRANADA (S. America), discovered by O.jeda 
in 1499, and conquered and settled by the Spaniards in 
1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bogota, 
established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, 
formed the republic of Colombia in Dec. 17, 1819. See 
Colombia. 

President M. Ospina entered on office April 1,1S5T 

After several reunions and dissolutions, the repub- 
lic of New Granada merged into the Cirenadine 
Confederation, which includes Bolivar, Antio- 
quia, Panama, and other small states. . .June 15,1853 
Struggles between the Conservatives, partisans of 

the old government, and the Liberals Jan. ,1861 

General Mosquera (Liberal) deposes Ospina, and 

seizes the government July IS, " 

A congress of the states determine on union, un- 
der the name of the United States of Colombia, 

Sept. 20,1801 
Arboleda, chief of the Conservatives, assassinated 

(succeeded by Cassal) Nov. 1,1802 

New Constitution established May 8,1803 

Mosquera invites Venezuela and Ecuador to join 

the confederation Aug., " 

Ecuador declines — war ensues Nov. 20, " 

The troops of Ecuador defeated, Dec. 6 ; peace en- 
sues, and Ecuador remains independent, Dec. 3, " 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the original United 
States of N. America, was settled in 102.3, and sepa- 
rated from Massachusetts in 1079. Capital, Concord. 

NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), discovered by 
Quiros, who, believing them to be a continent, named 
them Tierra A vstralia del Espiritit, Santo in 1006. Bou- 
gainville in 1708 found them to be islands; and in 1774 
Cook gave them their present name. 

NEW HOLLAND. See Australia, Xeio South Wales, 
etc. 

* On .Tan. 14, lS-,7, a convention was concluded between the Enjlish 
and French (lovernnienta, confirmins certain French privilefres of fish- 
ery in exchanjo for others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
with this convention. 



NEW 



334 



NEW 



NEW JERSEY, one of the United States, was first 
eettled at Berseu, by some Danish families from New 
York, in 16'22,''aud by the Dutch, on the Delaware, in 
1623. In 1031, a colony of Swedes settled on the Del- 
aware from Cape May to Burlington. The province 
was granted to the Duke of York in 16G4-, and by him 
conveyed to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, 
who established a government there in 1605. With 
New York, it was surrendered to the Dutch in 1073, 
and surrendered by them to the English in 1074. In 
IGTO, the province was divided into East and West Jer- 
sey ; Carteret taking the former, and William Penn 
and others the latter by purchase. They afterward pur- 
chased East Jersey. After much diiiiculty, the prov- 
ince was surrendered to the crown in 1702, and contin- 
ued a royal government until the Revolution. The 
independent state was organized in 177G, and in 1787 
adopted the Federal Constitution. 

NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). Here Robert Owen 
endeavored to establish socialism in ISOl. 

NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned for its 
horse-races. It is first mentioned in 1227, and proba- 
bly derived its name from the market then recently 
established. James I. erected a hunting -seat here, 
called the king's house, to which Charles I. was taken 
as a prisoner in 1C47, when the Parliamentary army 
was quartered in the neighboring village of Kennet. 
Charles II. , who was fond of racing, built a stand-house 
for the sake of the diversion, aljout 1307,* and from 
that period races have been annual to .the present 
time ; and many extraordinary races have been run. 
See Fiaccii. 

NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the United 
States in 1848, and organized as a territory Sept. 9, 
1850. Capital, Santa Fe. 

NEW ORLEANS, the chief city of Louisiana, N. 
America {which sec), founded in 1717, under the regen- 
cy of the Duke of Orleans. In 1788, seven eighths of 
the city were destroyed by fire ; but it is now rebuilt. 
New Orleans was surrendered to the Federals in April, 
1802. The strong feeling of the inhabitants in favor 
of the Confederates induced General Butler to rule 
them with military rigor, May to October, 18C2. He 
was replaced by General Banks, Dec. 10, 1S62. 

NEW ORLEANS, Battt.f. of, was the last important 
engagement of the last war between the United States 
and Great Britain. It occurred just below the city of 
New Orleans, on the Sth of January, 181.5. The Ameri- 
cans were on both sidesof the Mississippi. There were 
4700 men, under the immediate command of General 
Jackson, on the east side, where the battle was fought, 
and over 1000 on the west l)ank. The British troops 
that came to the attack as invaders were 8400 strong, 
under the command of General Pakeuham. They were 
repulsed with great loss. The general-in-chief was 
killed, with 291 others, and 1262 were wounded ; 17 of- 
ficers and 483 men were made prisoners. The Amer- 
icans were protected by breastworks, and had only 7 
killed and G wcnmded in the main battle, and 8 killed 
and 32 wounded on the west bank of the river. 

NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartist riots here 
were suppressed Nov. 4, lS39.t 

NEWPORT (Rhode Island), a celebrated watering- 
place. Here the eminent Bishop Berkeley, and also 
Smybert, the earliest professional portrait painter in 
America, resided for a while. It is near the entrance 
of Narragansett Bay, and was the scene of many stir- 



* During;: the races on March 22, 1683, Newmarket was nearly de- 
stroyed by nn accidental fire, which occasioned the liasty departure of 
the company then assembled, including the king, the qiieen, the Duke 
of York, the royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this 
disaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Rye-House Plot, the 
object of which was said to be the assassination of" the king and his 
brother on the rotid from Newmarket to London, if the period of their 
journey had not been thus anticinated. See Rye-IIouse Plot. 

t The Chartists (h'A/c^ 5tff), collected from the mines and collieries in 
the neighborhood to the number of 10,000, armed with guns, pikes, 
clubs, etc., arrived at Newport, Nov. 4, 1839. They divided themselves 
into two bodies — one, under the command of Mr! John Frost, an ex- 
magistrate, proceeded down the principal street ; while the other, head- 
ed by his son, took the direction of Stow Hill. They met in front of 
the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates were assembled, with about 
30 soldiers of the 45th regiment, and several special constables. The 
rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fired on the 
inmates, by which the mayor, Mr. (now Sir Thomas) Phillips, and sev- 
eral other persons, were wounded. The soldiers returned tne fire, and 
succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, with its leaders, fled from the 
town, leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many others dangerously 
wounded. A detachment of the 10th Royal Hussars having arrived 
from Bristol, the town became tranquil. Frost was apprehended on 
the following day, together with his printer, and other influential per- 
sons among the Chartists. He and several others were tried and con- 
victed in Jan., 1840, and sentenced to death ; afterward commuted to 
trunsjinrtation. An amnesty was granted them oil May 3, 1856, and 
they returned to England iuSept, following. 



ring events during the American Revolution, being 
occupied alternately by British, American, and French - 
troops, the latter, under Rochambeau, having landed 
there in 1780. 

NEW RIVER. An artificial river for the supply of 
London with water, commenced in 1609, and finished 
in 1613, when the projector, Hugh Myddelton, was 
knighted by James I. — Stryjye. This river, which rises 
in Hertfordshire, and which, with its windings, is forty- 
two miles long, was brought to London, and opened 
Sept. 29, 1613. So little was the benefit of it under- 
stood, that for above thirty j'ears the seventy -two 
shares into which it was divided netted only i;5 apiece. 
Each of these shares was sold originally for XIOO. 
Within the last few years they were sold at ^9000 a 
share, and some lately at £10,000. 

NEW ROSS (Wexford), S.E. Ireland. Here General 
Johnston totally defeated the rebels under Beauchamp 
D. Bagenal Harvey, June 4, 1798. 

NEWRY (N.Ireland). In the rebellion of 1041, New- 
ry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it was surprised 
by Sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by Lord Conway. 
After the Restoration the town was rebuilt. It was 
burnt by the Duke of Berwick when flying from Schom- 
berg and the English army, and only the castle and a 
few houses escaped, 1689. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal colony of Aus- 
tralia {which see). The eastern coast of New Holland 
was explored and taken possession of by Captain Cook 
in 1770. At his recommendation a convict colony was 
first formed here. Captain A. Phillip, the first govern- 
or, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, Jan. 20, 
178S ; but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about 
seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as 
a more eligible situation for the capital. A new Con- 
stitution was granted in 18.55 (18 & 19 Vict., c. 54). See 
,S'7/rf».e(/. Population in 1S56, 269,722 ; in 18.')9, 342,062 ; 
in 1862, 367,495. The imports for 1859 amounted to 
i;6,.'597,053 ; the exports to £4,768,049. Governor, Sir 
John Young, appointed 1860. 

NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Diurna were is- 
sued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern times, a Gazctt.a, 
which derived its name from its price, a small coin, 
was published in Venice (about 1536). The Gazette de 
France, now existing, first appeared in April, 1631, ed- 
ited by Renaudot, a' physician. It was patronized by 
the king, Louis XIII., who wrote one article for it, and 
by Richelieu. The first real newspaper published in 
England* was establislied by Sir Roger L'Estrange in 
1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and con- 
tinued nearly three years, when it ceased, on the ap- 
pearance of the Gazette. In the reign of James I., 
1622, a])peared the London Weeklii Coiirant; and in the 
year 1643 (the period of the Civil War) were printed a 
variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled 
to the name of newspapers, of which the following 
were the titles : 

England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 
The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scout. 

The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or Certain Infor- 
mation. 
The >Iercurius Civicus, or London's Intelligencer. 
The Country's Complaint, etc. 
The Weekly Accounts. 
Mercurius Britaunicus. 

A ]iaper called the London Gazettef was published Aug. 
22, 1042. The London Gazette of the existing series 
was published first at Oxford, the court being there 
on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterward 
at London, Feb. 5, 1666. 
Printing of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 31 

Charles I., \6S0.—Salmon's Chron. 
The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition 

of the censorship of the press in 1695. 
Daiht Cmtrant first published in 1709. 
Newspapers first stamped in 1713. 

* Some copies of a publication are in existence called the EiigJish Mer- 
cf/rv, professing to come out under the authority of Queen Elizabeth in 
1588, the period of the Spanish Armada. Th'e researches of Mr. T. 
Watts, of the British Museum, have proved these to be forgeries, exe- 
cuted about nee. The full title of No. 60 is " The EvglisK Meivurie, 
published by authoritie, for the prevention of false reports, imprinted 
by Christoplier Barker, her highness's printer, No. 60." It describes 
the Spanish Armnda, giving " A .journaU of what passed since the 21st 
of this month, between her majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, trans- 
mitted bv the Lord Highc Admiral to the Lordes of Conncil'." 

+ On May 22, 1187, a I-mrdon Gazette Extraordinary was forged, with 
a view of affecting the funds. 



NKW 



335 



NEW 



NTJMBEK OP f5TAMPB IBSUKl) TO liRlTISH NEW'SPAPEKS. 

lTr)3. . . . 7,411,75711810. . . .20,172,837 1835. . . .32,874,052 

1700 5>,4()4,7'.l(l ls20 24,802,180 1840 49,033,384 

1V74. . . .12,:iOO,(i(i(i ls-.'5. . . .20,950,003 1843. . . .50,433,977 
1790. . . . 14,(i:;r>,o:i'.i 1S30. . . .30,158,741 1850. . . .65,741,271 
1800 10,084,9051 

[lu 1850 there were also issued supplement stamps at 

>!?(/., 11,084,423.] 

lu the year cndiiii]; Jan. 5, 1851, there were 159 London 
ncwspiipois, in which appeared s'.»l,0.50 advertise- 
nuMits; 222 Enu'li.-h proviiiiial newspapers, haviny; 
&7.5,0;>1 advertisements. In Scotland, same year, 110 
newspapers, havini!; 249,141 advertisements. In Ire- 
land, 102 n('\vsi)apers, havini; •-';;0,12s advertisements. 
The number ol' stamps issued was, in Eugland, 
65,741,271 at \(i., and 11,684,423 supplement stamps 
at y,d. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at Irf., and 
241,264 at y.d.; iu Ireland, 0,302,728 stamps at Id., 
and 43,358 at y^d. 

Eeduction of uewspaper duty from M. to Id. took effect 
on Sept. 15, 1836. 

The distinctive die came into use Jan. 1, 1837. 

Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 

lEIBU MEWSPAPEES. 

The first was the Dublin Xews-Letter, by Joseph Eay, 
1685; Pile's Occvrn'nccs, 1700. Fanlkner's Journal 
was established by George Faulkuer, "a man cel- 
ebrated for the goodness of his heart and the weak- 
ness of liis head," 1728. The oldest of the existing 
Dublin newspajiers are SaunderH's (then Esdaile'd) 
S<inrt<-Lcttcr, 1745 ; and Free-nian's Journul, founded 
as the Public Iteijister, by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 
1755. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest of the pro- 
vincial prints, 1768. 

PROVINCIAT. NEWSPAPEKS. 

KoriHch Podtman, 1706. Wo7-cester Postman, 1709. Xcjo- 
castlc-on-Tijiie Courant, 1711. 

CONTINENTAL NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette de Venise, early in 17th century ; Gazette de 
France (now publishing), 1631. 

The lirst newspaper set up in Germany, 1715 ; the first 
in Holland, 1732. 

In Paris there exist 109 jonrnals, literary, scientific, re- 
ligious, and political." — Westminster Revieiv, 1S30. 

REGISTERED NEWSPAPEKS. 1850. 1805. 

London newspapers, daily 12 22 

United Kingdom, daily — 73 

London newspapers, weekly 58 106 

English provincial newspapers 222 750 

Irish newspapers 102 132 

Scotch newspapers 110 140 

British Isles 14 14 

By the act passed June 15, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict, c. 27), 
the stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally abol- 
ished, and will be employed henceforth only for 
]>ostal purposes. Many new papers were then start- 
ed, which were but of short duration. 
In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the post- 
office. In Jan., 1860, 1000 newspapers, and in Jan., 
1862, 1165 newspapers were iu course of publication 
iu the United Kingdom. 
On Oct. 1, 1861, when the paper duty came off, the 
Times, Dailij Sews, and Mornimj Post reduced their 
price to 3(^ each copy unstamped. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON N"E\VS- 
PAPERS. 
BAILY. 

Public Ledger {Commercial) 1759 

Jlorning Chronicle {Liberal), extinct 1770-1862 

Morning Post ( W'ln'ii) 1781 

JI(n-ning Herald {Conservative) 1781 

Times {[luhjnndcnt) 1788 

Sun {Liberal) 1792 

Morning Advertiser {Liberal) 1794 

Globe {W'/iiji), evening 1803 

Standard {Coiixervative) 1827 

Daily News (Liberal) 1840 

Daily Telegraph* {Liberal) 1855 

INIorning Star {Liln-ral) 1856 

International {in French) 1863 

Pall Mall Gazette {Liberal) 1865 

PRINCIPAL WEEKLY. 

St. James's Chronicle {Conservative) 1761 

Observer ( Whi;t) 1792 

Bell's Messenger {Liberal Conservative) 1796 

Dispatch {Liberal) 1801 

Examiner {Liberal) 1808 

Literary Gazette {extinct) 1817-02 



* 144,000 copies sold on Dec. 16, 1S61. The prince consort died oii 
the 14th. 



John Bull (.Conservative) 1820 

Bell's Life in London {Sporting) " 

Sunday Times {Liberal Conservative) 1822 

Atlas {Liberal) 1826 

Atheuifium {Literary and Scientific) 1823 

Spectator {Liberal) " 

Record {Liberal Conservative) " 

Court Journal {neutral) 1829 

United Service Gazette 1833 

Watchman ( iVesleijan) 1835 

i^hisical World 1S36 

Jurist {Legal) 1S3T 

Magnet {Agricultural) " 

Railway Times " 

Era {Theatrical) " 

Tablet {Roman Catholic) 1840 

Gardeners' Chronicle 1841 

Nonconformist " 

Punch 1841 

Illustrated London News {Liberal) 1842 

Lloyd's Weekly Paper {Radical) " 

Bulkier 1843 

English Churchman {High-Church) " 

News of the World {Liberal) " 

Economist {Liberal) " 

Jewish Chronicle {Liberal) 1845 

Guardian {High-Church) 1846 

Press {Conservative) 1853 

Field {Country Gentlemen's) " 

Saturday Review {neutral) 1855 

Engineer 1850 

City Press {iwutral) 1857 

News {Bankers, etc.) 1858 

Chemical News 1859 

London Review {Liberal) 1860 

Reader {Literary and Scientific) 1863 

Age {neutral) 1864 

Owl {satirical) " 

Index {Confederate), extinct 1865 

NEWSPAPERS, American. On April 24th, 1704, 
appeared the first regular new.spaper published in the 
LTnited States, the "Boston News-Letter," althongh iu 
September, 1690, an adventurous i)rinter had made a 
like attempt in the same town, the publication of which 
was suppressed by the authorities, and only one copy 
is now known to be in existence. 

The Boston News-Letter 1704 

Boston Gazette 1719 

American Weekly Mercurie, Philadelphia " 

New England Courant, Boston 1721 

New York Gazette 1725 

Virginia Gazette, Williamsburg. 1736 

Royal Gazette, New York 1773 

Massachusetts Spy (still published iu Worcester). .1775 

Commercial Advertiser, New York 1797 

Evening Post, New York 1801 

National Intelligencer, Washington, D. C " 

The Sun, New York (the first jjcmji?/ paper) 1838 

New York Herald 1835 

New York Tribune 1841 

New York Times 1850 

The above table gives the dates on which some of 
the morepromiuent of the earlier papers were started. 
The total circulation of the New York dailies can not 
now (1869) be less than 450,000 copies, and st)me of the 
weekly papers, as Harpers' Weekly, Harpers' Bazar, 
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Kewspciper, Bonner's Neio 
York Ledger, have an immense circulation. 

The increase of newspaper literature in the United 
States is marvelous enough. In 1830, with a popula- 
tion of 23Jrf millions, the number of newspapers pub- 
lished was 852 (50 of these being dailies), with a yearly 
issue of 68,117,796 copies; in 1840, the number of news- 
papers had increased to 1031, with a yearly issue of 
195,838,673 copies; iu 1850, the number of i)apers pub- 
lished was 2526, with an issue of 420,409,978 copies ; in 
1860, the date of the last census, the number of news- 
papers published had risen to 40,051, with an annual 
issue of 928,000,000 copies, being an increase of 118 per 
cent, for 1800 over the preceding decennial period. 

NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIIL, in order to rec- 
tify the errors of the current calendar, published a new 
one, in which ten days were omitted— Oct. 5, 15S2, be- 
coming Oct. 15. Thenew style was adopted in France, 
Italy, Spain, Denmark, Flanders, Portugal, iu 1582, and 
in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 eleven days were left 
out of the calendar— Sept. 3, 1752, being reckoned as 
Sept. 14. 

NEW TESTAMENT. See Bible. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrines re- 
specting gravitation, etc., taught by Sir Isaac Newton 
iu his "Priucipia," published in 10S7. He was born 



NEW 



336 



NEW 



Pec 25 1642 ; became Master of the Mint, 1699 ; Pres- 
ident of the Royal Society, 1703 ; and died March 20, 
IV'l A statue of him in marble by Roubilliac was set 
up at Trinity College, Cambridge, July 14, 1755, and one 
in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, Sept. 21, 1S58, when 
Lord Brougham delivered an excellent disconrse ou 
the life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
X1600, which sum was obtained by public subscription. 
NEWTOWNBARRY RIOT (S. E. Ireland). On a 
seizure of stock for tithes, a lamentable conflict en- 
sued here between the yeomanry and the people, 
•when thirty-tive persons were killed or wounded, June 
18, 1831. The jury at the coroner's inquest was unable 
to agree on a verdict. 

NEWTOWN -BUTLER (N. Ireland). On July 30, 
1689, the Ennlskilleners under Gustavus Hamilton 
thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II., com- 
manded by General M'Carty, taking him prisoner with 
his artillery, arms, and baggage. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY, etc. The feast was instituted 
by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who presided 
over the new year), Jan. 1, 713 B.C.* 

NEW YORK, the "empire state" of thelTnited States 
of N. America, was settled by the Dutch in 1609. The 
city was named by them Manhattan and New Amster- 
dam; but the English under Colonel Nichols dispos- 
sessed them and the Swedes, Aug. 27, 1664, and changed 
its name. Population in 1860, 805,651. 
New York was confirmed to England by the peace 

of Breda Aug. 24,1007 

The city was one of the principal points of the 
struggle for independence among the states of 
America. It surrendered to the British forces 

under General Howe Sept. 15,1770 

The city was evacuated by the British; "Evacua- 
tion day" made one of rejoicing ever since, 

^ Nov. 25,1783 

Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, 

established in 1S04 

Burning of Park Theatre 1S21 

Yellow fever panic 1S22 

Gas first used 1825 

Awful tire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and prop- 
erty valued at nearly $20,000,000 Dec. 16,1835 

Croton water introduced 1842 

Great fire, destroying $5,000,000 worth of property, 

July 19,1845 

Burning of Niblo's Theatre 1846 

The Park Theatre destroyed by fire (second time), 

Dec. 16,1848 
Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, Astor 
Place, originating in a dispute between Mr. Mac- 
ready (English) and Mr. Forrest (American), 

acto/s..... ....: May 10,1849 

Cholera, carrying off 5071 persons " 

First city railroad built 1852 

The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
goods from all nations, was opened in the pres- 
ence of the President of the United States and 

many other dignitaries July 14,1853 

New York suffered severely by large commercial 
failures, and "hunger demonstrations" took 

place during the panic Nov., 1857 

The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire Oct. 5,1858 

A magnificent cathedral commenced in 1859 

Great fire in Elm St. ; about 50 lives lost. . .Feb. 2,1860 
During the civil M-ar of 1801 New York strongly 
supported the government of President Lincoln 
(Republican) ; 'but during 1862 a reaction grad- 
ually took place, and the opposition (Democrat) 
candidates for Congress were elected by large 

majorities Nov.,1862 

Fierce riots against conscription ; many persons 
killed and niuch property destroyed (see Riots), 

July 13-17,1863 
Barnum's Museum burnt ; great loss, July 13, 1865 ; 

a second time March 2, 1808 

NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), discovered 
by Tasman in 1642. From his time the country, ex- 
cept that part of the coast which was seen by him, re- 
mained unknown, and was by many supposed to make 
part of a southern continent till 1769-70, when it was 
circumnavigated by Captain Cook. In 1773 he plant- 



* On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted 
meal, with salt; incense, and wine, and all the mechanics began some- 
thing of tlieir art of trade ; the men of letters did the same as to hooks, 
poems, etc. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and 
entered upon their office this day. Nonius Marccllus refers the origin 
of ^fEW-YEAK's GIFTS among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
Sabines, who, having considered as a good omen a present of some 
branches cut in a wood consecrated to Strenia, the goddess of strength, 
which he received on the first day of the new year, authorized the cus- 
tom afterward, and gave these gifts the name of Strense, 747 B.C. 



ed several spots of groimd on this island with Euro- 
pean garden-seeds, and in 1777 he found some flue po- 
tatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. European 
population in 1860, 84,294. Value of imports in 1859, 
Xl,551,030 ; exports, £551,484. Sir George Grey, gov- 
ernor, reappointed June, 1801. 
The right of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- 
nized at the peace in 1814 

No constitutional authority was placed over it un- 
til a resident subordinate to the government of 
New South Wales was sent out with limited 

powers 1833 

New Zealand Company established; Wellington 

founded 1839 

Captain Ilobson, the first governor, landed Jan. 
29; treaty of Waitaugi signed, by which the 

chiefs cede a large amount of land Feb. 5,1840 

Becomes an independent colony and made a bish- 
op's see April,1841 

Captain (afterward Admiral) Fitzroy, governor, 

Dec, 1843, to Nov., 1845 

Sir George Grey governor 1846 

A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1S40, 
creating powers municipal, legislative, and ad- 
ministrative Dec. 29,1847 

This charter was not acted on ; a Legislative Coun- 
cil opened by the governor Dec. 20,1843 

Foundation of Auckland, 1840; Nelson and Tara- 
uaki (or New Plymouth), 1841; Otago,1848; Can- 
terbury 1850 

New Zealand Company relinquish their charter. . " 
Bishopric subdivided to form another called 

Christchurch 1852 

New Constitution granted " 

Col. Wynyard governor Jan., 1854, to Sept.,lS55 

Governor Browne Oct., " 

An earthquake; not much damage done. .Jan. 23, " 

Constitution modified 1857 

Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief 
named William King (Wirrimn Kingi), arising 
out of disputes respecting the sale of land ; the 
Bishop Selwyu and others consider the natives 

to have been unjustly treated March,lS0O 

Indecisive actions between the militia and volun- 
teers and the Maoris March 14-28, " 

War breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed 

with loss June 30, " 

Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to New 

Zealand, under Gen. Pratt, land Aug. 3, " 

Indecisive actions Sept. 10, 19, Oct. 9, 12, " 

Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and 

destroys their fortified places Nov. 6, " 

The New Zealand colonists in England meet and 

justify the conduct of the governor Nov. 22, " 

The Maoris defeated, Dec. 29, 1860 ; Jan. 23, Feb.24, 

March 10-18, 1S60-1 

The war ends ; surrender of natives March 19,1801 

Sir George Grey reappointed governor June, " 

Gold discovered at Otago and other places. .June, " 
A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British sol- 
diers in the islands July, " 

Loyalty of the natives increasing May,lS62 

The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- 
lence to the queen ou the death of the prince 

consort ; received Nov., " 

Natives attack a military escort and lull 8 persons. 

May 4, 1863 

Waikato tribe driven from a fort July 17, " 

The war spreading ; natives construct rifle-pits, 

Aug., " 

Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands Sept., " 

Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- 

gariri Nov. 20, " 

Continued success of Gen. Cameron ; capitulation 

of the Maori king Dec. 9, " 

British attack on Galepa repulsed with loss of of- 
ficers and men April 29,1804 

Loan of X1,000,000 to New Zealand; guaranteed 

by Parliament July " 

Several tribes submit ■^'^^•' " 

Maori prisoners escape and form a nucleus of a 

new insurrection Sept., " 

Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, Oct. 25; 
the Aborigines Protection Societyeend religious, 
moral, ancl political advice to the Maoris (con- 
sidered injudicious) Nov., " 

Change of ministry and policy ; seat of govern- 
ment to be removed from Auckland to Welling- 
ton on Cook's Strait Nov. 24, " 

Maoris attack ou Cameron severely defeated, Jan. 
25 ; again, Feb. 25 ; outbreak of the Pai Mariri 
or Hau-hau heresy, a compound of Judaism and 
paganism, among the Maoris; the Rev. C. S. 
Volkuer murdered and many outrages commit- 



NEY 



337 



NIE 



ted, March 2; proclamation ofGovernor SirGeo. 

Grey ajiaiiist it; it is checked by the ajjeucy of 

a friendly native chief, Wc-tako April, 1S65 

William TlioiniJsoii, an emiueut chief, surrenders 

on behalf of the Maori king May '-'5, " 

New Zealand still unsettled July, " 

The ILui-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 

the governor proclaims peace, Sept. 2 ; British 

troops about to leave Sept. 15, " 

Tlie Jlaoris treacherously kill the envoys of peace; 

resiiruation of the Weld ministry; one formed 

by Mr. Stafford Oct., " _ 

Prospects of peace reported Jau.,lSCG 

KEY'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of Elchiugen, 
prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant 
of the marshals of Prance, was shot as a traitor, Dec. 
7, 1S15.* On Dec. 7, 1853, his statue was erected ou the 
spot where he fell. 

NIAGARA (N. America). At the head of this river, 
ou the western shore, is Fort Erie,t which was taken 
by the En^dish, July 24, 1759. It was abandoned in 
the war wfth the United States, May 27, 1S13, but was 
retaken Dec. 19 following. A suspension bridge of a 
single span of 800 feet over the Niagara River, con- 
necting the railways of Canada and New York, was 
openecl in March, 1S55. It is elevated IS feet ou the 
Canadian, and 28 feet ou the American side. 

NIAGARA FALLS, Lundy Lane, or Bridgewatek, 
Battle of, fought on the 25th of July, 1S14, between 
the Americans under General Brown, 3000 strong, and 
the British under General Drummond, 5000 strong, in- 
cluding militia and Indians. The Americans were vic- 
torious, but with a loss of 175 killed and 573 wound- 
ed. The British lost, in killed, M'ouuded, aud prison- 
ers, S7S. 

NIAGARA, Fort. This was built by the French, 
at the mouth of the Niagara River, and was taken 
from them by the English in 1759. The Americans 
garrisoned it in 1S12, and on the 21st of Nov., 1812, it 
was bombarded by the British garrison in Fort George, 
opposite. The Americans had 4 killed and 7 wound- 
ed. Before daylight, on the morning of the 19th of 
December, 1813, the fort was surprised and captured 
by a British force under Colonel Murray. The Ameri- 
cans lost G5 killed, 14 wounded, and 344 made prison- 
ers. The enemy lost only 8 meu. 

NIC^A. See Sice. 

NICARAGUA, a state in Central America {which 
see). Population about 300,000 ; president T. Marti- 
nez ; elected in 1859, and re-elected in 1803. The pres- 
ent Constitution was established Aug. 19, 1S5S. At the 
commencement of 1855 it was greatly disturbed by two 

Eolitical parties: that of the president, Chamorro, who 
eld Granada, the capital, and that of the democratic 
chief, Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited 
Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who iu a short 
time became sole dictator of the state, t By the united 

* After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5th of April, 1814, he took the 
onth of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to 
France from Elba he marched against him ; but, his troops deserting, 
lie regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's 
way to Paris, March, 1S15. Ney led the attack of the French at Wa- 
terloo, where he fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes pierced 
with bullet-holes, five horses having been shot under him : night aud 
defeat obliged him to flee. Though' included in the decree of July 24, 
1815, which guaranteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was sought out, 
and on Aug. 5 taken at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to 
trial before the Chamber of Peers, Dec. 4. The 12th article of the ca- 
pitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, 
yet he was sentenced to death, and met his fate with fortitude, Dec. 7, 
1815. 

t About eighteen miles below Fort Erie are the remarkable falls. 
The river is here 740 jfards wide. The half mile immediately above 
the cataracts is a rapid, in which the water falls 68 feet: it is then 
thrown, with astonishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 
feet perpendicular, in three distinct and collateral sheets; and, in a 
rapid that extends to the distance of nine miles below, falls nearly as 
much more. The river tlien flows in a deep channel till it enters Lake 
Ontario at Fort Niagara. The falls were visited by the Prince of 
Wales in Sept., 1860. 

X William Walker was bom at Tennessee, in the United States, 
where he became successively doctor, lawyer, and .journalist, and after- 
ward gold-seeker in California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on condition of 
bringing with him a band of adventurers to sustain the revolutionary 
cause. Walker accepted the terms, and on June 28 landed at Realejo 
with 63 men. He increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked 
the town of Rivas, where he was repulsed with loss. He then joined 
Col. Kinney, who had occupied and governed Grey Town, Sept. 6. On 
Oct. 13 Walker captured Granada by surprise wnen in a defenseless 
state, shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a rule of ter- 
ror. By intervention of the American consul he mado peace with the 
generarof t!ie state arm v, Corral,, but shot him on Nov. 7 on finding 
nim corresponding with fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was 
only general-in-chief i but on Rivas, whom he had made president, de- 
serting him, he became sole dictator. On May 14, 1856, his envoy Viiil 
was recognized by the President of the United States, whence also ne 
obtained re-enforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica 
declared war against him, Feb. 28, 1856 ; the other states of Central 



efforts of the confederated states the filibusters were 
all e.xpelled in May, 1S57. On May 1, 1858, Nicaragua 
and Costa Rica appealed to the great European pow- 
ers for protection. 

NICE or Nio.i:.v, a town in Bithynia, Asia Minor, 
N. W. Autigonus gave it the name Antigoneia, which 
Lysimachus changed to Nicrea, in memory of his wife. 
It became the residence of the kings of Bithynia about 
208 B.C. At the battle of Nice, A.D. 194, the Emperor 
Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again de- 
feated at Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put 
to death. In 325 the first general council was held 
here, which composed the Nicene Creed and con- 
demned the Arians. It was attended by 318 bishops 
from divers parts, who settled both the doctrine of the 
Trinity and the time for observing Easter. The creed 
was altered, 381, and confirmed, 431, when it was de- 
creed unlawful to make farther additions. When the 
Crusdders took Constantinople, aud established a Lat- 
in empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed 
to Nice aud reigned there till 1201, when they return- 
ed to Constantinople. See Eastern Empire, p. 176. 
Nice was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 

NICE (N. Italy), a colony of Massilia, now Marseilles. 
It was taken by the French, aud retaken by Eugene of 
Savoy in 1700, and by the Austriaus in 1800. After the 
mind of the people had been ascertained by universal 
suflrage (the votes being nearly unanimous for annex- 
ation to France), the province of Nice was given up 
to France by the Sardinian government. The French 
troops occupied Nice on April 1, in conformity with a 
treaty signed March 24, 1860. The people are said to 
have beeii really unwilling for the change, and Gari- 
baldi vehemently protested against the anuexatiou. 
Population of the province in 1857, 250,593. 

NICIAS, Peace of, between Athens and Sparta, 421 
B.C., so named on account of its being negotiated by 
that eminent and uufortunate Athenian general, who, 
with his colleague, Demosthenes, was put to death 
after the disastrous termination of the expedition 
against Syracuse, 413 B.C. 

NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic met- 
al, employed in the manufacture of German silver. 
Cronstedt iu 1751 discovered nickel in the mineral 
copper-nickel. 

NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. ii.,6,15, 
said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of the first sev- 
en deacons {Acts vi.), aud to have maintained the le- 
gality of a community of wives, as well as all other 
heresies, and to have denied the divinity of Christ. 

NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia Mi- 
nor, N.W., founded by King Nicomedes 1., 264 B.C., on 
the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an earthquake, 
A.D. 115; and restored by the Emperor Adrian, 124. 
The Roman emperors frequently resided here during 
their Eastern wars. Here Diocletian resigned the pur- 
ple, 305 ; and Constantine died at his villa in its neigh- 
borhood, 337. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks 
in 1078, and to Orchan aud the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 

NICOPOLIS (now in Bulgaria), Battle of, Sept. 28, 
1396, between the allied Christiau powers under Sigis- 
muud, king of Hungary, afterward emperor, and the 
Turks under Ba.jazet; said to have been the first bat- 
tle between the Turks and Christians ; the latter were 
defeated, losing 20,000 slain, aud as many wounded 
and prisoners. 

NIELLO-WORK, said to have been produced by 
nibbing into engravings on silver, etc., a mixture of 
silver, lead, copper, siilphur, aud borax, was aii art 
known to the ancients, and practiced iu the Middle 
Ages, and to have given to Maso Finiguerra the idea 
of engraving upon copper, about 1460. 

NIEMEN or Memel, a river flowiuginto the Baltic, 
and separating Prussia from Russia. On a raft ou this 
river the Emperor Napoleon met Alexander of Russia, 



America soon followed the example, and a snnguinarv struggle ensued, 
lasting till May, 1857. On Nov. 25, 1856, Walker totally burnt Gra- 
nada, being unable to defend it, and removed the seat of government to 
Rivas. This place he surrendered to Gen. Mora on May 1, 1857, on the 
intervention of Capt. Davis, of the St.Mari/'s, U. S. Himself, his staff, 
and 260 men were conveyed in that vessel'to New Orleans, where they 
were received with great enthusiasm. On Nov. 25, 1857, he again in- 
vaded Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but on Dec. 
8 was compelled to surrender to Cant. Paulding, U. S., and was con- 
veyed to New York. He escaped punishment by noUe prosequi (June 2, 
1858) ; but Capt. Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed, 
yet excused by President Buchanan. On Aug. 5, 1860, Walker landed 
near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the fort on the 6th. On the 7th he 
proclaimed that he made war on the government, not on the people of 
Honduras. On being summoned to surrender his booty by Capt. Sal- 
mon, R.N. , of the fcarus, he refused, and tied. He was pursued, caught, 
given up to the Honduras government, tried, and shot (on Sept. 13>. 
His followers were dismiased. 



NIG 



338 



NON 



June 22, 1807, and made peace with him and Prussia. 
He crossed the Niemeu to invade Russia, June 24, 
1812, and recrossed with the remains of his army, 
Dec. 28. 

NIGER EXPEDITION, undertaken with a view to 
plant an English colony in the centre of Africa, and 
supported by a government grant of £60,000, started 
in the summer of 1S41, and commenced the ascent of 
the river, Aug. 20, iu that year. The expedition con- 
sisted of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan. Fever 
broke out among the crews, Sept. 2, when these vessels 
had arrived at Iddah. The confluence of the Niger 
and the Chadda (270 miles from the sea) was reached 
Sept. 11. The Soudan then returned with the sick ; 
the Wilberforce ascended the Chadda, and the Albert 
the Niger. But the Wilberforce was almost immedi- 
ately compelled to return, and follow the track of the 
Soudan. The Albert arrived at Esga, on the Niger 
(320 miles from the sea), Sept. 28 ; but so great had 
been the progress of disease, that orders were now 
given for the third vessel to return, which she did, 
after the necessary delay for procuring tirewood, on 
Oct. 4. This last vessel cast anchor in Clarence Cove, 
Fernando Po, Oct. 17, all the same year. 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1S54, Miss Flor- 
ence Nightingale left England with a stafl" of thirty- 
seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari Nov. 5 ; they ren- 
dered invaluable services to the army ; she returning 
to London Sept. 8, 1850. In memory, a meeting was 
held at Willis's Rooms on Nov. 29, 1855, to raise funds 
to establish an institution for the training of nurses 
and other hospital attendants. Madame Jenny Lind 
Goldschmidt sang at Exeter Hall on March 11, 1856, 
and gave the proceeds (i;iS7'2) to the fund. The sub- 
scriptions closed April 24, 185T, amounting to £44,039. 
The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 

NIKA CONTESTS. See Circus. 

NIL DARPAN. See India, June, 1861. 

NILE (Esypt). This great river rises in the Moun- 
tains of the'Moon, in about ten degrees of N. lat., and 
in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary 
streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to 
discover the source of the Nile ; he set out from En- 

tlaud in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of November, 1770, he 
iscovered the source of the Blue Nile, and returned 
home in 1773.— This river overflows regularly every 
yeai-, from about the 15th of June to the 17th of Sept., 
when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to 
the land. It must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertil- 
ity. In 1S29, the inundations of the Nile rose to 26 in- 
stead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned and 
immense property lost. Mr. Petherick set out early iu 
1861 to explore the country at the source of the Nile. 
For recent discoveries, see A.frica, 1S03-5. 

NILE, Battle of the (or Aboukir), Aug. 1, 1798, 
near Rosetta, between the Toulon and British fleets, 
the latter commanded by Lord (then Sir Horatio) Nel- 
son. Nine of the French liue-of-battle ships were 
taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French 
Bhip L'Orient, with Admiral Brueys and 1000 men on 
board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. Nelson's 
exclamation upon commencing the battle was, " Vic- 
tory or Westminster Abbey !" 

NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was signed the treaty 
of peace between France and the United Provinces, 
1678. The French were successful against the British 
under the Duke of York before Nimegueu, Oct. 28, 
1794, but were defeated by the British Nov. 8 follow- 
ing. 

NINETY-SIX, Siege of. In May, 1781, Gen. Greene 
commenced the siege of Fort Ninety-six, in Abbeville 
District, South Carolina, with less than a thousand 
regulars, and a few raw militia. The garrison was 
commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Cruger, a New 
York Loyalist. The siege continued from the 22d of 
May until the ISth of June, when an unsuccessful at- 
tempt was made to take the works by storm. The 
siege was raised on the following evening, and tlie 
Americans retreated beyond the Saluda River. Greene 
lost 150 men during the siege. 

NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian Empire (see 
Asxyrict), founded by Ashur, who called it after him- 
self, about 2245 B.C. Ninus reigned iu Assyria, and 
called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B.C. — 
A bbe Lenglet. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 
862 B.C.), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 
B.C. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the 
neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this an- 
cient capital, since 1839, have in a manner disinterred 
and repeopled a city which for centuries has not only 



ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose vei-y 
locality had long been blotted out of the map of the 
earth.* In 1848 Mr. Layard published his "Nineveh 
and its Remains," and in 1853 an account of his second 
visit in 1849-50. 

NISBET or Nebbit (Northumberland). Here a bat- 
tle was fought between the English and Scotch armies, 
the latter greatly disproportioued in strength to the 
former. Several thousand of the Scots were slain upon 
the field and iu the pursuit, May 7, 1402. 

NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourishing Ro- 
man colony Nemausus. Its noble amphitheatre was 
ruined during the English occupation iu 1417. Nismes 
embraced Protestantism, and suftered mucli persecu- 
tion in consequence, and has frequently been the 
scene of fierce religious contests. The treaty termed 
the Pacification of Nismes (July 14, 1029) gave religious 
toleration for a time to the Huguenots. 

NITRE. See Saltpetre. 

NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and oxygen, 
formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate 
state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about 1287 ; but 
we are indebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier 
for our present knowledge of its properties. Mr. Cav- 
endish demonstrated the nature of this acid in 17S5. 
Nitrous acid was discovered by Scheele about 1774. 
Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. 
Nitrous oxide gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley iu 
1776. 

NITROGEN, or Azote (from the Greek a, no, and 
zoo, I live), an irrespirable elementary gas. Before 
1777, Scheele separated the ox3'gen of the air from the 
nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier 
discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these 
two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen forms 
the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given ofi" by de- 
composing animal and vegetable bodies. 

NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized a part 
of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, 
to distinguish them from the common people. The 
right of p'eerage seems to have been at first territorial. 
Patents to persons having no estate were first gi anted 
by Philip the Fair of France, 1095. George Neville, 
duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), 
ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by 
Parliament on account of his utter want of property, 
19 Edw. IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were re- 
strained in June, 1773. See Lords, and' the various 
orders of the nobility. 

NOBILITY OF France preceded that of England. 
On June IS, 1790, the National Assembly decreed that 
hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that 
the titles of dukes, counts, marquesses, knights, bar- 
ons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; 
that all citizens take their family names; liveries and 
armorial bearings also to be abolished. The records 
of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of 
the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A new nobil- 
ity was created by the Emperor Napoleon I., ISOS. 
The hereditary peerage was abolished Dec. 27, 1831. 

NOBLE, an ancient English coin, first struck in the 
reign of Edward III. about 1337. It was stamped with 
a rose, and was thence called a rose noble; value 
6s. 8d. 

NONCONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England 
are divided into conformists and nonconformists, or 
churchmen and dissenters. The first place of meeting 
of the latter, in England, was established at Wands- 
worth, near London, Nov. 2, 1572. The name of non- 
conformists was taken by the Puritans when the Act 
of Uniformity came into operation on Aug. 24, 1662 
(termed " Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 min- 
isters of the established religion resigned, not choos- 
ing to conform to the statute passed " for the uniform- 
ity of public prayers and administration of the sacra- 
ments." See Puritans and Dissenters. The laws against 
them were relaxed in 1090. — The Konconforviist news- 
paper (edited by Mr. Edward Miall) began in 1841. 

NONES, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth day 



* The forms, features, costume, relifjion, modes of warfare, and cere- 
monial customs of its inhabitants stand before us as distinct as those of 
a living people ; and it is anticipated that, by help of the sculptures 
and their cuneiform inscriptions, the researches of the learned may go 
far in filling up the vast blank in Assyrian annals. Among the sculp- 
tures that enrich the British Museum may be mentioned the winged 
bull and lion, and numerous hunting and battle-pieces , but perhaps the 
most interesting, as confirmatory of the truth of Holy Scripture, is the 
bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a represent- 
ation of the Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagie or hawk), whom 
Sennacherib was in the act of worshiping when he was assassinated by 
his two sons about 710 B.C.— 2 Kings, zix., 37. 



KON 



339 



NOR 



of each month, excepting March, May, July, and Octo- 
ber, when the nones fell on the seventh day. 

KON-JURORS. In 16S9, they considered James II. 
to have been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear 
allegiance to AVilliam III. Among them were San- 
croft, archbishop of Canterbury ; Ken, bishoi) of Bath 
and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Gloucester, Nor- 
wich, and rcterborougli, and many of the clergy who 
were deprived, Feb. 1," 1(>91. Non-jurors were subject- 
ed to a double taxation, and were obliged to register 
their estates, Mav, 172;). They formed a separate com- 
munion, which existed till the beginning of the pres- 
ent century. 

NON NOBIS, DOMINE ! (" Not unto ns, O Lord !" 
etc., I'.salm cxv., 1), a musical canon, sung as a grace 
at public feasts, was composed by W. Bird in 161S. 

NON-RESISTANCE OATH, occurring in the Cor- 
poration Act, 1001, was repealed in 1719. 

NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), discovered 
by Captain Cook in 177S. It was settled by the Brit- 
ish in 17S0, when a few British merchants in the East 
Indies formed a settlement to supply the Chinese mar- 
ket with furs ; but the Spaniards iu 17S9 captured two 
English vessels and took possession of the settlement. 
The British ministry demanded reparation, and the 
affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a 
free commerce was coutirmed to England iu 1790. 

"NO-POPERY RIOTS." Seo Gordon. 

NORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes tmder 
Count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, Aug. 27, 
1034, and the latter by Turenue iu 1045. 

NORE MUTINY. See Mutinies. 

NORFOLK (Virginia), an excellent interior port, 
with a navy yard at Gosport, ojiposite. It was de- 
stroyed by the British under the direction of the royal 
governor, Lord Duumore, on the first of January, 1776. 
See Fires in America. Its neighborhood suffered se- 
verely during the remainder of the war. During the 
Civil War inlSOl it became the property of the rebels, 
and the navy yard there was at the same time destroy- 
ed by tire, with a large amount of property. Reoccii- 
pied by the Union forces under General John E. Wool 
ou the 10th April, 1S62. 

NORFOLK ISLAND, a penal colony of England, 
discovered iu 1774 by Captain Cook, wlio found it un- 
inhabited except by birds. The settlement was made 
by a detachment from Port Jackson under Governor 
Phillip in 17SS, in Sydney Bay, on the south side of 
the island. This was at one time the severest penal 
colony of Great Britain. The island was abandoned 
in 1SU9, but reoccupied as a penal settlement in 1S2.5. 
The descendants of the mutineers of the Bounttj were 
removed to it iu June, 1S5C, from I'itcairn's Island 
{which see). 

NORMANDY (N. Prance), part of Neustria, a king- 
dom founded by Clovis in 511 for his son Clotaire, 
which, after various changes, was united to France by 
Charles the Bald in 8.37. From the beginning of the 
9th century it was continually devastated by tiie Scan- 
dinavians, called Northmen or Normans, to purchase 
repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of 
France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. 
From its conquerors it received its present name. 
Rollo, the first duke, held it as a fief of the crown of 
France, and several of his successors after him, until 
William, the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. 
It remained a province of England with some inter- 
missions till the reign of King John, 1204, when it was 
reunited to France." It was reconcpiered by Henry V., 
141S, and held by England partially till 1450. The En- 
glish still possess the islands on the coast, of which 
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 

DI!Ki:S. 

912. Rolla (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. 

920 or 927. William I., Longsword. 

943. Richard I., the Fearless. 

9'.»6. Richard II., the Good. 
1027. Richard III. 
102S. Robert I., the Devil. 
103.5. William 11. (L of England). 
10S7. Robert II., Courthnse (liis son), after a contest 

despoiled by his l)ri)ther. 
1100. Henry I. (king of Eudand). 
11.'!.5. S'ephen (king of England). 
1144. IMatilda and (ieoffrov Plantagenet. 
1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
11S9. Richard IV. (I. of England). 
1199-1203. Arthur and John of England. 

NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by Lord 



North, Jan., 1770. After his retirement from office, 
March 30, 1782, Lord North entered into a league with 
the Whigs : this led to the short-lived Coalition min- 
istry (1783). He succeeded to the earldom of Guild- 
ford iu 1790, and died iu 1792. See " Coalition." 
Frederick, Lord North, First Lord of the Treasunj, and 

Clianccllur of tin' F.crlicqiicr. 
Earl Gower, Lord Presidnit. 
Earl of Halifax, Prioii Seal. 
Lord Rochford, Lord Weymouth (succeeded by Lord 

Sandwich), and Lord Hillsborough, Secretaries of 

State. 
Sir Edward Ilawke, Admiralty. 
Marquess of Grauby, Ordnance. 
Sir Gilbert Elliot, Lord Hertford, Duke of Aucaster, 

Lord Carteret, etc. 

NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near here was 
fought the "battle of the Standard," where the En- 
glish totally defeated the Scotch armies, Aug. 22, 113S. 
The Archbishop of York brought forth a consecrated 
standard ou a carriage at the niomeut wheu they were 
hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by King David. 

NORTHAMPTON, England, was burnt by the Danes 
in 1010. Here Henry IIL proposed to found a univer- 
sity in 1200, and held a Parliament in 1209. On July 
10, 1460, a conflict toolv place between the Duke of 
York and Henry VI. of England, in which the unfor- 
tunate monarch was defeated and made prisoner (the 
second time), after a sanguinary tight, which took place 
in the meadows below the town. Northampton was 
ravaged by the plague iu 1037. It was seized and for- 
tified by the Parliahientary forces in 1042. The mem- 
orable "lire, which almost totally destroyed the town, 
occurred Sept. 3, 1075. 

NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER, No. 45* (Wilkes's 
number), dated Saturday, April 23, 1763, was, by order 
of both houses of Parliament, publicly burnt iu Lou- 
don bj' the hands of the common hangman, Dec. 8, 
1703. Wilkes, by this newspaper (commenced iu 1762), 
increased the antipathy to the Scotch, then very prev- 
alent in England, having been greatly favored by the 
minister, the Earl of Bute. 

NORTH CAROLINA. See Carolina. 

NORTHMEN or Noksemkn. See Scamlinavia and 
l\ormandy. 

NORTH POINT (Baltimore), Battle of. The Brit- 
ish troops, to the number of about SOOO, under General 
Ross, landed at Nortli Point, 14 miles below Baltimore, 
on the 12th of Sept., 1S14, and proceeded to march to- 
ward the city. General Strycker, with over 3000 mili- 
tia and volunteers, opposed him. A skirmish ensued, 
\vhcn Ross was killed. Colonel Brooke took his place, 
and pressed forward, wheu a severe battle commenced. 
The Americans fell back toward the city. That night 
the British slept on their arms, and toward the ntoru- 
ing of the 14th withdrew, and went ou board their 
ships. The Americans lost iu killed and wounded, 103 ; 
the British, 290. 

NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded by 
Ida, 547. 

NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discov- 
er a northwest passage was made by a Portuguese 
named Corte Real about 1500. In 15S5, a company was 
formed iu London called the "Fellowship for the Dis- 
covery of the Northwest Passage." From 1745 to ISIS 
Parliament offered i;20,000 for this discovery. In ISIS 
the reward was modified by proposing that £5000 
should be paid wheu either 110°, 120°, or"lo0° W. loug, 
should be passed; one of which payments was made 
to Sir E. Parry. For their labors iii the voyages enu- 
merated iu the list below. Parry, Franklin, Ross, Back, 
and Richardson were kuighted. 
Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find a north- 
east passage to China sailed from the Thamest 

May 20, 1553 



* Number 45 containeil a commentary on tlie king's speech, com-hed 
in sncli caustic terms that a prosecution was commenced against Wilkes. 
Having been arrested on a general warrant, he was brought by a writ 
ot habeas corpus before Chief Justice Pratt, of the Common Pleas, who 
declared the judgment of that court that general warrants were illegal, 
and he was consequently discharged. But, not content with this es- 
cape, he reprinted the obnoxious number, which produced a regular 
prosecution to conviction. See Warratita. Cici}craL 

t The gallant Sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Rat- 
cliffe on his fatal voyage for discovering the norOieast passage to Chi- 
na. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the court then 
resided. The council and courtiers appeared at the windows, and the 
people covered the shores. The young king, Edward \l., alone lost 
the noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his deathbed ; so that tlie 
principal object of the paraile was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willough- 
liy was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to death on the 
coast of Lapland.— //aWHy«. 



KOK 



3i0 



NOE 



Sir Martiu Frobisher's attempt to find a northwest 

passage to China 15TG 

Captain Davis's especUtiou to find a northwest 

passage "15S5 

Barantz's expedition 1594 

Weymouth and Knight's 1G02 

Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken (see Hud- 
son's Day) IGIO 

Sir Thomas Button's 1012 

Baffin's (see Baffin's Bay) 1010 

Foxe's expedition 1031 

[A number of enterprises, undertaken l)y various 
countries, followed.] 

Jtiddleton's expedition 1T42 

Moore's and Smith's 1T40 

Hearne's laud expedition 1TG9 

Capt. Phipps, afterward Lord Mulgrave, his expe- 
dition 1T73 

Capt. Cooke, in the Resolution and Discovery, July,17T6 

Mackenzie's expedition 17S9 

Captain Duncan's voyage 1T90 

The Discovery, Capt. Vancouver, returned from a 
voyage of survey and discovery on the north- 
west coast of America Sept.,lT95 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition Oct., 1815 

Capt. Buchan's and Lieut, Franklin's expedition 

in the Dorothea and Trent 1819-22 

Capt. Koss and Lieut. Parry, in the Isabella and 

A lexander 1S18 

Lieutenants Parry and Linddon, in the Hefla and 

Griper May 4,1S19 

They return to Leith Nov. 3,1820 

Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the Fury and Ilecla, 

May 8,1821 
Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Hecla, 

^ May 8,1824 

Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having attempted 
a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, 

Fel). 10, 1825 
Capt. Parry,* again in the Ilecla, sails from Dcpt- 
ford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North 

Pole, June 22 ; returns Oct. 6,1827 

Capt. Ross* arrived at Hull, on his return from his 
Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, 
and when all hope of his return had been nearly 

abandonedt Oct. 18,1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
pool from their perilous Arctic land expedition, 
after having visited the Great Fish River and ex- 
amined its course to the Polar Seas Sept, 8,1835 

Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of 
his majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring ad- 
venture to Wager River June 21,1830 

[The Geographic'al Society awarded the king's an- 
nual premium to Capt. Back for his polar discov- 
eries and enterprise, Dec, 1835.] 
Sir John Franklin, and Capts. Crozier and Fitz- 
james, in the shi^s Erebus and Terror, leave En- 
gland May 24,1845 

Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in the Enter- 
prise and Invcstiyator, sailed eastward in search 

of Sir John Franklin : Jan. 20,1850 

NoRTUwEST PASSAGE dlscovcred by Capt. M'Clure,t 

Oct. 20, " 
[Another expedition to the North Pole, under the 
command of Capt. Sherard Osborne, was pro- 
posed to the Royal Geographical Society in the 
spring of 1865.] 
[For the other expeditions in search of Franklin, 
etc., see Franklin.'\ 

NORWAY, until the 7th century, was governed by 
petty rulers. About 630, Olaf Trietelia, of the race of 
Odin, termed Ynglings or youths, expelled from Swe- 

* Sir John Franklin diedjHjif 11, 1847 (see Franklin) \ Sir E. Parrv 
died J Illy 8, 1855, aged 65 j and Sir John Ross died Aug. 30, IS56, aged 
80. 

+ In 1831 he discovered Boothia Felix; on June 31, same year, he 
came to a spot which he considered to be the true magnetic pole, in 70° 
5' 17" N. lat., and 96° 46' 45" W. long. 

X Capt. M'Clure sailed in the Ini'edipatnr in company with Com. 
Collinson in tlie Enterprise in search ot' Sir John Franklin, Jan. 20, 
1850. On Sept. 6 he discovered high land, which he named Baring's 
Land ; on the 9th, other land, which he named after Prince Albert ; on 
the 30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong conviction that 
the waters in which the Imeslipator then lay communicated with Bar- 
row's Straits, he set out on Oct.'Sl , with a few men, in his sledge, to test 
his views. On Oct. 26 he reached Point Russell (73° 31' N. lat., 114° 14' 
W. long.), where, from an elevation of 600 feet, he saw Parry or IVIel- 
ville Sound beneath them. The strait connecting the Atlantic and Pa- 
cific Oceans he named after the Prince of Wales. The Investigator was 
the first ship which traversed the Polar Sea from Behring Straits to 
Beliring Island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought to England 
by Com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart was published Oct. 14, 
. 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to England Sept., 1854. In 1855, £5000 
were paid to Captain (afterward Sir Robert) M'Clure, and £5000 were 
distributed among the officers and crew. On Jan. 30, 1855, the Admi- 
ralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given to all persons en- 
gaged in the expeditions from 1818 to 1855 



den, established a colony in Vermeland, the nucleus 

of a monarchy, founded by his descendant, Halfdau 

IIL, tlie Black, a great warrior and legi.'jlator, whose 

memory was long revered. 

Olaf TriBtelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects, 640. 

Halfdau L, 640; Eystein I., 700; Halfdan II., 730; Gu- 
drod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III., 824. 

Ilalfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
whom he subdues, together with the neighboring 
chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned, 803. 

The chiefs regain their power during the youth of his 
son, Harold H:irfager, or fair-haired, who vows nei- 
ther to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers his do- 
minion, 865. 

He defeats his enemies at Hafursfiord, 885 ; dies, 934. 

Eric I. (the bloody Axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled; 
and succeeded by Hako the Good, 940. 

Hako endeavors in vain to establish Christianity; 
dies, 963. 

Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds ; killed in 
battle with Harold of Denmark, 977. 

Ilako, Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; be- 
comes king ; his'licentiousness leads to his ruin ; de- 
posed by Olaf I., Trygvoeson ; and slain by his slave, 
995. 

Olaf I. establishes Christianity by force and cruelty, 
998 ; defeated and slain, during an expedition against 
Pomerania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
who divide Norway between them, 1000. 

Olaf II., the saint (his son), lands in Norway, 1012 ; de- 
feats his enemies and becomes king, 1015 ; fiercely 
zealous in the dift'usion of Christianity, 1018-21. 

Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king, 
1028, 10'29 ; Olaf expelled ; returns, and is killed in 
battle, 1030. 

Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as kin^ of 
Norway, but is expelled in favor of Magnus I., Das- 
tard son of Olaf II., 10.35 ; Magnus becomes King of 
Denmark, 1030 ; dies, 1047. 

Harold Hardrade, king of Norwa}', 1047, invades En- 
gland ; defeated and slain by Harold II. at Stanford 
Bridse, Sept. 25, 1066. 

Olaf III. and Jlagnus IL (sons), kings, Sept. 2.5, lOGC ; 
Olaf alone (pacific), 1069-1093 ; Olaf III. founds Ber- 
gen, 1070. 

Magnus III. (barefoot), son of Olaf, 1093; invades the 
Orkneys and Scotland, 1096 ; killed in Ireland, 1103. 

Sigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons), 1103 ; Sigurd 
visits the Holy Land as a warrior-pilgrim, 1107-10 ; 
becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies, 1130. 

Magnus IV. (his son) and Harold IV., 1130; Magnus 
dethroned, 1134. 

Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 
II., etc. ; civil war rages, 1136. 

Nicolas Breakspear (afterward Pope Adrian IV.), the 
papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, and 
founds the archbishopric of Trondheim, 11.52. 

Numerous comjietitors for the crown ; civil war ; Inge 
I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V., 1136-62. 

Magnus V. alone, 1162 ; rise of Swerro, an able adven- 
turer, who becomes king ; Magnus defeated ; drown- 
ed, 1186. 

Swerro rules vigorously ; dies, 1202. 

Hako, his son, king, 1202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; Inge IL, 
1205. 

Hako IV., bastard son of Swerro, 1207 ; unsuccessfully 
invades Scotland, where he dies, 1263. 

Magnus VL, his son (the legislator), dies, 1280. 

Eric II. , the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
land ; their daughter, the Maid of Noi^vay, becomes 
heiress to the throne of Scotland, 1286. 

Hako v., his brother, king, 1299-1319. 

Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 

Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden) king, 1319^3. 

Hako VL, 1343-SO. 

Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark), 1380-87. 

Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under Mar- 
garet, 1389. 

At an assembly at Calmar the three states are formal- 
ly united, 1397. 

Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 144S ; 
reunited, 1450. 

Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden, 1523. 

Christiania, the modern capital, built by Christian IV., 
1624. 

Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; Pom- 
erania and Rugen annexed to Denmark, Jan. 14, 1814. 

The Norwegians declare their independence, May 17. 

The Swedish troops enter Norway, July 16, 1S14. 

Charles Frederick, duke of Holsfein, elected king of 
Norway ; abdicates Oct. 10, 1814. 

Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the Na- 
tional Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania ; he 
accepted the Constitution which declares Norway a 



NOR 



341 



NUR 



free, indcpcnclent, imlivisible, aud iualicnablc state, 
united to Sweden, Nov. 4, 1S14. 

Nobility nboli.«lH'd, 18'il. 

The uatiouul order of St. Olaf instituted by King Os- 
car, 1S4T. 

(See Denmark aud Sweden.) 

NORWICH (Norfolk), ineutioiied in history in the 
Saxon Chronicle at the period when Sweyn, king of 
Denmark, destroyed it by tire, 1004. Artisans from the 
Low Countries establislied here the manufacture of 
bai/.es, arras, etc., about 1132. A great jdague in 134S 
carried oft" many thousand persons; aud in 1505 Nor- 
wich was nearly consumed by lire. The Cathedral was 
firs^t erected in lOSS by Bishop Herbert Losiuga, and 
■was completed bv Bishop Middleton about 12S0. The 
church of the Black friars, now St. Andrew's Hall, was 
erected in 1415. The public library was iustituted in 
lTf^4. The Norwich new canal aud harbor were open- 
ed June 3, 1S31. 

NOTABLES. An assembly of the notables of France 
was couvened by Calouue, the minister of Louis XVI., 
on Feb. '_'■_', 1787, on account of the deranged state of 
the king's linances, aud again in 17SS, wheu Caloune 
opened his plan; but any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted ; Calonue was 
dismissed, aud soon after retired to England. Louis, 
having lost his confidential minister, DeVergennes, by 
death, called De Brieuue, an ecclesiastic, to his coun- 
sels. The notables were reassembled on Nov. C, 1"SS. 
In the end, the States-General were convoked, Dec. 5; 
and from this assemlily sprang the National Assembly 
{which .ice). The notables were dismissed by. the king, 
Dec. 1'2, 17SS.— The Spanifik notables assembled aud met 
Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by him 
commanding their attendance) at Bayonue, May 25, 
ISUS. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been appointed 
by the primitive fathers ofthe Christian Church to 
collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs 
in the 1st century. — Du Fresnoij. This office was aft- 
envard changed to a legal employment, to attest deeds 
and writings, so as to"^establish" their authenticity in 
any other country. An important statute to regulate 
notarial transactions was passed in ISOO, and some stat- 
utes on the subject have been enacted since. 

"NOTES ANi> QUERIES," a medium of iutercom- 
municati(m for literary men and general readers, was 
first published in England on Nov. 3, 1849. 

NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was founded 
in 1163. 

NOTTINGHAM. The castle here was defended by 
the Danes against King Alfred aud his brother Ethel- 
red, who retook it, SOS. It was rebuilt by William I. 
in 10(JS, and ultimately became a strong fortress. It 
was burnt by rioters during the Reform excitement, 
Oct. 10, 1831. The riots at Nottingham, in which the 
rioters broke frames, etc., commenced Nov. 14, 1811, 
and continued to Jan., 1812. Great similar mischief 
was done in April, 1814. The Watch and Ward Act 
was enforced Dec. 2, ISIG. The British Association met 
here in 1806. 

NOVARA, Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Aus- 
trian Marshal Radetzky totally defeated King Charles 
Albert and the Sardinian arm}'. The contest began at 
10 A.M., aud lasted till late iu the evening; the Aus- 
trians lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; 
the Sardinians lost between 3000 aud 4000 men, 27 can- 
non, and 3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdi- 
cated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel. 

NOVA SCOTIA (N. America). Settled iu 1622 by 
the Scotch under Sir William Alexander, in Uie reign 
of James I. of England, from whom it received the 
name of Nova Scotia. In 1710 the French included it 
iu Acadia. Since its first settlement it has more than 
once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to 
Enirlaud till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was 
taken in 1745 and 1758, but was again confirmed to 
Eiii,'land in 17C0. Nova Scotia was" divided into two 
])r(ivinces in 1784, aud was erected into a bishopric iu 
Auirust, 1787. King's College, Windsor, was founded 
iu 1788. See Daronets. Gold was found in Nova Scotia 
in 1801. 

NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration to the 
Church to those who had relajised during times of per- 
secution, begun with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, in 
250. 



NO\'ELS (Novella;), a part of Justinian's Code, pub- 
lished 535. See Jluruances. 

NOVEMBER {novem, nine), anciently the ninth 
mouth of the year. When Nnma added January aud 
February in 713 B.C., it became the eleventh, as now. 
The Roman senators wished to name this month, in 
which Tiberius was born, by his name, iu imitation of 
Julius Ca3sar and Augustus ; but the emperor refused, 
saying, "What will you do, conscript fathers, if you 
have thirteen Ciesars ?" 

NOVGOROD (Central Russia), made the seat of his 
government by Ruric, a Varangian chief, in 862, is held 
to be the foundation of the Russian Empire. In mem- 
ory of the event, the czar inaugurated a national mou- 
umeut at Novgorod on Sept. 20, 1SG2. 

NOVI (N. Italy), Battle of, iu which the French 
army, commanded by Joubert, was defeated by the 
Russians under Suwarrow, with immeuse loss, Aug. 15, 
1799. Among 10,000 of the French slain was their lead- 
er, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. 

NOVUM ORG ANON, the great work of Lord Bacon, 
containing his system of philosophy, was published 
1620. 
NOrADES. See Drmoning. 

NUBIA, the ancient .Ethiopia siq^ra ^gyptum, said 
to have been the seat of the kingdom of Meroe, received 
its name from a tribe uamed Nubes or Nubates. The 
Christian kingdom, with Dougola, the capital, lasted 
till the 14th century, when it \vas broken up into Mo- 
hammedan princii)alities. It is now subject to the 
viceroy of Ei;ypt, having been conquered by Ibrahim 
Pacha iu 1822. 

NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the Ro- 
mans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed the 
country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began 140 B.C., 
on account of the latter having given refuge to their 
allies the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Ro- 
mans. Numautia, an unprotected city, withstood a 
long siege. The army of Scipio Africauus, 60,000 men, 
was bravely opposed by no more than 4000 men able 
to bear arms. The Numantines fed upon horseflesh, 
and afterward on their own dead, and at last drew lots 
to kill one another. At leugth they set fire to their 
houses, and destroyed themselves, so that not even 
one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 
133 B.C. 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the 
Romans with Jngurtha, which began 111 B.C., aud 
ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The 
last kins, Juba, joined'Cato, and was killed at the bat- 
tle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Ro- 
man province. See Mauritania. 

NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, 
an important adjunct to the study of history. In En- 
gland, Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton 
(1789) have published works on medals. Ruding's 
Annals is the great work on British Coinage (uew 
editiou, 1840).— The Numismatic Society in London 
was founded by Dr. John Lee iu 1836. It publishes 
the Numismatic Chronicle.— Mr. Yonge Akermau's 
Numismatic Manual (1840) is a useful introduction to 
the science. Foreign works are numerous. 

NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to Cath- 
olic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the Irish 
rebels iu 1645. The arrival iu Loudon of a nuncio, aud 
his admission to an audience by James II., July, 16S7, 
is stated to have hastened the Revolution. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been 
that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired at the 
close of the 3d century. The first founded iu France, 
near Poictiers, by St. Marcelliua, sister to St. JMartiu, 
860.— Z)?(. Frcmoy. The first in England was at Folke- 
stone, in Kent, by Eadbald, or Edbald, king of Kent, 
(SZQi.—Dwjdale's Mcmaatieum Aniib'camun. See Abbeijs 
and Monachlfvi. The nuns were exi)elled from their 
convents in Germany in July, 17S.5. They were driven 
out of their convents in France iu Jan., 1790. In Feb., 
1861, monastic establishments were abolished iu Na- 
ples, compensation being made to the iumates. For 
memorable instances of the constancy aud fortitude 
of nuns, see Acre and Coldimjham. 

NUREMBERG, a free imperial German city iu 1219. 
In 1522 the diet here demanded ecclesiastical reforms 
aud a general council, and iu 1532 secured religious 
liberty to the Protestants. 



OAK 



312 



OCT 



o. 



OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, aud au em- 
blem of strength, virtue, constaucy, aud long life. 
That produced iu Eu.t^laud is considered to be best 
calculated for ship-building. The constellation Robur 
Caroli, the oak of Charles, was named by Dr. Halley 
iu 167U, iu memory of the oak-tree iu which Charles 11. 
saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle of 
Worcester, Sept. 3, 1051. See Boscobcl. Heme's oak, 
Wiudsor Park, mentioned in Shakspeare's Merry 
Wives of Wiudsor, was finally destroyed by the wind, 
Aug. 31, 1S63. The evergreen oak, Quemis Ilex, was 
brought from the south of Europe before 1581. The 
scarlet oak, Qiiemis Coccinea, was brought from North 
America before IG'Jl. The chestnut-leaved oak, Quer- 
CU8 Piuniis, from North America before 1T3(). The 
Turkey oak, Quercu-s Bcrris, from the south of Europe, 
1735. The a;tjaric of the oak, in pharmacy, was known 
as a styptic iu 1750. In June, H)3, the "'Synod of the 
oak" was held at Chalcedou. 

OATES'S PLOT. Titus Gates, at oue time chaplain 
of a ship of war, was dismissed for immoral conduct, 
aud became a lecturer in London. Iu coujunctiou 
with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot against the Ro- 
man Catholics, who he asserted had conspired to assas- 
sinate Charles IL, aud extirpate the Protestant relig- 
ion. He made it known Aug. 12, 1678, aud in conse- 
quence about eightecu Roman Catholics were accused, 
aud upon false testimony convicted and executed; 
among them the aged Viscount Stafford, Dec. 29, IGSO. 
Gates was afterward tried for perjury (in the reign of 
James IL), and, being found guilty, was fined, put iu 
the pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, 
aud sentenced to imprisoumeut for life,''May, 1GS5. Ou 
the accession of William and Mary he was pardoued, 
and a pension of £3 a Aveek granted him, 1CS9. 

OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 (Gen. 

xxi., 24), aud authorized (B.C. 1491) Exod. xxii., 11. 

The administration of an oath injudicial proceedings 

was introduced by the Saxons into England, 600.— A'a- 

pin. That admiuistered to a judge was settled 1344. 

Op supiiEMAcv, first admiuistered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by Parliament, 26 Heu. VIIL 
(Stow's Chron.) 1535 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528 ; 
aud the words "So help me God aud all saints" 
coucluded au oath until 1550 

The ancient oath of ailesriauce, which contained a 
promise "to be true aud faithful to the king aud 
his heirs, and truth aud faith to bear of life aud 
limb and terrene honor; aud not to know or 
hear of auy ill or damage intended him with- 
out defending him therefrom," was modified 
by James L iu 1005, a declaration against the 
pope's authority being added. It was again al- 
tered in 1GS9 

The afth-matiim of a Quaker was made equivalent 
to an oath by statute iu 1690 et seq. 

Of AiiJLKATioN, being an obligation to maintain 
the government of king, loi^ds, and commons, 
the Church of England, and toleration of Prot- 
estant Dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Cath- 
olic pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. Ill 1701 

The Test and Corporation oaths modified bv stat. 
9 Geo. IV., 1828. See TeM>i. 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs aud excise 
departments, and in certain other cases, and 
substituting declarations iu lieu thereof, 1 & 2 

Wiii.iy : 1S31 

Afl^irmation instead of oath was permitted to Qua- 
kers and other Dissenters bv acts passed in 1S33 
1S37, 1838, and 1863. See A ffinnation. 

In 1858 and 1860, Jews elected M. P. were relieved 
from i)art of the oath of allegiance. See Jewn. 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (passed by the Commons) was reject- 
ed by the Lords. June 26,1865 

OBELISK. (Greek ohelos, a epit, monolitkns, a single 
stone.) The first mentioned in history was that'of 
Rameses, king of Egypt, about 14S5 B'.C. The Ara- 
bians called them Pharaoh's Needles, and the Egj-p- 
tian priests the Finger of the Sun; they differed very 
much as to their costliness, magnitude, aud magnifi- 
cence. Several were erected at Rome; oue was erect- 
ed by the Emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, 
on the pavement of which was a horizontal dial that 



marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks 
brought to Rome by the emperors, several have been 
restored and set up by various popes, especially Sixtus 
V. In London are three obelisks: first iu Fleet Street, 
at the top of Bridge Street, erected to the famous John 
Wilkes, lord mayor of Loudon in 1775; and immedi- 
ately opposite to it, at the south end of Farriut'don 
Street, stands another of granite, to the memory of 
Robert Waithmau, lord mayor in 1824, erected June 25, 
1833; aud the third, at the south end of the Blackfriars 
Road, marks the distauce of oue mile and a fraction 
from Fleet Street. An obelisk from Luxor was set up 
iu the Place de la Concorde, Paris, iu Oct., 1830. 

OBLIVION. In England, iu 1660, was passed an act 
of " free general pardon, indemnity, aud oblivion for 
all treasons aud state offenses committed between 
Jan. 1, 1637, and June 24, 1660." The regicides and 
certam Irish popish priests were excepted. 

OBSERVATORIES. The first is said to have been 
erected on the top of the Temple ofBelus at Babylon. 
On tlie tomb of Osymandyas, in Egyjit, was another, 
and It contained a golden circle 200 "feet in diameter; 
that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The 
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 
B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. 
First modern meridional instrument by Coperni- 
cus 1540 

First observatory at Cassel 156I 

Tycho Brahe's, at Urauieuburg ,.,', ! !l576 

Astronomical tower at Copenhatren '. 165T 

Royal (French) .° ■'.■■.■ [igGT 

Royal Observatory at Greenwich (which sec) 1675 

Observatory at Nuremburg i678 

At Utrecht ] _' ."ig90 

Berlin, erected under Liebnitz's direction'. ...... .1711 

At Bologna iii^^ 

At St. Petersburg .'.■.■.*.'.■ ."l725 

At Pekm, about 1750 

Oxford, Dr. Fuidcliffe '.".'.".V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.!l772 

Calton Hill, Ediuburg '.'.'.' 1770 

Dubliu, Dr. Andreio.s .'.".'.'.'...". ...1783 

Armagh, Prhnate Robinson .".'.'.".'.'.".'." IT 93 

Cambridge, England ..'....'.'.'.'..'... 1824 

Cambridge, V.S .' ;is40 

Washington, U. S '. . !lS42 

OCANA (Central Spain), near which the Spaniards 
were defeated by the French, commandad by Mortier 
and Soult, Nov. 19, 1809. 

OCEAN MONARCH, an American emigrant ship, 
left Liverpool, bound for Boston, Aug. 24, 1848, haviuo- 
396 passengers on board. She had not advanced far 
into the Irish Channel, being within six miles of Great 
Ormshead, Lancashire, when she took fire, aud iu a 
few hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 per- 
sons perished.* 

OCTARCH, the chief of the kings of the Heptarchy, 
was called Rex gentis Angloruin. Heugist was the first 
octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 8(J0. See Britain. 
Some authors insist that the English Heptarchy should 
have been called the Octarchy, aud that Ueptarchy is 
not the correct term. 

OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of Romu- 
lus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the year of 
Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its first name, 
although the senate ordered it to be called Fanstimis, 
in honor of Faustimi, wife of Antoninus the emperor; 
aud Commodus called it Divictus and Domitianus. Oc- 
tober was sacred to Mars. 

OCTROIS (from tlie low Latin anctorium, authority), 
a term applied to concessions from sovereigns, aud to 
the taxes levied at the gates of towus in France ou 
articles of food before entering the city. These oc- 
trois, of ancient origin, were suppressed iu 1791, but 
re-established iu 1797, and were reorijanized in 1816, 
1842, and 1852. In 1869, the octrois of Paris produced 
above 54 million francs. The Belgiau government be- 

* The Brazilian steam frigate AlfrnvM happened to he out on a trial 
trip at the time, with the Prince and Princess de Joinville and the 
Duke and Duchess d'Aumale on board, who witnessed the catastrophe, 
and aided in rescuing and comfortirK tlie sufferers with eiccedin-j hu- 
manity. They, witli the crews and passencers of the Alfonzu and the 
yaclit Queen tlf the Ocean, bo effectually rendered their lieroic and un- 
wearied services as to save 156 persons from their dreadful situation, 
and 62 others escaped by various means. 



ODE 



343 



OMN 



pres 
of J:l; 



came very popular in July, ISGO, by abolishing the Oc- 
trois. 

ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; among the 
Greeks they were extempore compositions sung iu 
honor of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed 
about 5;i'2 15.0. ; Pindar's, 498 to 44(i ; and Horace's 
from 24 to 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided 
into strophe, antistrophe, and epode. See Poets Lau- 
reate and Lyric Poctrij. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by the Em- 

•ess Catharine of Russia in lTS-i-lT'J2, after the peace 
Fussy. In 1S17 it was made a free port, since when 
its prosjicrity has rapidly increased. It was partially 
bombarded bv the British April 21, 1854, in conse- 
quence of ihe'Russian batteries having tired on a Hag 
of truce, April G. On May 12 the English frigate Tifjcr 
stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. 
The captain, Giflard, and many of his crew, were 
killed, and the rest made prisoners. 

ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, teeth), the 
science of the teeth, mav be said to have really begun 
with the researches of Professor Richard Owen, who 
in ls;>'.i made the tirst definite announcement of the or- 
ganic c(miiectiou between the vascular and vital soft 
parts of the frame and the hard substance of a tooth. 
His comprehensive work, "Odontography" (illustrated 
with beautiful plates), was published m 1840-5. 

ODYL, the name given in 1S45 by Baron von Rei- 
chenbach to a so-called new "imponderable or influ- 
ence," said to be developed by magnets, crystals, the 
humau body, heat, electricity, chemical action, and the 
whole material universe. The odylic force is said to 
give rise to luminous phenomena, visible to certain 
sensitive persons only. The baron's "Researches on 
Masrnetism, etc., in relation to the Vital Force," trans- 
lated by Dr. Gregory, were published in 18.50. Eman- 
uel Swedenborg (died 17T2) described similar phe- 
nomena. 

CECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek oilcmi- 
meni, the habitable understood globe)," universal bish- 
op;" a title assumed by John, bishop of Constantino- 
ple, 5S7. 

OPFA'S DIKE, the intrenchment from the Wye to 
the Dee, made by Offa, king of Mercia, to defend his 
country from the incursions of the Welsh, 779. 

OGDENSBURGH, Capture of, by a British force of 
1200 men, on the 22d of February, 1813. Only about 
300 men, under Captain Forsyth, were there to oppose 
the British. The Americans lost 3 killed and 17 
wounded ; the British lost 7 killed and 48 wounded. 

OGYGES, DELroE of (which laid Attica waste for 
more than two hundred years afterward, and until the 
arrival of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 1746 
B.C. See Deluge. 

OGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. and 
Cu. Ogulnii, increased the number of the poutiils and 
augurs, and made plebeians eligible to those offices, 
B.C. 300. 

OHIO, one of the ITnited States, was first settled by 
a land company under the directions of General Rufus 
Putnam, at Marietta, in 17SS. Other settlements were 
planted soon afterward. The first territorial Legisla- 
ture met at Cincinnati in 1709. The Western Reserve, 
or Fire Lands, held by Connecticut, was sold to the 
government of Ohio, for the benefit of the school fund 
of the former, in 1800. Ohio was admitted into the 
Union in 1S20. 

OH.M'S LAW for determining the quantity of the 
electro-motive force of the Voltaic battery was pub- 
lished in 1827. It is in conformity with the discovery 
that the earth may be employed as a conductor, thits 
saving the return wire in electric telegraphy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as the 
epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the custom 
of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ajjpointed to 
high offices, as the priests and kings, /'.sa/in csxsiii., 
2 ; 1 Sam. x., 1 ; xvi., 13. The factthat oil, if passed 
thr(nn,'h red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a 
combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and 
after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made ap- 
parent, Messrs. Taylor and Martineau contrived appa- 
ratus for producing oil-gas on a large scale, 1815. — Oil 
Sfkings. See Petrole^tm. 

OLBERS, the asteroid, discovered by M. Olbcrs in 
1802, is now termed Pallas. 

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COURT is held for the 
trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction comjirehends the 
county of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It 



is held eight times iu the year by the royal commis- 
sion of oyer and tcrtiiiner. The judges are the lord 
mayor, those aldermen who have passed the chair, the 
recorder, and tlie common sergeant, \vho are attended 
by both the sherifl's, and one or more of the national 
judges. The court-house was built in 1773,* and en- 
larged iu 1808. See Central Criminal Court. 

OLD MAN OP THE Mountain. See Assassins. 

OLD STYLE. See A"«u Style. 

OLEPIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen and 
carbon, which burns with much brilliancy. In 1SG2, 
Berthelot formed it artificially by means of alcohol. 

OLDENBURG, a grand-duchy in North Germany, 
was annexed to Denmark iu 1448 ; iu 1773, Christian 
VII. ceded the country to Russia iu exchange forHol- 
steiu-Gottorp, and soon after the present dignity was 
established. Population iu 1864, 301,812. 

DTJKES. 

177.3. Frederick Augustus. 

1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Na- 
poleon, and annexed to his empire in 1811, but 
restored in 1814. 

GKANB-DUKES. 

1829, May 21. Paul Frederick. 

1853, Feb. 27. Nicholas Frederick (bom July 8, 1827), 

the TRESENT grand-duke. 
iHeir: Prince Frederick Augustus (born Nov. 16, 1852.] 

OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt 
and Greece; and at Athens their cultivation was taught 
by Cecrops, 155G B.C. They were first planted in Ita- 
ly about 502 B.C. The olive has been cultivated in 
England since 1648 A.D. ; the Cape olive since 1730. 

OLTENITZA, Battle of. A large Turkish force 
having crossed the Danube, under Omar Pasha, es- 
tablished themselves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vig- 
orous attacks of the Russians, who were repulsed with 
loss, Nov. 2 and 3, 1853. On the 4th a most desperate 
attempt to dislodge the Turks by General Danneberg, 
with 9000 men, was defeated with great loss. 

OLUSTEE (Florida), Battle of. Fought Feb. 20, 
1864. General Truman Seymour was defeated by the 
Confederates. The battle was fought against the spir- 
it of the iustructions given by General Gillmore. 

OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, which dates 
from July 1, 776 B.C., being the year in which Coroe- 
bus was successful at the (Dlympic games. This era 
was reckoned by periods of four years, each period be- 
ing called an Olympiad, and iu marking a date the 
year and Olvmpiad were both mentioned. The com- 
putation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, A.D. 440. 

OLYIMPIC GAMES, so famous among the Greeks, 
are said to have been instituted by the Ida;i Dactyli, 
1453 B.C., or by PelojjS, 1307 B.C. ; revived by Iphitus, 
884 B.C., in honor of Jupiter, and were held at the be- 
ginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the Al- 
pheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the 
Morea, to exercise the youth in five kinds of combats. 
The conquerors in these games were highly honored. 
The prize contended for was a crown made of a kind 
of wild olive, approiiriated to this use. In 1S5S, M. 
Zappas, a wealthy Peloponuesian, gave funds to re-es- 
tablish these games, under the auspices of the Queen 
of Greece, to commence iu Oct., 1859.— Olympic The- 
atre. See Theatres. 

OLYNTHUS, a city, N. Greece, subdued in war by 
Sparta in 382-379 B.C. It resisted Philip of Macedon, 
350 B.C., by whom it was destro3'ed, 347. 

OMENS. See Auquri/. Amphictyon was the first 
who is recorded as" having drawn prognostications 
from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great and Mith- 
ridates the Great are said to have studied omens. At 
the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there were seen for 
seventv days together two large comets, whose splen- 
dor eclipsed that of the noonday sun, occupying so 
vast a space as the fourth part of the heavens ; and 
this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mith- 
ridates throughout his life. — Ja-stin. 

OMMIADES, a dynasty of iSIohammedan caliphs, 
beo-iuning with Moawiyah, of whom fourteen reigned 
in Arabia, 061-750, and eighteen at Cordova, in Spain, 
750-1031. Their favorite color was green. 

OMNIBUSES (from ovmihus, for all) began to run in 



» During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, one alderman, 
two judges, the greater part of the jury, and numbers of spectators, 
caught the jail distemper, and died May, 1150. Again, this disease was 
fatal to several in 1775. Twenty-eight persons were killed at the exe- 
cution of Mr. Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey. Feb. 22, 1807. 



OPE 



344 



OKA 



Paris in April, 182S. The idea of such conveyances is 
ascribed to Pascal, aboui 1062, when similar carriages 
were started, but soon discontinued. They were re- 
vived in Paris, April 11, 182S, and introduced into Lon- 
don by a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The tirst 
omnibus started from Paddington to the Banlc of En- 
gland on Saturday, July 4, 1S2'J. In Sept., 18G5, it was 
stated that there were then running about 620 omni- 
buses belonging to the General Omnibus Company, 
and 450 belonging to private proprietors.— In the Uni- 
ted States, horse-cars, running on a rail like a steam- 
car, but drawn by horses, has very much lessened the 
travel by omnibuses, being thought by most persons 
a smoother and more agreeable Avay of travel. 

OPERAS. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvcre, surnamed 
" le Bossu d' Arras," born in 1240, is, as far as has yet 
been ascertained, the composer of the first comic op- 
era, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) de Robin et de Marion. The Ital- 
ian opera besran with the II Satiro of Cavalicre, and 
the Vafne of Rinuccini, with music by Peri, about 
1590. Their Eurydice was represented at Florence, 
1600, on the marriage of Marie deMedicis with Henry 
IV. of France. V Orfco, Favolain Mumca,covcipoiieAhy 
Monteverde, was performed in lOOT, and is supposed 
to have been the first opera that was ever published. 
About 1009 the Abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1GT2, 
was acted Pomona. — Rossini's Barbiire and Otello ap- 
peared 1816 ; Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semiramide, 1823 ; 
Guillaume Tell, 1S29. Weber's Der Freischi/tz, 1821 ; 
Obero7i, 1826. Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia, 1S40. Mey- 
erbeer's Robert le Diable, 1831 ; Huguenots, 1836 ; Pro- 
phetc, 1849. 

OPERAS IN Engi-anp. Sir William Davenant in- 
troduced a species of opera in London in 1684. The 
first regularly performed opera was at York buildings 
in 1092. The first at Drury Lane was in 1T05. The 
operas of Handel were performed in 1735, and they be- 
came general in several of the theatres a few years 
after. Gay's Beggars' O;j('vrtfii-stperformedinl727 at the 
Lincoln's Inn theatre. It ran for sixty-three success- 
ive nights, but so oflended the persons in power that 
the lord chamberlain refused a license for the perform- 
ance of a second part of it entitled "Polly." This re- 
sentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on 
its publication with so handsome a subscription that 
his profits amounted to £1200, whereas the Beggars' 
Opera had gained him only £iOQ.—Life of Gag. See 
Theatres. 

OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or Queen's Theatre. 
The original building is geuerelly supposed to have 
been constructed by "Sir John Vaubrugh, though Mr. 
Pennant attributes it to Sir Christopher Wren. It was 
built, according to this authority, in 1704, and opened 
April 9, 1705 ; and burnt down June 17, 1789. The foun- 
dation of the new theatre was laid April 3, 1790 ; and 
the house was opened Sept. 22, 1791, on an improved 
plan ; the present exterior was erected in 1818, from 
designs by Mr. Nash. — The English Opeka (or Ly- 
ceum) was opened June 1.5, 1S16. It was entirely de- 
stroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1830. The new English Ope- 
ra-llouse, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by 
Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 1S84. See Thea- 
tres. 

OPHTHALMIC HOSPITALS. See Hospitals. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for inspecting 
the interior of the eye, invented by Professor H. Helm- 
holtz, and described by him in 1S51. 

OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was known to 
the ancients, its cultivation being mentioned by Ho- 
mer, and its medicinal use by Hippocrates. It is large- 
ly cultivated in British India, and was introduced into 
China by merchants. It conduced to the war of ]8."9- 
41. The revenue derived from ojiium by the Indian 
government in 1862 was about £7,850,000. Laudanum, 
a preparation of opium, was employed early in the 17th 
century. A number of alkaloids have been discover- 
ed in opium : narcotine by Derosue, and morphia by 
Sertiirner, in 1803. 

OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient CalJe, by nature 
one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the 
great mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A 
chartered company for the regulation of the port wine 
trade was established in 1756. The French, under 
Marshal Soult, were surprised here by Lord Welling- 
ton, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. 
The Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by 
the Pedroites, with considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. It 
has since been the scene of civil war. See Portugal. 
The Oporto Wine Company was abolished in 1834, but 
re-established by a royal decree, April 7, 1838. An in- 



ternational exhibition was opened here by the king, 
Sept. IS, 1865. 

OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and later 
by the Arabians about the 12th century. 

Burning lenses known at Athens B.C. 424 

The magnifying power of convex glasses and con- 
cave mirrors, and the prismatic colors produced 
by angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about 

A.D. 50 

Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy 120 

First treatise on Optics, by Euclid, about 280 

Two of the leading principles known to the Pla- 

touists 305 

Greatly improved by Alhazen 1108 

Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by Rog- 
er Bacon, about 1280 

Spectacles said to have been invented by Salvinus 

Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been invented by 

Baptista Porta 1560 

Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges about 1571 

Telescope made by Janseu (said also to have in- 
vented the microscope) about 1609, and inde- 
pendently by Galileo, about 1630 

Microscope, according to Huygheus, invented by 

Drebbel, about 1621 

Law of refraction discovered by Suellius, about, . .1024 

Reflecting telescope, James Gregory 1663 

" " Newton 1606 

Motion and velocity of light discovered by Koe- 

mer, and after him by Cassini 1667 

[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 
miles in sixteen minutes.] 

Double refraction explained by Bartholinus 1669 

Cassegrainiau reflector 1672 

Newton's discoveries 1674 

Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen 

about 1690 

Polarization of light, Huyghens, about 1692 

Structure of the eye explained by Petit about 1700 

Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but 

not made public) in 1733 

Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any 

knowledge of Hall's 1757 

Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at 

Slough 1789 

Dr. T.'Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, 

etc.) 1800-3 

Camera Lucida (Dr.Wollaston) 1807 

Mains (polarization of light by reflection) 1808 

Fresnel (double refraction, etc.) 1817 

Large telescope constructed by Lord Rosse 1845 

Arago (colors of polarized light, etc.) 1811-53 

Dr. Tyudall's Lectures on Light, illustrated by Du- 
boscq's electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, 

London 1S5G 

Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Photogra- 
phy) 1814-57 

The spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- 

hofl' and Bunsen 1861 

(See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscopic, Pseudoscope, 
Hpectrxmi, Photograpjhy, etc.) 

OPTIC NERVES are said to have been discovered 
by N. Varole, a surgeon and jihysician of Bologna, 
about 1538. — Nouv. Diet. 

ORACLES. The most ancient was that of Dodona, 
but the most famous was that of Delphi, 1263 B.C. See 
Delpjlii and Dodona. 

ORANGE. The sweet, or China orange, was first 
brought into Europe from China by the Portuguese in 
1.547 ; and it is asserted that the identical tree, whence 
all the European orange-trees of this sort were pro- 
duced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in the gardens of 
one of its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to 
England, and planted, with little success, in 1595 ; they 
are said to have been planted at Beddington Park, 
near Croydon, Surrey. 

ORANGE, a principality in S.E. France, formerly a 
lordship in the 9th or 10th century. It has been ruled 
by four houses successively: that of Giraud Adhemar 
(to 1174) ; of Baux (1182 to 1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; 
and of Nassau (1530 to 1713). See Kassau. Philibert 
the Great, prince of Orange, the last of the house of 
Chalons, having been wroi:ged by Francis I. of France, 
entered the service of the Emperor Charles V,, to whom 
he rendered great services by his military talents. He 
was killed at the siege of Florence, Aug. 3, 15.50. He 
was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, RenOe of Nassau. 
See Priiwes of Orange under Holland. The eldest son 
of the King of Holland is styled the Prince of Orange, 
although the principality was ceded to France in 1713. 



ORA 



845 



ORL 



ORANGE RIVER, a free state in Sontli Africa. The 
Britisli f^'overnnu'iit traiist'crrcd (by Sir CJeorge Clerk) 
their jjiiwcrs over tins territory to a i)r()visi()iial gov- 
ernment, jNIarch 2'.t, 1S54. A Volksraad (Legislative 
Council) and governor have been appointed. 

ORANOEMEN. The battle of the Diamond, fought 
\n Armagh in Sept., 17'.»5, and the treachery experi- 
enced by the Pnitcstants on that occasion, convinced 
them they would become an easy prey to the Roman 
Catliolics", fioni tlicir s<niall numbers, unless theyasso- 
finti'd fnr their defense. The first Orange lodge was 
formed in Armagh, Sept. '21, IT'.'ft; but the ua'me of 
Orangemen already existed. An ()rauge lodge was 
formed in Dublin ; the members published a declara- 
tion of tlieir i)rinciples (the maintenance of Church 
and State) in .Tan., 1798. It is stated that in 1S;>G there 
■were 14;>,i)()0 Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in 
Ireland, the Duke of Cumberland being grand-master. 
After a parliamentary inquiry. Orange club.s were bro- 
ken u]) at the request of the Ilouse of Commons, but 
revived in 1S4.5. In Oct., 1S.57, the lord chancellor of 
Ireland ordered that justices of the peace should not 
belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada 
were greatly excited during the visit of the Prince of 
Wales in Sept., ISGO. Orange denioustratious in Bel- 
fast have led to desperate riots. See Belfast. 

ORATOR HENLEY. An English clergyman of 
some talents and great eccentricity obtained this 
name by opening what he called his " Oratory" in 
London in 17'2G. He had a kind of chapel in Newport 
Market, where he gave lectures on theological topics 
on Sundays, and on other subjects ou Wednesdays, 
every week. Novelty procured him a multitude of 
heariirs ; but he was too imprudent to gain any per- 
manent advantage from his project. After having 
served as a butt for the satirical wits, poets, aud paint- 
ers of his time, he removed his oratory to Clare Mar- 
ket, and sank into comjjarative obscurity aud con- 
tempt previously to his death in 1756. 

ORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to pray), a 
regular order of priests, established by St. Philip Neri 
about 15(")4, and so called from the oratory of St. Je- 
rome, at Rome, where they prayed. They had a foun- 
dation in France, commenced by Father de Berulle, 
afterward cardinal, 1012. — The Rev. Frederick Faber 
and others, as "Fathers of the Oratory," established 
themselves first in King William Street, Strand, in 
IS-i?, aud afterward at Brompton. 

ORATORIO, a kind of sacred drama, the subject of 
it being generally taken from the Scriptures, set to 
music. — jfrtsion. The origin of oratories, so named 
from having been first performed in an oratory, is as- 
cribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1.550. The first ora- 
torio in London was performed in Lincoln's Inn The- 
atre, in Portugal Street, in 1732. Handel's oratorio of 
" Israel in Egypt" was produced in 173S, and the "Mes- 
siah" in 174f; Haydn's "Creation" in 1798; Mendels- 
sohn's "St. Paul" in 1S3T, and "Elijah" in 1S40. 

ORCIIO]\IENUS, a small Greek state in Breotia, was 
destroyed by the Thebans 36S B.C. ; restored by Philip 
II. of Macedou, 354, and given up by him to Thebes, 
340. 

ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and Jews 
(Xum. v., 2). It was introduced into England by the 
Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty might 
choose whether he would put himself for trial upon 
God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or 
upon God only. The ordeal was abolished in 1201. 

ORDERS. See Knighthood. 

ORDERS TN Council were issued by the British 
government .Jan. 7, and Nov. 11, 1S07, prohibiting trade 
with the ports occupied by the French. They were re- 
prisals for Napoleon's Berlin decree {lohich see). These 
restrictions greatly checked the progress of manufac- 
tures in this country, and caused much distress till 
their removal in 1S14. 

ORDINATION of ministers in the Christian Church 
began with Christ and his apostles. See Mark iii., 14, 
and Arts vi. and xiv., 23. In England, in 1549, a new 
form of ordination of ministers was ordered to be pre- 
pared by a committee of sis prelates and six divines. 

ORDNANCE OFFICE. Before the invention of 
CTins, this office was supplied by officers under the fol- 
lowing names: the bowyer; the cross-bowyer ; the 
galeater, or purveyor of helmets; the armorer; and 
the keeper of the tents. Henry VUl. placed it under 
the management of a master general, a lieutenant, 
surveyor, etc. The master general was chosen from 
among the first generals in the service of the sover- 
eign. ' The appointment was formerly for life; but 



since the Restoration, was held durante bene placito, 
and not unl'requently by a cabinet minister. — Beatmn. 
The letters-patent for this office were revoked May 25, 
1855, and its duties vested in the minister of war. Lord 
Panmure. The last master general was Lord Fitzroy 
Somerset, afterward Lord Raglan. 

ORDNANCE SUR\'EY. The trigonometrical sur- 
vey of England was commenced by Gen. Roy in 17S3, 
continued by Col. Colby, aud completed by Col. (now 
Sir Henry) James in 1856. The publication of the 
maps commenced in 1819, under the direction of Col. 
Mudge, and was completed in 1S02 ; the southern part 
on the scale of one inch to the mile, the northern six 
inches to the mile: a large part of these maps have 
been colored geologically. The survey of Ireland has 
been completed aud published; that of Scotland is 
still going ou. 

OREGON TERRITORY. A dispute respecting 
boundaries arose in 1S45 between the British govern- 
ment and that of the United States, which was settled 
by treaty, June 12, 1846. Oregon was admitted as a 
state by the Union in Feb., 1859. 

ORGANIC SYNTHESIS. See Chemistry. 

ORGANS. Their invention is attributed to Archi- 
medes about 220 B.C. ; and to one Ctesibius, a barber 
of Alexandria, about 100 B.C. The organ was brought 
to Europe from the Greek Empire, and was first ap- 
plied to religious devotions in churches in A.D. 657 

Bellarmine. Organs were used in the Western church- 
es by Pope Vitaliauus in 658. — Ammonivs. It is af- 
firmed that the organ was known in France in the 
time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an 
Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the 
largest in Europe : it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At 
Seville is one with 1000 stops and 5300 pipes. The or- 
gan at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a 
chorus of human voices. Of the organs in E.n'gland, 
that at St. George's Hall, Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, is the 
largest; next in order, that at York minster, and that 
in the Music Hall, Birmingham. In London, the 
largest is perhaps that of Bpitalflelds church ; aud 
that in Christ Church is nearly as extensive. The 
erection of the famous Temple organ was competed 
for by Schmidt and Harris : after long disputes, the 
question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefleries, after- 
ward chief justice, gave the casting vote in favor of 
Schmidt (called Father Smith) about 1682. A monster 
organ was erected in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in 
June 18.57. In Boston, Mass., there is an organ, second 
only in size to the one in Haarlem. It was first opened 
on occasion of the great fair for the benefit of our sol- 
diers, Christmas week, 1863. 

ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 1337 by 
Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and almoner to 
King Edward II. This college derives its name from 
a tenement called VOriole, on the site of which the 
building stands. 

ORIFLAMME. See Auriflamma. 

ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions 
from the writings of Origen (who lived 185-2.53). They 
maintained that Christ was the Son of God no other 
way than by adoption and grace ; that souls were cre- 
ated before the bodies ; that the sun, moon, stars, and 
the waters that are under the firmament, had all souls ; 
that the torments of the damned shall have an end; 
and that the fallen angels shall, after a time, be re- 
stored to their first condition. They were condemned 
by councils, and the reading of Origeu's works was 
forbidden.— _B«rA,v. These doctrines were condemned 
by the Council of Constantinople in 5.53. 

ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES (North of Scot- 
land) were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway, 1099, 
and were ceded to James III. as the dowry of his wife 
Margaret in 1469. The Orkne.vs were the ancient Or- 
cades: united with Shetland, "they now form one of 
the Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney, found- 
ed bv St. Servanus early in the 5th century, some affirm 
by St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in 
Scotland, about 1089. See Bishoj)s. 

ORLEANS (a city in Central France), formerly .4m- 
reliaiium; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and afterward 
to a duchy, usuallv held by one of the royal family. It 
was besieged by the English under John Talbot, aft- 
erward Earl of Shrewsbury, Oct. 12, 142S, and was 
bravely defended by Gaucoiir, the more so, as its fall 
would'have ruined the cause of Charles VL, king of 
France. It was relieved by the heroLsm of Joan of 
Arc, afterward surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 
29, 1429, aud the siege was raised. See Joan of Arc. 



OEM 



M6 



OUD 



Siege of Orleans, when the Duke of Guise was killed, 
1563. 

DUKES OF ORLEANS. 

Louis contended for the recenc}' with John the Fear- 
less, duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was 
assassinated in 1407. 

Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 
1440 ; died, 1465. 

Louis became Louis XII. of France in 149S, when the 
duchy merged in the cro^\^l. 

BOUKISON BKANOU. 

Philip, youngest son of Louis XIIL, born 1G40, died 

1701. 
Philip II., son, born 1673 ; becomes eegent 1715 ; dies 

1723. 
Louis, son, born 1703, died 1752. 
Louis Philippe, son, born 17-25, died 17S5. 
Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born 1747 ; opposed the 

court in the French Revolution ; takes the name 

Eqalite, Sept. 11, 1T92 ; voted for the death of Louis 

XVI. ; was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. 
Louis Philippe, sou, born Nov. 6, 1773 ; chosen King 

of the French, Aug. 9, 1S30 ; abdicated Feb. 24, 1S4S; 

died Aug. 26, 1850. See Frame. 
Ferdinand Philippe, sou, duke of Orleans, bom Sept. 

3, ISIO ; died, through a fall, July 13, 1842. 
Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born Aug. 24, 1838, 

married Maria Isabella, daughter of the Duke of 

Moutpensier, ISIay 30, 1S64. A daughter, Maria Ame- 
lia, born Sept. 28, 1S65. 

ORMrLTJM, a metrical version of the Gospels and 
Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesiastic, 
in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 1S52, from a 
MS. in the Bodleian. 

ORNITHOLOGY. See Birds. 

ORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck-billed platypus, 
or water-mole, a singular compound of the mammal 
and the bird, a native of Australia, was first described 
by Dr. Shaw in 1819. 

ORPHAN HOUSES. The Emperor Trajan first 
formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny relates 
in his Paueiryric that Trajan had caused five thousand 
free-born children to be sought out and educated, about 
105. Orphan houses, properly so called, are mentioned 
for the first time in the laws of the Emperor Justinian. 
At the court of Byzantium, the oflice of inspector of 
orphans, nrphanotrophos, was so honorable that it was 
held by the brother of the Emperor Michael IV. in the 
11th century. See Foundling HoKijitala. 

ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate and ex- 
plain the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to 
have been coeval with the clepsydra. Ptolemy de- 
vised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his sys- 
tem about 130. The planetary clock of Finee was be- 
gun 1.553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed 
about 10.50. The planetarium, now termed the orrery, 
it is said, was constructed by Rowley, after a pattern 
devised by the clock-maker George Graham, at the 
expense of Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. 

ORSINPS PLOT against the Emperor Napoleon IIL 
See France, Jan., 1S5S. 

ORTHES or Okthez (S. France), Battlk of, between 
the British and Spanish armies on one side, and the 
French on the other, the former commanded by Wel- 
lington, and the latter by Marshal Soult. In this en- 
gagement the British gained a great and decisive vic- 
tory, Feb. 27, 1814. The victory was soon followed by 
the battle of Toulouse (ivhich see). 

OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was purchased 
by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt by Mr. Cubitt. 

OSMIUM, the heaviest known metal, discovered in 
platinum ore by Tennaut in 1804. 

OSSORY (S. E. Ireland), Bisuopeio or, was first 
planted at Saiger, about 402; translated to Aghavoe, 
in Upper Ossory, in 10.52; and to Kilkenny about the 
end of the reign of Henry II. It was united to Ferns 
and Leighlin in 1842. 

OSTEND (Belgium) is famous for the long siege it 
sustained against the Spaniards, from July, 1601, to 
Sept., 1004, when it honorably capitulated. On the 
death of Charles II. of Spain," the French seized Os- 
teud; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was 
retaken by the Allies. It was asrain taken by the 
French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the 
French garrisoned this town for the Empress-queen 
Maria Theresa. In 1792, the French once more took 
Ostend, which thev evacuated in 1793, and repossessed 
in 1794. The English destroyed the works of the Bru- 
ges Canal ; but the wind shifting before they could re- 



embark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 179S. 
See Cuba, note. 

OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostrakon, a potsherd 
or shell), a mode of proscripti<m at Athens, is said to 
have been first introduced by the tyraut Hippias; by 
others it is ascribed to Cleistheues, about 510 B.C. 
The people wrote the names of those whom they most 
suspected upon small shells ; these they put in an urn 
or box, and presented it to the senate. LTpou a scru- 
tiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sen- 
tenced by the council to be banished from his altar 
and hearth. 6000 votes were required. Aristides, 
noted for his justice, Miltiades, for his victories, etc., 
were ostracized. It was abolished by ironically pro- 
scribing Hyperbolus, a mean person. 

OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distin- 
guished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) about 
330. After ravaging Eastern Europe, Thrace, etc., their 
great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, 
which lasted from 493 to 553. See Jtaly. 

OSTROLENKA, Battle of, between the Poles and 
Russians, May 26, 1831. The slaughter was immense, 
but the Poles remained masters of the field. 

OSTRICH (the smdhios of the ancients), a native of 
Africa (see Job xxxix., 14). Ostriches were hatched 
aud reared at San Donato, near Florence, 1859-60. 

OSWEGO, Fort. This fort, at Oswego, on Lake On- 
tario, was built by the English. It was captured by 
Montcalm in 1756, and was nearly demolished. There 
was a small garrison there in the spring of 1813, when, 
on the 5th of May, 1814, a British fleet, with 3000 men, 
appeared before it. Of these, 1750 landed, and attacked 
the fort. They were repulsed by the garrison under 
Lieutenant Colonel Mitchell. The Americans lost, in 
killed, wounded, and missing, 69; that of the British, 
in killed, wounded, drowned, and missing, 235. 

OTAHEITE, or Tauiti, an island in the S. Pacific 
OceaUj seen by Byron in 176.5, and visited in 1767 by 
Captain Wallis, who called it George the Third I.sland. 
Captain Cook came hither in 1768 to observe the tran- 
sit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, 
and staid three months ; it was visited twice after- 
ward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, a 
native of this island, was brought over to England by 
Captain Cook, aud carried back by him in his last voy- 
age. In 1799, King Pomare ceded the district of Ma- 
tavai to some English missionaries. Queen P<m'iare 
was compelled to put herself under the protection of 
France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracted, and Otahuite and 
the neighboring islands were taken possession of by 
Admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the uame of the French 
king, Nov., 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prich- 
ard,'"the English consul, March 5, 1844, but the act was 
censured in" France. 

OTTAWA (formerly Bvtown), on the River Ottawa, 
received its name when it was appointed to be the 
capital of Canada by the queen in August, 1858. The 
executive council met here Nov. 22, 1865. Population 
in 1861, 14,669. 

OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 138S the Scots 
besieged Newcastle, aud were driven oft" by Henry 
Percy (Hotspur), son of the Earl of Northumberland. 
Percy pursued them to Otterburn, where a battle was 
ftnigiit on Aug. 10, in which the Earl of Douglas was 
killed and Percy taken prisoner. On this battle the 
ballad of Chcvij Chase is founded. 

OTTOMAN EMPIRE. See Turkey. 

OUDE (North India), formerly a viceroyalty held by 
the vizier of the Great Mogul. About 1700 it was 
seized by the Vizier Sujah-ud-Dowlah, ancestor of the 
late king. 

Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British be- 
came virtually masters of Oude Oct. 23,1704 

Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, 
etc., to the East India Companj', who place 

troops in Oude (see Chunar) 1775-81 

[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was 
i;500,000; in 1794, £60,000; in 1801, £1,352,347.] 

More territories ceded to the company 1801 

Ghazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of 

the British 1819 

Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-Deen. .1827-37 
[At his dcath^ the British resident. Colonel Lowe, 
promptly suppresses an insurrection.] 

Mohammed All governs well 1837-42 

But his sonUmjeed All Shah 1842-7 

And grandson, Wajid All Shah, exceed all their 

predecessors in profligacy 1847-56 

In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of ISOl), 



OUD 



347 



OXF 



Oude is annexed to the British territories by de- 
cree, proclaimed Feb. 7,1S56 

The Queeu and Prince of Oude, etc., arrive in Lon- 
don to appeal Aufc. 20, " 

Oude joins the Indian mutiny : ex-king of Oude 

imprisoned (on suspicion) June 14,1S5T 

The queen dies at Paris, Jan. 24; and the prince 

at London Feb. 20,1858 

[For the war, see India, 1S57-S.] 
Triumphal entry of the frovernor t^eneral into 
Lncknow. The Talookdars (landowners) re- 
ceive a free c;rant of their estates Oct. 22,1859 

Oude is said to be prospering under British rule. 

OIIDENAEDE (Belsjium), where, on July 11, 1708, 
the En'T-lish and allies under the Duke of Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene thoroughly defeated the French 
besicger.s. 

OULAKT (S.E. Ireland), where a body of 5000 Irish 
insur"cnts attacked the kiucj's troops, in small num- 
ber, Mav 2", 179S. The North Cork militia, after great 
feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, live men only es- 
caping. — Mus<jrave. 

OUXCE, the sixteenth part of the pound avoirdu- 
pois, and twelfth of the pound troy. The word is from 
uncia; and its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., 
who decreed that an English ounce should be G40 dry 
grains of wheat ; that twelve of these ounces should 
be a pound ; and that eight pounds should be a gallon 
of wine, 1233. 

OUKTQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count or duke 
of Portugal, encountered five Saracen kings aud a pro- 
digious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and signally de- 
feated them. He was hailed king upon the spot. Lis- 
bon, the capital, was takeu, aud he soon after was here 
crowned as the first king, the Moorish dominion being 
overthrown. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, the case of a 
shij) in the port of Dublin, the Ovzel Galley, excited 
great legal perplexity, and was referred to an arbitra- 
tion of incrchants, whose prompt decision was highly 
approved. This led to the formation of the present 
society in 1705. 

OVATION, an inferior triumph which the Romans 
allowed those generals of their army whose victories 
were not considerable. Pnblius Posthumius Tubertus 
was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 B.C. A 
sheep {ovis) was olTered by the general instead of a 
bull. 

OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes were appoint- 
ed in 1001. See Poor Laws. 

OWHYHEE or Hawaii, an island in the N. Pacific 
Ocean, discovered in 1773 by Capt. Cook. On Feb. 14, 
1770, he here fell a victim to a sudden resentment of 
the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the 
islanders, the captain went'on shore to seize the king, 
and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. 
The people would not submit to this iusult, and their 
resistance brought ou hostilities, and Captain Cook 
aud some of his companions were killed. Great prog- 
ress has been recently made in civilization here; aud 
an order of nobility and a representative assembly 
were instituted in 1860. The population then was 
about 120,000. 

OX.\LIC ACID, which exists in several plants, espe- 
cially in sorrel, is now abundantly obtained, for use in 
the arts, from sawdust acted upon by caustic potash 
or soda, according to Dr. Dale's process, patented in 
1862. 

OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by King Alfred, 
who resided here and established a mint, etc. 

Canute held a national council here 1018 

Stormed by William 1 1067 

Charter by Henry II. ; the city granted to the bur- 
gesses by John 1199 

Henry III. holds the "mad" Parliament here 1258 

The isisnopuio, established by Henry VIII., formed 
out of Lincoln, first placed at Osney in 1542 : re- 
moved to Oxford (Cathedral, formerly St.Frides- 

widc, now Christ Church) 1545 

Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, Oct. 16, 

IStW ; and Archbishop Cranmer ; .March 21,1556 

Fata! (or Black) Oxford Assizes, when the high 
sheriff aud 300 other persons died suddenly"of 

an infection caught from the prisoners 1557 

Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a Parlia- 
ment here 1644 

Taken by the Parliament 1646 

Charles 11. held Parliaments here 1665 and 1681 

RKCENT msnops OF oxKORn. (Present income, X5000.) 
1S07. Charles Moss; died Dec. 16, 1811. 



1812. William Jackson ; died Dec. 2, 1815. 

1815. Edward Legtre ; died Jan. 27, 1S27. 

1S27. Charles Lloyd ; died May 31, 1S29. 

1829. Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov., 1846. 

1845. Samuel Wilberforce, pkebent bishop. 

OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed May 29, 
1711. 
Robert, earl of Oxford (previously Right Hon. Robert 

Harley), Lord Treasurer. 
Sir Simon (afterward Lord) Ilarcourt, Lord Keeper. 
John, duke of Normanby aud Buckingham, Lord Pres- 
ident. 
John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), Privy Seal. 
Henry St. John (afterward Viscount Bolingbroke),and 

William, lord Dartmouth, Secretaries of State. 
Robert Benson (afterward Lord Bingley), Chancellor 

of the Exchequer. 
The Duke of Shrewsbury succeeded Lord Oxford, re- 
ceiving; the lord treasurer's staff on July 30, 1714, 
three days before the death of Queen Auue. From 
the reign of George I. the office of lord treasurer has 
been executed by commissioners. 
OXFORD DECLARATION. See Church of En- 
gland, 1864. 
OXFORD MARBLES. See Arundclian. 
OXFORD UNIVERSITY. An academy here is de- 
scribed as ancient by Pope Martin II. in a deed, 802. 
Alfred founded "the schools" about 879. 

Charter granted by Henry III 1243 

The University incorporated by Elizabeth 1571 

Receives the elective franchise (to send two mem- 
bers to Parliament) 1603 

Bodleian Library opened Nov. 8, 1602 ; present 

building completed 1613 

The Botanic Garden, etc., established by the Earl 

of Danby 1622 

Radclifl'e Library opened April 13, 1749 ; the Rad- 

cliffe Observatory completed 1786 

A commission appointed (Aug. 31, 1850) to inquire 
into its " state, studies, discipline, and reve- 
nues ;" reported April 27,1852 

Act making alterations passed 1855,1856 

University^Museum opened July,1860 

Examination statutes passed 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 

Extension of the University proposed at a meeting 
held Nov. 16,1865 

COLLEGES. 

University. Said to have been founded by King 
Alfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon oi 
Durham, about 1232 

Baliol. John Baliol, Kut, (father to Baliol, king 
of the Scots), and Deborah, his wife 1263 

Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Rochester 1264 

Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and a Hertford 
scholarship appointed) 1312 

Exeter. Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter 1314 

Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam de Brome, 
archdeacon of Stowe 1326 

Queen's College. Robert de Eglesfleld, clerk, con- 
fessor to Queen Philippa, consort of Edward 
III .: 1240 

New College. William of Wykeham, bishop of 
Winchester; first called St. Marv of Winchester,138G 

All Souls' College, founded by Henry Chichely, 
archbishop of C'anterbnrv 1437 

Magdalen. William of Wa3'nflete, bishop of Win- 
chester 1456 

Lincoln Collecre. Richard Fleming, 1427; finished 
by Rotherham, bishop of Lincolii 1479 

Brazenose. William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, 
and Sir Richard Sutton 1509 

Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of Wmches- 
ter : 1516 

Christ Church. Cardinai Wo'lsey, 1525; and aft- 
erward by Heurv "VTill 1^32 

Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a pre- 
vious institution, called Durham College 1554 

St. John's. Sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of Lon- 
don I'^SS 

Jesus College. Dr. Husrh Price ; Queen Elizabeth, 1571 

Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, aud Dorothy, his 
wife 1613 

Pembroke. Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- 
wick clerk \<J1i 

Worcester. Sir Ttioma.s Coke, of Bentley, in Wor- 
cestershire ; it was originally called Gloucester 

College l'^* 

HALLS (not incorporated). 

St. Edmund's I"^'^ 

St. Mary's 1^33 



OXF 



348 



PAI 



New Inn Hall 1392 

St. Mary Magdalen 14ST 

St. Albuu's 154T 

lOx/ord University Calendar.^ 
First Professorshi2)s — Divinity (Margaret), 1502; 
I)ivinity,Law,Mecliciue,Hebrew,6reek,15iO, etc. 

KEOENT CUANOELLOES. 

1809. Lord Grenville. 

1S34. The Duke of Wellington. 

1852. The Earl of Derby. 

OXFORD'S ASSAULT on the Queen. A youth 
named Edward Oxford, who had been a servant in a 
public house, discharged two pistols at her majesty 
Qneeu Victoria and Prince Albert as they were pro- 
ceeding up Constitution Hill in an open phaeton from 
Buckingham Palace, June 10, 1840. He stood within 
a few yards of the carriage ; but, fortunately, neither 
her majesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was 
subsequently tried at the Old Bailey (July 10), and, be- 
ing adjudged to be insane, was sent to Bethlehem 
Hospital. 

OXYGEN, a gas (named from the Greek oxits, sharp, 
as being generally found in acids), is the most abund- 
ant of all substances, constituting about one third of 
the solid earth, and forming by weight nine tenths of 
water and one fourth of the atmosphere. It was first 
separated from red oxide of mercury by Priestley, Aug. 
1, 1TT4, and by Scheele, who was ignorant of Priest- 
ley's discovery, in 1775. It is the chief supporter of 
animal life by respiration, and of conibustion.* See 
Ozone. 

OYER AND Tebminek, a commission directed to the 



judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they have 
power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, etc., 
1285. 

O YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! 
The ancient term used by a public crier to enjoin si- 
lence and attention. 

OYSTER (the Latin Ostrea edulis), is said to have its 
capital in Britain ; for, though found elsewhere on the 
coasts of Europe, in no part of them does it attain 
such perfection as in British seas. British oysters are 
celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal (Sat. iv., 140) 
about 100. The robbery of oyster-beds is prohibited 
by 7 & 8 Geo. IV., c. 29 (1820). About 15,000 bushels 
of oysters are said to be produced from the Esses beds 
alone. In 1858 M. Coste commenced rearing oysters 
in great numbers on the coast of Brittany, and his plan 
has been found successful. 

OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odor), a name given 
in 1840 by M. Schiinbein, of Basel, to the odor in the 
atmosphere developed during the electric discharge. 
It is considered to be a modification of the oxvgen 
{which see), and when occurring naturally, to have an 
efi^ect on health. It is also produced by the action of 
moist air on phosphorus. In 1S5S ozonometers had 
been constructed by Dr. Laukester and others. M. 
Schonbein has since discovered another modification 
of oxygen, which he terms antozone (18.')9), which hith- 
erto has been found only in the compound state (in 
peroxides of sodium, potassium, etc). On Dec. 4, 18G5, 
the French Academy of Sciences appointed a commit- 
tee of eminent philosophers to inquire into the nature 
and relations of ozone. 



P. 



PACIFICATION, Edtots of. The name usually 

given to the edicts of toleration granted by the French 

kings to the Protestants. See Ghent. 

First edict, by Charles IX., permitting the exer- 
cise of the Reformed religion near all the cities 
and towns in the realm Jan. ,1502 

The Reformed religion permitted in the houses 
of lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, 

March, 1563 

These edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers 
ordered to quit France in fifteen days 1568 

Edict allowing lords and others to have service in 
their houses, and granting public service in cer- 
tain towns 1570 

[In August, 1572, the same monarch authorized 
the niassacre of St. Bartholomew. See Darthol- 
mneii'.'] 

Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April ; revoked 
Dec, 1576; renewed for six years Oct., 1577 

[Several edicts were published against the Prot- 
estants after the six years expired.] 

Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct., 1577, 1.591 

Edict of Nantes (which sec), by Henry IV., April 1.^,1508 

Pacification {which .see) of Nismes July 14,1629 

PACIFIC OCEAN. See Magellan.— ^t-ka^l Vebgel. 
See Steam, 1851 ; \Yrecks, 1856. 

PADLOCKS are said to have been invented by Be- 
cher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned much ear- 
lier. 

PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. Italy, 
said to have been founded bv Antenor soon after tlie 
fall of Troy, 11S3 B.C. It flourished under the Ro- 
mans. Patavian Latin was considered very corrupt, 
and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. After being 
an independent republic, Padua was ruled by the Car- 
rara family from 1.^18 till 140.% when it was seized by 
the Venetians. The University was founded about 
1228. 

PAGANS, the heathen, idolaters, gentiles, worship- 
ers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of 
belief. Constantine ordered the pagan temples to be 
destroyed throughout the Roman Empire, 331 ; his 
nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 301 ; but 
Paganism was renounced by the Roman senate in 338, 
and finally overthrown in the reign of Theodosius the 
Younger, about 331. 

PAINS ANi> PENALTIES. See Qimen Caroline. 



* An oxypen pas company was announced in Dec.,18fi4: its object 
is the cheap manufacture of oxypen for its application to the produc- 
tion of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, furnaces, etc. 



PAINTING. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his ex- 
[jloits to be represented in painting, 2100 B.C. — Unher. 
Pausius of Sicyou was the inventor of the encaustic, a 
method of burning the colors into w'ood or ivory, 
about 300-330 B.C. The ancients considered Sicyou 
the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is 
said to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 
B.C.— Pi '/«?/. The art was introduced at Rome from 
Etruria by Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor, 291 B.C. — 
Livy.* The first excellent pictures were brought from 
Corinth by Mummiiis, 146 B.C. After the death of Au- 
gustus, not a single painter of eminence appeared for 
several ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is sup- 
posed to have been the last, about A.D. 14. Painting 
on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in OS. 
Eede, the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew some- 
thing of the art. It revived about the end of the 13th 
century, and to Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is 
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once 
encouraged and generously patronized in Italy. John 
van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are re- 
garded as the founders of the Flemish school of paint- 
ing in oil, 1415. — Dvfresnoy. Paulo Ucello was the first 
M'iio studied perspective. About 1.523 Henry VIH. pat- 
ronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. t 

EMINENT PAINTEEB. 

School Born Died 

Cimabue Florentine.. . .1240 1300 

Giotto Ditto 1276 1336 

J. Van Eyck Flemish 13G6 1441 

Giorgione Venetian 1477 1511 

Leonardo da Vinci Florentine 1452 1519 

Raphael d'Urbino Roman 1483 1520 

Paolo Perugino Ditto 1446 1524 

Albert Durer German 1470 1528 

Qnentin Matsys Flemish 1430 1529 

Correggio Lombardian. . 1494 1534 

Parmegiano Ditto 1503 1540 

Giulio Romano Roman 1492 1546 

Sebastian del Piombo Venetian 1485 1547 



* Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were contemporary painters. 
These artists once contended for pre-eminence in their profession, and 
when they exhibited their respective pieces the birds came to peck the 
prapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, 
and Zeuxia said, " Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." 
The curtain itself was the paintinp, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself 
to be conquered, exclaiming:, " Zeuxis has deceived the birds, but Par- 
rhasius has deceived Zeuxis !" Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, and 
wore a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 B.C. — PlU' 
lard. 

t In Aug., 1860, the sale ofLord Northwick's pictures occupied eight- 
een days. It produced -£96,7-25. A Carlo Dolci fetched ilSdlO.nnd a 
Murill'o JE1400. The Bicknell collection, sold in April, IS63, produced 
i;25,600. 



PAL 



349 



PAL 



School Bom Died 

Ilrtus Holbein Germau 149S 1554 

Michael Augclo Buouarotti Floientiue 1474 1504 

Titian Venetian 14TT 1576 

Paul Veronese Ditto 15a-J 15SS 

Tintoretto Ditto 151'2 1594 

Annibal Caracci Lombardiau..l563 lOOO 

Breu'^bcl Flemish 1505 1025 

P. P. Kiibens Ditto 1577 1040 

Donicnichino Boloy;ncsc 15S1 1041 

Vandyck; Flcmisli 15'JI) 1041 

Giiido Lombardian. .1575 1042 

Both Dutch ICOO 1650 

P. Potter Ditto 1025 1054 

Le Sueur French 161T 1055 

Spa"uoletto Spanish 1589 1056 

Snvders Flemish 1579 1057 

Velasquez Spanish 1599 1000 

N. Poussin French 1594 1005 

Guereiuo Bolognese 1590 1060 

Ilobbima Flemish 1611 1670 

A. Cu vp Dutch 1600 1072 

A. Vail dor Velde Ditto 1038 1672 

Salvator Rosa Neapolitan . . .1015 1073 

Keinbraiult Dutch lOOG 1074 

Gerard Douw Ditto 1013 lOSO 

Sir Peter Lely German 161T lOSO 

Wioris Dutch 1035 lOSl 

Kuysdael Ditto 1036 1081 

Claude Lorraine French 1600 1682 

Ostade Dutch 1610 1085 

Murillo Spanish 1613 1685 

Bershem Dutch 1624 1085 

Carlo Dolci Florentine. . ..1010 1086 

Wonvcrmans Dutch 1020 16S3 

Le Bruu French 1019 1090 

Tcuiers, ir Flemish 1610 1694 

\V. Van cierWelde Dutch 1033 1707 

AVat teau French 1684 1721 

Sir Godfrey Kneller German 1643 1723 

Sir J. Thoruhill Enslish 1676 1732 

Huysura Dutch 1082 1740 

Hogarth English 1097 1704 

Canaletti Venetian 1097 176S 

Gainsborough English 1727 17SS 

Vcrnet French 1714 1789 

Sir J. Reynolds English 1723 1792 

Komney Ditto 1734 1802 

Moreland Ditto 1704 1804 

Barry Ditto 1741 1806 

Opie Ditto 1761 1807 

Bourgeoise Ditto 1756 1811 

Copley Ditto 1738 1815 

West Ditto 1738 1820 

Fuseli Ditto 1741 1825 

David French 174S 1825 

Lawrence English 1769 1830 

Northcote Ditto 174G 1831 

Beechey Ditto 1753 1S39 

Wilkie Ditto 1785 1841 

Havdou Ditto 1786 1846 

Coilius Ditto 178S 1847 

Etty Ditto 1787 1840 

Turner Ditto 1775 1S51 

Martin Ditto 1790 1854 

Atigustus Leopold Egg Ditto 1816 1863 

Win. Jlulready Ditto 178G 1863 

Wm. Hunt Ditto 1804 

W. F. Withcrington Ditto 17SG 1865 

H. Vernet ." French 1863 

E. De la Croix Ditto 1863 

E. W. Cooke English 1810 

PALACES. See Eiickingham, St. James's, Parlia- 
vient, Esmrial, Tuileries, St.Cloiid, Versailles, etc. 

PAL^OLOGI, a ftimily which reigned as emperors 
of the East from 1200 to 1453. George Palieologus 
raised Alexius Comnenus to the throne in 1081, and 
thereby founded his own family. Andrew, the last 
PaUeologus, son of Thomas, ruler of the jMorca, after 
the overthrow of his father, became a Mohammedan 
at Constantinople about 1533. 

PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palatos, an- 
cient, and iinta, beings) treats of the evidences of or- 
ganic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of 
geology {winch see). Cuvicr, Mantell, Agassi/,, Owen, 
Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present cen- 
tury, may be reckoned as fathers of this science. The 
Palinontographical Societ}*, wliicli pul)Iishes elaborate 
monograi)hs of British organic remains, was founded 
in 1S47. Professor Owen's " Paleontology" was pub- 
lished in I860. "Nearly 40,000 species of animals and 
plants have been added to the SystemaNatura; bypa- 
loeontological research."— ZZia7c^. See Man. 



PALATINATE of the Rhine, one of the seven an- 
cient electorates of Germany. It was long united to 
Bavaria, but was separated in 1294. — Frederick V., the 
elector palatine in 1010, married in 1013 Elizabeth, the 
daughter of James I. of England, and thus became the 
ancestor of Queen Victoria. Hee llano ccr. In 1019 he 
was elected King of Bohemia, but lost all by his de- 
feat by the Austrians at Prague in 1020. The Palat- 
inate was horribly ravaged ))y Tilly in 1022, and by 
the French in 10>s.* The elector palatinate, Charles 
Theodore, inherited Bavaria in 1778, since when the 
two electorates have been united. See Bavaria. 

PALATINE. William the Conqueror made his 
nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, Count Palatine of Chester, 
with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward III. created 
the Palatine of Lancaster, 1539. See Lancaster, diichy 
o.f. The bishoprics of Ely (903) and Durham were also 
made county palatines. The latter was vested in the 
crown in 1830. There is also mention made of the 
county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry VIII., c. 10, 
which then belonged to the Archbishop of York, but 
by the 14th of Elizabeth it was dissolved, and made 
part of the county of Northumberland. The palati- 
nate jurisdiction of Durham was separated from the 
diocese, and vested in the crown, 6 William IV., c. 19, 
June 21, 1836. 

PALERMO (N. W. Sicily), the ancient Panormus. It 
has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 B.C. ; taken 
by the Romans, 254 B.C. ; by the Saracens, A.D. 832; 
and by the Normans, 1072. Here Roger II. was crown- 
ed King of Sicily, 1130. Palermo was the scene of the 
Sicilian Vespers {which see), jSIarch 30, 1282. It suffer- 
ed from earthquake in 1720 and 1740. King Ferdinand 
resided at Palermo from 1SU6 to 1815, while Naples 
was ruled by Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. 
It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II., Jan. 
12, 1348. It was attacked by General Filangieri, ]\Iarch 
29, 1849, and surrendered ou May 14. It was taken by 
Garibaldi, June 0, ISOO. 

PALESTINE. See Jews. After being several times 
conquered by the Saracens, and retaken from the 7th 
to the 10th century, and after being the scene of the 
wars of the Crusades {which see), nud other conflicts, 
Palestine was united to the Ottoman Empire by Se- 
lim I. in 1516. See Dible (note),t Holy Places, and 
Syria. 

PALESTRO (N. Italy), where the Sardinians defeat- 
ed the Austrians, May 30, 31, 1859. 

PALL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an ensign 
of dignity conferred by the pope upon aj-chbishops. 
By a decretal of Pope Gregory XL (about 1370), no 
archbishop could call a council, bless the chrism, con- 
secrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bish- 
op, till he had received his pall from the See of Rome. 
The pall was first worn by an Irish archbishop in 1152, 
when Gelasius was recognized as primate of all Ire- 
land. 

PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas. Some authors 
say it fell from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was 
building Ilium, and that on its preservation depended 
the safety of Troy, which the oracle of Apollo declared 
should never be taken so long as the Palladium was 
found within its walls. This being made known, the 
Greeks stole it away during the Trojan War, 11S4 B.C., 
though some maintain that it was only a statue of sim- 
ilar size and shape, and that the real Palladium was 
convej'ed from Troy to Italy by JEneas, 1183 B.C., and 
preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy 
in the Temple of Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of 
Rome.— Pai.i.apium is a rare metal discovered in pla- 
tinum ore by Dr. Wollaston in 1303. 

PALLAS,t the planet, was discovered by Gibers, at 
Bremen, March 28, 1802. 



* About "000 of poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driv- 
en from their habitations by the French, arrived in England, and were 
encamped at Blackheath and Camberwell : a brief was granted to col- 
lect alms for them. Five hundred families went under the protection 
nf the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, where 
Parliament granted them £24,000 for their snpport. Three thousand 
were sent to New York and Hudson's Hay ; but, not having been re- 
ceived kindlv, tbev went to Pennsylvania," and being there greatly en- 
couraged by'tlie Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German 
and Swiss Protestants, who soon made this colony flourishing, 7 Anne, 
1709. — Anders&n. 

t By means of the Palestine exploration fnnd, Captain Wilson and a 
party left England for Palestine in November, 1865, and arrived at Da- 
mascus on the 20th of December following. 

t It is distant from the sun about 263 millions of miles, and com- 
pletes its revolution in four years seven months and one third of a 
month. Schroeter, a German astronomer, estimated its diameter to be 
2099 miles, and consequently near the size of our moon. It presents a 
ruddy aspect, and is surrounded witli a nebulosity. It is distinguished 
from all the other planets by the very great inclination of its orbit to 
the plane of the ecliptic, which is no less than 34 degrees 35 minutes. 



PAL 



350 



PAN 



PALL MALL, a street near St. James's palace, Lon- 
don, is named from a French game at ball {2Mille maille, 
being a wooden mallet) having been played there about 
1G21. Among eminent inhabitants were Nell Gwyu 
and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. 

PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION.* The resig- 
nation of the Aberdeen administration was announced 
Feb. 1, 1S55, but nearly all its members returned to of- 
fice soon after under Lord Palmers ton. Lord Derby and 
Lord John Russell having each in vain endeavored to 
form an administration. On Feb. 22, Mr. Gladstone, 
Sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney Herbert resigned 
on account of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord John Rus- 
sell resigned July 13. Lord Canning was appointed 
Governor General of India, July 4, 1S55. This cabinet 
resigned Feb. 20, 1S5S, in consequence of a vote of ceu- 
sure upon the government for introducing the Foreign 
Conspiracy Bill. It was succeeded by the Derby ad- 
ministration {which see). 

First Lord of the Treasury, Henry Viscount Palmerston. 
Lord Chancellor, Lord Cranworth. 
President of the Council, Earl Granville. 
Lord PriuJj Seal, Duke of Argyll ; Earl of Harrowby ; 

afterward the Marquess of Clanricarde. 
Secretaries— Home, Sir George Grey ; Foreign, Earl of 
Clarendon ; Colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 
22) ; afterward Lord J. Russell (resigned July VA) ; 
Sir William Molesworth (died Oct. 22, 1S55) ; next, 
Henry Labouchere ; War, Lord Panmure. 
Chancellor of the Fxchequcr, W. Gladstone (resigned 

Feb. 22) ; next, Sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 
First Lord of the AdmiraWj, Sir James Graham (re- 

sio-ned Feb. 22) ; next, Sir Charles Wood. 
Board of Control, Sir Charles Wood ; next, R. Vernon 
Smith. ^. ^ „ „ 

Public Works, Sir W. Molesworth ; next. Sir B. Hall 

(appointed July 22, 1S.55). 
Postmaster (?«(<•)■«?, Viscount Canning (appointed Gov- 
ernor General of India, July 4) ; next, Duke of Ar- 
gyll. 
President of the Board of Trade, Lord Stanley of Al- 

derley. 
Marquess of Lansdowne, without office. 
Chancellor of the Duchij of Lancaster, M. T. Baines (ap- 
pointed Nov. 24, 1855). 

PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINISTRATION. 
The Derby administration (irhich see) resigned June 
11, 1S.59. Earl Granville was requested by the queen 
to form an administration, and obtained the support 
of Lord Palmerston, but not of Lord John Russell : 
the last two then united to form a cabinet, which came 
into office June 18, 1S59. On the decease of Lord Pal- 
merston, Oct. IS, 1S05, Earl Russell became premier. 
See Russell. 

First Lord of the Treasurv,Tlem-jWf^coimt'Pa]mQr?\nn. 
Lord Hiqh Chancellor, John Lord Campbell (died June 
23, lS(il) ; succeeded by Sir Richard Bethell, made 
Lord Westbury, who resigned July 4, 1S65 ; succeed- 
ed by Lord Cranworth. 
Lord President of the Council, Earl Granville. 
Lord Primj Seal, Duke of Argyll. 
Secretaries — Foreign A fairs, Lord John (afterward 
Earl) Russell; Colonics, Duke of Newcastle; suc- 
ceeded by Edward Cardwell, April S, 1S64; Home, 
Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, succeeded by Sir George 
Grey; War, Sidney (afterward Lord) Herbert, suc- 
ceeded by Sir G. C. Lewis (died April 13, 1SC.=!), and 
by Earl De Grey (May 1) ; India, Sir Charles Wood. 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
First Lord of the Admiralti/, Duke of Somerset. 
President of the Board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 
[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobdeu, and de- 
clined by him.] 
Secretary of State for Ireland, Edward Cardwell, suc- 
ceeded by Sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Sir George Grey, 
Bart., succeeded by Edward Cardwell, and by Earl 
Clarendon, Aprils, 18(54. 
Postmaster General, Earl of Elgin (proceeded to China 
in April, ISCO) ; succeeded by Lord Stanley of Alder- 
ley, appointed Sept., ISGO. 
Poor-law Board, Charles P. Villiers (July 9, 1860). 

PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triuraph- 

* Henry John Temple was born Oct. 20, 1784 ; wns educated at Har- 
row, Edinburg, and Cambridge ; succeeded his father, Viscount Palmer- 
ston, 1802; became M.P. and a junior Lord of the Admiralty, ISO?; 
was Secretary at War, 1809-28, and a Secretary for Foreign Affairs, 
Nov.,1830-34,April,18.36,toSept., 1841, and July, 1846, to Dec, 1851; 
and Home Secretary, Dec, 1852, to March, 1855, when he became First 
Lord of the Treasury. He was created Lord Warden of the Cmque 
Ports, March 31, 1861, and Master of the Corporation of the Trinity 
House, June 16, 1862. He died Oct. 18, 1865. He sat for Tiverton, 
1835-65. 



al entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who 
were come to the feast of the Passover took branches 
of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with ac- 
clamations and hosannas, 33. It is usual, in some 
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before East- 
er, heuce called Palm Sunday. 

PALMYRA (Syria). The ruins, chiefly of white mar- 
ble, discovered by some English travelers in 1678, prove 
Palmyra to have been more extensive and splendid 
than even Rome itself. It was supposed to have been 
the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, but 
was manifestly Grecian. The bi-illiaut part of the his- 
tory of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his queen 
Zenobia. Odenatus died, and Zenobia assumed the 
title of Queen of the East in 267. Aurelian defeated 
her at Adessa, and made her captive, 278. From that 
time Palmyra ceased to make a figure in history. It 
is now inhabited by only a few Arab families. The 
ruins were visited in 1751 by Mr. Wood, who published 
an account of them in 1753. Mr. Dawkins also visited 
Palmyra ; and Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighboring 
mount, was overcome with the magniticent sight. 

PALO ALTO, Battle of. General Taylor, in com- 
mand of the army of occupation in Texas, marched 
from Point Isabel on the evening of the 7th of May, 
1846, to the relief of Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras. 
See Fort Brown. At noon the next day he discovered 
a Mexican army, under General Arista, "full 6000 strong, 
drawn up in battle order upon a beautiful prairie 
called Palo Alto. Taylor, with little more than 2000 
men, attacked him. Thecontest lasted five hours. At 
twilight the Mexicans gave way and fled. The Amer- 
icans lost, in killed and wounded, 53 ; the Mexican loss 
was about 600. See Mcxiccm War. 

PAMPELUNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the French on 
their invasion of Spain) was invested by the British, 
between whom and the French obstinate conflicts took 
place, July 27 and 20, 1S13. It surrendered to the Brit- 
ish Oct. 31 in that year. 

PAMPHLET. The first appearance of pamphlets 
among us is generally thought to have been in oppo- 
sition to the errors and corruptions of the Church of 
Rome. Those who were first convinced of the reason- 
ableness of the "new learning," as it was then called, 
propagated their opinions in small pieces, which were 
cheaply printed, and (what was then of great import- 
ance) easily concealed. Political pamphlets began in 
Edward %'l.'s time, and were very numerous in the 17th 
century. Large collections are in the libraries of the 
British Museum and the Royal and London Institu- 
tions. 

PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two Amer- 
icas. Across this a ship canal has been proposed ; 
and a railway was opened in 1855. In that year a new 
state. New Granada, was divided into eight federal 
states, one of which is named Panama. A revolution 
took place in Panamii on March 9, 1865 ; the govern- 
ment was deposed, and Don Jil Colunje became pres- 
ident. 

PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by or- 
der of Justinian, about S34. It is stated that these 
Pandects (which condensed all the then known laws) 
were accidentally discovered in the ruins of Amalfl, 
1137 ; were removed from Pisa in 1415, and now pre- 
served in the library of the Medici at Florence, as the 
I'aiide^'tce Florcntince. 

PANICS, CoMMEECiAL, generally the result of over- 
speculation. See Bubbles, South Sea, Law's. The last 
in England were in 1S26, through bubble companies ; 
in 1847, through the railway mania ; in 1S57, through 
American failures ; and in April, 1S59, through the fear 
of a Continental War. 

PANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary, was final- 
ly subdued by Tiberius, 8. 

PANORAMAS, the invention of Robert Barker, are 
bircf's-eye views painted in distemper round the wall 
of a circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edin- 
burg a view of that citj', being the first picture of the 
kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- 
don, having adopted the name 'Panorama' to attract 
notice, andVas ultimately enabled to build commodi- 
ous premises in Leicester Square for that purpose. He 
died in April, 1806. 

PANTHEON AT Rome. A temple built by Augus- 
tus Ciesar, somesaybyAgrippa, his son-in-law, 27 B.C. 
It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, 
where the image or representation of a particular god 
was set up ; the gates were of brass, the beams covered 
with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. 
Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, and 



PAP 



351 



PAR 



all the saints, by the name of S. Maria della Rotoncla, 
or "ad Miirlyres," A.D. CDS. — The Panthichn in Lon- 
don was erected by subscription, aud opened Jan. 25, 
ITT'i. It was formed into an opera-house ; burnt down 
Jan. 14, 1792 ; was rebuilt iu 1795 aud 1S12 ; aud made 
a bazar in 1834. 

PANTOJtIMES were representations by gestures 
and attitudes among the ancieuts, and were introduced 
on the Roman stage by Pylades and Kathyllus, 22 B.C. 
Comic masques were introduced here from Italy about 
1700. The lirst regular English pantomime is said to 
have been " Harlequin execlned," produced by Rich at 
the Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre, Dec. 2G, 1717. 

PAOLI, Massaoue at. On the night of the 20th of 
Scpteml)er, 1777, a corps of 1500 Americans, under Gen- 
eral Wayne, were attacked in their camp, near thePa- 
oli tavern, iu Pennsylvania, by a party of British aud 
Hessians under General Greig, and about 300 of them 
were killed or mortally wounded in the gloom. Fifty- 
three of them were found upon the ground the next 
morning, and were buried in one grave. A marble 
monument stands over that sepulchre. 

" PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory holdeu 
in Rome, Sept. 30, 1S50, the Pope (Pius IX.) named 
fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only were Ital- 
ians. Among the ten foreigners raised to the dignity 
of cardinal was Dr. Wiseman, Roman Catholic vicar 
apostolic of the London district, who was at the same 
time created Lord Archbishop of Westminster. On 
Oct. 27 following. Dr. Ullathorne was enthroned as Ro- 
man Catholic bishop of Birmingham iu St. Chad's 
cathedral in that town. The same day a pastoral let- 
ter from Dr. Wiseman was read in all the Roman Cath- 
olic chapels of his see ; and on its becoming generally 
known to the British people that all England had beeu 
parceled out similarly into Romish dioceses, the stron- 
gest indignation of the assumption of the pope was 
expressed throughout the empire.* The answer of 
the Bishop of Loudon (Dr. Blnmtield) to a memorial 
from the Protestant clergy of Westniiuster against the 
pope's creation of a Romish hierarcliy in this country 
was followed by the celebrated " Durham" letter from 
Lord Johu Russell, then chief minister of the crown 
(Nov. 4), to the Bishop of Durham, in which is severe- 
ly censured not only the papal aggression, but also the 
proceedings of the tractarian clergy of the Church of 
England f aud immediately from every quarter of En- 
gland addresses poured into her majesty the queen, 
calling upon her aud the government to resist the usur- 
pation. As many as 6700 addresses, it is said, had 
beeu voted from nearly as many influential meetings 
up to Dec. 31, 18.50. The great agitation on this sub- 
ject produced ttie Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, 14 & 15 
Vict., c. 60 (passed Aug., 1851), which prohibited the 
constitution of bishops of preteuded provinces uuder 
a penalty of £100. This statute, however, has uot yet 
been acted upon. 

PAPAL STATES. See Rome, and Popes. 

PAPER. See Papunix. Paper is said to have been 
inveuted iu China, 170 B.C. It was lirst made of cot- 
ton about A.D. 1000, and of rags about 1300.t White 
coarse paper was made by Sir John Speilman, a Ger- 
man, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz., 151)0 ; and here 
the lirst paper-mills were erected.— .S'toio. Paper for 
writing and printing manufactured iu England, and 
an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III., 1090 ; before 
this time we paid for these articles to France and Hol- 
land £100,000 annually. The French refugees taught 
our people ; they had made coarse brown paper almost 
exclusively until they came among us. White paper 
was first made Ijy us iu 1690. — Amlerxon. Paper-mak- 
ing by a machine was first suggested by Louis Robert, 
who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the 
great printer. The latter brought it to Eusland, aud 
here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinicr, he perfected the 
machinery. M. Fourdrinicr obtained a patent for pa- 
per-making machinery iu 1801, and for manufacturing 
pajjcr of an iudetinite length in 1S07 ; it had previous- 
ly beeu made tediously by the hand. The machinery 
was also improved by Mr. Bryan Donkin. A sheet of 



* AmonK other coiisernitinns that fullnwed, nnd continued the ex- 
citement, was that of Dr. liriges, created Roman Catiiolic bishop of 
Beverley, and enthroned in St. (Jeorfe's Chapel at York, Feb. 13, 1851 ; 
Dr. Browne created Bishop of Clifton, and Dr. Burgess Bishop of 
Shrewsbury: both consecrated in St. George's Cathedral, Southwark, 
July '27, Isjl ; and other priests were similarly raised to new Roman 
CatlioIic prelacies. 

+ Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Arehccohiiia, xxxvii.) states that the ear- 
liest paper which he had seen was a MS. account-book, dated 1302, 
probably of Bordeaux manufacture. lie pivefi engravinfis of manu- 
facturers' marks, French and English, the dates of which range from 
1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work bv Bartholus, a 
writer of the middle of tlie 14th centurv, in which mention is made of 
a paper mauufac.tory iu the Marches of Aucoua. 



paper 13,800 feet long, aud 4 feet wide, was made at 
Whitehall :\Iills, Derbyshire, iu 1830, aud one 21,000 
feet long, aud feet 3 fuches wide, was made at Coly- 
ton iu Devon iu 1800. The paper duty imposed iu 
1094 (producing latterly about XI, 400,000 aunuallv), aft- 
er having been the subject of agitation for several 
years, was repealed iu 1801. Esparto, a Spanish grass, 
first imported in 1857, has been largely employed in 
the paper manufacture since 1804. See Parchment Pa- 
2ier. 

PAPER-HANGINGS, etc. Stamped paper for this 
purpose was first made in Spain and Holland about 
1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apart- 
ments, about 1020. The manufacture of this kind of 
paper rapidly improved in this country during the i)res- 
enl century.— Paper Bricks have beeu made in Amer- 
ica ; and paper tubing for water and gas, made by Ja- 
loureau of Paris, was shown iu 1800. 

PAPER MONEY. See Banks. 

PAPIER-MACHE. This manufacture (of paper- 
pulp combined with gum aud sometimes China clay) 
has existed for above a century. Martin, a Germau 
suuft-box maker, is said to have learned the art from 
one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken up by 
Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, aud soon 
spread over that district. Papier-mache is nov.' large- 
ly employed iu ornamenting the interior of buikliugs, 
etc. 

PAPYRUS. The reed from which was made the 
celebrated paper of Egypt and India, used for writ- 
ings until the discovery of paixhmeut, about 190 B.C. 
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, 
lestEuinenes of Pergamos sliould make a library equal 
to that of Alexandi-ia, 2G3 B.C. A manuscript of the 
Antiquities of Jonephus on papyrus of inestimable val- 
ue was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte iu 
Italy, and sent to the National Library at Paris, but 
was restored in 1815. 

PARACHUTE. See Balloons. 

PARADISE LOST, the great English epic by John 
Milton, appeared first iu teu books in 1667; iu twelve 
■books in 1674. 

PARAFFINE (from pamni affinis, having little af- 
finity with any thing), also called photogeu, a solid 
substance, somewhat like spermaceti, produced by dis- 
tillation of coal, and first obtained by Reicheubach iu 
1830. It was procured from miueral oil by Mr. James 
Young about 1847, and is also obtained from Irish peat. 
It makes excellent caudles. Much litigation has en- 
sued through interference with Mr. Y'oung's patent- 
right. 

PARAGUAY, a republic in S. America, discovered 
by Sebastian Cabot in 1.526, aud conquered by Alvarez 
Nunez iu 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who in lOOS 
commenced their missions there and established an 
exclusive government, which they held till their ex- 
pulsion in'l768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish 
yoke in ISll. In 1814 Dr. Francia was elected dictator; 
he ruled well ; he was succeeded on his death in 1840 
by Vival. From 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly 
closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. Lopez, 
elected in 1S44, was succeeded by his son, C. A. Ln])ez, 
in Sept., 1802. Paraguay was recognized as au inde- 
pendent state by the^Argentine Confederation in 1852, 
and by Great Britain in 1853. Hostilities between 
Paraguay and Brazil began on Nov. 11, 1804, when a 
Brazilian steamer was captured as au intruder on the 
Paraguay. Brazil was invaded iu Decemlier. On 
April 14,180.5, Lopez invaded the territories of the Ar- 
gentine Republic, which immediately made alliance 
with Brazil. The army of Lopez, having been defeat- 
ed in September, retreated. On Oct. IS, the allies cap- 
tured LTraguyaua and au army of Paraguayans. There 
were prospects of peace iu Dec, 1865. 

PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyptians. 
In their present form (said to have been devised by 
the Duchess of Rutland) they came into general use 
about 1820. 

PARCHMENT.* Invented for writing books by 
Eumeues (some say by Attains), of Pergamus, the 
founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, form- 



* Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented and pat- 
ented in 1S37 by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C. E., who discovered that when 
paper is exposed to a mixture of two parts of concentrated sulphuric 
acid and one part of water for no longer time than is required to draw 
it through the fluid, it is immediately converted into a strong, tough, 
skin -like material. It must be instantly washed with water. Its 
great strength points out many apjilications of this material, e.ij., maps, 
school and account hooks, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it apjieared that 
a similar invention had been made iu Pans bv Figuier and Poumarede 
in 1846. 



PAR 



352 



PAR 



ed on the model of the Alexandria!!, ahout 190 B.C. 
Parchment books from this time became those most 
used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the 
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be 
mentioned that the Persians and others are said to 
have written all their records on skins long before 
Eumeues's time. 

PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at 
coronations ; first by Edward III. in 1327. The king's 
power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege sitce 
dignitatis; and no other person has power to remit 
treason or felonies, stat. 27 Henry VIII., \bd4.— Black- 
stone. A pardon can not follow an impeachment of 
the House of Commons : stat. Will. III., 1700. 

PARIAN MARBLES were discovered in the island 
of Paros, A.D. 1010. Their chronology was composed 
264 B.C. They were brought to England, and were 
presented to the University of Oxford, by Thomas 
Howard, Lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
Arundelian Marbles, lohich see. 

PARIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the capital of 
France, situated on the River Seine, which cuts it into 
two unequal parts, the strongest being toward the 
north, and in which are three isles, la ville {the city), 
the lie St. Louis, and the ile Louvicrs. In the time of 
Julius Cassar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It was 
greatly improved by the Emperor Julian, who made it 
his residence while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361, and 
Clovis also resided here in 510. It became sirccessive- 
ly the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and 
Neustria, and eventually of all the kingdom. The 
representative of the house of Orleans, styled Count 
of Paris, now resides in England. Population of Paris 
in 1856, 1,178,262 ; in 1860, 1,825,535. See France. 

St. Denis founded 013 

Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes) ; suffer- 
ed from fixmine 845-940 

Gallantly defended against them by the Count 

Eudes and the Bishop Goslin SS5 

Eel)uilt Vl?,\ 

University founded 1206 

Church of Notre Dame built 1163-1270 

The Parliament established 1302 

Suffers by the factious of the Armagnacs and Bur- ' 

gundians 1411-1418 

Taken by the English 1420 

Retaken by the French 1436 

Pont Notre Dame built. 149;) 

The Louvre built (see Louvre) 1522 

Hotel de Ville 1533 

The Boulevards commenced 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents 1.551 

The Tuileries bnilt (see Tuileries) 1564 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Aug. 24,1512 

The Pont Neuf begun 1578 

Hospital of Invalids 1595 

Place Rovale begun 1604 

The Hotel Dieu founded 1606 

The Luxembourg, bv Mary of Medicis 1615 

The Palais Royal built 1629 

The Val de Grace 1645 

Conflicts of the Fronde 1048-53 

The Academy of Sciences founded 1666 

The Observatory 1067 

Champs Elysees planted 1670 

Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 

Palais d'Elysee Bourbon 1718 

The Palace of the Deputies 1722 

The Military School 17.51 

The Pantheon ; St. Genevieve 1704 

The French Revolution breaks out ; the Bastile 

taken July 14,1789 

Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 

Cemetery of Pi-re la Chaise consecrated 1804 

Pont des Invalides 1800 

Paris surrenders to the Allies March 30,1814 

Paris lit with gas 1819 

Revolution (see France) July,lS30 

Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of 
francs were voted, 1833) commenced Dec. 15, 

1840 ; completed March, 1840 

Revolution {see France) 1848 

Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (proba- 
ble cost £12,800,000) 1853-02 

Industrial exhibition opened by the emperor and 
empress, May 15 ; visited by Q,ueen Victoria and 
Prince Albert (the first visit of an English sov- 
ereign to Paris since 1422), Aug. 24; exhibition 

closes Nov. 15,1855 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian Prin- 
cipalities {which see) ; closes Aug., 1858 

Bois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclinia- 
tization Oct. 6,1860 



A building was erected for a permanent industrial 
exhibition by a company Oct., 1863 

The scheme failed and the company was wound 
up Feb., 1864 

Boulevard Prince Eugene opened by the emperor, 

Dec. 7,1802 

Decree for an International Exhibition of the 
products of Agriculture, Industry, and the Fine 
Arts, at Paris,1n 1867; commissioners appoint- 
ed Feb. 21,1864 

(See France.) 

LATE GKEAT TEEATIE8 OP PARIS. 

Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal; 
cession to Great Britain of Canada by France, 
and of Florida by Spain Feb. 10,1703 

Between France and Sardinia; the latter ceding 
Savoy, etc May 15,1790 

Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
Pomerania and the island of Rugeu were given 
up to the Swedes, who agreed to aclopt the French 
prohibitory system aganist Great Britain, Jan. 0,1810 

Capitulation of Paris ; Napoleon renounces the 
sovereignty of France April 11,1814 

Convention of Paris between France and the al- 
lied powers ; the boundaries of France to be the 
same as on the 1st of January, 1792 April 23, " 

Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the Al- 
lies May 14, " 

Convention of St. Cloud between Mar.shal Da- 
voust, and Wellington, and Blucher, for the sur- 
render of Paris July 8,1815 

[The Allies entered it on the 0th.] 

Treaty of Paris between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the pris- 
oner of those powers, and confiding his safe- 
guard to England Aug. 9, " 

Establishing the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
lating for the occupation of certain fortresses by 
foreign troops for three years Nov. 20, " 

Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chau- 
mont and Vienna, same day Nov. 20, " 

Treaty of Paris to fulfill the articles of the Con- 
gress of Vienna : June 10,1817 

Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, En- 
gland, France, and Sardinia March S0,1S5G 

Treaty of Paris between England and Persia, 

March 4,185T 

Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufcha- 
tel May 20, " 

Important commercial treaty between France and 
England Jan. 23,1800 

PARISHES. Their boundaries in England were 
first fixed by Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury, TJ30. 
They were enlarged, and the number of parishes was 
consequently reduced in the 15th century, wlien there 
were 10,000. The parishes of England and Wales now 
amount to 11,077. Parish registers were commenced 
in 1.538. By an act passed in 1856, new parishes may 
be formed out of too extensive ones. See Registers 
and Benefices. 

PARK, CENTRAL, New York. In the centre of 
New York city is the Central Park, intended for the 
benefit of all the inhabitants of the city. It begins at 
Fifty-ninth Street, and is extended to One Hundred and 
Tenth Street, a distance of 13,507 feet. Its breadth, from 
Fifth to Eighth Avenues, 2718 feet, thus giving an area 
of 843 acres. It contains the great Croton Reservoir 
for the use of New Yorkers. The water surface of the 
reservoir is 90 acres, and the depth of water when full 
is about 38 feet; its capacity more than 1,000,000,000 
gallons. The cost of the reservoir was nearly $600,000. 
The Park contains the beginning of what will be a fine 
zoological garden when the intentions of the founders 
are carried out. The place is much beautified with 
bridges, sculpture, and fine trees and flowering shrubs. 
During the summer months, on Wednesday and Sat- 
urday'afteruoons, there is music for two hours in the 
Park, free to all who choose to come and hear it. 

PARKESINE. A new substance, composed of gun- 
cotton, obtained from various vegetable bodies, and 
oil. It can be formed with the properties of ivory, 
tortoise-shell, wood. India-rubber, gutta-percha, etc. 
It is the invention of Mr. Alexander Parkes, of Bir- 
mingham, and was shown by him at the Exhibition 
in 1802. In Dec, 1805, at the Society of Arts, Parke- 
sine was proved to be an excellent electric insulator, 
and therefore likely to be suitable for telegraphic pur- 
poses. 

PARK'S TRAVELS. Mungo Park set sail on his 
first voyage to Africa, under the patrouasre of the Af- 
rican Society, to trace the source of the River Niger, 



PAR 



353 



PAR 



May 22, 1795, and returned Deo. 22, 1707, after hav- 
iiii; cnconntered great danger.", without his journey 
throui-'h intertropical re>;iohs havini; enabled' him to 
achieve tlio <j;reat object of his ambition, lie ajrain 
sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 
no, 1S04, ajjpoiuted to a new expedition by fjoveru- 
nient, but never returned. The accounts of his mur- 
der at Broussa on the Niger were along time discred- 
ited, but at length were too well authenticated. 

PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their vil- 
las. Fnlviiis Lupinus,Pompey,and Hortensius, among 
others, had large parks. In England, the lirst great 
park of which jjarticular mention is made was that of 
Woodstock, formed by Henry I., ll'JS. The parks of 
London are in a high degree essentia! to the health of 
its immense population. St, James's Park was drain- 
ed by Henry VIII. about 1537. It was improved, plant- 
'ed, and made a thoroughfare for public use, 10(5S. The 
Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called 
the Serpentine River, although in the form of a paral- 
lelogram, was made between IToO and 1T33, by order 
of Queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen 
once inquired (it is said) of the iirst Mr. Pitt (after- 
ward Earl of Chatham) how much it wotild cost to 
shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, 
"Three crowns, your majesty." She took the hint, 
and the design was never afterward entertained. See 
Green, Ilijde, St.Javic.s's, IlcgcnVs, Victoria, Battersea, 
Alexandra, and People's Parks. 

PARLIAMENT (from the French, parlcmcnt, dis- 
course) derives its origin from the Saxon general as- 
semblies, called Wittenaricmot. The name was applied 
to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. 
of France, about the middle of the 12th century, but it 
is said not to have appeared in our law till its men- 
tion in the statute of Westminster L, 3 Edw. I., 12T2; 
and yet Coke declared in his Institiites, and spoke to 
the same etVect, when speaker (1592), that this name 
was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 
1041. The lirst clear accotiut we have of the represent- 
atives of the people forming a House of Commons 
was in the 43d Hen. III.,- 1258, when it was settled by 
the statutes of Oxford that twelve persons should be 
chosen to represent the commons in the three Parlia- 
ments, which, by the sixth statute, were to be held 
yearly. — Burton's Annals. The general representation 
by knights, citizens, and burgesses took place 49 Hen- 
ry III.,"1265. — Dugdale's Svnimon,'^ to Parliament, edit. 
loss. See Commons and Lords. The jiower and juris- 
diction of Parliament are so transcendent and abso- 
lute that it can not be conliued, either for causes or 
persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and 
nncoatrollable atithority in making and repealing 
laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to 
the crown, as w-as done in the reigns of Henry VIII. 
and William III. It can alter and establish the relig- 
ion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry 
VIII., Edward VI., ISIary, and Elizabeth.— >SYr Jidu-ar'd 
Coke.* The fourth edition of May's "Practical Treat- 
ise on Parliament" was published in 1S59. See Tri- 
ennial and Septennial. 
First summons of barons, by writ directed to the 

Bishop of Salisburv, by John 1205 

Parliament of Merton 1236 

The assemlily of knights and burgesses (Dnrtov)..12bS 
First assembly of the Commons as a coutirmed 

representation {Dvr/dale) 1265 

First regular Parliament according to many his- 
torians, 22 Edward 1 1294 

First a deliberative assembly, they become a legis- 
lative power, whose assent is essential to consti- 
tute a law 130S 

The Commons elect their first speaker, Peter de la 

Mere 1377 

Parliament of but one session, of only one day, 

Richard II. deposed 1399 

Lawyers excluded from the House of Commons. .1404 
_ Members were obliged to reside at the places they 

represented 1413 

Forty-Shilling freeholders only to elect knights. . .1429 

The "Journals of the Lords commenced 1509 

Acts of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecu- 
tively from " 

Members protected from arrest (see article Fer- 
rars's A rrest) 1542 

* When the roynl nssent ispiven to a public bill, the clerlt snys " /« 
roi h rf!'/." If the bill he ft privnte bill, he snys '* Sott fait comvie i/ 
€Bt rfcjfirr." If the bill have subsidies for its object, he says "Zfi roi 
remercie sfis toyanx sitjcts, acce]'te teur lt*:mvt)hncc, ct aussi U veut." If 
the king do not think proper to assent to the bill, the clerk says '* /,€ 
roi s'arjVra ;" which is a mild way of frivinj; a refusal. It is sin^tilnr 
that the snvereien of England nhoiild f till make use of the French Ian- 
gunge to declare her intentions to licr rarllamcnt. 



Journals of the Commons begun 1547 

Francis Russell, s(ni of the Earl of Bedford, was 
the first peer's eldest sou who sat in the House 
of Commons 1549 

The Parliament retnarkable for the epoch in which 
were first formed the parties of Court and Coun- 
trij, 1C14 ; disputes with James I June, 1620 

Charles I. dissolves Parliament, which does not 
meet for eleven years 1C29 

The Lonrj Parliament, which voted the Hovise of 
Lords as useless, first assembled Nov. 3,1640 

The Rump Parliament; it voted the trial of Charles 
I Jan.,1649 

A peer elected and sat as a member of the House 
of Commons " 

Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Pariiameni, 

April 20,1653 

AConvention Parliament (see Convention) 1660 

Roman Catholics excluded from Parliament, 30 
Charles II igts 

The Commons committed a Secretary of State to 
the Tower Nov., " 

The speaker of the Commons refused by the ldngl679 

AConvention Parliament (see Convention) 16SS 

James II. convenes the Irish Parliament at Dub- 
lin, which attaints 3000 Protestants 16S9 

Act for triennial Parliament (see Triennial) 1094 

First Parliament of Great Britain met Oct. 23,1707 

The Triennial Act repealed, and Septennial Act 
voted (see Septennial Parliament) May 7,1716 

The Journals ordered to be printed 1752 

Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants 
of members relinquished by the Comtnons 1770 

The Lord Mayor of London (Oliver) and Alderman 
Crosby committed to the Tower by the Com- 
mons in Wilkes's aft'air 1771 

Assembly of the first Parliament of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland... Feb. 2,1S01 

Sir P.'Burdett committed to the Tower.... April 6,1S10 

Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at the 
House of Commons May 11,1812 

Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Conuell, 
the first Roman Catholic commoner elected since 
the Revolution July 5,1828 

Tlie Duke of Norfolk took his seat in the Lords, 
the first Roman Catholic peer under the Relief 
Bill (see Roman Catholics) April 28,1829 

The reformed Parliament meet (see Reform), 

Aug. 7,1832 

E. Pease, the first Quaker admitted on his afllrm- 
ation Feb. 15,1833 

Hottses of Parliament destroyed by fire, . . .Oct. 16,1834 

New Houses of Parliament commenced* 1840 

The members of the Commons' and Lords' houses 
relinquish the privilege of franking letters (see 
Franking) T Jan. 10, " 

Committal of Smith O'Brien by the Commons for 
contempt (see Ireland) July 20,1846 

The Peers took possession of their house, that 
portion of the palace being ready April 15,1847 

The Commons assemble in their new house, 

Nov. 4,1852 

The two houses began to communicate by letter 
in 1855 

Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted, 

July 26,1858 

NUMEEK ANB DURATION OP PAEI.IAMENTS FKOM 27 
EDWAKD I., 1299, TO 31 VIOTOEIA, 186S. 

Edward 1 8 Parliameuts in 8 j'ears' reign. 

Edward 11 15 " 20 

Edward III 37 " 50 " 

Richard II 26 " 22 " 

Henry IV 10 " 14 

Henry V 11 " 9 " 

Henry VI 22 " 39 

Edward IV 5 " 22 " 

Richard III 1 " 2 " 

HenryVII 8 " 24 " 



Reign. 


Day of Meeting. 


When Dissolved. 


Henry VIII. . . . 


Jan. 21.... 1510 

Feb. 4 1511 

Feb. 5 1514 


Feb. 23... 1510 
March 4.. 1513 
Dec. 22... 1515 



* Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first contract for the 
embankment of the river was taken in 1S37 hy Messrs. Lee ; this em- 
bankment, faced with granite, is SSB feet in length, and projected into 
the river in a line with the inner side of the third pier of old West- 
minster Bridge. Sir Charles Barry (horn 1793, died 1860) was the ar- 
chitect of the sumptuous pile oi*^ buildings raised since 1S40. The 
whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet thick ; to the east it has 
ft front of about 1000 feet, and covers an area of nine statute acres. It 
contains 1100 apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or 
corridors. The great Victoria tower at the southwest extremity is 346 
feet in height, and towers of less magnitude crown other portions of 
the building. 



PAR 



354 



PAR 



ReiRii. 


Day of Meeting. 


When Dissolved. 


Henky VIII .... 


April 15. 


.1523 


Aug. 13... 1523 




Nov. 3. . . 


.1530 


April 4... 15.36 




June 8 . . 


.1530 


July 18... " 




April 2S. 


.1539 


July 24... 1540 




Jan. 16 . . 


.1541 


March 29.1544 




April 12. 


. " 






Nov. 23. . 


.1545 


Jan. 2S...1547 


Edward VI 


Nov. 4. . . 


.154T 


April 15.. 1552 




March 1. 


.1553 


March 31.1553 


Mary 


Oct. 5 . . . 
April 5. . 


'.1554 


Dec. 6.... " 
May 5. . . .15.54 






Nov. 12.. 


, " 


Jan. 16... 1555 




Oct. 21 . . 


.1555 


Dec. 9.... " 




Jan. 20.. 


.1558 


Nov. 17... 15.58 


Elizabeth 


Jan. 25.. 


.1559 


May S. . . .1559 




Jan. 12.. 


.1503 


Jan. 2 . . . .1567 




April 2.. 


.1571 


May29...15Tl 




May 8... 


.1572 


Sept. 15.. 1586 




Oct. 29 . . 


.15S0 


March 23. 15ST 




Feb. 4... 


.1589 


March 29.1589 




Feb. 19.. 


.1593 


April 10.. 1593 




Oct. 24... 


.1597 


Feb. 9 1598 




Oct. 27... 


.1001 


Dec. 19... 1601 


James I 


March 19 


.1604 


Feb. 19... 1610 




April 5*. 


.1614 


June 6.... 1614 




Jan. 30. . 


.1621 


Jan. 6.... 1622 




Feb. 29.. 


.1624 


March 2T.1025 


CUAELES I 


June IS . 


.1625 


Aug. 12... 1625 




Feb. 6... 


.1626 


June 11.. 1626 




March IT 


.1628 


March 10.1629 




April 13. 


.1640 


May 5.... 1040 


Lonr; Parliament 


Nov. 3. . . 


. " 


April 20.. 1623 


CO.MJIONWEALTU 


Sept. 3 . . 


.1654 


Jan. 22... 1655 




Sept. IT . 


.1656 


Feb. 4. . . .1058 




Jan. 2T . . 


.1659 


April 22.. 1659 




MavC... 


" 


March 16.1660 


ClIAP.T.ES II 


April 25. 


;i660 


Dec. 29... " 


Pensionary Pari. 


Mays... 


.1661 


Jau.24...16T9 




March 6. 


.1679 


July 10. . " 




March 21 


.1681 


March 2S.16S1 


James II 


May 19.. 


.1685 


July22...16ST 




Jan. 22 . . 


.1689 


Feb. 6. . . .1600 


WiLLIA.M III 


March 20 


.1690 


Oct. 11.... 1695 




Nov. 22.. 


.1695 


July 7.... 1698 




Dec. 9... 


.1698 


July 19...1T00 




Feb. 10. . 


.1701 


Nov. 11... 1701 


Anne 


Dec. 30.. 


" 


July 2. . . .1702 




Oct. 20 . . 


!l702 


April 5... 1705 




Oct. 25.. 


.1705 


April 11..170S 




Nov. IS.. 


.1708 


Sept. 28..1T10 




Nov. 25.. 


.1710 


Aiig.S....lT13 




Nov. 11.. 


.1713 


Jan. 15...1T15 


George I 


March 21 


.1715 


March 10.1722 




Oct. 9 . . . 


.1722 


Aug. 7.....172T 


George II 


Jan. 28.. 


.1728 


April 18.. 1734 




Jan. 14.. 


.1735 


April 28.. 1741 




Dec. 4... 


.1741 


June IS... 1747 




Nov. 10. . 


.1747 


April 8.... 1754 




Nov. 14. . 


.1754 


March 21.1761 


Geoege III 


Nov. 3. . . 


.1761 


March 12.1768 




May 10.. 


.1768 


Sept. 30 . .1774 




Nov. 29. . 


.1774 


Sept. 1 . . .1780 




Oct. 31 . . 


.1780 


March 25.1784 




May 18.. 


.1784 


June 12. . .1790 




Nov. 2G. . 


.1790 


May 20...1T96 




Oct. 6. . . . 


.1796 


June 29... 1802 




Nov. 16.. 


.1802 


Oct. 24.... 1806 




Dec. 15.. 


.1800 


April 29..1S0T 




Jane 24 . 


.1807 


Sept. 29 ..1812 




Nov. 24. . 


.1812 


June 10.. 1818 




Jan. 14.. 


.1819 


Feb. 29... 1820 


Geoege IV. 


April 2T. 


.1820 


June 2 1826 




Nov. 14.. 


.1826 


July 24... 1830 




Oct. 20 . . 


.1830 


April 23.. 1831 


William IV 


June 14 . 


.1831 


Dec. 3....1S32 




Jan. 29.. 


.1833 


Dec. 30... 1834 




Feb. 9 


.1835 


July 17... 1837 
June 23.. 1841 


Victoria 


Nov. 15.. 


.1837 




Aug;. IS.. 


.1841 


July 23...1S47 




Nov. 18.. 


.1847 


July 1.... 1852 




Nov. 4. . . 


.1852 


March 21.1857 




April 30. 


.1857 


April 23.. 1859 




May 31.. 


.1859 


July 0.... 1865 




Feb.l... 


.1866 


Nov. 11... 1868 




Dec. 10... 


.1868 


Aug. 11. ...1809 


PARLIAMENT 


OF Ireland began 


with conferences 


of -the English sett 


lers, it is said, on 


the Hill of Tara, 


* Called the Addle Pa 


rlimnent. It 


remonstr 


•^ted with the kin^ on 


bis levying benevolences^ 


and passed no 


lets. He 


dismissed it in linger, 


and imprisoned some of 


he members. 







in 1173. Writs for knights of the shire were issued in 
1295. The Irish Parliament last met on Aug. 2, 1800, 
the bill for the Union having passed. 

PARLIAjMENT of Paris was made the chief court 
of justice in France by Philip IV. ; at his suggestion 
it revoked a bull of Pope Bouifoce VIII., 1302. It was 
suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; restored by Louis 
XVI., 1774; demanded a meeting of the States-Gen- 
eral in 1787; and was suspended^by the National As- 
sembly, Nov. 3, 1789. 

PARLIAMENT op Scotland consisted of barons, 
prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of burgesses. 
A great national council was held at Scone by John 
Baliol, Feb. 9, 1292 ; and by Robert Bruce, at Cambus- 
kenneth, in 1326. A House of Commons was never 
formed in Scotland. The Parliament of Scotland 
sanctioned the Act of Union on Jan. 10, 1707, and met 
for the last time on April 22, same year. 

PARAIA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient Etruri- 
ans. It took part with the Lombard legion in the 
wars with the German emperors. It was made a 
duchy (with Placentia), 1545. 
United to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with Eliz- 
abeth Farnese 1T14 

Battle near Parma : the confederates, England, 
France, and Spain, against the emperor;" inde- 
cisive ; both armies claiming the victory, 

June 29,1734 
Battle near the Trebbia, the French, under Mac- 
donald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 

10,000 men and four generals June 19, 1799 

The Duke of Parma made King of Etruria. .Feb.,lS01 
Parma united to France (with Placentia and Guas- 
talla), and conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex- 
empress, by the treaty of Fontaiuebleau, April 5,1814 
Parma alternately occupied by the Austriaus and 

Sardinians in the war of 1848 

The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 

March 23,1849 
The Duke Charles II. abdicates in fiivor of his son 

Charles III March 14, " 

Charles III. stabbed by an assassin, March 26, 

dies March 27,1854 

Robert I., a minor (born July 9, 1848); whose 

mother becomes regent. 
War in Italy; the Parmesans establish a provi- 
sional government ; the duchess regent retired 
to Switzerland May 1, and died Feb. 1, 1864. 

Farina became dictator Aug. 18,1859 

Annexation to Sardinia voted Sept. 12, " 

Col. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
having rashly returned, cruelly murdered by the 

mob Oct. 5, " 

Parma is now part of the province of .Emilia in 
the kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed 
by decree after a plebiscite March 18,1860 

PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in 
Athens or Rome, such a crime not being supposed 
possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed his 
father, the Romans first scourged the parricide, then 
sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with 
a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast 
him iuto'the sea. Miss Blandy was executed at Ox- 
ford for the murder of her father, April, 1752. 

PARSEES, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Per- 
sia till 638, when, at the battle of Kadseah, their array 
was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- 
hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many sub- 
mitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and 
their descendants still reside at Bombay, where they 
numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a 
Parsee merchant, has been several years professor of 
Gujerati at University College, Loudon. 

PARTHENON (from Greek parthem; virgin), a tem- 
ple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected 442 B.C. 
In it Phidias placed his renowned statue of that god- 
dess, 438. 

PARTHENOPEAN REPUBLIC was established by 
the French at Naples (anciently called Parthcnope), 
Jan., 1799, and overthrown in June, same year. 

PARTHIA (Asia). The Parthians were originally a 
tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as their name 
implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrea- 
nia. Arsaces laid the foundation of an empire which 
ultimately extended over a large part of Asia, 2r)0 
B.C. ; the Parthians were never wholly subdued by 
the Romans. The last king, Artabanus V., was killed 
A.D. 226: his territories were annexed to the new 
kingdom of Persia founded by Artaxerxes, who had 
revolted against Parthia. 



PAR 



355 



PAU 



PAETITION TKEATTES. Tho first treaty between 
England .and Holland I'or rcgiilatiii",' the Spanish suc- 
cession (declaring the ElecUn- of Bavaria next heir, 
and cc'dinLT provinces to France) was signed Aug. 19, 
lO'.ls, and the second (between France, linglaiid, and 
IloUaiul, declaring the Archduke Charles presumptive 
heir of tlie {Spanish monarchy, Josei)ii Ferdinand hav- 
ing died in lOit'J), I^tarch i:;, 1700. Treaty for the par- 
tition of Poland ; tho lirst was a secret convention be- 
tween Kussia and Prussia, Feb. 17, 1772 ; the second 
between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same 
year ; the third was between Kussia, Austria, and 
Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. 

PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it were 
amended in 1SG3. See Limited Liability. 

PASQUINADES.* Small satirical poems obtained 
this name about 1533. 

PASSAROWITZ TREATYconcluded 1718, by which 
the house of Austria ceded certain commercial rights, 
and obtained the Banat of Temeswar, Belgrade, and 
part of Servia and Wallachia. 

PASSAU (Germany), Treaty of, whereby religious 
freedom was established, was ratified between the Em- 
peror Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Ger- 
many, July 31, mn'i.—IIenmdt. In 1662 the cathedral 
and great part of Passau were consumed by fire. 

PASSION-WEEK, the name given since the Refor- 
matimi to the week preceding Easter was formerly ap- 
plied to the fortnight. Archliishop Laud says the two 
weeks were so called "for a thousand years together," 
and refers to an epistle by Ignatius, in the 1st century, 
in which the practice is said to have been " observed 
by all." 

PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the Jews, 
instituted 1491 B.C. in commemoration of their com- 
ing out of Egypt; because, the night before their de- 
parture, the ^lestroyiug augel, who put to death the 
first-born of the Egyptians, jxwscrf over the liouses of 
the Hebrews without entering them, the door-posts 
being marked with the blood of the Paschal Lamb 
killed the evening before. The Passover was cele- 
brated in the new temple, April IS, 615 B.C. — Uaher. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one 
country or enter another without the consent of the 
sovereign thereof. In 1S5S the system was somewhat 
changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports 
was ieduced from 5.s. to 6rf. Passports were abolished 
in Norway in 1859 ; in Sweden in 1860 ; and (with re- 
gard to British subjects) in France, Dec. 16, ISOO; in 
Italy, June 26, 1S6-2 ; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863 ; and are 
falling into disuse in other countries. The passport 
system was established in the United States on Aug. 
19, ISGl. 

PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a re- 
spectable family, 1422-S3, giving a picture of social life 
in England, were edited by Sir John Fenn, and pub- 
lished in five volumes, quarto, 1787-1823. Their au- 
thenticity was questioned Sept,lS65, but has been sat- 
isfactorily vindicated. 

PATAY (France), where Joan of Arc, the Maid of 
Orleans, was present when the Earl of Richemont sig- 
nally defeated the English, June IS, 1429. Talbot was 
taken prisoner, and the valiant Pastolfc was forced to 
fly. In consequence, Charles VII. of France entered 
Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17, follow- 
ing year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in 
full armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan 
of Arc. 

PATENTS. Licenses and authorities gr.intcd by 
the king. Patents granted for titles of nobility were 
first made 1344, by Edward III. They were first grant- 
ed for the exclusive privilege of printing books in 
1591. The property and right of inventors in arts and 
manufactures were secured by letters-patent by an act 
passed in 1623. The later laws regulating iiateuts arc 
very numerous; among them arc 5 & 6 Will. IV., c. S3 
(1S35), and 15 & 16 Vict., c. S3 (1852).— By the latter, 
Commission KKS or Patents were appointed, viz., the 
lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attorney 
general for England and Ireland, the lord advocate, 
and the solicitm- generals for England, Scotland, and 
Ireland. Since 18.V2, a journal has been published un- 
der their authority, and indexes of patents, from 



* This nnmc originated in the 16th century. At the stall cf a cob- 
Mer iKuiied Pasquin, at Rome, a rnniiber of idle persons used to assem- 
ble to listen to his pleasant sallies, and to relate little anecdotes in 
their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at the expense of the 
passers-by. After the cobbler's death the statue of a Khidiator was 
found near his stall, to which the people (;ave his name, and on width 
the wits of tlie time, secretly at night, affixed their lampoons upon the 
state, and their neij;bbor8. 



March, 1617, to the present time. Specifications of 
patents may be consulted by the public at the Free Li- 
brary and Reading-room, in Southampton buildings, 
March 5, 1854. A museum containing models, por- 
traits, etc., was established in 1S59 at South Keusiu"-- 
ton, mainly by the exertions of Mr. Benuet Woo3- 
croft.* 

PATENTS IN THE United States. A larger num- 
ber of patents are granted than in any other country, 
and under the same general laws as in Great Britain. 
The Commissioner of Patents is appointed by the 
President, by and with the consent of the Senate, and 
has a numerous and thoroughly qualified staff of as- 
sistants, who occupy, in Washington, D. C, one of the 
finest biuldings in the country, now filled almost to its 
capacity with thousands of models of every kind and 
description. The Commissioner of Patents makes a 
yearly report to the Secretary of the Interior, pub- 
lished at public expense. The number of patents 
granted by the United States government up to March 
18, 1861, was 31,070. In the years from 1840 to 1849 the 
average number of applications for patents was 1000; 
of patents granted, 550. For the succeecling seven 
years the average number of applications was 3800; 
of patents granted, 1750. In 1858 the number of pat- 
ents granted was 3710 ; in 1S59, 4538 ; in 1860, 4819 ; and 
the number is annually on the increase. The receipts 
from fees are considerably in excess of expenditures. 

PATRIARCHS. The dignity among the Jews is re- 
ferred to the time of Nerva797. The ecclesiastical his- 
torian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of Chris- 
tian dioceses about 440. It was first conferred on the 
five grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, 
Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin Church had no 
patriarchs till the 6th century. The first foimders or 
heads of religious orders are "called patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS, the senators of Rome ; their author- 
ity began with the city itself. See Rome. 

PATRICK, St., Knights of, an order instituted by 
King George HI., Feb. 5, 1783 ; the statutes were signed 
Febr2S. The number, originally fifteen, was increased 
in 1821, 1831, and 1833, and is now twenty-two. 

PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, St. (Dublin), was erect- 
ed in 1190 by Archbishop Comyn, on the site of an old 
church. The cathedral was desecrated in 1.546, and 
used as a law court till 1504. It has been restored by 
the munificence of Mr. Guinness. See Dublin. 

PATRIOTIC FUNDS in the Uniteb States. On 
account of the distress of the Continental army in 17S0, 
the ladies of Philadelphia made a successful effort to 
collect a fund for their relief, in the purchase of cloth- 
ing. Some of the leading women were at the head of 
the movement, among them Mrs. Bache, Dr. Frank- 
lin's daughter. All ranks of society seem to have 
joined in the liberal effort, from Phillis the colored 
woman, with her humble seven shillings and sixpence, 
to Mrs. Washingtim, who gave $20,000 in Continental 
money, equivalent at that time to about $350, and La- 
fayette $500, in the name of his wife, the marchioness. 
In Philadelphia and vicinity nearly $8000 were sub- 
scribed ; and Robert Morris made the princely dona- 
tion of the contents of a ship just captured by one of 
his privateers, fully laden with clothing and military 
stores. 

During the Civil War of 1861-65 enormous sums were 
given by private individuals, together with every sort 
of clothing, comfort, and luxury for the relief of our 
wounded troops, the care of Union refugees from the 
South, and the emancipated blacks. It has been esti- 
mated that not less than $500,000,000 in money was 
given in small sums, as voluntary contributions, by all 
classes of people daring the war. 

PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, arose 
about 652. Although they were severely jiersecuted, 
thev spread over Asia Miiior in the 9th century, and 
finally settled at jMontfort, in Italv, where they were 
attacked by the Bishop of Milan in 1028. Severe de- 
crees against them were made in 1163, and they grad- 
ually dispersed ; very probably sowing the seeds of the 
great reformation of the 16th century. 

PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died at 
Paris, 1792. He commanded an American privateer 
during the American W^ar, and was memorable for his 
daring depredaticms on British commerce. He landed 
and pillaged the house of Lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
bright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the har- 
bor, April, 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul Jones to 



* In 1S64, the detected defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk in the 
patents office and an official of the House of Lords, led to hia retire- 
ment. He obtained a pension of £S00, which was taken from him by 
a vote of the House of Lords ou May 9, 1665. 



PAU 



356 



PED 



enter their ports with two of the king's ships of war 
which he had taken, and which the Stadtholder per- 
emptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 

PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, St. (London), the noblest 
Protestant church iu the world. Sir Christopher 
Wren's opinion, that there had been a church on this 
spot, built by the Christians in the time of the llo- 
maus, was confirmed when he searched for the foun- 
dations for his own design. He explodes the notion 
of there having been a Temple of Diana. 
The first church supposed to have been destroyed 
during the Diocletian persecution (302), aud're- 

biiilt m the reign of Constantiue D23-337 

Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by 

Sebert in 603 

Injured by fire in 962, and destroyed by the great 
conflagration, after which Mauritius, then Bish- 
op of Loudon, commenced the magnificent edi- 
fice which preceded the present cathedral 10S7 

A commission granted to Laud, then Bishop of 

Loudon, to restore the cathedral April 'i,1631 

It was totally destroyed by the fire of 1606 

First stone of the present edifice laid June 21,1675 

The choir opened for divine worship Dec. 2,1697 

The whole edifice completed (with the exception 
of some of the decorations, not finished until 
1723) under the illustrious architect, Sir Christo- 
pher Wren 1710 

[The total cost (including 200 tons' weight of iron 
railing) was £1,511,202.] 

Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell 1S22 

Money having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul's 
for the purpose, evening services began on Sun- 
day, Nov. 28, when above 4000 persons were 

present 1S5S 

A national guinea subscription for completing the 
ornamentation of the interior began iu Feb.,lS64 

DIMEHSIONS. Ycel 

Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to the 

east end is 510 

Breadth, north to south portico 282 

Exterior diameter of the dome 145 

Height from ground to top of cross 404 

Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height 208 

Breadth of western entrance ISO 

Circumference of dome 420 

Entire circumference of the building 2292 

Diameter of ball 6 

PAULUS'S HOOK, Capture or. The British had a 
small garrison at Paulus's Hook (now Jersey City), 
opposite the city of New York, in the summer of 17^9. 
The post was attacked at 3 o'clock iu the morning of 
the 19th of August by Major Henry Lee. Thirty of 
the garrison were killed, and 100 made prisoners. The 
post fell into the hands of the Americans, and Con- 
gress awarded Lee with thanks and a gold medaL 
PAUPERS. See Poor. 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have 
been the first who paved their towns with stones. The 
Romans, in the time of Augustus, had pavement in 
many of their streets; but the Appian Way was a 
paved road, and was constructed 312 B.C. In England 
there were few paved streets before Henry VII.'s reign. 
London was first paved about 1533. It was paved with 
flag-stones between 1815 and 1825. Wood and asphalte 
paving was tried in 1839, and have been disused since 
1S47. See Wood Pavement. 

PA VIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or Papi'a. 
Its university, founded by Charlemagne, is the oldest 
in Europe. Pavia was built by the Gauls, who were 
driven out by the Romans, and these, in their tnrn, 
were expelled by the Goths. In 563 it was taken by 
the Lombards, and became the capital of their king- 
dom. In the 12th century it was erected into a repub- 
lic, but soon after was subjected to Milan, and followed 
its fortunes. On Feb. 24, 154.5, a battle was fought near 
here between the French and the Imperialists, when 
the former were defeated, and their king, Francis I., 
after fighting with heroic valor, and killing seven men 
with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender 
himself a prisoner. Francis wrote toliis mother, Lou- 
isa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom during his alj- 
sence, saying, Tout est -perdu, Madame, fors I'honncur 
(All is lost, inadam, except honor). 

PAWNBROKING. The origin of borrowing money 
by means of pledges deposited with lenders is referred 
to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The institutions were 
termed flioH.h' di pieta {which see). Soon afterward, it 
is said that the Bishop of Winchester established a 
system of lending on pledges, but without interest. 
The business of pawnbrokers was regulated in 1756. 



and licenses issued in 1783. The rate of interest on 
pledges was fixed in 1800. In London there were, iu 
1851,''334 pawnbrokers ; and iu England, exclusively 
of London, 1127 ; the number is increasing iu propor- 
tion to the population. In 1860 an act was passed 
enabling pawnbrokers to charge a halfpenny for every 
ticket describing things pledged for a sum under 5s, 
The acts relating to pawnbrokers were amended in 
1856. 

PEABOD"? FUND. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George 
Peabody, the American merchant, gave £150,000 to 
ameliorate the condition of the London poor. The 
first block of buildings for working classes in Com- 
mercial Street, Spitalfields, opened Feb. 29, 1864; others 
erecting iu Ishngton, Shadwell, Chelsea, and Bermond- 
sey ; tliey have been found to be self-supporting. Mr. 
Peabody presented £100,000 iu addition, January, 1806. 
Mr. Peabody has exhibited equal consideration "for his 
native country : in 1867 he gave one million of dollars 
in gold to promote education iu the Southern States, 
which sum will be largely increased by the enhance- 
ment of Mississippi bonds, given for the same object. 
Mr. Peabody has also given 1,000,000 dollars to the'Bal- 
timore Institute of Science, besides many other large 
sums to various literary and educational institutions 
in the Northern States. 

PEACE. A temple was dedicated to Peace by Ves- 
pasian, 75. See Fire-icorks, Treaties, Justices, etc. — A 
Peace Society was founded in 1816 for the promotion 
of universal peace. It held its 45th anniversary in 
May, 1861. A contrress of the friends of peace, from 
all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 
Aug. 22, 1849. It met in London at Exeter Hall, Oct. 
30, following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul's Church, 
Aug. 22, 1S50 ; at Birmingham, Nov. 28, 1850 ; and at 
Exeter Hall, July 22, 1851. A meeting was held at 
Manchester, Jan. 27, 1853 ; and at Ediuburg, Oct. 12, 
1853. Mr. Bright and the late Mr. Cobden were among 
the most conspicuous members of the society. A dep- 
utation from the Peace Society, consisting of Messrs. 
J. Sturge, Pease, and another Quaker friend, stated 
their views to the Emperor of Russia at St. Peters- 
burg, at an interview granted them iu Feb., 1854. 

PEA RIDGE (Arkansa.s), Battle of, fought March 
7-S, 1862. On the 6th General S. R. Curtis held Pea 
Ridge. Sigel was seven miles south, at Bentonville. 
Upon Van Dorn's advance Sigel joined Curtis, and the 
next day Van Dorn attacked. The result of the first 
day's battle was indecisive. The Confederates, victo- 
rious on the left, had been defeated on the right, and 
Generals M'Intosh and M'CuUoch had been killed. 
But the supplies of the national troops were nearly 
exhausted, and the enemy had gained a strong posi- 
tion in their rear. From this position Van Dorn was 
driven on the 8th, after two hours' fighting, and the 
victory rested with General Curtis. The Confederate 
forces numbered 20,000, one fifth of whom were In- 
dians. Curtis had four divisions on the field. The 
loss on either side was about 1000. 

PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embar- 
rassed both ancient and modern naturalists to ex- 
plain. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are 
formed like other stones iu animals. An ancient pearl 
was valued by Pliny at £80,000 sterling. One which 
was brought in 1574 to Philip II., of the size of a pig- 
eon's eggTwas valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to £13,996. 
A pearl named tlie Incomparable, spoken of by De 
Boote, weighed thirty carats, equal to five penny- 
weights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. 
The pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in posses- 
sion of the Emperor of Persia was purcfiased of an 
Arab in 1033, and is valued at a sum equal to £110,400. 
PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of Plataaa, 
went from thence to Delphi to bring the sacred fire. 
This he obtained, and returned with it the same day 
before sunset, having traveled 125 English miles. No 
sooner had he saluted his fellow -citizens and delivered 
the fire, than he fell dead at their feet. After the bat- 
tle of Marathon, a soldier was sent from the field to 
announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with fa- 
tigue, and bleeding from his wounds, he had only time 
to cry out, "Rejoice, we are conquerors !" and imme- 
diately expired. 

Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed many 
astonishing journeys on foot. His expedition from 
London to York and back again, iu 1788, is said to 
have been completed in 140 hours. 
Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many thou- 
sands of pounds depended), walked lOOO miles in 
1000 successive hours, each mile in each hour, in for- 
ty-two days and nights (less 8 hours). His task was 
accomplished on July 10, 1809. 



PEE 



357 



PEN 



Kif hard Mank?, a native of Warwickshire, undertook 
(iu iniitaliou of Captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles 
in 1000 hours ; the place chosen was the Barrack 
Tavern C'ricket-irround, in Shcllield; he commenced 
on iMoiiday, Juiie 17, 1850, and completed the loiio 
miles, July 29, following, winning a considerable 
sum. 
Ou Oct. 7, ISGl, .1 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levctt, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in BT 
minutes 27 seconds ; Dcerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 
12 miles in 05 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills ran 10 
miles iu 54 miuutcs 10 seconds; other races fol- 
lowed. 
Ou May 11, 1SG3, Dcerfoot was beaten by White, who 
ran 10 miles iu 52 minutes H sccouds. 
PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The fiest succeed- 
ed the Melbourne administration, which was broken 
up on the retiremeut of Lord Althorpe, the chancellor 
of the Exchequer, in Nov., 1334. Sir R. Peel, then in 
Italy, was summoned home, the Duke of Wellington 
holding the seals of office iu the interim. They re- 
signed in April, 1S35. In May, 1S41, Sir R. Peel carried 
a vote of want of confidence iu the Melbourue cabinet, 
but did not take office ; and iu Sept. of that year he 
became again premier. 

FIRST AKMINISTItATION (DeC, 1S34). 

Sir Robert Peel,_F/c.s^ Lunl of the Treasury aud Chan- 
ccUur (if tlic Exclii'ijHcr. 

Lord Lyndhurst, Lard Chancellor. 

Earl of Rosslyn, Lord Prcaidcnt. 

Lord Wharnclifte, Pricy Seal. 

Ilenry Goulburu, Duke of Wellington, and Earl of Ab- 
erdeen, Uume, Foreign, and Colonial Secretaries of 
State. 

Earl De Grey, First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Lord Ellenborough and Alexander Bariug, Board of 
Control and Trade. 

Sir Edward Knatchbull, Paymaster of the Forces. 

J. C. Ilerries, Secretary at War. 

Sir George Murray, Master General of the Ordnance, etc. 
[Termiuated April, 1S35.] 

SECOND ArjIINlSTRATION (Sept., 1S41). 

Sir Robert Peel, First Minister. 

Duke of Wellington, iu the cabinet without office. 

Lord Lvudhurst, Lord CliancrUur. 

Lord Wliaruclift'e, Lord President. 

Duke of Buckiugham, Lord Privy Seal. 

Sir James Graham, Earl of Aberdeen, aud Lord Stan- 
ley, //oxif, Foreiijn, and Colonial Secretaries. 

Ilenry Goulburu, Chancellor of the Fxcheqiter. 

Earl of Haddington, First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Earl of liii)ou, hoard of Trade. 

Lord Ellenborough, India Board. 

Sir Ilenry Hardiuge, Sir Edward Knatchbull, Sir 
George "^Murray, etc. 

[TerminatedJune 29, 1S4G, by Sir Robert's resignation.] 

PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, Whigs and 
Tories, who adhered to'Sir Robert Peel after his defeat 
by the Conservative party, on account of his free-trade 
measures carried in 1840. The principal were Heury 
Goulburu, W. E. Gladstone, Sidney (afterward Lord) 
Herbert, Sir James Graham, Edward Cardwell, Sir 
George Clerk, Lord Lincoln (afterward Duke of New- 
castle), Lords Canning aud Elgin, and others. 

PEEL'S BILLS. Among the most important were 
the Bank Acts of 1S19 and 1S44, aud the act repealing 
the Corn Laws iu 1846. 

PEERS. See Lords. 

PEGU, a province of the Burmese Empire, discov- 
ered by the Portuguese iu 1520. Pegu, the capital, was 
taken by Major Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, 
Avithout loss, and afterward abandoned. It was again 
occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with 
a garrison of 40(»0 men. It was recaptured by General 
Godwin with 1200 men and two guns, iu two hours, 
with the loss of six killed and thirty-two wounded. 
The province was annexed to the British Indian pos- 
sessions, by proclamation, Dec. 20, 1852, aud has since 
prosi)ered. In Feb., 1SG2, it was united with Arracau 
andTeuasserin as British Burmah. 

PEIIIO. See China, 1SI59, ISCO. 



• Sir RoljLTt Peel was born Feb. 5, 1788 ; entered Parliament in 1809 ; 
bec.inie un b^r sccretiirv of tlie colonies in 1811, cbief secretary for Ire- 
land in isl'.', M. P. for Oxford in 1818 (n-hen he resigned bis office), .sec- 
retary for Iioiiie (ifpartnient in 18"2'2 ; resigned office and reappointed in 
1827; reaiirnitd a^Min in lS:iO; became nremier in ISM and 1841 (see 
atove). He was thrown from his horse June 29, and died July 2, 1850. 
He preatly relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827, et xea, ; es- 
tablished "the new police, and carried the Catholic Emancipation Bill in 
1829, and the reneal of the Corn Laws in 1846. Statues have been erect- 
ed to him— at Salford in 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bnry, and Man- 
chester in iSj'i ; and in London and Binningbam in 1855. 



PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt 
by Kublai in 1279, and by Youg-lo, 1471 ; visited by 
Lord Macartney iu 1793 ; surrendered to the allied En- 
glish and French armies, Oct. 12, 1800, and evacuated 
by them Oct. 2G following, after peace had been signed. 
It was described as being in a very desolate state, 
with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 
4,000,000. 

PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, ap- 
peared at Rome about 400. Their doctrines were con- 
demned at Carthage, aud other councils, 415, 416. 
They maiutaiued : 

1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and, whether he 
had sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. 
That the consequences of Adam's sin were confined 
to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are iu 
the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. 
That the law qualified men for the kingdom of 
heaven, and was fouuded upon equal promises with 
the Gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the 
dead does not follow in vu'tue of our Savior's resur- 
rection. 

PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Greece and 
Italy, appear to belong to the Indo-Germauic race. 
They were in Greece about 1900 B.C., and in Italy 
about IGOO B.C. They have been termed Tyrrheni, 
Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, etc. Prom the Pelasgi came 
the Dorians, .lEoliaus, and lonians, all three beiug 
Hellenes or Greek)?. 

PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), discovered by 
the Spaniards in the 17th century. The East India 
Company's packet .,4 J!?t>Jop(!,Capt. Wilson, was wrecked 
here iu 17S3. The king, Abba Thulle, allowed Capt. 
Wilson to briug Prince Le Boo, his son, to Eugland, 
where he arrived in 1784, aud died soon after of the 
small-pox. The East India Company erected a mon- 
ument over his grave in Rotherhithe church-yard. 

PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Henry Pel- 
ham replaced the Earl of Wilmington, as premier, 
Aug., 1743. See V/ilminyton. In Nov., 1744, a new min- 
istry was formed (termed " the Broad Bottom Admin- 
istration," because it comprehended a grand coaliti; u 
of the parties). It was dissolved by the death of Mr. 
Pelham, March 6, 1754. 

Ilenry Pelham, First Lord of the Treasury and Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer. 
Dulje of Dorset, President of the Council. 
Earl Gower, Lord Privy Seal. 

Duke of Newcastle and the Earl of Harrington, Secre- 
taries of State. 
Duke of Montagu, jlfoster General of the Ordnance. 
Duke of Bedford, First Lord of the Admiralty. 
Duke of Grafton, Lord Chamberlain. 
Duke of Richmond, il/asto' of the Horse. 
Duke of Argyll, A't'(?/>er of the Great Seal of Scotland. 
Marquess of Tweeddale, Secretary of State for Scotland. 
Lord Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor. 

All of the cabinet. 
The Duke of Devonshire and Duke of Bolton were not 
of the cabinet. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR continued for twenty- 
seven years between the Athenians aud the people of 
the Peloponnesus, with their respective allies, aud is 
the most famous of the wars of Greece. It began by 
an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise Plata'a, 431 
B.C., on May 7, and ended 404 B.C. by the taking of 
Athens by the Lacedismonians. 

PELUSIUM (uow Tineh), formerly the key of Egypt. 
Here, in 525 B.C., Psammetichus III. was defeated by 
Cainbyses, the Persian, who thereby obtained pos.«es- 
sion of the kingdom. 

PENAL LAWS. See Criminal Laics aud Roman 
Catholics. Penal servitude was substituted for trans- 
portation by acts passed iu 1853 and 1857, aud amend- 
ed in 18G4. 

PENANCE, a sacrament iu the Roman Church, 
arose out of the practice of auricular confession {u-hich 
see). The Council of Trent, in its 14th session (1551), 
decreed that every one is accursed who shall affirm 
that this sacrament was not instituted by Christ. 

PENANG, or Peikcf. of Wales's Island, was giveu 
up to the East India Company in 1786 by Captain P. 
Light, who received it as a marriage portion with the 
daughter of the Kincr of Queda. It now forms one of 
the Straits Settlements (ichich see). 

PENDULI'IMS are affirmed to have been adapted to 
clocks by Galileo the younger about 1641. Christian 
Huygheus coutosted the priority of this discovery, 1G56. 
— Dufresnoy. See Clocks. Experiments wei'e made to 
determine the density of the earth by pendulums by 



PEN 



358 



PEN 



Mr. G. B. Airy (now astronomer royal) and others, in a 
mine in Cornwall, in 1S2G and 1828 ; and at Hartou col- 
liery in 1854. In 1851, M. Foucault demonstrated the 
rotation of the earth by the motion of a pendulum. 

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN (Virginia). In July, 
1861, General M'Clellan had succeeded M'Dowell as 
commander of the Army of the Potomac. November 
18th, upon the retirement of General Scott, he was 
made general-iu-chief. Since the battle of Bull Run, 
Beauregard had commanded the Confederate army 
opposed to M'Clellan. At the close of February he 
was succeeded by General Joseph Johnston. On the 
loth of March, 1802, this latter general evacuated Ma- 
nassas Junction. M'Clellan's command on the 11th 
of March was confiued to the Army of the Potomac, 
General Halleck assuming the duties of general-in- 
chief. The plan of the Peninsular campaign, already 
determined upon, now began to be carried into execu- 
tion. The peninsula of Virginia, from which this 
campaign receives its name, Ties between the James 
and York Rivers, which empty into Chesapeake Bay. 
Fortress Monroe occupies the extremity of the penin- 
sula, and is connected with the main portion only by 
a narrow sand-beach. The extreme length is about 
CO miles ; the average breadth about 12. At Yorktown, 
20 miles up, it is narrowed to 8, which width it pre- 
serves 10 miles to Williamsburg ; then the rivers begin 
to diverge. The shores of the lower portion of the 
peninsula are deeply indented with creeks, some of 
which extend half way across. The land is flat and 
low, covered with swampy forests, through which slug- 
gish streams flow lazily, expanding after every rain 
into miry ponds. General Magruder, at Yorktown — 
which had been strongly fortified — covered the ap- 
proaches to Richmond with 11,000 men. He held a 
line 13 miles long, following the course of the War- 
wick River. The following are the most remarkable 
events of the Peninsular campaign in their chronolog- 
ical order : 

Eeintzelmau's corps landed at Fortress Monroe, 

March 23,1802 

M'Clellan reached Fortress Monroe, preceded or 
followed by the main bulk of his army. .April 2, " 

M'Dowell's corps detached to cover Washington, 

April 4, " 

Attempt made to pierce Magruder's lines, April 5, " 

Confederate evacuation of Yorktown May 4, " 

Battle of Williamsburg, in which the rear of John- 
ston's retreating army was defeated May 5, " 

M'Clellan landed four divisions at West Point, 

May 6-7, " 

Evacuation of Norfolk May 10, " 

Naval repulse at Fort Darling May 15, " 

M'Clellan's headquarters established at the White 
House, on the Pamuukey May 16, " 

Fast day in Richmond May 16, " 

M'Clellan crossed the Chickabominy with a part 
of his forces, dividing his army May 20-28, " 

Battle of Hanover Court-house, in which General 
Martindale was attacked by a superior force, but, 
being re-enforced by Fitz John Porter, defeated 
the Confederates, capturing 730 prisoners. 

May 27, " 

Battles of Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. Johnston 
attacked M'Clellan's force south of the Chicka- 
bominy and drove Keyes's and Heiutzelmau's 
corps. Sumner crossed with his corps and came 
up in time to fight the battle of Fair Oaks. Here 
Johnston was disabled by a wound, and was suc- 
ceeded by General G.W. Smith. The Confeder- 
ates were repulsed and forced to retreat. 

May 31-.June 1, " 

K. E. Lee assigned to command the Confederate 
army June 3, " 

Stuart's ride around M'Clellan's army, and de- 
struction of provision depots at the White 
House June 13-14, " 

Battle of Mechanicsville. Lee, joined by Jackson, 
attacks M'Clellan's right, north of the Chicka- 
bominy, and was repulsed June 26, " 

Battle of Cold Harbor. The Confederates, 50,000 
strong, attacked the national forces (33,000), and, 
after several repulses and severe loss, drove them 
from their position. Night and the opportune 
arrival of re-enforcements prevented a rout, 

June 27, " 

M'Clellan's entire army south of the Chickabom- 
iny June '28, " 

Retreat to the James River June 28, " 

Battle of Savage's Station, indecisive June 29, " 

Battle of Frazier's Farm. Lee attempted to break 
the centre of M'Clellan's column, extending 
from the Chickabominy Swamp to Malvern Hill 



on the James, but failed. The national troops 
disputed the ground inch by inch, till night, 
when they concentrated ou the James. .June 30,1802 

Battle of Malvern Hill. The Confederates, attack- 
ing the national troops in their strong position 
(both flanks covered by gun-boats) ou the James, 
were defeated with great loss July 1, " 

M'Clellan established his base at Harrison's Land- 
ing July 1-2, " 

With the retreat to Harrison's Landing the Penin- 
sular campaign terminated. Ou the 16th of Au- 
gust M'Clellan's army was withdrawn from Har- 
rison's Landing by order of General Halleck. lu 
this campaign the national loss was, killed, 1582; 
wounded, 7709; missing, 5958— total, 15,249 ; the 
Confederate, killed, 3151; wounded, 15,255; miss- 
ing, 999— total, 19,405. 

PENINSULAR WAR. See under Spain, lSOS-14. 

PENITENTS. See Maydalcns. The Penitents of 
the name of Jesus were a congregation of religious in 
Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. 
The penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order 
of uims about 16G2. 

PENNSYLVANIA (N.America), the second state in 
the Union in regard to mineral wealth. Population 
in 1860, 2,900,370. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first ad- 
venturer who planted a colony on these shores, in the 
reign of Elizabeth. Pennsylvania was granted by 
Charles II. to the Duke of York, 1004 ; audit was sold 
to the Penn famil.y, lOSl. Pennsylvania was afterward 
purchi'ised from the Indians by the celebrated William 
Penn (son of Admiral Penn), who went out from En- 
gland with a number of colonists; from which period 
the settlement gradually increased. Mr. Penn granted 
a charter in May, 1701, but the emigrants from the Low 
Countries refused it, and separated themselves from 
the province of Pennsylvania. They afterward had 
their own Assembly, in which the governor of Penn- 
sylvania presided. This state adopted an independent 
Constitution in 1776, and established the present Lu 
1790. See United States of America, and Petroleum. 

PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the first 
silver coin struck in England, and the only one cur- 
rent among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until the 
reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so deeply 
indented that it might be easily parted into two for 
halfpence, and into four for farthings, and hence these 
names. Copper penny and twopenny pieces were 
coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, Birmingham, in 
1797, and were accounted the finest of our copper cur- 
rency. See Coins, etc. — Penny-Post. See I'ost-offtce. 
— TuE Penny Magazine began in 1832 ; the Penny Cy- 
ci.op.EDiA in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). — The 
Penny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853, and in 
1850 a penny stamp was directed to be placed on bank- 
ers' checks. — Penny Banks (in 1861 about 200) were 
established about 1850. 

PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION on behalf of 
Charles II. was stippressed, and Sir John himself exe- 
cuted, in 1655. 

PENSACOLA, in Florida, was captured from the 
Spaniards on the 7th ofNovember,1814, by 3000 Amer- 
icans under General Jackson. The Spaniards were 
aided by the British fleet in the harbor. The Ameri- 
cans lost 11 wounded. The Spanish loss was 4 killed 
and G wounded. 

PENSIONS. The crown's power of granting them, 
often much abused, was materially checked by statute 
1 Anne, c. 1 (1702). 

English pension list fixed at .£95,000 1781 

Irish pension list said to amount to £489,000 1793 

Provision made by Parliament to reduce all the 
pension lists of the United Kingdom from 

£145,000 to a maximum of £75,000 1S30 

A committee appointed to define the proper per- 
sons to whom pensions should be granted : it 
reported in favor of servants of the crown and 
public, and also of those who, " by their useful 
discoveries in science and attainments in litera- 
ture and the arts, have merited the gracious con- 
sideration of their sovereign and the gratitude 

of their country" 1834 

The queen empowered to grant auntxally new pen • 
sions to the amount of £1200 1S3T 

PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the solemn 
festival of the Jews, so called because it was cele- 
brated fifty days after the feast of the Passover. — Lev. 
xxiii., 1.5. 'it is called the feast of weeks (Exocl. xxxiv., 
22), because it was kept seven weeks after the Pass- 
over. See Whitsuntide, 



PEN 



3.-9 



PER 



PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburg). Here the 

Scotch I'rcshyteriaus, since callud Camerouiaus (which 
see), who had risen against tlic government on account 
of tlie oslalilislinieut of episcopacy, were defeated by 
the royal troops, Nov. 2S,lG(i(). 

PEOl'LK. 'I'lie Duke of Norfolk and C. J. Fox, at 
dinner in 1 798, gave as a toast "The Majesty of the 
People," for which their names were struck oil' the list 
of privy councilors. A "People's petition" was pre- 
sented to Parliament by Mr. T. Dtmcombe, and reject- 
ed. May S, lS4-i. 

" PEOPLE'S PARKS," principally through private 
liberalitv, have been opened since IS-tO, at Manches- 
ter, HaliVax, Birmingham, Shetlield, Dundee, Bradford, 
llull, Bath, and Boltou {which tsee). 

PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by 
Schwamm in the gastric juice, and named by him from 
pepsis, digestion. It was experimented on by M. 
Blondl.)t in 1843, and has since been prescribed as a 
medicine. 

PEKCEVAL ADMINISTRATION. It commenced 
on the dissolution of that of the Duke of Portland 
through his death, Oct. 30, 1809. Mr. Perceval was as- 
sassinated in the lobby of the House of Commons by 
Belliugham, May 11, 1812. The Earl of Liverpool suc- 
ceeded as premier. 

Speucer Perceval, First Lord of the Treasury, Chancel- 
lor of the Exchequer, and Chancellor of the Duchy of 
La7ieaster. 
Earl Camden, Lord President. 
Earl of Westmoreland, Lo7-d Privy Seal. 
Richard Ryder, IMarquess of Wellesley, and Earl of Liv- 
erpool, lloute, Foreiyii, and Colonial Secretaries. 
Lord Mulgrave, Adiuiraltij. 
ilr. Dumas and Earl Bathurst, Boards of Control and 

Trade. 
Earl of Chatham, (h-dnancc. 
Viscount Palmerston, Secretary at War, etc. 
Lord Eldon, Lord Chancellor. 
PERCUSSION CAPS. Sea Fire-arms. 
PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy obtained lands 
in Yorkshire from William the Conqueror, and died at 
Autioch about 1096. 

The heiress of the last Baron Percy married Joce- 
liue de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Bra- 
bant, in the reign of Henry II llS'l-SO 

Henry de Percy, their descendant, created Earl of 

Northumberiand in 13T7 

Many of his descendants were slain during the 

Civil ^^^^rs. 
Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Joceline Per- 
cy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke of Som- 
erset. 
Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of Algernon Sey- 
mour, duke of Northumberland, married Sir 
Hugh Smithsou, created Duke of Northumber- 
land in 1766 

Their descendant, Duke Algernon, died without 
issue, Feb. 12, 1865, and was succeeded by his 
cousin, George Percy, Earl of Beverley. 
The Pr.RCT Society, for the publication of ancient 
ballads, etc., was established in ISin, published 
94 little volumes, and was dissolved in 1852 

PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, connect- 
ing the Crimea with the main land. It was called by 
the Tartars Orkapou, "Gate of the Isthmus," which 
the Russians changed to its present name, which sig- 
nifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress was taken 
and destroj-ed by the Russian Marshal Miinich in 1730, 
by assault, although it was defended by 1000 Janissa- 
ries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly forti- 
fied by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians 
in 1771, who have since retained it. 

PERE LA CHAISE. See Cemeteries. 

PERFUMERY. In Exoaus xxx. (B.C. 1490), direc- 
tions arc given for making the holy incense. Philip 
Augustus of France granted a charter to the master 
perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became fiishionable in 
England in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1860 there were 
about f(jrty manufacturing perfumers in London ; in 
Paris about eighty. No such trade as a perfumer was 
known in Scotland in 1763. — Creech. A stamp-tax was 
laid on various articles of perfumery in England, and 
the vendor was obliged to take out a license in 17S6. 
At the corner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, re- 
sided Lilly, the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. 
— Leigh. 

PERGAMOS. See Seven Churches, 3. 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Neivsj^pers, 
Magazines, and Eevieivs, 



PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. See Lyceum. 

PERJURY. The early Romans threw the offender 
headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; but that pen- 
alty was afterward altered, upon a supposition that 
the gods would vindicate their own honor by some re- 
markable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks 
set a mark of infamy upon him. After the empire be- 
came Christian, any one who swore falsely upon the 
Gospels was to have his tongue cut out. The canons 
of the primitive Church enjoined eleven years' pen- 
ance ; and in some states the false swearer became li- 
able to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
Perhaps the greatest perjurer in modern times was 
Titus Oates. See Gates. A woman named Alice Grey 
was convicted of many perjuries in 1856. In England 
perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. By the 
Abolition of Oaths Bill, persons making a false declar- 
ation are deemed guilty of a misdemeanor; Act 5 & 6 
Will. IV., c. 60 and 61, 9 Sept., 1835. 

PERKINS'S METALLIC TRACTORS. See Anir 
vial Magnetism. 

PERMISSIVE BILL (which would give power to 
two thirds of the rate-payers of a parish to refuse li- 
censes for the sale of intoxicating liquors) was reject- 
ed by the House of Commons, June 8, 1864. 

PERONNE (N. France), Treaty op. Louis XL of 
France, having placed himself in the power of the 
Duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign this treaty, con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other 
humiliating stipulations, 1408. Louis XI. had prom- 
ised Champagne and Brie as appanages to his brother 
Charles, duke of Berri,not intending to keep his word, 
apprehending that those provinces, being so near Bur- 
gundy, would prove a fresh source of broils and dis- 
putes. — Ilenault. 
PERPETUAL EDICTS. See Edicts. 
PERRYVILLE (Kentucky), Battle of, fought Oct. 
S, 1862. Kirby Smith had entered Kentucky in August, 
and was soon followed by the bulk of Bragg's army. 
In this march northward, threatenin^Louisville and 
Cincinnati, there w'as an encounter at Richmond, Ken- 
tucky, Aug. 80, and the garrison at Munfordsville, Ten- 
nessee, was surrendered Sept. 17. Smith and Bragg 
joined their forces and inaugurated a provisional gov- 
ernor at Frankfort. But, in the mean time, Buell had 
succeeded in reaching Louisville with his army. Bragg 
commenced to retreat, followed leisurely by Buell. On 
the 8th of October, Gen. A. M'DowellM'Cook touched 
the enemy's rear and brought on a battle, against the 
express orders of Buell. M'Cook was attacked with 
great strength, and with difficulty maintained his po- 
sition. Here General Jackson and Colonel Webster 
were killed. Rousseau's division alone lost 2000 men. 
The Confederate loss was also severe. 

PERSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckon ten 
general persecutions of the Christians. See Jews, Her- 
etics,Inqui8ition,Huguenots,Protestants,Massacre3,Bar- 
thalomew, St., etc. 

1st, under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, 
threw the odium upon the Christians ; multi- 
tudes were massacred ; wrapped up in the skins 
of wild beasts, and torn and devotired by dogs ; 

crucified, burnt alive, etc 64-63 

2d, under Domitian 95 

3d, under Trajan 106 

4th, under Marcus Aurelius lGG-177 

5th, under Septimius Severus 199-204 

6th, under Maximiuus 235-8 

7th, under Decius, more bloody than any preced- 
ing 250-2 

Sth, under Valerian 258-60 

9th, under Aurelian 275 

10th, under Diocletian, who prohibited divine wor- 
ship ; houses filled with Christians were set on 
fire, and droves of them were bound together 

with ropes and cast into the sea 303-13 

PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of Per- 
sia. Alexander has been falsely accused of setting 
fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 B.C. The fire is said 
to have been accidental, and not extensive. Ruins of 
this city still exist. 

PERSIA, in the Bible called Elara, is said to have 
received its appellation from Perseus, the son of Per- 
seus and Andromeda, who settled here, and estab- 
lished a petty sovereignty. The name is more proba- 
bly of Indian origin. Persia was included in the first 
Assyrian monarchy, 900 B.C. ; when that empire was 
dismembered by Arbaces, etc., it appertained to Media. 
Population of the present kingdom about 10,000,000. 
Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi 
{jKStiny. B.C.2115 



PER 

Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, generally con 
founded with the King of Bactria 



5G0 



PER 



.10S2 



529 
525 
521 



Cyrus, king of Persia, 55T : overthrows the Medo- 
Babylouiau monarchy about 557; conquers Asia 
Minor about 548 ; becomes master of the East, 

536 • killed in a war with the Massagetffi 

Cambyses, his son, conquers Egypt {ichtch see). . . . 
The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes kmg. 

Kevolt of the Babylonians subdued oU 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed • -iJb 

Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an aimy of 
300,000 soldiers, to Invade the Peloponnesus, 

which is defeated at Marathon {xchich see) 490 

Xerxes (king, 485) recovers Egypt, 4S4 ; enters 
Greece in the spring of this year at the head of 
an immense force ; the battle of Thermopyla;... 480 
Xerxes enters Athens after having lost 200,000 of 
his troops, and is defeated in a naval engage- _^ 

ment offSalamis ^■-^\': 

The Persians defeated at Mycale and Plataa, 

Sept. 22, 4i9 
Cimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 ves- 
sels, takes several cities from the Persians, and 
destroys their navy, consisting of 340 sail, near 

Cyprus , ■;'" 

Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Ai'tabanus 465 

Artaxerxes Lougimanus king 

Xerxes IV., king, slain by Sogdiauus, who is de- 

posed by Ochus Darius II., Nothus . . ..■■■■ ■ 4^5 

Artaxerxes II., Muemon, king, 405; battle of Ou- 

naxa, Cyrus the younger killed 401 

Eetreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) 

Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his 

accession • • • .• ^°^ 

He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son 

Arses made king •••■ 3^° 

Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III., lodoma- 

niis, by whom he himself is killed 336 

Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the Per- 
sians at the River Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 : 

at Arbela 321 

Darius killed by Bessus, who is torn in pieces. . . . 
Alexander founds the 3d or Grecian monarchy . . . " 
Persia was partly reconquered from the Greeks ; 

is subjugated by the Parthiaus 250 

Artaxerxes I., a common soldier, founder of the 
Sassauides dynasty, restores the kingdom of 

Persia A.D. 226 

Eeligion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity 

persecuted ' • • • 227 

Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; Ar- 
menia becomes independent under Chosroes. . . 240 

Sapor conquers Mesopotamia 258 

Repels the Romans and slays the Emperor Vale- 
rian 200 

Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I., 

who favors the Manichees 272 

Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 

Christians 273 

Varanes II. defeated by the Emperor Probus; 

makes peace 277 

Persia invaded by the Emperor Carus, who con- 
quers Seleucia and Ctesiphon 283 

Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses 294 

The Emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, As- 
syria, etc 208 

Peace with Diocletian " 

Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 

Onnuz built about 303 

Sapor II. king, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 326 ; 
makes war successfully with Rome for the lost 

provinces 337-360 

The Emperor Julian invades Persia; slain near 
the Tigris ; his successor Jovian purchases his 

retreat by surrendering provinces 363 

Sapor annexes Armenia, 365; and Iberia, 366; 

makes peace with Rome 372 

Artaxerxes II. king, 380 ; Sapor III 385 

Armenia and Iberia independent 386 

Varanes IV., 390; Yezdejird I.,404; conquers Ar- 
menia 412 

Varanes V., 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers 
Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the East- 
ern Empire for lOO years 422 

Armenia again united to Persia 428 

Wars with Huns, Turks, etc 430-2 

Yezdejird II. kins-, 440 ; Hormisdas III., 457; civil 
war, 458-86; Feroze kius;, 45^ ; Pallas, 484; Ko- 

bad, 480 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again 497 

His sou, Chosroes I., king ; long wars with Justin- 
ian and his successors, with various fortune.. 531 -79 

Successful campaigns of Belisarius 541-2 

Hormisdas IV. continues the war ; degrades his 



o-eneral,Baharam, who deposes him, but is event- 
Sally defeated .• 590 _ 

Chosroes II., 591; renews the war with success, 

003 • Et;ypt and Asia Minor subdued 614^16 

Chosroes totally defeated by the Emperor Herac- 

hus, who advances ou Persia 627 

Chosroes put to death by his son Siroes, 628; Ar- 
taxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter of 
Chosroes, reigns 630; Sheuendeh, her lover, 631; 
Arzemdokt, her sister, 631 ; Kersa, 631 ; Ferokh- 

dad, 632 ; Yesdejird III ........... .... . 632 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flies, 651 ; 
is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his ^ 

army exterminated ■■•■.••:•• ^^■' 

Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimile 

Mohammedans V\"\Vi'a 

The Taherite dynasty established, 813 ; the featte- 

ride, 872 ; the Samanide v •,:•;•." • ° ' 

Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Se jukian 
Tirrks, 1038, who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued by 

Genghis Khan and the Mongols 1223 

Bagdad made the capital ■::■■■ ■■■■■'■^'^ 

Is invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him, 1399 ; 
conquered by the Turcomans, 1468, who are ex- 
pelled by the Shiites, or Fatimite Mohammed- 
ans, who estabhsh the Sophi dynasty under Is- 

mail I l^''! 

Ispahan made the capital l^'l^ 

The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre 10^8 

Georgia revolts to Russia 1'83 

Teheran made the capital ;; J „ 

War with Russia • • • • • • .IS-tJ-J 

Rupture with Eusrland in consequence of the Per- 
sians taking Herat {which see), Oct. 25; war de- 

pirivpd Nov. 1,1856 

Persians defeated ; Bushire taken Dec. 8-10, 

Gen. Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 

Feb. 8,1857 

And at Mohammerah March 26, " 

Peace ratified at Teheran April 14, 

Commercial treaty with Prance, etc June, 

Herat given up by the Persians July, 

The shah decrees a reorganization of the govern- 
ment Sept.9,185S 

Railways in process of formation loOo 

SHAHS OF TERSIA. 

1502. Ismail or Ishmael, conquers Georgia, 1519. 
1523. Tamasp or Thamas I. 

1576. Ismail II., Meerza. 

1577. Mohammed Meerza. 

1582. Abbas I., the Great, made a treaty with the En- 
glish, 1612 ; died in 1628. 

1628. Shah Sophi. 
1641. Abbas II. 
1666. Shah Sophi II. 
1694. Hussein, deposed. 
1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 
1725. Ashrafl", the Usurper, slain in battle. 
1730. Tamasp or Thamas II., recovered the throne of 
his ancestors from the preceding. 
[Thamas-Kouli Khan, his general, obtained great 
successes in this and the subsequent reigns.] 
1732. Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the re- 
gency of Kouli-Khan, who afterward caused 
himself to be proclaimed king as 
1736. Nadir Shah (the victorious king), conquers India, 
1739 ; assassinated at Korassau by his nephew, 
1747. Shah Rokh. 
1751. [Interregnum.] 
1759. Kureem Khan. 

1779. Many competitors for the throne, and assassina- 
tions till 
1795. Aca-Mohammed Khan obtains the power, and 
founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; as- 
sassinated 1797. 
1798. Putt eh Ali-Shah. , , 

1834. Mohammed-Shah, grandson of Futteh, succeeded 

bv his son, 
184S. Nas'r-ul-Deen, or Nauss-er-ood-deen, Sept. 4 ; 
born 1829; the present Shah of Persia; said 
to be an able prince, and friendly to Britain, 
1805. 
PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by the 
Van Evcks (1420-46), and was treated scientifically by 
Michael Augelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert Durer 
earlv in the 16th centurv. Guido Ubaldo published 
the first treatise in 1608 ; Diibreuil's treatise (the "Jes- 
uits' perspective") appeared in 1642, and the mathe- 
matical theory was demonstrated by Brook Taylor in 
1731. 

PERTH (Scotland), said to have been founded by 
Agricola about A.D. 70. It was besicized by the reijent 
Robert, 1339. On Feb. 20, 1437, James I. was murdered 



PER 



361 



PET 



at the Black Friars' monastery here by Robert Gra- 
ham and the Karl of Athol, for which their bodies were 
torn with red-hot piucerg, burniu<; crowns of iron 
pressed down npou their heads, and in the end their 
hearts taken out and thrown into a tire. — Gowrie's 
c<nispiracy occurred here, Aug. 6, IGOO. The "Articles 
of l'erth,"relatin<^ to reli'jfious ceremonies, were agreed 
to l>y tlie General Assembly of Scotland, Aug. '25," 1G18. 
l\'rt li was taken by Cromwell in Kifil ; and by the Earl 
of iMar, after the battle of Bumblaue, in 1715. The 
statue of the prince consort was inaugurated in the 
presence of the queen, Aug. 30, ISG-t. 

PERU (S. America), visited by the Spaniards in l.'il.'J, 
and soon afterward easily conquered. Pizarro in 1530, 
and others, with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, 
set out to invade South America. Not succeeding, he 
again, in l.')31, embarked with three small vessels, 140 
infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with these and two re- 
enforcements of thirty men each, he conquered the 
empire of Peru, and laid the foundation of that vast 
power which the Spaniards long enjoyed in the New 
World. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards 
(who murdered the Incas and all their descendants), 
without any attempt being made to throw off the op- 
pressive yoke, till 1TS2. 

The independence of the country achieved 1S25 

The new Peruvian Constitution signed by the 

President of the Republic March 21,1S2S 

The President General Ramon Castilla elected. . .1855 
Population (without Indians) about 2)4 millions.. 1859 

Marshal San Ramon President Oct. 24,1862 

General A. J. Pezet President April 3,1SG3 

The Spanish Admiral Pizon took possession of the 
Chincha Isles (valuable for guano) belonging to 
Peru, stating that he would occupy themliirthe 
claim of his government or that of Peru were 

satisfied April 24,1SG4 

American Congress at Lima: plenipotentiaries 
from Chili and other states meet to concert 
measures for defense against Eitropeau powers, 

Nov., 1864 
Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, Jan. 

2S ; Chincha Islands restored Feb. 3,1865 

Revolt against President Pezet, Feb. 28 ; several 

provinces soon lost May, " 

The insurgents take Lima; Pezet flies, and Can- 
seco becomes president Nov., " 

PERUGIA, a city of Central Italy, anciently one of 
the Etruscan Confederation. It allied itself with the 
Samnites, but was mined by two defeats by the Ro- 
mans, 309 and 295 B.C. It was taken by Octavius Ca3- 
sar from the adherents of Antony, many of whom were 
immolated on altars by their victor. Leo X. took Pe- 
rugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni in 
1.520. An insurrection here against the pope was put 
down by the Swiss with great cruelty, June 20, 1859. 
It was taken by the Sardinian General Fanti in Sept., 
ISGO, when the cruel Papal General Schmidt and 1600 
men were made prisoners. 

PERUKE, or Wig. The ancients used false hair, 
but the present peruke was first worn in France and 
Italy about 1620, and introduced into England about 
lGG(i.* 

PERUVIAN BARK. See Jesuits' Bark. 

PESCTTIERA, a strong Austrian fortress on an isl- 
and in the Jlincio, near the Lake de Garda, N. Italy. 
It has liccn frequently taken by siege : by the French, 
ITBG; by the Austrians and Russians, 1T99; by the 
French airain, ISOl ; given up by them, 1814; taken by 
the Sardinians, lS4s ;' retaken by Radetzky, 1849. The 
Sardinians were preparing to besiege it in July, 1859, 
when peace was made. See Quadrilateral. 

PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education was de- 
vised by Henri Pestalozzi, born at Zurich, in Switzer- 
land, in 1T46, died 1S2T. In 1TT5 he turned his farm 
into a school for educating poor children in industrial 
pursuits, readiu'.'. and writing, but did not succeed. 
In 1T!N lie estalilished an orplian school, where he be- 
gan with the mutual instruct ion, or monitorial system, 
since adopted by Lancaster; l)ut his scliool was soon 
turned into a hospital for tlie Austrian army. In 1S02, 
in conjunction with Fellenbcrg, he established his 
school at Ilofwyl, which at first was successful, but 
eventually declined through mismanagement. Pesta- 
lozzi certainly aided the progress of education. 

PESTII (Ilungary)j built about 889, was repeatedly 
taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, ])articu- 
larly in the long contests with the Turks. The last 

• It is mul ttml Bisliop Blomficl.l (of Lonjon) obtiiine.I pcrniissinn of 
Willinm IV. f<ir the bishops to discontinue wearing their wigs in Par- 
liament in le30. 



time it changed masters was in 1GS4, after the raising 
of the famous siege of Vienna by Sobieski. Buda- 
Pesth was taken by the Imperialists Jan. 5, 1849. The 
Hungarians afterward defeated the Austrians, who 
were obliged to evacuate it April IS, same year. See 
Ilungary. 

PESTILENCE. See Plaoue. 

PETALISM (from the Gveek jKtalon, a leaf), a mode 
of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of Syracuse, sim- 
ilar to the Athenian ostracism, the name being writ- 
ten on a leaf (generally of an olive) instead of a shell, 
about 4G0 B.C. If guilt were established, the sentence 
was usually banishment Cotr/rave. 

PETARD, an instrument whose invention is as- 
cribed to the Huguenots in 15T9. Petards were of 
metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, and were employed 
to blow up ^ates or other barriers, and also in coun- 
termines to break through into the enemy's galleries 
Cahors was taken by Ileniy IV. bv means of petards 
in 1580, when it is said they were first used. 

PETER THE Wild Bov. A savage creature foirnd 
in the forest of Hertswold, electorate of Hanover, when 
George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found 
walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a 
squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, Nov., 1T25. 
At this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. 
The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the 
royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and 
the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his in- 
fancy. No efforts of the many philosophic persons 
about court could entirely vary his savage habits, or 
cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died 
Feb., 1TS5, at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo repre- 
sented him to be a proof of the hypothesis that "man 
in a state of nature is a mere animal." 

PETER'S CHURCH, St. (Rome), originallv erected 
by Constantine, 306. About 1450 Pope Nicholas V. 
commenced a new church. The present magnificent 
pile was designed by Bramante ; the first stone was 
laid by Pope Julius II. in 1.506. In 1514 Leo X. em- 
ployed Raphael and two others to superintend the 
building. Paul III. committed the work to Michael 
Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of 
which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church vv'as 
consecrated Nov. 18, 162G. The front is 400 feet broad, 
rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome 
ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
324 feet: the length of the interior 600 feet, forming 
one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The 
length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest breadth 
within is 442 feet ; and the entire height from the 
ground 432 feet. 

PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king of the 
West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the endowment 
of an English college there, 725; so called because 
agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax 
was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence 
yearly rent in land, out of which they paid one pen- 
ny. It was confirmed by Ofl'a, 777, and was afterward 
claimed by the popes as a tribute from England, and 
regularly collected, till suppressed by Henry VIII. — 
Camden. A public collection (on behalf of the pope) 
was forbidden in France in 1860. 

PETERBOROUGH (Northamptonshire), founded 
633; anciently called Medeshamstede ; obtained its 
present name from a king of Mercia founding an ab- 
iDey and dedicating it to St. Peter in GS9. The church, 
destroyed by the Banes, was rebuilt with great beauty) 
The bisliopric erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, out of 
the lands of the dissolved monastery, in the diocese 
of Lincoln. The first bishop was John Chambers, the 
last abbot of Peterborough. The see was valued in 
the king's books at .£419 19s. lid. Present income 
i;4500. 

PETERLOO. See Manchester Reform Meeting. 

PETERSBURG, St., the modern capital of Russia, 
founded by Peter the Great, May 27, 1703. lie built a 
small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden 
hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first 
house of brick, and the next year, the emperor, with 
his own hands, laid the foundation of a house of the 
same material. The seat of empire was transferred 
from Moscow to this place in 1711. Here, in 1736, a 
fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire 
consumed 11,000 houses ; this last fire was occasioned 
\>y lightning. Again, in June, 1796, a large magazine 
of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed." The 
winter palace was burnt to the ground. Bee. 29, 1S37. 
The railway to JJoscow was finished in 1851 ; to Ber- 
lin, opened May 5, 1862. The University was closed in 



PET 



362 



PHI 



Oct., 1S61, on account of the riotous behavior of the 
students. On Juue 10, 1&62, property to the amount 
of nearly a milliim sterling was destroyed by tire.— 
Peteesbuug, Virginia. See United States, 1S64. 
Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and Prus- 
sia, the former restoring all her conquests to the 

latter, signed .May 5,1762 

Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Po- 
land (see article Partition Treaties) Aug. 5,1772 

Treaty of St. Petersburg led to a coalition against 

France Sept. S,1S05 

Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
tween Beruadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and 
the Emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to 
join in the campaign against France, in return 
for which Sweden was to receive Norway, 

March 24,1812 

PETERSWALDEN (Germany), Convention of, be- 
tween Great Britain and Russia, by which a tirm and 
decisive alliance between those powers was made 
against France, and the course of action against Na- 
poleon Bonaparte was planned, signed July 8, 1S13. 
This alliance led to the overthrow oT Bonaparte in the 
next year. 

PETERWARADEIN (in Austria) was taken by the 
Turks, July,1626. Here Prince Eugene of Savoy gained 
a great victory over the Turks, Aug. 5, 1710. 

PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown 
and Parliament for redress of grievances is a funda- 
mental principle of the Constitution. Petitions are 
extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry 
IV. petitions began to be addressed to tlie House of 
Commons in considerable numbers. In 1S37 there 
were presented to Parliament 10,831 petitions, signed 
by 2,905,905 persons ; in 1S59, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 
persons. See Riijhts, Petition of. 

PETRARCH AND Laitra, celebrated for the refined 
passion of the former for the latter, begun in 1327, 
which was the chief subject of his enchantnig sonnets. 
He was born 1304, crowned with laurels, as a poet and 
■writer, on Easter daj', April 8, 1341, and died at Arqua, 
near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 

PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to 
paraffine, has been found iu many parts of the world, 
especially at Rangoon. Iu 1800-1, a number of oil- 
springs were discovered in the bituminous coal re- 
gions of N.W. Pennsylvania, now termed "Petrolia," 
and others have been since discovered in Ohio and 
other states, and also in Canada. In consequence, nu- 
merous artesian wells have been sunk, manufactories 
erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. In 
consequence of the importation of large supplies of 
this oil into this country, and many accidents having 
taken place through its inflammability at low temper- 
ature, an act for "the safe keeping of petroleum" was 
passed in July, 1862. 

PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on the east 
coast of Kamtschatka, was attaclied by an English and 
French squadron, Aug. 30, 1854. They destroyed the 
batteries, but failed iu taking some Russian frigates, 
except the Sitka, a store-ship taken by the President, 
and a schooner taken by the Pique. Admiral Price 
was killed, it is supposed, by the accidental discharge 
of his own pistol. A party of 700 sailors and marines 
landed to assault the place, but fell into an ambus- 
cade; many were killed, including Capt. Parker and 
M. Bourasset, English and French officers. The ob- 
jects of the attack were not attained, it is thought 
from want of stores. After this the Russians greiitly 
strengthened their defenses, but on May 30, 1S55 the 
allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the 
place deserted. The fortifications were destroyed, but 
the town was spared. The Russian ships escaped. 

PEVENSEY (Susses). The castle is very ancient. 
From the abundance of Roman bricks, it is supposed 
that there was a Roman fortress on the spot. Here 
William of Normandy landed, Sept. 28 or 29, 106G. The 
Duke of York, in the reign of Henry IV., was for some 
time confined within tlie walls of this castle, as was 
also Queen Joan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry 
IV., who, with her confessor, Friar Randal, was ac- 
cused of a design to destroy the king. 

PEWS in churches were not in use in England till 
long after the Reformation — about the middle of the 
17th century. The earliest readi.ng-jiew with a date is 
one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 
1602 Hook. 

PPAFFENDORF, or Lif.gnitz (Silesia). Here was 
fought a battle between the Imperialists and Prus- 
sians, Aug. 15, 1700. The Austrians were signally de- 



feated by the King of Prussia, who thus prevented the 
junction of the Russian and Austrian armies. 

PHALANX. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 
men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and 
spears crossing each other. The battalion formed by 
Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian phalanx, 
was formed by him 360 B.C. 

PHARAOH'S SERPENTS, a chemical toy, com- 
posed of sulphocyanide of mercury, appeared in Paris 
in the summer of 1805. 

PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews ; so called 
from 2}harash, a Hebrew word which signifies sepa- 
rated, because they pretended to a greater degree of 
holiness than the rest of the Jews. Lu/ce xviii.,9. The 
Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 

PHARMACOPCEIA, a book of directions for the 
preparation of medicines, published by colleges of 
physicians. In 1802 the General Medical Council were 
em'powered to prepare and sell a new Pharmacopceia, 
to supersede those of the colleges of Loudon, Edin- 
burg, and Dublin, which was published in Juue, 1804. 

PHARMACY: the knowledge of the chemical and 
medical properties of drugs aud'other things employed 
medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society of Great 
Britain, founded in 1841, mainly by Mr. Jacob Bell, ob- 
tained its charter in 1843. It publishes a monthly 
journal. — 15 & 16 Vict., c. 50 (1852), regulates the qual- 
ifications of pharmaceutical chemists. 

PHAROS, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Alexandria, 
was esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It 
was a tower built of white marble, erected about 280 
B.C. On the top, tires were constantly kept, to direct 
sailors iu the bay. The building cost SOU talents, 
which are equivalent to above il 05,100 English, if 
Attic ; or, if Alexandrian, double that sum. There 
was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the 
gods, the saviors, for the benefit of sailors ;" but Sos- 
tratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, en- 
graved his own name upon the stones, and afterward 
tilled the ht)llow with mortar, and wrote the above in- 
scription. When the mortar had decayed, Ptolemy's 
name disappeared, and the following inscription be- 
came visible: "Sostratus the Cnidian, sou of Dexi- 
phanes, to the gods, the saviors, for the benetit of 
sailors." 

PHARSALIA, a strong city iu Thessaly, N. Greece. 
Near it Julius Caesar defeated his rival Pompej', Aug. 
9, 4S B.C. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treach- 
erously slain, by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a 
minor, and his body thrown naked on the strand, till 
it was burnt by his faithful freedman, Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor). See Seven Church- 
es. — PiiiLAnELPni A, Pennsylvania, was planned by Wil- 
liam Penu in 10S2. The tirst American Congress as- 
sembled here in 1774, and promulgated the Declaration 
of Independence on July 4, 1776. It was the capital 
of the Union till 1800, when Washington was selected 
iu its place. 

PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, where 
the Marquess of Montrose and the Royalists were de- 
feated by David Leslie and the Scotch Covenanters, 
Sept. 13, 1645. 

PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by the great 
Philip. Here Octavius Cresar and Marc Antony de- 
feated the republican forces of Brutus and Cassius, 
who both committed suicide, Oct., 42 B.C. Paul wrote 
an epistle to the Christians at Philippi, A.D. 64. 

PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations of 
Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, 352-341 
B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero against Marc 
Antony (the second of which, called divinely Juvenal, 
cost Cicero his life), 43 B.C. 

PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archipelago), 
discovered by Magellan in March, 1521, who here lost 
his life in a skirmish. They were taken possession of 
in 1505 by a fleet from Mexico, which first stopped at 
the island of Zeba, and subdued it. In 1570 a settle- 
ment was eflfected at the mouth of the Manilla River, 
and Manilla became the caj)ital of the Spanish posses- 
sions iu the Philippines. See Manilla. 

PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, conquered Is- 
rael 11.56 B.C., and ruled it fortv years. They were 
defeated by Samuel, 1120: and by Saul and Jonathan, 
10S7. They again invaded Israel about 1063, when 
David slew their champion, Goliath. After David be- 
came king he thoroughly subdued them, 1040. In com- 
mon with Syria, their country was subju2:ated by the 
Romans under Pompey about 63. In Germanv, a'bout 
A.D. 1830, Heine and the Liberal party applied the 



PHI 



363 



rno 



term "Philistines" to the opponents of progress, the 
Conservative party. 

PIIILOIUIJI.ION SOCIETY was instituted in 1S53 
by iSlr. It. ]\lonctou Jlilnrs (now Lord llou-lilon), M. 
Svlvaiii van de W'eyer, the IJeluian minister, and oth- 
ers. It pnblislies volumes of "Miscellanies," etc. 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. See Alchemy. 

PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the knowledge of 
the reasoji of thins^s, in opposition to lustory, which is 
only the kuowlcd;:e of facts ; or to mathematics, which 
is the knowledge of the quantity of thinirs— the hy- 
pothesis or system upon wliich natural cltects are ex- 
plained.— /vocfce. Pythau'oras lirsl adopted the name 
of philosopher (such nieu havini;; l)een previously 
called sa^'es) about 52S B.C. Philosophers were ex- 
pelled from Itome, and their schools .suppressed by 
Domitiau, A.D. S3. Philosophy is now divided into, 1. 
Moral or Ethical ; 2. Intellectual ; 3. Natural or Phys- 
ical. 

MOUAI. ANt) INTELLEOTtJAI. PUILOSOl'UY. 

AnciEKT Schools. — Pijthagorean, about 50U B.C. ; Pla- 
tonic (the Academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the 
Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334; Skeptic, by Pyrrho, 334; 
Cynic, by Diogenes, 330 ; Kpiciireun, by Epicurus, 
3U(!; Stoic, by 'Zeno, 290; Middle Academy, by Arce- 
silaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Carneades, 100. 

MoiMcuN Systems. — national, Bacon, about A.D.,1624; 
Cai-tetiian, Descartes, about 1050 ; Rcjlective or Per- 
ceptice, Locke, 1090 ; Jdealifitic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elect- 
ive, Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common Seme, Keid, 1750-70 ; 
Transcendental, Kant, Hamilton, etc., 1770-1860; Sci- 
entific, Fichte, 1800-14 ; Ahsolute Idcntitii, Schelliug, 
lSOO-20; Absolute Idealism, lie[xe\, lSlO-30; Utilita- 
rian, Beutham, 1790-1S30; Positive, Comte, 1S30. 

NATURAL rillLOSOPUV. 

Greek and Latin. — Thales, about GOO B.C.; Pythagoras, 
590; Aristotle and Plato, .350; Euclid, 300; Archi- 
medes, '^87 ; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, abotit 100 ; 
Julius Ciesar, 50; Ptolemy, A.D. 150. 
Middle Ayes. — Arabians: BenMusa,800; Alhazeu,etc., 
1100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959; Roger Bacon, Opus 
Majus, 126G. 
Inductive Philosphy : 

Copernicus's system pitblished 1543 

Tycho Brahe 1546-1 GOl 

Kepler's Laws 1009-18 

Bacon's Novum Orgamim 1620 

Galileo's Dialogues 1632 

Royal Society begius {which see) 1045 

Otto Guericke — Air-pump and Electric machine, 1054 

Huj'gheus on Pendulums 1058 

Newton— Fluxions, 16G5 ; Analysis of Light, 
1GG9; Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Priiicipia 

published, 1687 ; death 1T27 

Bradley discovers aberration " 

Euler on Perturbation of the Planets 1748 

Black on Heat 1T02 

Laplace on Tides 1T75 

Lagrange, Mecaniqtie Analytique. 17SS 

Galvani and Volta's researches IJOl 

Laplace, Mecanique Celeste 1799 

(See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, etc.) 

PHIPPS'S EXPEDITION. The Hon. Capt. Phipps 
(afterward Lord Mulgrave) sailed from England in 
command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase ships,-to make 
discoveries, as near as possible, to the North Pole, 
1773. In .Vugnst of that year, he was for nine days en- 
vironed with impenetrable barriers of ice in the Frozen 
Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 48' N. lat. All farther 
progress was not only impossible, but retreat also, and 
in this dreadful situation all on board gave themselves 
np for lost ; but a brisk wind in two or three days ac- 
comi)lished their deliverance. They returned to En- 
gland without having made any discoveries, Sept. 20, 
1773. Nelson was coxswain to the second in com- 
mand. 

PIIOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The Phocians 
seized Delphi 357 B.C., and commenced the second 
Sacred AV'ar. They were opposed by Thebes and other 
states, and were utterly subdued by Philip II. of Mac- 
edon in 346. 

PIICENICIA, on the sea-coast of Syria. The natives 
were the most eminent navigators and traders of an- 
tiquity; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, 
Bervtiis, Tripoli, Byblos, and Ptolemais or Acre. From 
the'l9th to the 13th centuries before Christ they estab- 
lished colonics on the shores or isles of the Mediterra- 
nean— CarthaL'e, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panonnns, and 
are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia 
was conquered by Cyrus 537 B.C.; by Alexander, 334; 
by the Romans, 47 ; and, after partaking of the for- 



tunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman Empire, 
A.D. 1516. 

PHOENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable character, were 
formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at night to drill. 
Several persons were arrested and tried in March, 1659, 
at Tralee, but the jury could not agree on their ver- 
dict. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded guilty, 
and were discharged on being bound over to keep the 
peace. 

PHONOGRAPH, a machine which may be attached 
to piano-fortes and other keyed instruments, by which 
any music that is played may be written down on blank 
paper, since it rules and prints the notes simultane- 
ously. It was patented by Mr. Feuby, June 13, 1SG3. 
The motive power is electro-magnetism. Machines 
with a similar object were projected by Mr. Creed in 
1747 ; Mr. J. F. Uuger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in 
1827. 

PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek }}honc, sound). 
The Phonetic Society, whose object is to render our 
mode of writing and printing more consonant to 
sound, was established March 1, 1S43 ; Sir W. C. Tre- 
velyan president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman secretary, the 
latter being the inventor of the system, which was 
made known in 1837. Among other works published 
by the promoters of the system was the "Phonetic 
News" in 1S49. 

PHOSPHORUS was discovered in 16G7 by Brandt, 
of Hamburg, who procured it from urine. The discov- 
ery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a Saxon chem- 
ist, about 1670, and by the Hon. R. Boyle about the 
same time. — Souv. Diet. Phosphoric acid is lirst men- 
tioned in 1743, but is said to have been known earlier. 
Gahn pointed out its existence in bones in 1769, and 
Scheele devised a process for extracting it. Canton's 
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. 
Photophosphnretcd hydrogen was discovered bj' Sir 
Humphry Davy in 1812. The consumption of phos- 
phorus lias immensely increased since the manufac- 
ture of lucifer matches. In 1845, SchriJtter, of Vienna, 
discovered what is termed allotropic or amorphous 
phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as 
ordinary phosphorus. 

PHOTOGRAPHY'. The action of light on chloride 
of silver was known as early as the 16th century. The 
phenomenon was studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier 
(1790), Ritter and Wollaston (1801). From the results 
of these investigations, experiments were made by 
Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry Davy, in the Royal In- 
stitution, London, which were published in its journal, 
1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the Urst jjhototj- 
rapher. His paper was entitled "An account of a 
method of copying paintings upon glass, and of mak- 
ing protiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of 
silver."* 
Farther discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and 

Sir J. Herschel in 1S19. 
Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1S24, and in 
1S2G joined Niepce, and worked with him till the 
death of the latter in 1833. The production of Da- 
(jticrreotyix plates was announced in Jan., 1839 ; and 
the French Chamber of Deputies granted a pension 
to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce (the son). 
In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode 
of multiplying photographic impressions, by produc- 
ing a negative photograph (/. e. with the light and 
shades reversed) from which any number of positive 
copies may be obtained. His patent for producing 
the Talbotypc or Calotiipe (on paper) is dated Feb., 
1841. 
In 1851, collodion {tvhich see) was applied to photog- 
raphy bv Mr. F. Archer. 
The Photographic Societv of London was established 
in 1853. "It publishes a journal. On Dec. 22, 1852, 
774 specimens of photography were exhibited at the 
rooms of the Societv of Arts, Adelphi. 
CelcMial Photogra2}hii began with Professor Bond, the 
astronomer of Cambridge, LT. S., who exhibited a 
photograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
Warre'n de la Rne, of London, has produced excel- 
lent photon-raphs of the moon and other heavenly 
bodies, and on July IS, 1860, photographed the solar 
eclipse. , ,,.,-, 

Cartes de Visitc portraits {ichich see) taken by 51. Ferrier 

at Nice, 1857. 
In 1S61, Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed 

the bottom of the sea. 
Photography was successfully applied to the transfer 
of w7)rks of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leigh- 
ton in his illustrated edition of Lyra Germauica.lSGl. 



* Journal of the Royal Institution, 1802, p. 170. 



PHO 



364 



PIG 



In 1S61, Professor O. M. Rood suggested the applica- 
tion of photography to the microscope. 

The tannin process introduced by Major Kussell about 
1S61. 

Tiie co])yright of photographs is secured by an act 
passed in 1862. 

Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical in- 
terest in Jan., 1SG3. 

The Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver and 
albumen are discarded, and a double salt of uranium 
and collodion substituted, was announced in the au- 
tumn oflS64. 

The light of ignited magnesium was employed for 
photographs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the 
spring of 1804. 

PuoTOGALVANOGRAPUv, the art of producing engrav- 
ings by the action of light and electricity. The 
earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore Ni- 
ejjce, and presented by him in 1827 to the great bot- 
anist Robert Brown. Great advances have since 
been made in this art by MM. Nit'pce de St. Victor 
(who published a treatise on it in 1S56) and Vitry, 
Mr. W. R. Grove, U. Fox Talbot, etc. In 1852, Paul 
Pretsch patented a process which he called "Photo- 
galvanography." 

PuotoglyVhio Engra.ving (a jirocess by which the 
light actually etches a picture on a plate that may 
be and has been printed from) was patented by Mr. 
H. Fox Talbot in 1S5S, and is described and exempli- 
fied in the Photographic News, Sept. 9 and 16, 1S59, a 
specinieu being given in the latter number. 

PuoToziNOOGRAPiiY (a proccss by which photographs 
are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
from) was devised by Sir Henry James, chief of the 
Ordnance Survey, and made known in 1860. By it 
maps, charts, and engravings may be printed at a 
small cost. 

Photo-Soulptuee : M.Villcme's employment of photo- 
graphs iu the formation of sculpture was announced 
in 1803. 

PHOTOMETER (light - measurer) : one was con- 
structed by Dr. W. Ritchie in 18J5. Many improve- 
ments have been made recently in couuectiou with 
photography. 

PHOTOSPHERE. See Sun, note. 

PHRENOLOGY. See Craniologij. 

PHRYGIA (now Kermau), a province in Asia Minor, 
iu which Troy was situated ; became part of the Per- 
sian Empire in 537 B.C., and partook of its changes. 
It became a Roman province iu 47 B.C., and a Turkish 
one A.D. 1392. 

PHYSIC appears to have been first practiced by the 
Egyptian priests. Pythagoras endeavored to explain 
the philosophy of disease and the action of medicine 
about 529 B.C. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, 
flourished about 4'22 B.C., and Galen, born A.D. 131, 
was the oracle of medical science. Al)out 9S0, Avi- 
ceuua, an Arab, wrote a system of medicine. The dis- 
covery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, 
furnished an entirely new system of physiological and 
pathological speculation, 1628.* 

EillNENT rUYSIOIANS AND SrKGEONS. 

Born Died 

Thos. Linacre , 14G0 1524 

Paracelsus 1493 1541 

William Harvey 1573 1657 

Thomas Sydenham 1624 1689 

Malpighi 162S 1094 

Hermann Boerhaave 1603 1728 

R. Mead 1073 1754 

William Huuter 1718 1783 

Johu Hunter 1723 1793 

R. T. Laennec 1781 1S20 

John Abernethy 1704 1S31 

Astley Cooper 17GS 1841 

PHYSIC GARDENS. The first cultivated in En- 
gland was by Johu Gerard, surgeon, of London, in 1507- 
that at Oxford was endowed by the Earl of Danby in 
1652 ; that at Cambridge was commenced about the 
middle of the last century ; and that at Chelsea, ori<i- 
inated by Sir Hans Sloane, was given to the Apothe- 
caries' Company in 1721 : this last was very much ad- 
mired by the illustrious Liuuffius. 

PHYSICIANS, RoYAi, Colf.eoe of, of London (of 
England since 1S5S), was projected by Dr. Linacre, 
physician to Henry VIII., t who, through his interest 

* On Sept. 28, 1865, Miss Garrett, at Apothecaries' Hall, London, re- 
ceived the license to practice medicine. 

t Physician to the King.— The earliest mandate or warrant for 
the attendance of a physician at court is dated 1451 , the 33 Henry VI., 
a reign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to practitioners in 



with Cardinal Wolsey, obtained letters-patent, consti- 
tuting a corporate body of regular physicians in Lou- 
don with peculiar privileges, Sept. 23, 1518. Linacre 
was elected the first president of the college. Dr.W. 
Harvey was a great beuefoctor to this institution, 1653. 
He built a library and public hall, which he granted 
forever to the college, with his books and instruments. 
The college was afterward held in a building in War- 
wick Lane, erected by Sir C. Wren, where it continued 
till 1825, when the present elegant stone edifice in 
Trafalgar Square was erected from designs by Sir R. 
Smirke. — The College of Physician.s, Dublin, was 
founded by charter of Charles II., 1067, and was rein- 
corporated iu 1692. The Royal College of Physicians, 
Ediuburg, Nov. 29, 1681, 

PHYSICS. See under Philosophy. 

PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms that the 
dispositions of mankind may be discovered from the 
features of the face. The origin of the term is referred 
to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It 
became a fashionable study from the beginning of the 
16th century ; and iu the last century, the essays of Le 
Cat and Peruethy led to the modern system. Lava- 
ter's researches in this pursuit arose from his having 
been struck with the singular countenance of a soldier 
who passed under a window at which he and Zimmer- 
man were standing; his "Fragment" ou this subject 
appeared iu 1776. 

PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which treats 
of the inner constitution of animals and plants, and 
the several functions and operations of all their organs 
and tissues. The works of Muller, Milne Edwards, and 
Carpenter are much celebrated, and Todd's CyclopiE- 
dia of Physiology (1836-59) is a library iu itself. 

PIANO-FORTE, invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dres- 
den, iu 1717 ; he presented a model of his inventicm to 
the court of Saxony ; and, some time after, G. Silver- 
man, a musical instrument maker, began to manufac- 
ture piano-fortes with considerable success. The in- 
vention has also been ascribed to an instrument maker 
at Florence. The square piano-forte was first made 
by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1753. 
Piano-fortes were made in London by M. Zumpie, a 
German, 1766, and have been since greatly improved 
by Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, Chickering 
and Sons, Boston, Mass., Steinway & Co., of New 
York, and others. 

PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdned by the Ro- 
mans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 263 B.C. They 
becrau the Social War in 90, and were conquered iu 89 
B.C. 

PICHEGRU'S CONSPIRACY. See Georges, etc. 

PICQLiET, the first known game upon the cards, 
invented, it is said, by Joquemm, for the amusement 
of Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 13S0.— 
Mezeray. 

PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed 
in Scotland much about the time that the Scots began 
to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western Isles (He- 
budes). They afterward lived as two distinct nations, 
the Scots in the highlands and isles, and the Picts in 
that part now called the lowlands. Between 838 and 
842, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the 
Picts, and seized all their kingdom. See Roman Wall. 

PICTURES. See Painting. 

PIEDMONT {Pedemontium, Latin, foot of the moun- 
tains), a region iu N. Italy, the seat of government of 
the kingdom of Sardinia, which see. 

PIE-POUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty Foot, 
whose jurisdiction was established for cases arising at 
fairs and markets, to do justice to the buyer and seller 
immediately upon the spot. By statute 17 Edw. IV. it 
had cognizance of all disputes in the precincts of the 
market to which it might belong, 1477. 

PIER AMI) HARBOR ACT, to facilitate the forma- 
tion, management, and maintenance of piers and har- 
bors in Great Britain and Ireland, was passed in 1862. 

PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the an- 
cients.* 



medicine ; but in that reign no appointment existed which can justly 
be called physician to tlie royal person. By tliis warrant the king, 
with the consent of his privy council, deputed to three physicians and 
two surgeons the regnlation'of his diet, and the administration of such 
medicines and remedies as might be sufficient for his cure, without any 
allusion to the previous existence or permanency of the office which 
they were authorized for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for tlieir 
services. — Life of Linacre, 

* W^hen they took a long journey, they carried tame pigeons with 
them. When they thought proper *to write to their friends, tliey let 
one of these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck : tlie IJird, ouce 



PIL 



365 



PIT 



PILGKIMAGE of GRACE. Au insurrection, so 
called, began in Oct., Iti.'S, headed by Askc, and other 
gentlemen of Yorkshire, joined by priests and 4ii,i'"" 
men of York, Durliani, Lancaster, and other counties, 
against Henry VIII. They took Hull and York, with 
pnialler towns. The Duke of IS'orfolk marched ayainst 
them and made terms, and they dispersed. In 1537 
they a^aiu took arms, but were promptly suppressed, 
and irreat numbers were executed. 

PILCIUMAGES* began with the pilgrimage of the 
Empress Helena lo Jerusalem, 326. They became fre- 
quent at the close of the Ullh century. Kobert II. of 
France made several pilgriinagcs ; among others, one 
to Home about the year iOlG, |ierhaps in iO--'0, when he 
refused the imperial dignity and the kingdom of Italy. 
—JJciiaidt. 

"I'lLGUnrS PROGRESS," written by John Bun- 
yan, in l!edl'<n-d.jail, where he was imprisoned twelve 
years, IGGO-TJ. The tirst part was published in 1G7S. 
A Hebrew version appeared in 1S51. 

PILLORY', a scaffold for persons to stand on, to ren- 
der them publicly infamous. This punishment was 
awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, 
libeling, etc. In some cases the head was put through 
a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the 
fiice branded with one or more letters, and one or both 
ears were cut off. There is a statute of the pillory, 41 
Hen. III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory by 
being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with 
rotten cirgs and putrid ofl'al. It was abolished as a 
punishment in all cases except perjury, 1S15, and total- 
ly abolished in 1S37. The last who suffered at the Old 
Bailey was Peter Jas. Bossy for perjury, June 2-t, 1S30. 

PILNITZ, near Dresden, Saxony. The famous con- 
vention of Pilnitz took place between the Emperor 
Leopold and the King of Prussia, July 20, 1T91. On 
Aug. 27 the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, the 
Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by 
the courts in concert. It wasto the effect " that the 
em])eror should retake all that Louis XIV. had con- 
quered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these 
provinces to the Netherlands, give them to his serene 
highness the elector palatine, to be added to the palat- 
inate ; Bavaria to be added to the Austrian posses- 
sions," etc. 

PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & IT Vict., c. 
129 (l$53),with other acts, is embodied in the Merchant 
Shipping Act, 1S54. See Trinitij House. 

PINE-TREES. The Stone pine (Pimtfi Pinca), 
brought to these countries before 154S. The Cluster 
pine (7'//(»,s' P/««.s?(')'), brought from the South of Eu- 
rope before 1596. TheWeymoutli pine {Pinvs StroMis), 
from North America, 1705. Frankincense pine {Pimis 
Tada), from North. America, before 1713. There are 
other varieties. 

PINKEY' (near Edinburg), where the English under 
the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally defeated the 
Scots, Sept. lO, 1547. There fell not 200 of the English, 
but above 10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken 
prisoners. — Ilmnc. 

PINS are mentioned in a statute of 14.S3. Brass 
pins were brought from France in 1540, and first used 
m England, it is said, by Catharine Howard, queen of 
Henry VIII. Pins were made in England in 1543. — 
Stow. They were first manufactured by machinery in 
England in 1S24, under a patent of Lemuel Wellmau 
Wright, of the United States. 

PIRACY was severely repressed by the Romans. 
Pompey destro3-ed the Cilician pirates, G7 B.C. See 
Buccaneers. An act of Parliament to punish piracy 
was passed in 1S37. 

PIRyEUS, the port of Athens, was united to the city 
by two long walls, one erected by Themistocles, and 
the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were destroyed 
by Lysander, 404 B.C. It was fortified by Conon, 393 
B.C. The Pirreus was able to contain 400 Greek ves- 
sels. It was occupied by the French during the Rus- 
sian War in 1S54. 



reteased, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young 
ones. Taurostlienes announced to his father his victory at the Olym^jic 
eaines by sending to liiin at .i^l^gina a pigeon stained witli purple. — Ovtd. 
Hirtius iind Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons at the siege of 
Modena. In modern times, the most noted were the pigeons of Aleppo, 
which served as couriers at Alexandretta an<l Bagdad. Thirty-two 
pigeons sent to Antwerp were liberated from London at 7 o'clock in 
the morning, and on the same day, at noon, one of them arrived at 
Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterward a second arrived ; the re- 
mainder on the following day, Nov. n, 1819.— r/itVi>j. 

• PlLnRlM Fatiikks is the name given in North America to a i^nrty 
ofaliout 100 English Puritans who sailed in the Muy-Flower to ^orth 
America in 1G20. 



PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded 
about six centuries before Christ, and was favored by 
the early Roman emperors. The citizens took an act- 
ive part in the Italian wars of the Middle Ages, and 
eventually became subject to Florence, aftei^ a long 
siege, 1405-6. The University was founded in 1343, and 
revived by the Medici in 1472 and 1542. The celebrated 
Campanile, or leaning tower, was built about ll.')4,* 
and the Campo Santo about the same time. The rival 
popes, Benedict XIIL and Gregory XIL, were deposed 
at a council held at Pisa in 1409, and Alexander V. 
elected in their room. 

PISCICULTURE. See Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried 
sometimes at the saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle 
round the waist, sometimes in tlie pocket, etc.— Par- 
ilon. Pistols were first used by the cavalry of England 
in 1544. Of late years they have been made with a re- 
volving cylindrical breech, in which are formed several 
chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them 
in succession into a line with the barrel "ready for 
firing. The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be 
found in the United Service Museum, and is supjjosed 
to date from the reign of Charles I. The manufacture 
of pistols by machinery was first introduced into En- 
gland from the Laiited States, America, in tlie year 
1S53, by Colonel Colt, the inventor of the celebrated 
Colt revolver, at which time nearly the whole of the 
rnachinery used was new to this country. The perfec- 
tion and economy of this system of manufacture in- 
duced the British government to establish the Enfield 
armory in the year 1S55. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small island in the Pa- 
cific Ocean, said to have been discovered by Pitcairn 
in 1768, and seen by Cook in 1773, and since noted for 
being colonized by ten mutineers from the ship Bowh- 
ty, Captain Bligh, in 17S9.t See Bountij. 

PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.^: The first adminis- 
tration was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition 
ministry {which sec), Dec. 27, 17S3, and terminated by 
resignation in ISOl. The second was formed May 12, 
1S04~^ and terminated by Mr. Pitt's death, January 23, 
1S06. A public funeral was decreed to his honor by 
Parliament, and a grant made of £40,000 to pay his 
debts. 

ADMINI8TE.1TI0N OP 1783. 

William Pitt, First Lord of the Treasury and Chancel- 
lor of the Exchequer. 

Earl Gower, Lord President. 

Duke of Rutland, Privij Seal. 

Marquess of Carmarthen and Earl Temple, immedi- 
ately succeeded by Lord Sydney, Secretaries. 

Lord Thurlow, Lord Chancellor. 

Viscount Howe, Admiralty. 

Duke of Richmond, Ordnance. 

William Wj-ndham Granville, Henry Dundas, etc. 

[Mr. Pitt continued minister until 1801. Many changes 
in his ministry, of course, occurred in the long pe- 
riod of seventeen years.] 

ADMINISTKATION OF 1804. 

William Pitt, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Lord Eldon, Lord Chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, succeeded by Lord Sidmouth (late 
Mr. Addingtou), Lord President. 

Earl of Westmoreland, Lord Privy Seal. 

Lord Hawkesbury, Lord Ilarrowby (succeeded by Lord 
Mulgrave), and" Earl Camden (succeeded by Viscount 
Castlereagh, Home, Foreign, and Colonial Secretaries. 

* This celebrated tower was erected for the purpose of containing 
bells, and stands in a square close to the Cathedral of Pisa. It is built 
entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, 
each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above another. It 
inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular, that in dropping a 
plummet from the top, which is 188 teet in height, it falls sixteen feet 
from the base. Some think this was done purposely by the architect ; 
others attribute it to an accidental subsidence of the foundation. From 
this tower Galileo made his observations on gravitation (about 1635). 

+ They remained unknown to England until discovered accidentally 
in 1814. A ship nearing the island was hailed by a swarthy youth in 
the English language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon after 
settling there, had married some black women from a neighbormg isl- 
and, and had become a singularly well-conducted comniunity under the 
fostering care of Adams, the principal mutineer. As their numbers in- 
creased, the island proved incapable of their support. Their rnest, the 
Rev. Mr. Nobbs, obtained for them the favor of the English govern- 
ment, which removed them, with all their property, in the ship J/oray- 
s/i!re. on Mav 3d, and landed them, after a boisterous passage, on Nor- 
folk Island, prepared previously for their reception, June 8, 1850. The 
government stocked Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head ot r ;ittle, 
and 20 horses, and gave them stores to last twelve months ; their num- 
bers were 96 males and 102 females. 

t William Pitt, the second son of the great Earl of Chatham, was 
born March 28, 1759 ; became M.P. Jan. 33, 1*82 ; moved for reform in 
Parliament, May 7, 1"S2 ; and became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 
1782; died Jan.' 23, 1806. 



PIT 



366 



PLA 



Viscount Melville (succeeded by LordBarliam),4dmi- 

raltij. -r^ -, 1. 

Duke of Moutrose, Mr. Dundas, etc. 

PITTSBURG LANDING (Teunessee). On Suuday, 
Am-il 6 1S62, a ^leat battle was fought between the 
National troops mulei- Grant, and the Confederates 
under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The 
latter be"-au the attack and were nearly victorious, but 
lost theit- able general Johnston. Grant was i;e-en- 
forced by Buell the nest day and renewed the attack, 
the Confederates were on this day defeated, and soon 
after retired to Corinth. The Confederate loss in the 
two days' battles was about 11,000 ; the National, 
14,000. This battle is also called that of bhiloh. 
PIUS IV., Ckeed of. See Confessioiis. 
PLACENTIA, a city in North Italy, founded by the 
Komaus about 'i20 B.C. It suffered in all the convul- 
sions attending the fall of the empire and the wars of 
the Middle Ages. In 1254 it fell under the rule ol the 
family of the Scotti. In lb02 Alberto Scotto was over- 
come and Flacentia was united to Milan, _theu ruled 
by the Visconti. On their extinction in 144 (, Flacentia 
revolted, but was taken by Sforza, duke of Mi an, and 
treated very cruelly. lu 1513 it was^ given to Pope 
Leo X. In 1545, Paul III. gave it, with Parma, as a 
duchy, to his son, Peter Louis Faruese. bee Farma. 
PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 B.C.) are de- 
cribed in Exodus, chap, ix., etc. The tirst recorded 



general plague in all parts of the world occurred 1 67 
S C —Pctavins. At Carthage a plague was so terrible 
that people sacriliced their children to appease the 
eods 534 B.C.— Baronius. At Rome prevailed a deso- 
Uitin'"- plague, carrying off a hundred thousand persons 
in and round the city, 461 B.C. The plague at Athens, 
Avhich spread into Etiypt and Ethiopia, and caused an 
awful devastation, 430 B.C., is admirably described by 
Thucvdides. Another, which raged m the Greek isl- 
ands, E'-ypt, and Syria, destroyed 2000 persons every 
day, ISSB.C— Ph'ji)/. See Cattle. 
At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons per- 
ished daily, 80. . ,,, ,^„ ,.„ 
A"-ain ravaged the Roman Empn-e, 10 1 , -l09, 189. 
Another in the Roman Empire. For some time 5000 
persons died daily at Rome, and many towns were 
entirely depopulated, 250-265. , ., , ^, ^ 
In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that 
the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, 
430 
A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, extended all 
over Asia and Africa, and it is said did not cease for 
many years. „., . ,. , ... j. 
At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants per- 
ished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 740-T49. 
In London, 962. . 
At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease car- 
ried ofl'34,000 persons, Tii.—Will. Malms. 
In Scotland 40,000 persons perished of of a pestilence, 

9.54 
In London, a great mortality, 1094 ; and in Ireland,1095. 
A^ain in Loudon: it extended to cattle, fowls, and 

other domestic animals, \ni.—Holin>ihed. 
In Ireland: after Christmas this year, Henry II. was 

forced to quit the country, 1172. 
Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 

1204. 
The "Black Death" in Italy, 1340. 
A plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive 
mortality. Britain and Ireland sufiered grievously. 
In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in 
the Charter House yard, 1348. (That at Florence de- 
scribed by Boccaccio.) . 
In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in 

13G2 and 1367, and in Ireland in 1370. 
A great pestilence in Ireland, called the Foiirth, de- 
stroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 
30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- 
don, 1407. . . 1 T , • + 
A^ain in Ireland, superinduced by a famine : great 
numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 
plao'ue, 1470. 
An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and througbout 
En<^land, a plague which destroyed more people 
than the continual wars for the fifteen preceding 
years, 1478.— iJfy^fii; /Salmon. 
The awful Siulor Amilwus, or sweating sickness, very 

fatal in Loudon, 1485.-I)cZa?«ie. 
The phv'ue in London so dreadful that Henry VIL and 

his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500.— Sto?». 
The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours) in Lon- 
don 1506 ; and again in 1517. In most of the capital 
towns in England half the inhabitants died, and Ox- 
ford was depopulated, 9 Hen. VIII.— Stoto. 



Limerick w.as visited by a plague, when many tbou- 

TheSthiSckue^ again in England, 152S ; and in 
North Germany in 1529; and for the fifth time m 
England in 1551. , . ■, ■, , 

30 578 persons perished of the plague m London alone, 
1603-1004. It was also fatal in Ireland. . 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople m 

In Loudon a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 per- 
In'SStS'nemt mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 per- 

The^plague', brought from Sardinia to Naples (behig 
introduced by a transport with soldiers on board), 
racked with such violence as to carry off 400,000 of 
thi inhabitants in six mouths, 1656 

The Gkeat Plague op Loki.on m 10&4-5, Avhich cai- 
ried off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000. Fiies 
were kept up night and day to purify the air for 
ttu-ee days; and ft is thought the infection was not 
totally destroyed till the great conflagration of 1606. 

00,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and 
neighborhood, brought in a ship from the Levant, 

Oue^of the most awful plagues that ever raged pre- 
vailed in Syria, H^O.-Ahhe Mariti. . , ^^ „„ .nn 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 
of the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773 

In Egypt, above 800,000 persons died of plague 1.92 

In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 24., 000 per- 

lu Suani and at Gibraltar, immense numbers were car- 
riecl off by a pestilential disease in 1804 and 1805. 

A-aiu at G^ibraltar, an epidemic fever, much resem- 
Tilino- the plan-ue, caused great mortality, 182b. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) made its first appear- 
ance in England at Sunderland, Oct. 26, lb31 ; in 
Scotland, atHaddington, Dec. 23, same year ; and m 
Ireland at Belfast, March 14, 1832. , ,„,„ 

The cholem again visited England, etc., 1848 and 1849. 
See Cholera. , ^ . . . , ■■ 

The cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, and 
appeared in' Paris, Marseilles, Naples, July— Dec, 

A "-reat cattle plague in England, resembling typhus, 
near Loudon, begins June— increasing Dec, 1865, 



PLANETS. The planet Jupiter was known as a 
planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans; to the for- 
mer, it is said 3000 B.C. ; correctly inserted in a chart 
of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in which 
1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said 
to be in the Imperial library at Paris. The satellites 
of Jupiter are generallv considered to have been dis- 
covered by Galileo, 1C16; but Jansen, it is aflirmed, 
claimed some acquaintance with them about twenty 
years before. We now know nine primary planets, 
termed major: Mercury, Venus, the FMrth,Marii,Jiipi- 
ter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Vvlcan; and eighty- 
four secondary or minor, situated between the orbits 
of Mars and Jupiter, t 

Uranus, formerly called Georgium Sulus and Her- 
schcl; discovered by W. Herschel (.^^e Georgmm 
Sidus) March 13,1.81 



* The following passage is taken from De Foe's ^lf°'^y°"^^„t^\'^^ 
(a. work of imagination) : " It commenced in Dec, lb64. In May, June, 
and .Tulv, it had continued with great severity ; Imt in August and Sep- 
tember it quickened into dreadful activity, sweeping away 8i 00 persons 
in a week. Then it was that the whole British nation wept tor the suf- 
ferings of the metropolis. In some houses carcases lay w"*'ng 'o"- 
burial ; and in others, persons were seen doubled up in their last ago- 
nies. In one room were heard dying groans ; and in the next "le rav- 
ings of delirium, mingled with the waitings of relatives and friends, 
and the apprehensive shrieks of children. Infants passed at once Irom 
the womb^o the grave. The yet healthv child hung upon the P"tnd 
breast of a dead mother : and the nuptial bed was cl anged into a sep- 
ulchre. Some of the aflfected ran about staggering like drunken men 
and fell and expired in the streets ; while others calmly laid tliemselves 
down, never to rise but at the call of the last trumpet. At length, in 
the middle of September, more than 12,000 perished in one week ; in 
one night 4000 died ; and in the whole, not 68,000, as has been stated, 
but 100,000 perished of tills plague. The hearses were but dead-carta 
which continually traversed the streets, while the '>RI"'"'"5';7'„f ""^ 
out your dead,' tllrilled through every soul. Then it was that parents, 
husbands, wives, and children saw all those that were dear to them 
tl"rown w^th a pitchfork into a cart, like the offal of a slaughter-house, 
to be conveyed without the walls, and flung into one P>:oj">«"'°"L'l'Ji 
without the rites of sepulture, without a coffin, and without a s roud ! 
Some eraves were dug so large as to hold a thousand bodies each ; and 
fnrtlfose huge holes? the li-Ting, wrapped in blankets and -g^, threw 
themselves among the dead, in their agonies and delirum. \'^^yY"l 
often found in this state hugging the flesh of their ^'"f^t* "' t j,Hn„s' 
quite perished. People, in the intolerable torment of their sw""' ''"?»' 
ran wild and mad, laying violent hands upon tliemselves i »"" even 
mothers, in their iunJcyt murdered their o%vn children. V. hen tlie 
carts were insufiicient for their office, the houses and streets vieie vlu- 
dered tenfold more pestilential by the nnburied dead. ^Vf tue. 
TThe numerical order diflers in the lists of English and irench as- 
tronomers. 



PLA 



367 



PLA 



Neptum, cliscovered by Galle (iu consGqnerice of 
the calculations of Le Yerrier and Adams ; see 
Xeptinie) Sept. 23,1846 

Vulcan (between Mercury and the Sun), discovered 

by M. Lescarbault, a physician March 20,1850 

MINOR I'LANETS {according to Mr. G. F. Chambers). 

1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the naked 

eye) Jan. 1,1801 

2. I'ullas, discovered at Bremen by Olbers (see 

I'aUax) March 28,1802 

3. Juno, discovered by Harding Sept. 1, 1804 

4. Vesta, discovered by Olbers March 29,180T 

5. A^tro'a, by K. C. llencke Dec. 8,1S45 

6. Hebe, l)y the same July 1,1847 

7. Iris, by J. R. Hiud Aug. 13, " 

8. Flora, by the same Oct. 18, " 

9. Metis, by A. Graham April 25,1848 

10. H.Kieia, hv A. Ue Gasparis April 12,1849 

11. J'a'ethenojie, by the same May 11,1850 

12. \'ietoi-iu, by J." 11. Hind Sept. 13, " 

13. Fiieria, by A. He Gasparis Nov. 2, " 

14. J rem: by J. K. Hind May 19,1851 

15. EcDoiH ia, by A. He Gasparis July 29, " 

10. f'.tifelie, by the same March 17,18.52 

17. T/'ieti% by R. Luther April 17, " 

18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind June 24, " 

19. Fort una, by the same Aug. 22, " 

20. Muxslliu, by A. He Gasparis Sept. 19, " 

21. Liitetia, by H. Goldschmidt Nov. 15, " 

22. ('((//('(i^f, by J. R. Hiud Nov. 10, " 

23. Thalia, bv the same Bee. 15, " 

24. 7'/(ci/)/.s, l)y A. He Gasparis April 5,1853 

25. I'lioeeu, by M. Chacornac April 6, " 

26. J'ro.sei-jfiiie, bv R- Luther May 5, " 

27. Euterpe, bv J. R. Hind Nov. 8, " 

28. Bellona, by R. Luther March 1,1854 

29. Amphitrite, by Mr. JIarlh March 1, " 

30. Urania, by J. R. Hind July 22, " 

31. i"((j;/(co.s(/«e, by James Ferguson Sept.l, " 

32. Pomona] by H. Goldschmidt Oct. 26, " 

33. Polhi/innia, by M. Chacornac Oct. 28, " 

34. Ciree, by the same April 6,1855 

35. Leueothea, by R. Luther April 19, " 

36. yUaZrtw^n, by H. Goldschmidt April 19, " 

37. Fides, by R. Luther Oct. 5, " 

38. Leda, by M. Chacornac Jan. 12,1856 

39. LcPtitia, by the same Feb. 8, " 

40. Ilai iiionia, by R. Luther March 31, " 

41. Daplnie, by H. Goldschmidt May 22, " 

42. Isis, by Norman Pogsou May 23, " 

43. Ariadne, by the same April 15,1857 

44. ypsa, by H. Goldschmidt May 27, " 

45. Euqenia, by the same June 28, " 

46. llekia, by iSf. Pogson Aug. 10, " 

47. Melet.* bv H. Goldschmidt Sept. 9, " 

48. A'llaia, bv R. Luther Sept. 15, " 

49. Doris, by H. Goldschmidt Sept. 19, " 

50. Pales, by the same Sept. 19, " 

51. Virginia, by James Ferguson Oct. 4, " 

52. Xeviaiisa, bv M. Laurent Jan. 22,1858 

53. Europa, by H. Goldschmidt Feb. 6, " 

54. Cnliipxo, by R. Luther April 4, " 

5.5. Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt Sept. 10, " 

50. Pandora, by Mr. Searle Sept. 10, " 

57. M)a-mosiine, by R. Luther Sept. 22,18.59 

58. Concordia, by R. Luther March 24,1860 

59. Danae, by H. Goldschmidt Sept. 9, " 

eo. Olgmpia, by M. Chacornac Sept. 12, " 

61. Erato, by jNIM. Fr.rster and Lessiug. . .Sept. 14, " 

62. Echo (ofig. Titania).h\ 3. Ferguson... Sept. 14, " 

63. Ausoiiia, by A. He Gasparis Feb. 10,1801 

64. Angelina, by JL Tempel March 4, " 

C5. Ciibele (orig. Maaiiniliana), by M. Tempel, 

March 8, " 

66. Maia, by H. P. Tuttle April 9, " 

67. Asia, by N. Pogsou April 17, " 

68. Lcto, by R. Luther April 29, " 

69. IIesj)er'ia, by M. Schiaparelli April 29, " 

70. Pauojiea, by H. Goldschmidt May 5, " 

71. Feronia, bv M\\ Safl'ord May 29, " 

72. Siobe, by R. Luther Aug. 13, " 

73. Vliitie, by H. P. Tuttle April 7,1802 

74. a(\laten,'hy M. Tempel Aug. 29, " 

75. Eiinidiee, by C. H. Peters Sept. 22, " 

70. Fi-e'ia, by M. H'Arrest Oct. 21, " 

77. Fria<ia, by C. H. Peters Nov. 12, " 

78. Piaiut, by R. Luther March 1.5,1863 

79. Euninoine, by Jas. C.Watson Sept, 14, " 

80. Sap'jdio, by N. Pogsou May,1864 

• It was believed tit first to he 7)<i/./,>ic, No. 41, nnd henre wna rnUert 
"Pstitdii- Daphne," when K. Sclmhert i.vovod it to lie a new jilanet. It 
wns not reiiisrovereil by M. «nl,1srlin.iclt tiU Sept. 1, 1S6V, when it re- 
teived its present name", that of the Muse of Meditation. 



81. Terpsichore, by M. Tempel Sept. 30,1864 

82. Alcmene, by R. Luther Nov. 27, " 

83. Beatrice, by A. He Gasparis April 20,1865 

84. Clio, by R. Luther Aug. 27, " 

85. , by C. H. Peters Sept. 19, " 

86. , by M. Tietjeu Jan. 4,1860 

PLANETARIUM. Bavid Rittenhouse, the eminent 
mechanic and mathematician, of Philadeliihia, con- 
structed a planetarium iu 1708 which has elicited the 
highest praise. It was superior to any thing that hud 
been previously constructed, and was purchased by 
the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, where it re- 
mains. LTpon it is this inscription : ^'■Invented by David 
liittenhouse, A.D. 1708 ; repaired ami extended bij Henry 
Voight, 1800 ; both of Philadelphia." It is said that 
when Coruwallis took possession of Princeton, after 
Washington left it on the morning of the 3d of Janu- 
ary, 1777, he intended to carry oft' this planetarium and 
send it as a trophy to England; but the Americans 
kept him too busy to allow him to plunder. 

PLANING MACHINE. One for wood was con- 
strticted by Bramah about 1802, and one for iron by 
Joseph Clement in 1825. 

PLANTAGENET,' House op, to which belonged 
fourteen English kings, from Henry II., 1154, to Rich- 
ard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth, 1485. See En- 
gland, p. 188. 

PLANTATIONS. See Trade. 

PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a battle 
fought between the British under Clive, and the Hin- 
doos under Surajah Howlah, June 23, 1757. The na- 
bob, although at the head of about 68,000 men, was 
vauquished^by 1000 British and about 2000 Sepoys. 
The victory laid the foundation of the British empire 
in India. See India. 

PLASTER OF Paris. Gypsum, sulphate of lime, 
used for moulds, statuary, etc., first found at Mont- 
martre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its 
name. The method of taking likenesses by its use 
was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio about 14C0. 

PLATA, LA. See Argentine Republic. 

PLAT^A (BoDotia, N. Greece), site of the battle be- 
tween Mardonins, commander of the army of Xerxes 
of Persia, and Pausanius, commanding the Lacedae- 
monians and Athenians, Sept. 22, 479 B.C. ; the same 
day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 Persians scarce 
3000 escaped with their lives. The Grecian army, 
about 110,000, lost but few men. The Greeks obtained 
immense plunder, and were henceforth delivered from 
the fear of Persian invasions. Platsea was destroyed 
by the Thebans, 374 B.C. 

PLATE. In England, plate, with the exception of 
spoons, was prohibited in public houses by statute 8 
Will. III. (1090). The celebrated Plate Act passed iu 
May, 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act 
laying a stamp duty upon plate passed in 1784. See 
Goldsmith's Company. By 17 & 18 Vict., c. 96 (1854), 
gold wares were allowed to be manufactured at a low- 
er standard ; but a later act excepted marriage-rings. 
— The art of covering baser metals with a thin plate 
of silver, either for use or for ornament (plating), said 
to have been invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, 
who began with making the branches of a pair of 
spurs hollow, and filling the hollow with a slender rod 
of steel. He contiuned to make the hollow larger and 
the iron thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron 
spttr with silver. See Electrotype. 

PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals except 
Osmium. The name originated with the Spaniards 
on account of its silvery color, from the word Plata, 
signifying silver. It was found in the auriferous sand 
of the River Pinto, in South America, and was un- 
known in Europe until 1741, when Don Antonia Ulloa 
announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage 
to Veni.—Greig. In its ore have been found the met- 
als Palladium, Rhodium, Osmium, Iridium, and Ru- 
thenium {which see). In 1859, M. H. Ste. Claire Deville 
made known a new method of obtaining platinum 
from its ore, iu great abundance and purity, and at 
the internationarexhibition of 1802 was shown a mass 
worth i;3840, weighing 2C>6)4 lbs., of a metal hitherto 
considered infusible, obtained by his process. 

» Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the death of his 
nephew, the Earl of Brittany, in order to succeed to the earldom, hia 
confessor sent him, in atonement for the murder, to Jerusalem, attend- 
ed by only two servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to 
the Holy Sepulchre, the other In strip and whip him there, like a com- 
mon malefactor. Broom, iu Kr.iu h arnff. in Latin genista, being the 
only touph, pliant shrub in riil.'stiiii-, tlie noble criminal was smartly 
scourged witli it, anil from tliis inslruimnt of his chastisement he wa3 
caXlei rianta-ijenUla, or Plnntagenet.— Siinncr and Mkziray. 



PLA 



3G8 



POI 



PLATONIC PniLOSOPHY.the most popiilar of all 
systems (see Philosoiyhij). Plato's dialogues have beeu 
termed ■' Philosophy backed by example." He was a 
disciple of Socrates, 409 B.C., and died 347. The lead- 
ing feature of his miud was comprehensiveness. 

PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time which the 
equinoxes take to tiuish their rev(;lntiou, at the end 
of which the stars and constellations have the same 
place with reg^ard to the equinoxes that they had at 
first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or period re- 
quires '25,816 common years to complete it ; Ricciolus 
computes it at 25,9-20; and Cassiui at 24,800; at the 
end of which time some imagined that theie would 
be a total and natural renovaliou of the whole crea- 
tion. 

PLATTSBURG, Battle at. On the 11th of Sept., 
1814, a land and naval engagement occurred at Platts- 
burg, on Lake Champlain, between the Americans and 
the British. The American land forces were com- 
manded by General M'Ccmib, the naval forces by Com- 
modore M'Donouirh. The British land force was com- 
manded by General Prevost, the naval force by Com- 
modore Dowuie. The American laud force was about 
4500 strong, the British about 14,000. The naval en- 
gagement was soon decided in favor of the Americans, 
and the British land forces soon retreated. In the laud 
engagement, the British lost in killed, wounded, and 
missiug, about 1500 ; the Americans 102. 

PLAYS. See Drama and Theatres. 

PLEADINGS. Clothaire held a kind of movable 
Parliament called vlacita, whence came the word 
pleas, A..'D.&\6.—lIciMvJt. In the early courts of ju- 
dicature in Eugland, jilcadings were made in the Sax- 
on language in 786; and in Norman-French from the 
period of the Conquest in 10C6 unlil 1362. Cromwell 
ordered all law proceedings to be taken in English in 
1050. In English law the pleadings are the mutual 
statements of the plaintiff's cause of action, and the 
defendant's ground of defense. 

PLEBEIANS, Plebes, the citizens of Rome, distinct 
from the Patricians. See limne, 494-3G6 B.C. 

PLOTS. See Conspiracies and Rebcllioiis. 

PLOW MONDAY, in January, the first Monday after 
the Epiphany. In 1SG6, Jan. 8; in 1867, Jan. 14. It re- 
ceived the appellation from its having been fixed upon 
by our forefathers as the day upon which they returned 
to the duties of agriculture after enjoying the festivi- 
ties of Christmas. — Ashe. On Plow Monday, too, the 
plowmen of the North country used to draw a plo\v 
from door to door, and beg plow-money to drink. — 
Bailey. 

PLUM. The English have two native phtms: the 
finer kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 1522. 
The Diospyros Lotus, the date-plum, was brought from 
Barbary before 1596. The Pishamin plttm, Ciospyros 
Virginiana, from America, before 1629. Formerly 
damsons, apricots, and peaches went by this name, as 
raisins do to this day. 

PLURAL NUMBER. See TTe. 

PLUS (-f) and Minus (— ). Professor De Morgan 
attributes these signs to either Christopher Rudolf, 
who published a book on Algebra about 1522, or Mi- 
chael Stifelius, about 1544. 

PLYMOUTH, a fortified sea-port in Devonshire. It 
was in 1588 the rendezvous of the English fleet of 120 
sail under Howard, Drake, etc., which pursued the 
Spanish Armada. The fine hotel and assembl3'-rooms 
were burnt Jan. 6, 1SG3 ; loss about X50,000. See Break- 
loatcr and Dock-vards. 

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A body of Christians 
calling themselves "the Brethren," which first ap- 
peared at Plymonth about 1830. In 1S51 they had 132 
places of worship in England and Wales. They ob- 
ject to national churches as too lalitudiuarian, and to 
Dissenters as too sectarian. They receive into com- 
munion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy 
Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those 
of most evangelical Protestant churches, but they rec- 
ognize no order of ministers. 

PNEUMATIC DISPATCH COMPANY conveys let- 
ters and parcels through tubes by means of atmospher- 
ic pressure and a vacuum. The London company's 
act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid 
down in Threadneedle Street on Sept. 12,1860; and on 
Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiments were performed 
at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the 
Eustou railway station to the N. W. post-office in 
Camdentowu, and on Feb. 21, 1863, the conveyance 
of the mail-bags began. In Oct., 1865, tubes had been 



laid down between Euston railway and Holborn ; and 
on Nov. 7 several persons traveled in them. Engi- 
neer, Mr. Rammell. 

PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed air is 
the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, was ex- 
hibited in London in Dec, 1864. A company has beeu 
formed to bring it into general use. 

PNEUMATIC RAILWAYS. See AtnwspJieric liail- 
ways. 

PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of the me- 
chanical properties of air and gases. See Air and At- 
')uos2Jheric Jtailways. 

PODESTA (from potcstas, power), an Italian gov- 
ernor, afterward a judge; one with sitpreme authority 
was appointed at Milan by the Em^ieror Frederick I. 
when he took the city in 1158. 

POET LAUREATE. Selden could not trace the 
precise origin of this oflice.* Chaucer, on his return 
from abroa'cl, assumed the title of pnet laureate ; and 
in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a 
grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I., in 
1C15, granted to his laiu-eate a yearly pension of 100 
marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by 
letters-patent of Charles I. to XlOO per annum, with an 
additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish wine, 
to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
poets laukeate from the eeign op queen eliza- 

BETU.t 

Edmund Spenser, died 1598-9 

Samuel Daniel, died 1619 

Ben Jouson, died 16.ST 

Sir William Davenant, died 166S 

John Drvden : deposed at the Revolution 1088 

Thomas "Shadwell, died 1692 

Nahnm Tate, died 1715 

Nicholas Rov.-e, died 1718 

Rev. Lattrence Eusdeu, died 1730 

CoUey Gibber, died 1757 

William Whitehead, died 1785 

Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died ,. 1790 

Henry James Pye, died '. 1813 

Dr. Robert Southev, died March 21, 1843 

William Wordsworth, died April 23, 18.50 

Alfred Tennyson (born 1809) installed 1850 

POETRY, the oldest, rarest, and most excellent of 
the fine arts, and highest species of refined literature. 
It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest 
perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in 
melody, and before painting in description. — Hazlitt. 
The song of Moses on the deliverance of the Israelites, 
and their passage through the Red Sea, 1491 B.C. (Ex- 
ochis XV.), is the most aircient poetry extant. Orpheus 
of Thrace is deemed the inventor ofpoetry (at least in 
the western part of the world), about 1249 B.C. See 
Epics, Odes, hiatire. Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, Ballads, 
Hymns, and Verse. 

POICTIERS (W. France), the site of the battle be- 
tween Edward the Black Prince and John, king of 
France, in which the English arms triumphed, Sept. 
19, 1356. The standard of France was overthrown, 
many of her nobility slain, and her king was taken 
prisoner and brought to Loudon. — Carte. 

POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed 
a conspiracy for poisoning their husbands, which they 
too fatally carried into cfl'ect. A female slave de- 
nounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered 
them to be publicly exectited, 331 B.C. It was said 
that this was the first public knowledge they had of 
poisoning at Rome.t Poisoning was made petty trea- 



* "Warton, in bis IHstonj of EnfjVtsh Poetnj, states tliilt in the reifjn 
of Henry III. there was a Vcrsijicator Regis, to whom an annual sti- 
pend was first paid of one hundred shillings. The first mention of a 
Poet Laureate occurs, wo believe, in the reig^x of Edward IV., when 
John Kay was laureate ; Andrew Bernard was laureate, temp. Henry 
VII. ; and John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. Edmund Spenser, as 
above, was poet laureate in the reiffn of Elizabeth, Whitehead was 
created on the refusal of Grey, Warton on the refus.al of Mason, and 
Southev on the refusal of Scott. Laurence Eusden commenced a series 
of Birth-day and New-Year's Odes, which continued till the death of 
Pye in 1S13. We believe that on Southey's appointment the tierce of 
Canary wine was commuted for X27. 

t *' At the accession of George I., Rowe was made poet laureate, I am 
afraid by the ejection of poor Nahum Tate, who died in the IMint, where 
he was mrced to seek shelter from extreme poverty." — Dr. Johnson. On 
the death of Warton its abolition was recommended by Gibbon, whose 
elegant compliment on the occasion still more forcibly applied on 
Wordsworth's death in 1850.—" This is the best time for not filling 
up the office, when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just de- 
parted was a man of genius." — Pecline and Fall, etc., chap. Ixx. 

X A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the 17th cen- 
tury was called aqua to/ana, from the name of the woman Toi^mia, 
who made and sold it in small flat vials. She carried on this traflic 
for half a century, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, con- 
fessed that she had beeu a party in poisoning 600 people. Numerous 



POL 



369 



POL 



son in England, and was punisliecl by boiling: to death 
(of •Nvliich there are some resnarkn'ble instances), 23 
lJeii.VllI.,ir):;-.>. See lUtilimj to Death. Tlie frequency 
of cases/if iiiiisdiiini; by means of arsenic, in Kii^'land, 
caused tlie Kritisli lli^'ji^lature to pass a law rcnderiiif; 
the sale of arsenic (.wliicli, until then, could be obtained 
without check by any person from druggists' and apoth- 
ecaries' shops) a matter of difficulty. This act regu- 
lated the sale of arsenic, and was passed 14 Vict., c. 13, 
June 0, 1851.* Kecont remarkable cases of poisoning 
are those for which W. Palmer was executed in 1856, 
and Miss M.Smith tried in 1S5T. — See Triah. Catha- 
rine Wilson, a noted poisoner, was executed on Oct. '20, 
lSt;'2. Edward William I'ritchard, M.D., was executed 
at Glasgow, July 'is, Isofi, for the slow murder of his 
wife and her mother, by antimony. A committee of 
the Commons on the subject of the sale of poisons was 
appointed in IS,";?, but no legislation has yet ensued. 
Tlie i'iiisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed July 
2S, 1S03. 

POITOU, an ancient province W.France, part of the 
dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry II. of England. It 
partook of the fortunes of Aquitaiue (which nee). 

POLAND (N.E. Europe), part of ancient Sarmatia. 
It is said to have become a duchy under Lechus or 
Lesko I., 550; and a kingdom under Boleslaus, about 
992. The natives belong to the great Sclavonic family. 
The word Pole is not" older than the 10th century. 
The population of the kingdom of Poland iu 1S5T was 
4,7S9,3T9. 
Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity 

about 842 
[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his reign was 
80 prosperous that every succeeding native sov- 
ereign was called a Piast.] 

Introduction of Christianity about 092 

Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of 
Cracow, with his own hands, 10T9; his kingdom 
laid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- 
jects absolved of their allegiance lOSO 

He flies to Hungary for shelter, but is refused it by 
order of Gregory VII., and he at length kills him- 
self or dies m a monastery 1081 

Tartar invasion 1241 

Premislas assassinated 1295 

Louis of Hungary elected king 13T0 

Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks 1444 

W^ar against the Teutonic knights 144T 

The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 

and sell them to the Turks as slaves 149S 

Splendid rcigu of Sigismuud II 1548 

Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on 

whom he bestows the Ukraine 1575 

Abdication of John Casimir 166S 

Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vi- 
enna 1GS3 

Many Protestants killed after an affray at Thorn, 1724 

Stanislaus abolishes torture 1770 

An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons " 

The evils of civil war so weaken the kingdom that 
it falls an easy prey to the Empress of Russia, 

Emperor of Austria, and King of Prussia 1772 

The first partition treaty Feb. 17, " 

The public partition treaty Aug. 5, " 

A new Constitution granted by the king. . .May 8,1791 
The Russians, etc., on various pretexts enter Po- 
land 1792 

The Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko (bat- 
tle of Maciejovice), defeated (Kosciusko is car- 
ried prisoner to Russia) Oct. 4,1794 

Suwarrow's victories and massacres " 

Battle of Warsaw Oct. 4, " 

Courland is annexed to Russia 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno ; final par- 
tition of his kingdom Nov. 25, " 

Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25,1796 

He arrives in London May 30,1797 

Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg Feb. 12,1798 

Treaty of Tilsit (irhich see) July 7,1807 

General Diet at Warsaw June,lS12 

persons wore iniplicfitod bv tier, iind many of tlioin were publicly exe- 
cuted. All Itnly was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons tif distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It ap- 
peared to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of 
their husbands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was 
not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but 
the chemists have not agreed about its real composition. A proclama- 
tion of the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and 
others considered it as a solution of crystallized arsenic. Between 16t>6 
and 1676 the Marchioness dc Brinvillfers poisoned her father and two 
trothera and many others. She was executed July 16, 1676. 

* Nov., 1S5S, 17 persons died at Bradford througn eating sweetmeats 
in which arsenic had been mixed by mistake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, 
was tried for homicide, but was acquitted, though guilty of culpable 
negligence. 

A A 



The central provinces form the duchy at Warsaw, 
between 1S07 and 1813, which is made the king- 
dom of Poland under Alexander of Russia, 

April 30,1815 
New Constitution granted, and Cracow declared 

to be a free re]nibiic Nov. 27, " 

Polish Diet opened Sept., 1820 

A revolution at Warsaw ; the army declare in favor 

of the people Nov. 29,1830 

The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant, 

Jan. 25,1831 
Battle of Grochow, near Praga ; the Russians lose 
7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000, 

Feb. 2,5, " 

Battle of Wawz (xvhich sec) March 31, " 

The insurrection spreads to Wilna and Volhynia, 

Aprils, " 

Battle of Zelicho April 6, " 

Battle of Seidlece April 10, " 

Battle of Ostrolenka(Mi7itc7isee); defeat of the Rus- 
sians May 26, " 

The Russian General Diebitsch dies June 10, " 

Battle of Wilna June 19, " 

Grand-duke Constan tine dies June 27, " 

Battle of Minsk July 14, " 

Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. S, " 

The insurrection suppressed Oct. 5, " 

Ukase issued by the Emperor Nicholas, decreeing 
that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth 
form an integral part of the Russian Empire, 

Feb. 26.1832 

Attempt at revolution in Poland* Feb. 22,1846 

The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke 
the treaty of 1815 which constituted Cracow a 
free republic, and it is declared Austrian terri- 
tory. Nov. 16, " 

[This annexation was protested against by En- 
gland, France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 
The kingdom of Poland finally made a Russian 

province May,1847 

Great popu4ar demonstration in commemoration 

of the battle of Grochow Feb. 25,1861 

Six members of the Royal Agricultural Society 

killed by the military T Feb. 27, " 

Great excitement at their funeral; many citizens 
put on mourning; an address to the Emperor 
Alexander signed by 60,000 persons ; mild con- 
duct of Prince Gortschakoff the governoi-, 

JIarchl-T, " 
Mukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written a 
circular exciting the peasantry against their 
lords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in 

consequence March 17, " 

The government promises reforms and the re-es- 
tablishment of Poland as a separate kingdom; 
yet abolishes the Agricultural Society.. .April 7, " 
Great meeting in consequence, which is dispersed 
by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; above 100 

are killed and wounded Aprils, " 

Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Russian 
officials quit Lublin; General Chruleff marches 

hither. April, " 

80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in War- 
saw May, " 

Death of Prince Gortschakoff, lieut. gen. of Poland, 

May 30, " 

New administrative council appointed June, " 

Death of Prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged 

91 July 15, " 

Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress. . . " 
Fresh disturbances : Warsaw put iu a state of 

siege Oct., " 

Military arrests in churches in Warsaw ; they are 

closed by the priests Oct. 17, " 

The governor. Count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 

Oct. 23, " 
General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, as- 
sassinated Oct. 25, " 

Bialobzeski, Catholic archbishop of Warsaw, ar- 

* On Feb. 22, 1846, an Austrian force under General Collin, which 
had entered Cracow on the approach of armed bands of peasantry, was 
attacked and driven out of the town. A provisional government was 
then proclaimed by the insurgents, and two days afterward they crossed 
the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the peasantry of Gallicia, who 
were solicited by the nobles and clergy to strike a blow in the cause 
of liberty. The Austrian government, ia order to prevent this junc- 
tion, excited in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of the nobles, 
and offered a reward for every noble delivered up, alive or dead: a 
general massacre of the nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow fol- 
lowed ; the insurgents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence 
they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow ; here they were at- 
tacked by General Collin, and driven into Cracow on the 27th of Feb- 
ruary. The forces of the three powers then began to concentrate on 
Cracow ; the people in the town opened negotiations with the Aus- 
trians about a surrender, and while these were going on, a Rassian 
corps entered the town without resistance, and soon afterward the rev- 
olution waa at an end. 



POL 



370 



POL 



rested Nov. 19 ; tried and condemned to death 
as a rebel for closing the churches [he died 
shortly after] .Dec. 18,1S61 

The new archbishop Feliuski exhorts the Poles to 
submission •••••• • * eb. 15,li50Z 

Eicor of the government relaxed; amnesty grant- 
ed to 89 convicted political prisoners. . .April 29, 

The Grand-duke Coustantine appointed governor, 
Mav 28 ■ begins with a lenient pohcy, but his lite 
is attenipted by Jaroszyusky, July 3, who is ex- _^ 
ecuted Aug. /i, 

Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a Liberal ^_ 
Pole, president of the council. . .... . . . . .Aug /b. 

Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled tor 
presenting to the government the report ot a 
meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he had ^^ 
been asked fcept., 

Telkuer, the chief of the secret police, found mur- 
ciered. -.-Nov. 9, 

Severe military conscription without iiol^ice>^ ^^ ^g^^ 

Insurrection in the night, at Warsaw. . .._. .Jan. 22, 
Many Eussians murdered ; Poland put m a state 

of siege ; Ja"-24. 

The Polish provisional government issues its tirsc ^^ 



Louis Mieroslavvski announces himself as head of 
the Poles, Feb. 19; his band defeated and dis- 

persed.... Vo''^^^• 

Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of Polaua, 
March 10 ; after several defeats he enters the 
Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned, 

March 19, " 
The insurrection becomes general, and is support- 
ed by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful 

guerrilla warfare March and April, " 

The secret central committee assumes the su- 
preme command March, 

The czar's offer of an amnesty to all who lay down 

arms before May 13 rejected April 12, " 

European intervention on behalf of Poland, April 
17. etc. : firmly replied to by the czar, 

April 2G, etc.,1863 
The secret committee (as a provisional govern- 
ment) levies taxes, May 3, and forbids payment 

of taxes to Eussia May 9, " 

je80,000 taken from the Eussian treasury at War- 
saw for the provisional government, June 12 ; 

the Poles claim the Poland of 1772 June 26, " 

Fruitless intervention of European powers ; san- 
guinary rule of Mouravieff at Wilua June, " 

General Berg replaces the Marquis de Wiepolski 
as lieut. general, and governs with great rigor, 

July 7, " 

Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles 

under Wysocki and Horodycki, July 1 ; Felinski, 

the E. C. Archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; 

frequent conflicts with varying results; many 

captured priests and nobles executed Aug., " 

Lelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories, killed 

in battle Sept. 6, " 

Earl Eussell decides against armed intervention, 

Aug. ; negotiation ceases Sept., " 

Gen. Berg iired at from the Zamoyski hotel, War- 
saw, Sept. 19 ; the hotel destroyed Sept., " 

Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. Alger, 
an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for maliing 

grenades; the Hotel de Ville fired Oct. 9, " 

Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at 
Warsaw, Oct. 27 ; 41 ladies arrested at night, 

Nov. 3, " 
The Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 

Nov. 27, " 
The Abbe Machiewicz, a warlike priest, venerated 

as a martyr, hanged Dec. 28, " 

Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigor, Dec, " 
Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 
prisoners captured by the Eussians, the insur- 
rection gradually dying out Jan. to April, 1864 

The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical let- 
ter to the Polish Church July 30, " 

Eomauld Traugott, formerly a Eussian colonel, 
the head of the Polish provisional government 
since Oct., 1863, and five others, hanged. .Aug. 5, " 
Decree for reorganizing education at Wars'aw, 

founding a university, etc Sept. 11, " 

The secret provisional government, after stating 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 ex- 
iled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a 

" national man" Sept. 21, " 

Many E. C. convents closed for participating in 

the insurrection Nov., " 

Further measures for denationalizing Poland 
adopted ■ Dec, " 



The ex-Dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- . 

triaus and sent to Switzerland Feb.,lSC5 \ 

The Abbe Stanislaus Bizoski and his lieutenant \ 

captured and executed May 23, " 

(See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia.) 

DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 

842. Piastus, duke. 

801. Ziemovitus, his son. 

892. Lesko or Lescus IV. 

921. Jiemomislas, son of Lesko. 

962. Miecislas I. becomes Christian. _ 

992 Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtained 

the title of king from the Emperor Otho IlL 
1025. Miecislas II. . 

1034. Eichense or Eichsa, his consort, regent ; driven 

from the government. 
1037. [Anarchy.] , , , 

1041. Casimir L, her son, surnamed the Pacific, he had 

retired to a monastery, but was invited to the 

throne. 
1058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. 
1082. Ladislas, called the Careless. 
1102. Boleslas IIL, surnamed Wry-mouth. 
1138. Ladislas II., son of the preceding. 
1145. Boleslas IV., the Curled. 
1173. Miecislas III., the Old; deposed. 
1178. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 
1194. Lesko v., the White; abdicated. 
1200. Miecislas III. ; restored. 

1202. Ladislas III. ; retired. . , , , , , 

1200. Lesko V. restored ; assassinated ; succeeded by 

his son, an infant. 
1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 
1279. Lesko VL, surnamed the Black. 

1289. [Horrid anarchy.] 

1290. Premislas, styled King of Poland, governs wise- 
ly; assassinated. 

1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short; deposed. 

1300. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 

1304'. Ladislas IV., the Short. 

1333. Casimir III., the Great, one of the best princes 
of Poland; encourages the arts and amends 
the law ; killed by a fall from his horse. 

1370. Louis, king of Hungary. 

1382 Maria, and 1384, Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 
and her consort Jagello, duke of Lithuania, by 
the style of Ladislas V. 

1399. Ladislas II. (V.) alone : he united Lithuania to 
Poland. 

1434. Ladislas III. (VI.), his son ; succeeded as Kmg 
of Hungary, 1440. 

1445. [Interregnum.] 
" Casimir IV. 

1492. John (Albert) I., his son. 

1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, brother of the pre- 
ceding. 

1500. Sigismundl., brother of Alexander; obtained the 
surname of the Great. 

1548. Sigismund II., Augustus, son of the last king; a 
splendid reign ; added Livonia to his king- 
dom ; died 1570. Interregnum. 



ELECTED MONATlCnS. 

1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to the 
King of France ; he afterward succeeded to the 
French throne. 

1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania: estab- 
lished the Cossacks as a militia. 

1586. [Interregnum.] 

1587. Sigismund IIL, son of the King of Sweden, to 

the exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected 
by the nobles. 

1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.),Vasa, son of Sigismund III. ; 
succeeded by his brother. . 

1648. John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated, and retired 
to France, where he died ift 1072. 

1008. [InterreguunL] 

1069. Michael -Koributh-Wiesnowiski: in this reigu 
the Cossacks join the Turks and ravage Po- 
land. , , ^ , . 

1674. John IIL, Sobieski ; the last independent king ; 
illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, 
Turks, and Tartars. 

1097. [Interregnum.] , ^ 

" Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, elect- 
or of Saxony ; and elector in 1694, deprived of 
his crown. . 

1704. Stanislaus I. (Lezinski) ; forced to retire from his 
kingdom in 1709. 

1709. Frederick-Augustus again. 

1733. Frederick-Augustus II., son of the preceding sov- 
ereign. 

1763. [Interregnum.] 

1764. Stanislaus II., Augustus Poniatowski, resigned 



roL 



371 



POM 



his sovereignty Nov. 25,1795; died at St. Pe- 
tersburg, a stale prisoner, Feb. 12, 1798. 

POLAR CLOCK. Au opticiil apparatus iuvented 
by Professor Wheatslone (about l«4'.t), wliereby tlie 
hour of the day is I'ouud by meaus of the polarization 
of light. 

POLARIZATION OP LIGHT. See Optica. 

POLAR REGIONS. See Xorthwest Passage and 
Sottth Pole. 

POLE STAR, or Polar Star. A star of the second 
magnitude, the last in the tail of the constellation 
called the Little Ikar ; its nearness to the North Pole 
causes it never to set to those in the northern hemi- 
sphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. 
Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, or Great 
Bear, are called pointers to the polar star. The dis- 
covery of the pole star is ascribed by the Chinese to 
their emperor, Houg Ti, the grandson (they say) of 
Noah, who reigned and flourished l'J70 B.C. — (fniv. 
UisL 

POLICE. The London police grew out of the Lon- 
don watch, instituted about 1253. Its jurisdiction was 
extended 27 Eliz., 15S5, aud 10 Chas. L, 101(1 ; and the 
system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. 
The magistracy at Bow Street has been long estab- 
lished. "Bee Magistrates. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science which has for 
its object the improvement of the condition of man- 
kind, and the promotion of civilization, wealth, and 
happiness. Its history in this country may be dated 
from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's "Wealth 
of Nations," 1770. The works of Mill and M'Culloch 
are justly celebrated. A professorship of Political 
Economy was established at Oxford by Mr. Henry 
Drummond, M.P., 1S25; and at Cambridge, tirst by Mr. 
G. Pryme, in 1S28 ; but regularly established by the 
University in 1S63, Henry Fawcett (blind) being the 
first professor. 

POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in England in 
1S31 to carry the Reform Bill ; the most important was 
that of Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man 
j well versed in policy, or the well regulating aud gov- 
erning of a state or kingdom; a wise an'd cunning 
man. A man of artifice ; one of deep contrivance. — 
South. The term was first used in Prance about 1509. 
— Iltnardt. A new faction appeared, known by the 
name of Politicians, headed by the Due d'Aleufon and 
the ilontmoreucies, aud strengthened by the accession 
of the Huguenots in 1571. The duke was arrested, and 
the Montmorencies sent to the Bastile. — Idem. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site of a great 
victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, over Alaric 
the Goth, March 29, 403. 

POLL-ACT. An iniquitous act passed in Ireland 
by the Junto of the Pale, putting a price upon the 
heads of certain of the ancient Irish ; the Earl oi Des- 
mond being then deputy, 5 Edward IV., 1405. This 
act endured for a number of years. For particulars, 
see NOTE to article Irelai^, p. 203. Numbers of the 
Irish sufl'ered under this act. — Scully. 

POLL-TAX, or Capitation Tax, existed among the 
ancient Romans. It was first levied in England in 
1879, and occasioned the rebellion of Wat Tyler (see 
T!jlcr\ 13S1. It was again levied in 1.513. By the ISth 
Charles II., every subject was assessed by the head, 
viz., a duke £100, a marquis £80, a baronet £30, a 
knight £20, an esquire £10, and every single private 

Eerson 1-2W., 1007. This grievous impost was abolished 
y William HI. at the period of the Revolution. 

POLOTSK (Russia). The French under Marshal 
Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians under 
General Wittueustein. July 30 and 31, 1812. The same 
armies contending the next day, the Russians were 
defeated. After .several actions of less note, in which 
the advantage was sometimes on one, sometimes on 
the other side, Polotsk was stonned by the Russians, 
and retaken, Oct., 1812. 

POLTOWA. See Piiltotca. 

POLYGAMY, etc. IMost of the early nations of the 
world permitted polygamy. In Media it was a re- 
proach to a man to have less than seven wives. 
Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the 
first who took two wives; and the practice became 
frequent, until forbidden by Arcadius, 393. The Em- 
peror Charles V. punished this offense with death. In 
England, bv statute 1 James I., 1603, it was made fel- 
ouy, but with benefit of clergy. This ofleuse was pun- 



ished with transportation, but now by imprisonment 
or penal servitude. It is permitted by the IMohara- 
medans aud Mormonites. See Marriages. Polyandkv 
(where one woman has several husbands) is permitted 
in some Eastern countries, the children having equal 
rights. 

POLYGLOT, a term derived from two Greek words 
denoting "many languages," is chiefly applied to edi- 
tions of the Bible in several languages. 

1. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, was 
printed at Alcala (Complulensis) in Spain, 1.502-14- 
the first edition published in 1522, at the expense of 
the celebrated Cardinal Ximeues, costing 250,000 
ducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed- 
three on vellum. Count Mac Carthy, of Toulouse, 
paid £483 for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 

2. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp by Montauus, 8 
vols, folio, in 1569-69, at the expense of Philip IL of 
Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. 

4. Edited by Bryan Walton, was published in 6 vols, 
folio, 1054-7. 

Copies of all four are in the library of the British and 
Foreign Bible Society. 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bagster, 
1 vol. folio, 1831. 

POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the isles in 
the great Pacific Ocean. 

POLY'PES {many-footed) animals, also named Hy- 
drte, on account of their property of reproducing 
themselves when cut in pieces, every part soon be- 
coming a perfect animal ; first discovered by Leeuwen- 
lioek, and described by him in the Pliilosophical Trans. 
1703. The polypes are of the order Zoophytes ; they 
partake of the animal and vegetable nature, and there- 
fore are justly placed as the link which joins the ani- 
mal to the vegetable world. 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, Royal, Regent 
Street, London, was erected by Thompson in 1S3S. It 
contains a hall of manufactures with machines worked 
by steam-power, lecture theatres, etc., diving-bell, elec- 
tric machine, etc. — Timbs. This institution did not 
prosper commercially, and its decline was hastened by 
the fall of a staircase on Jan. 3, 1859, when one person 
was killed and many injured. The institution was 
closed in May, 1859, but was reopened by a new com- 
pany on Nov. 12, 1860. 

POMEGRANATE -TREE (Punica Granatum) was 
brought to Eugland from Spain before 1584. It orig- 
inally came from Spanish America. 

POMERANIA, a Prussian province, N. Germany, 
was held by the Poles, 9S0, and by Denmark, 1210; 
made au independent duchy, 1479 ; and divided be- 
tween Sweden and Brandenburg, 104S. The Swedish 
part was ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

POMFRET or Poxtefract (S. Y'ork). At the castle 
(built 1009), Richard II. was confined and murdered, 
Feb. 10. Henry IV., by whom he was deposed, wish- 
ing for his death, au assassin, attended by eight fol- 
lowers, rushed into the king's ai)artment. He wrested 
a pole-axe from one of the murderers, and soon laid 
four of their number dead at his feet, but was at 
length overpowered and slain. Some writers assert 
that Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In this 
castle also, the Earl Rivers, Lord Gray, Sir Thomas 
Vaughau, aud Sir Richard Haut or Hause, were exe- 
cuted, or rather murdered, by order of the Duke of 
Gloucester, then Protector of England (afterward Rich- 
ard IIL), June 13-20, 1483. 

POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Campania, 
was partly demolished by an earthquake in A.D. 03. 
It was afterward rebuilt, but was swallowed up by an 
awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by au earth- 
quake, on the night of the 24th of August, 79. Many 
of the principal citizens happened at the time to be 
assembled at a theatre where public spectacles were 
exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city and cov- 
ered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen 
centuries, a countrvman, as he was turning up the 
ground, accidentally found a bronze figure : and this 
discovery attracting the attention of the learned, far- 
ther search brous^ht numerous other objects to light, 
and at length the city was once more shone on by the 
sun. The'part first cleared was supposed to be the 
main street, 1750. The kings of Naples have greatly 
aided in uncovering Pompeii, and the present Italian 
government resumed the work in 1863. 

POMPEY'S PILLAR stands about three quarters 
of a mile from Alexandria, between the city and the 
Lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, aud the capital 



PON 



372 



POP 



ornamentecl with palm-leaves ; the whole, which is 
highly polished, composed of three pieces, and of the 
Coriiithian order. The column measures, accordiug 
to some, 94 feet; and others 141, and eveu 1(30 feet; 
but of its origin, name, use, and age, nothing is cer- 
tain.* 

PONDICHEREY (S.E. India), the capital of French 
India, and tirst settled by the French in 1674. It was 
taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was be- 
sieged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the 
English in Jan., 1761, and was restored in 1703 ; again 
taken Oct., 1778, and restored in 1783. Pondicherry 
was captured by the British Aug. 23, 1793, and in 1803, 
but was restored to the French in 1815. 

PONTIFFS (Latin Pontifices), the highest Roman 
sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The college 
first consisted of 4 patricians ; to these 4 plebeians 
were afterward added. Sylla increased the number to 
15 (8 majores, 7 minores). The chief was called the 
Pontifes Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a plebeian, ob- 
tained this office 254 B.C. 

PONTUS, a kingdom in Asia Minor, seems to have 
been a portion of Cappadocia, and received its name 
from its vicinity to the Pontu^s Huxinus. Artabazus 
was made king of Pontus by Darius Ilystaspcs. His 
successors wei-e little more than satraps of the kings 
of Persia. 
Artabazus made King of Pontus by Darius Hys- 

taspes B.C. 487 

Eeign of Mithridates 1 383 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 303 

Mithridates 11. recovers it 336 

Mithridates III. reigns 301 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 

Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 

Gauls, etc 252 

Mithridates makes au unsuccessful attack upon 

the free city of Sinope, and is obliged to raise 

the siege by the Rhodians 219 

Eeign of Pharnaces, 190; he takes Siuope, and 

makes it the capital of his kingdom 183 

Eeigu of Mithridates V 157 

He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 

Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 

receives the diadem at 12 years of age " 

Marries Laodice, his own sister 115 

She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and ac- 
complices to death 112 

Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 

and other countries Ill 

He enters Cappadocia 97 

His war with Rome 89 

Tigranes ravages Cappadocia 86 

Mithridates enters Bithyuia, and makes himself 

master of many Roman provinces, and puts 

80,000 Romans to death SO 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chserouea; 100,000 

Cappadocians slain " 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this 

time 74 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucul- 

lus in two battles 73 

Mithridates defeated by Lucullus C9 

Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 

But is defeated by Pompey C6 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies '. 63 

Reign of Pharnaces " 

Battle of Zela (see Zda) ; Pharnaces defeated by 

CjEsar 47 



Darius reigns 39 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 , 

Polemon II. succeeds his father A.D. 33 

Mithridates VII. reigus 40 

Pontus afterward became a Roman province, un- 
der the emperors. 
Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
Greeks at Trebizond, in this country, 1204, which 
continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 

POOR LAWS. The poor of England, till the time 
of Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor of Irelaud until 
1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 
23 Edw. III., 1349, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common 
law, the poor were to be sustained by "parsons, rec- 
tors of tlie Church, and parishioners, so that none 
should die for default of sustenance ;" and by 15 Rich. 
II., impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly 
sum to the poor ; but no compulsory law was enacted 
till the 27th Hen. VIII., 1535. The origin of the pres- 
ent system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Eliz- 
abeth, 1001, by which overseers were appointed for 
parishes. 
Poor Law Amendment Bill passed 1S34; amended in 

1836, 1838, 1840, aucl 1847. 
Poor Law (Ireland) Act passed 1838 ; amended 1S39. 
Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in Aid Act passed in 1849. 
In Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the number 
relieved was 141,870, at au average cost of X2 2s. 5d., 
and the expenditure was £535,943. 
In Irelaud, the poor's rate for the year ending Sept., 

1851, was i;i, 101,878. 
A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 
An agitation for the equalization of poor's rates 

throughout the kingdom began in 1857. 
The Times draws attention to the condition of the 
honselens poor in London, which led to measures for 
their relief, Dec, 1S58. 
Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1861. 
Union Relief Act passed to enable certain unions to 
obtain temporary aid (on account of the distress in 
Lancashire through suspension of cotton manufac- 
tures), 1862. 
Metropolitan Houseless Poor Act (authorizing guard- 
ians to receive destitute persons into workhouses, 
and the metropolitan board to reimburse them) 
passed July 29, 1864. 
Annual report of Poor Law Board for 1864, shows 

great decrease of pauperism — issued Sept.,lS65. 
40 refuges for houseless poor established in Loudou 

1864-5. 
" Casual wards" in London workhouses receive 1000 

per night, Jan., 1805. 
Union Chargeability Act passed, 1SC5. 

ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Expended. Poor Rntes. 

In 1580 X18S,811 

1680 605,562 

1698 819,000 

1760 1,550,804 

1785 2,184,950 



1815 5,418,845 

1820 7,329,594 

1830 8,111,422 

1835 6,356,345 

1840 5,408,699 

1845 5,543,650 



Expended. Poor Rates. 

In 1850, year to 

March 25 i;3,S16,909 

In 1853 6,522,412 

March, 1857, to 

Mar.,1858, about 3,082,600 



1802 4,952,421'"t859-60, about 3,795,500 



6 months to Mar. 

25, 1861 2,073,394 

6 months to Mar. 

1862 2,181,124 

6 months to Mar. 

1804 2,250,971 



PAUPEKS KECEIVING BELIEF (nOT TAOEANTS). 



England and Wales, January 1. . . 
Scotland, May 14 


1849. 
934,419 

82,357 
620,747 


1853. 
798,822 

75,437 
141,822 


1858. 
968,186 
69,217 [1857] 
50,582 


1802. 
932,400 
78,433 [ISCl] 
59,541 






Total 


1,637,523 


1,016,081 


1,007,985 


1,070,374 



POPE (from the Greek Pappoft and Papa, a father 
or grandfather), considered by Romanists to be the 
visible chief of the Church, the vicar of Jesus Christ, 
and the successor of St. Peter. This title was former- 
ly given to all bishops. It was first adopted by H3'- 
ginus, 139; and Pope Boniface III. induced Phocas, 
emperor of the East, to confine it to the prelates of 
Rome, 006. By the connivance of Phocas also, the 



* It is generally believed that the column has no reference to Pom- 
pey, to whom a marli of honor was nevertheless set np somewhere 
about this part. One supposes the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, 
another to Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscription on 
the base, considered that Adrian is the person honored ; while many 
assert, from the same inscription, that it is dedicated "to Diocletian 
Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of Alexandria." 



pope's supremacy over the Christian Church was es- 
tablished. See Ital;/, Reformation, and Rome, Modern. 

Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced 708 

Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his 

name 780 

Sergius II. the first pope who changed his name 
on his election; some contend that it was Ser- 
gius I., and others John XII. or XIII 844 

John XVIIL, a layman, made pope 1024 

The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX 1054 

Gregory VII. (Ilildebrand) obliges Henry IV., em- 
peror of Germany, to standlhree days, in the 
depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of the 
castle of Canossa, to implore his pardon 107T 



POP 



373 POP 



The pope's authority fixed in England 1079 

Appeals from Euclish tribunals to the pope intro- 
duced ( \'incr}, 19 Stejihen ' 1154 

Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for Pope 
Alexander III. to mount his horse* 1161 

Celostiue III. kicked the Emperor Henry VI.'s 
crown ofl'his head while kneeling;, to sliow his 
prerogative of making and nnnuiking kiuf;st..ll91 

The pope collected the tenths of the whole king- 
dom of England 122G 

The papal seat was removed for seventy years to 
Avignon in France 1308 

The pope's demands on England refused by Par- 
liament 1363 

Ap))eals to Rome from England abolished (I'v/mt), 1533 

The words "Lord Pope" struck out of all English 
books 1541 

Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies abol- 
ished by Clement XIV ITTS 

The pope's political influence destroyed by the 
French Revolution 1789-1S14 

Ilis diplomatic relations with Great Britain au- 
thorized by Parliament 184S 

He offends the British nation by creating bishops 
(see Papal Aggression) Sept. 30,1850 

BISHOPS AND POPES OF KOME. 

42. St. Peter (said by very doubtful tradition to 
have been the first Bishop of Rome, and to 
have been crucified head downward in (ill). 
* * St. Clement (Clemens Romauus) ; according to 
Tertullian. 

CG. St. Linus :t martyred. 

78. St. Anacletus: martyred. 

91. St. Clement: abdicated. 
100. St. Evaristus : martyred. 
109. St. Alexander: martyred. 
119. St. Sixtus : martyred". 
127. St. Telesphorus : martyred. 
139. St. H}-ginus : the first who called himself fiopc. 
142. St. Pius : martyred. 
157. St. Anicetus. 

16S. St.Soterus: martyred uudcrMarcus Antoninus. 
177. St. Eleutherus: opposed the Valeutiniaus. 
193. St. Victor: martyred under Severus. 
202. St. Zephyrinus. 
219. St. Calixtus : martyred. 

222. [The chair vacant.] 

223. St. Urban: beheaded in the persecution of Alex- 

ander Severus. 
230. St.Pontianus: banished by the Emperor Max- 

imin. 
235. St. Anterus : martyred. 
230. St. Fabian : martyred under Decius. 

250. [The chair vacant.] 

251. St. Cornelius: died the next year. 

252. St. Lucius : martyred the year following. Nova- 

tianus:i antipope. 

253. St. Stephen : martyred in the persecution of Va- 

lerian. 

257. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 

before his faithful disciple St. Laurence, in the 
persecution of Valerian, 258. 

258. [The chair vacant.] 

259. Dionysius: opposed the heresy of Sabellius. 
269. Felix: martyred; canonized. 

275. Eutychiauus: martyred. 

»» " 'When Louis, king cf France, and Henry H. of Enjrland, met Pope 
Alexander IIF. nt tlie castle of Torci, on tlie Loire, tliey both dismount- 
ed to receive hiin, and holding each of them one of the reins of his bri- 
dle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive 
manner into the castle." — Hume. 

t In the 11th century the power of the pontiff of Rome seems tohave 
reached its utmost height. Gregory VII. assumed the exclusive title 
of Pope, which till then had been common to otlier bishops; and his 
Buccessors carried their pretensions so far as to hold themselves 'out as 
lords of the universe, arbiters of the fate of empires, and supreme rulers 
of the kings and princes of the earth. In this character they proceeded 
to dispose of kingdoms, and to loose subjects from their allegiance, as 
is remarkably Instanced in the history of John, king of England. At 
length they affirmed the whole earth to be their jiroperty, as well 
where Christianity had been propagated as where it had not; and 
therefore, on the discovery of the tast and West Indies and America, 
Alexander VI., in 1493, granted to the Portuguese a right to all the 
countries lying to the eastward, and to the Spaniards all those west- 
ward of Capo Non, in Africa, which they might respectively be able to 
conquer. They finally pretended to be lords of the future world also ; 
and by licenses, pardons, dispensations, and indulgences, which they 
sold to tile best ijidders, to have a power of restraining, and in some in- 
stances of subverting, even the divine justice itself. — Aspin : Lives of 
the Fbpfi. 

X St. Linus is set down in nearly all accounts of popes as the imme- 
diate successor of St. Peter ; but Tertullian, who was undoubtedly well 
Informed, maintains that St. Clement succeeded the apostle. In the 
first century of the Christian Church, neither the dates of succession, 
nor the succession of bishops, are reconciled by even the best authori- 
ties. Some assert that there were two or three bishops of Rome at the 
name time. 

§ The names iu italics were nntipopos. 



283. Caius : a relative of the Emperor Diocletian. 
290. Marcellinus: distinguished by his courage under 

a severe persecution ; canonized. 
304. [The chair vacant] 
308. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the Emperor 

Maxentius ; canonized. 

310. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 

311. St. Melchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
314. Sj'lvester. 

836. Marcus or Mark : died the next year. 

337. Julius : of great piety and learning, maintained 

the cause of St. Athanasius. 
352. Libeilus : banished ; and in 
355. Felix II., antipope: placed in the chair by Con- 

stans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose 

return he was driven from it with ignominy. 
[The emperor would have the two popes reisrn 

together ; but the people cried out, " Oiic God, 

one Christ, and one bishop!"] 

358. Liberius again : abdicated. 

" Felix became legal pope ; but he was made away 
with by Liberius. 

359. Liberius again. 

366. Damasus: opposed the Arians: St. Jerome was 

his secretary. 

367. Zrrsinus. 

384. Siricius : succeeded to the exclusion of Ursi- 

ciuus. 
398. Anastasins : caused the works of Origeu to be 

proscribed. 
402. Innocent I. 

417. Zosimns : canonized. 

418. Boniface I. : maintained in the pontifical chair 

by the Emperor Honorius, against his rival Eu- 
lalins : canonized. 

422. Celestine I. : canonized. 

432. Sixtus III. : suppressed the heresies of Nestorius 
and Pelagius in the West. 

440. Leo I. the Great : most zealous in his endeavors 
to extend the papal see : canonized. 

461. St. Hilary. 

4CS. St. Simplicius. 

483. Felix III. : had a violent dispute with the Em- 
peror Zeuo respecting the Western Church : 
canonized. 

492. Gelasius : canonized. 

496. Anastasius II. : endeavored to bring about a uni- 
ty between the Eastern, and Western Church- 
es: canonized. 

498. Symmachus : canonized. 
" Laurentius: antipope. 

514. Hormisdas: canonized. 

523. John I. ; thrown into prison, where he died in 
526. 

526. Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a sac- 
rament: canonized. 

530. Boniface II. — Dioscorvs. 

533. John II. : opposed the Eutychians and ITesto- 
rians. 

535. Agapetus : died the same year. 

536. Silverius : sou of Pope Hormisdas, who had mar- 

ried before entering into the ecclesiastical 
state. The Empress Theodosia violently per- 
secuted him, and procured his banishment into 
Lycia, making Vij^ilius his successor. 

537. Vigilius : banished, but restored. 

555. Pelagius I. : endeavored to reform the manners 

of the clergy. 
560. John III. : the great ornamenter of churches. 

573. [The see vacant,.] 

574. Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 

578. Pelagius II. : died of the plague then desolating 
Rome. 

590. Gregory the Great, an illustrious patrician: con- 
verted the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. 

604. Sabiniauus. 

606 or 607. Boniface III. : died iu a few months. 

607 or 608. Boniface IV. 
614 or 615. Deusdedit. 
617 or 618. Boniface V, 
625. Honorius I. 

639. [The see vacant.] 

640. Severimis: died shortly after. 
" John IV. 

624. Theodorus L , , .. 

649. Martin I.: some say starved to death; others, 
died of his sufl'eriilgs. 

654. Eugenius L : canonized. 

657. Vitalianus : this pope sent missionaries into En- 
gland. 

672. Adeodatus, the "Gift of God." 

076. Domnus I. 

678. Agathon. 

0S2. Leo II. : instituted holy water. 



POP 



374 POP 



CS3. 

CS4. 
635. 
636. 
63T. 
701. 
705. 
70S. 

715. 
731. 

741. 
752. 

757. 
76T. 
708. 



795. 

810. 
817. 
824. 
827. 

844. 
847. 
855. 

858. 
867. 

872. 
882. 
884. 
885. 
891. 

896. 
897. 

898. 

900. 
903. 



904. 
911. 
913. 
914. 



929, 
931, 

936, 
93!>, 
942. 
946 
956 

963, 

9C4 



965. 

972. 
974. 

9S3. 
934. 
9So. 
996. 

999. 
1003. 

1009. 
1012. 
1024. 
1033. 

1044. 



1047. 
104S. 



[The see vacant] 

Benedict 11. 

John V. : niled with wisdom. 

Conon. — Theodore and Peter* 

Serglus: "governed wisely." 

John VI. 

John VII. 

Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 

Constantine. 

Gregory II. : canonized. 

Gregory III. : the first pope who sent nuncios to 
foreign powers. 

Zacharias. 

Stephen II : with this pope commenced the tem- 
poral power of the Church of Rome. 

Paul I. : moderate aud pious. 

Constantine Thcophijlacius. 

Stephen III. 

Adrian I. : sanctioned images, in which he was 
opposed by the kings of England and France. 

Leo III. 

Stephen IV. : died the next year. 

Pascal I. 

Eugenius ll.—Zozivius. 

Valeutinus. 

Gregory IV. : pious and learned. 

Sergius II. 

Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 

Pope Joan {which see) said to have been elected. 

Benedict III. — Anastasiiis. 

Nicholas I., styled the Great. 

Adrian II. 

JohuVIIL 

Marinus or Martin II. 

Adrian III.: died the next year. 

Stephen V. 

Formosus: died detested ; his corpse was thrown 
into the River Tiber. — Sergius. 

Boniface VI. : deposed. 

Romanus. — Sergitis. 

Stephen VI. : strangled in prison. 

Theodorus II. : governed 22 days. 

John IX. 

Benedict IV. 

Leo V. : driven from his seat a few months after 
his election, and died in prison. 

Christopher. 

Sergius III. : disgraced his dignity by his vices. 

Anastasius III. 

Landonius, or Lando. 

John X. : resigned, and was stifled by Guy, duke 
of Tuscany. 

Leo VI. : considered as an intruder by many Ro- 
man Catholic historians. 

Stephen VII. 

John XL : imprisoned in the castle of St. Angelo, 
where he died. 

Leo VII. : great in zeal and piety. 

Stephen Vfll. : " of ferocious character." 

Marinus II., or Martin III. 

Agapetus II. : of holy life. 

John XII., the Infamous: deposed for adultery 
aud cruelty, and murdered. 

Leo VIII. : an honor to the chair, though an in- 
truder. — Daronius. 

Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 
but opposed by Leo VIII., who was supported 
by the Emperor Otho ; the Roman people were 
obliged to abandon his cause. 

John XIIL, elected by the authority of the em- 
peror amiust the popular will. 

Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 

Domuus II. — Eetiedict VII. 

John XIV. 

John XV. : died before consecration. 

John XVI. 

Gregory V.—Jolin XVII. was expelled by the 
emperor, and barbarously used by his rivaL 

Sylvester II. 

John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

John XVIII. : abdicated. 

Sergius IV. 

Benedict VIII. — Gregory. 

John XIX. 

Benedict IX. : became pope, by purchase, at 12 
years of age ; expelled. 

Sylvester III. : 3 months. 

Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester. 

Clement II. (the Romanists call Clemens Romanus 
ihe first Clement) : died next year. 

Benedict again : ajjain deposed. 

Damasus II. : died soon after. 



* The names in italics were antipopes. 



1048. Leo IX. : canonized. 

1054. [The throne vacant one year.] 

1055. Victor II. 

1057. Stephen IX. 

1058. Benedict X. : expelled. 
" Nicholas II. 

lOGl. Alexander IL : he raised the papal power.— 

Iltinorivs II. 
1073. Gregory VII., the celebrated Ilildebrand.* 
lOSO. Clement III. 
1035. [The throne vacant one year.] 

1056. Victor IIL 

1038. Trbau II. : crusades commenced. 

1099. Pascal II. 

Ills. Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery — Gregory 

VIII. 
1119. Calixtus IL 
1124. Honorius IL— Celestine II. 
1130. lunoceut II. — Anacletv^ II. 
1138. Victor- III. 

1143. Celestine IL : ruled 5 months. 

1144. Luciu.s II. : killed by accident iu a popular com- 

motion. 

1145. Eugenius IIL : canonized. 

1153. Anastasius IV. : ruled a short time only. 

1154. Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 

Englishman elected pope: born at Abbot's 
Laugley, near St. Albau's. He obliged Fred- 
erick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss 
his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the white 
palfrey on which he rode. 

1159. Alexander IIL, avenger of the murder of Thomas 
a Becket.— 1159, Victor IV.: 1164, Pascal IIL: 
116S, Calistus III. : 1178, Innocent III. 

1181. Lucius III. 

1185. Urban IIL 

1187. Gregory VIII. : ruled only two months. 
" Clement III. 

1191. Celestine III. 

1193. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti): excommunicated 
King John of England. 

1216. Honorius III. : learned and pious. 

1227. Gregory IX. : caused a new crusade to be under- 
taken. 

1241. Celestine IV. : died IS days after his election. 
" [The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months.] 

1243. Innocent IV. : gave the red hat to cardinals. 

1254. Alexander IV. 

1261. Urban IV. 

1265. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
viously cardinal and legate to England : dis- 
couraged the crusades. 

1208. [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 

12T1. Gregoiy X. : elected while he was with Edward 
I. of England in the Holy Land. 

1276. Innocent V. : died shortly after. 

" Adrian V.: legate to England in 1254: died 36 

days after election. 
" Vicedominus: died the nest day. 
" John XX. or XXI. : died iu 8 months. 

1277. Nicholas III. : died in 1820. 
1231. Martin IV. 

1285. Honorius IV. : promoted the crusades. 

1288. Nicholas IV. : endeavored to stir up the princes 

of Christendom to a new crusade, but without 

success. 
1292. [The throne vacant 2 years aud 3 months.] 
1294. Celestine V. : resigned from fear. 
" Boniface VIII.: proclaimed that "God had set 

him over kings and kingdoms ;" imprisoned 

his predecessor, and laid France and Denmark 

under interdict. 

1303. Benedict XL : a pious and liberal pontifl": poi- 

soned by some ambitious cardinals a short 
time after his election. 

1304. [The throne vacant 11 mouths.] 

1305. Clement v., Bertrand the Goth: removed the 

pai)al seat from Rome to Avignon. 

1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 mouths.] 

1316. John XXII. 

1334. Benedict XII. [Nicholas V.* at Rome.] 

1342. Clement VI.: a learned prelate, a generous prince, 
and an amiable man. 

l.S.^2. Innocent VI. 

1.362. Urban V. : illustrious as a patron of learning. 

1370. Gregory XL : also an eminent protector of learn- 
ing ; he restored the papal chair to Rome. 

SoHiSM- 1378-1447. 
1378. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the cardinals 
chose Robert of Geneva, under the name of 
Clement VIL, which led to great violence. 



* See p. 372. 



POP 



375 



POP 



13S9. Boniface IX. 

1394. llenedirt* (called X///.), at Aviguon. 
1404. Imiocciit VII. ; died in 1406. 
14116. Gi-i'iiiD-ii Xl/., Aiif^elo Corario. 
14(19. Alexander V.: died, supposed by poison. 
1410. John XXIII.: depo.sed. 
1417. Martin V., otho Colonua. 
1424. Clnncnt VIII. 

1431. Enuenin.s IV., Gabriel Condolmcra: deposed by 
tlic Council ofBa.sil; and Amadeus of Savoy 
clioseu as Felix V. iu 1439, who resigued 1449. 

Nicholas V. 

Calixtus III. 

Pins II., .ailneas Silvius Piccolomini. 

Paul II. : a uoble Venetian. 

Sixtus IV. 

Innocent VIII. : a noble Genoese. 

Alexander VI., the infamous Roderick Borgia: 
poisoned at a feast by drinking of a bowl he 
had prepared for another. 

Pius III., Francis Todeschini: 21 days pope. 

.lulius II., Julian de la Ruvere. 

Leo X. (John de' Medici): this pope's grant of 
indulgences for crime led to the Keformatiou. 

Adrian VI. 

Clement VII., Giulio de' Medici, refused to di- 
vorce Catharine of Aragou, and denounced the 
marriage of Henry VIlI. with Aune Boleyn. 

Paul III., Alexander Faruese. 

Julius III. 

Marcellus II. : died soon after his election. 

Paul I\^, John Peter Carafta. When (Jueen Eliz- 
abeth sent hina an ambassador to announce 
her accession, he haughtily answered "that to 
the Holy See, and not to her, belonged the 
throne, to which she had no right, as being a 
bastard." 

Pius IV., Cardinal de' Medici. 

Pius V. 

Gregory XIII., the greatest civilian and canon- 
ist of his time : under him the calendar was 
reformed. 

Sixtus V. : an able governor. 

Urban VII. : died 12 days after election. 

Gregory XIV., Nicholas Sfondrate. 

Innocent IX. : died in 2 months. 

Clement VIII. : learned and just. 

Leo XI. : died same month. 

Paul v., Camille Borghese. 

Gregory XV., Alexander Ludovisio. 

Urban VIII. : gave the title of Eminence to car- 
dinals. 

Innocent X., John Baptiste Pamphilus. 

Alexander VII., Fabio Chigi. 

Clement IX. 

Clement X., John Baptiste Emile Altieri. 

Innocent XI. 

Alexander VIII. 

Innocent; XII. : Antonio Pignatelli. 

Clement XII., John Francis Albani. 

Innocent XIII., Michael Angelo Conti : the 
eighth pontiff of his family. 



1447 
1455, 

14r,-^, 

1464. 
1471, 
14.S4, 
1492, 



1503. 
1513. 



1522. 
1523. 



1534. 
1550. 
1555. 



1.559. 
l.'.Of). 
1572. 



15S5. 
1590. 

1.591. 
1.592. 
1605. 

1621. 
1623. 

1044. 
16.55. 
1667. 
1670. 
1676. 
1689. 

loot. 

1700. 
1721. 



1T24. Benedict XIII., properly so called. 

1730. Clement XII. 

1740. Benedict XIV., the amiable Lambertini. 

175S. Clement XIII., Charles Rezzouico. 

1769. Clement XIV. (the illustrious Ganganelli) : sup- 
pressed the Jesuits. 

1775. Pius VI., Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15: dethroned by 
Bonaparte ; he was expelled from Rome, and 
depo.sed in Feb., 1798; and died at Valence, 
Aug. 29, 1799. 

1800. Pius VII., Chiaramonte: elected March 13; agrees 
to a concordat with France, July 15, 1801 ; 
crowns Napoleon, Dec. 2, 1804; excommuni- 
cates him, June 10, 1809; imprisoned, July 6, 
1809 ; restored iu 1814; died Aug. 20, 1823. (He 
restored the Jesuits.) 

1823. Leo XII., Annibal della Ganga, Sept. 28. 

1829. Pius VIII., Francis Xavier Castisrlioni, March 31. 

1831. Gregory XVL.MauroCapellari, Feb. 2, 1831; died 
June 1,1846. 

1840. Pius IX., Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti: the 
252d pope (according to "I'Art de Verifier les 
Dates"), elected June 16 (born May 13, 1793). 
The PRESENT (1869) pope. 
(See Rome.) 

POPE JOAN. It is asserted that in the 9th century, 
a female named Joan conceived a violent passion for 
Felda, a young monk, and iu order to be admitted into 
his monastery, assumed the male habit. On the death 
of her lover she entered upon the duties of professor, 
and, being very learned, was elected pope, when Leo 
IV. died, in 855. Other scandalous particulars follow; 
"yet, until the Reformation, the tale was repeated and 
believed without ofi'ense." — Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOTS. 

Plot. 



See Gunpowder Plot and Oates's 



POPLAR-TREES. The Tacamahac poplar {Popu- 
lus Balsamifera) was brought to Europe from North 
America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar from Italy 
about 1758. 

POPULATION. The population of the world was 
estimated in 1863 at l,2ss,(i(i().oori. For the Population 
of Countries, see the tal)Ie (after the Preface), page xi. 

Europe 275,806,741 l America 67,896,041 

Asia 755,000,000 Australia 1,445,000 

Africa 200,000,000 | Polynesia 1,500,000 

POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Estimated iu 1377 2,092,973 

In 1483 4,689,000 

In 1696 5,250,000 

Population. 

1700 5,475,000 

1710 5,240,000 

1720 5,505,000 

1*7.30 5,796,000 

1740 6,064,000 

1750 6,467,000 

1760 6,730,000 



Population. 

1770 7,428,000 

1780 7,953,000 

1790 8,67.5,000 

1801 8,872,980 

18.51 17,987,609 

1801 20,001,172 



POPULATION OF GP.EAT BP.ITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS.t 



Division. 


IHOI. 


ISll. 


1821. 


1831. 


1841. 1 1851. 


im.t 




8.331,434 
541,546 

1,.599,068 
470,598 


9,551,888 
611,788 

1,805,688 
040,500 


11,261,4.37 

717,438 

2,093,456 

319,300 


13,089,338 

805,236 

2,365,807 

277,017 


14,995,138 

916,619 

2,020,184 

312,493 


16,854,142 

1,060,626 

2,870,784 

142,916 


18,949,130 

1,111,795 

3,061,251 

162,021 


Wales 


Scotland? 


Army, Navy, etc 


Total 


10,942,646 


12,609,864 
5,937,856 


14,391,031 
8,175,124 


10,537,398 
7,784,934 


18,844,434 
8,175,124 


20,930,468 

6,51.5,794 

143,126 


2.'i,2S4,197 

5, 704.. 543 

143,779 




Islands in British Seas 


27,-59.5,388 \ 29,192,419 | 



POPULATION OP THE PEINCIPAL TOWNS OP GREAT BRITAIN. 



London and suburbs* 

Manchester, etc 

Glasgow, etc 

Liverpool 

Edinburg, etc 

Birmingham 

Leeds, etc 



804,845 
94,876 
77,385 
79,722 
82,500 
73,070 



1,009,546 
115,874 
100,749 
100,240 
102,987 
85,753 



1,225,694 
161,635 
147,043 
131,801 
138,2.35 
106,721 
83,796 



is:u. 



1,474,069 
237,832 
202,426 
189,244 
162,403 
142,251 
123,. 193 



1,873,676 
242,583 
274,533 

286,487 
168,182 
182,922 
152,054 



2,362,236 
404,465 
340,053 
375,955 
193,929 
232,841 
172,270 



isei.t 



2,803,034 
357,604 

394,857 
44n,s74 
108,(198 
295,955 
207,153 



* The nftmes in italics were antipopea. 

t Estimated by Registrar General in June, 1865, 29,772,294. 



X 1861. 


Males. 


Females. 


Inhabited 
Houses. 


Ensrhind and Wales 


9,7.')M,852 
l,44fi,9R2 
2,804,961 


10,302,87.3 
1,614,269 
2,969,582 


3,745,46.3 
39.3,289 
103,357 


Ireland 



g Kstiniated population of Scotland in 1751, 1,23.5,663. 

j Estimated population of Iekland : 

In 1652 850,(100 

1712 2,flS9,094 

17.54 !!!!!!!!!! 2,.37S,634 

1805 5,335,456 

1 In 1851, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. 

** 1861, Parliamentary limits of the boroughs only. 



POP 



376 



POP 



POPULATION or THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OP GREAT BRITAIN. — Continued. 



Towns. 


ISOl. 


1811. 


1821. 


l8:n. 


1841. 


1851. 


18til. 




63,645 

43,194 
43,461 
36,832 
27,608 
36,963 
31,179 
28,801 
34,964 
26,084 
7,339 
30,113 
23,692 
11,887 
13,300 
15,124 


70,433 

50,000 
52,709 
37,2.'J6 
35,370 
36,309 
36,722 
34,253 
32,407 
29,010 
12,012 
32,214 
26,422 
17,065 
13,802 
15,337 


87,779 
69,479 
61,212 
56,620 
50,288 
44,790 
46,943 
47,003 
40,415 
41,874 
30,575 
24,429 
30,811 
29,527 
24,575 
14,142 
16,304 


103, Ssa 
91,092 
75,534 
03,020 
61,116 
58,019 
57,937 
57,400 
50,680 
49,401 
45,355 
40,034 
33,063 
34,401 
33,112 
20,917 
20,432 


122,290 
111,091 
80,059 
63,032 
72,344 
03,288 
70,800 
60,487 
71,844 
71,029 
62,794 
40,661 
38,304 
33,321 
50,131 
24,453 
23,834 


137,328 
135,310 
102,380 
72,090 
68,195 
71,945 
87,784 
69,951 
57,407 
84,690 
77,829 
65,573 
54,240 
40,359 
69,542 
27,815 
27,843 


154,093 
185,157 
62,823 
94,510 
74,414 
73,794 
109,291 
47,419 
74,531 
98,994 
90,425 
87,311 
52,528 
45,326 
82,901 
20,351 
27,561 


Sheffield 






Norwich 

Aberdeen 




Nottingham 

Hull 




Brighton 

Bath 


York 

Preston 


Oxford 



POPULATION IN THE United States. The popn- I following table 
lation of the United States has increased with most un- different states, 
precedented rapidity since the first census of 1790. The 1 1800 : 



gives the date of the admission of the 
the area, and population, from 1790 to 



States. 




Ar.-!t. 


WJO. 


18U0. 


ism. 


IS-'O. 


isau. 


1841). 


185IJ. 


ISBO. 




1820 

17SS 


31,706 

9,230 


95,540 
141,899 


151,719 
183,762 


223,705 
214,360 


298,335 
244,161 


399,455 
269,328 


501,793 
384,574 


583,169 
317,976 


628,279 
326,073 


New Hampshire. 


Vermont 


1791 


9,056 


85,416 


154,465 


217,713 


235,764 


230,652 


£91,948 


314,120 


815,098 


Massachusetts. . . 


178S 


7,800 


378,717 


423,245 


472,040 


523,287 


610,403 


737,699 


994,514 


1,231,066 


Ehode Island . . . 


1790 


1,046 


69,110 


69,122 


77,031 


83,059 


97,199 


108,830 


147,545 


174,620 


Connecticut 


1788 


4,730 


238,141 


251,002 


202,642 


275,202 


297,675 


309,978 


870,792 


460,147 


New York 


1788 


50,519 


340,120 


586,756 


559,649 


1,372,812 


1,918,608 


2,428,291 


3,097,394 


3,880,735 


New Jersey 


1787 


8,320 


184,139 


211,949 


245,555 


277,575 


320,823 


373,306 


489,555 


672,035 


Pennsylvania . . . 


1787 


46,000 


434,373 


602,361 


810,091 l,049,4.!i8 


1,348,233 


1,724,033 


2,311,786 


2,906,115 


Delaware 


1787 


2,120 


59,096 


64,273 


72,674 


72,749 


76,748 


78,085 


91,532 


112,216 


Maryland 


178S 


11,124 


319,728 


341,548 


380,546 


407,350 


447,040 


470,019 


583,034 


687,049 


Dist. of Columbia 


1790 


60 




14,093 


24,023 


33,039 


39i8B4 


4.3,712 


51,687 


75,080 


Virginia 


17SS 


61,352 


743,308 


880,200 


974,022 1,065,379 


1,211,405 


1,239,797 


1,421,661 


1,596,318 


North Carolina. . 


1789 


45,000 


393,751 


478,103 


55.5,500 


638,829 


737,987 


753,419 


869.039 


992,022 


South Carolina.. 


1788 


30,213 


249,073 


345,591 


41.5,115 


502,741 


581,185 


549,398 


668,507 


703,708 




1788 
1845 
1819 


58,000 
59,268 
50,722 


82,548 


162,101 


252,433 


340,987 
127',901 


516,823 

34,730 

.S09,527 


691,892 
54,477 

590,7.56 


906,185 

87,445 

771,023 


1,057,236 
140,425 
964,201 




Alabama 


Mississippi 


1817 


47,156 




8,350 


4(),352 


75,448 


136,621 


375,051 


606,526 


791,305 


Louisiana 


1812 


41,255 






76,556 


153,407 


215,739 


352,411 


517,762 


708,002 


Texas 


1845 

1836 


237,504 
52,198 








14,273 


'30,388 


'97,'574 


212,592 
209,897 


604,215 
435,450 


Arkansas 


Tennessee 


1796 


45,600 


35,791 


103,002 


201,727 


422,813 


081,904 


828,210 


1,002,717 


1,109,801 


Keiitucliy 


1792 


37,680 


73,077 


220,955 


406,511 


564,317 


087,917 


779,828 


982,405 


l,l.'i5,084 


Ohio 


ISfW 


39,904 




45,365 


230,700 


581,434 


937,903 
31,639 


1,519,467 


1,980,329 


2,389,502 


/ Michigan 


18,37 


56,243 







4,726 


8,896 


212,267 


397,654 


749,118 




1816 
1818 
1848 


33,809 
55,405 
53,924 




4,875 


24,520 
12,282 


147,178 
55,211 


343,031 
157,445 


685,860 

476,183 

30,945 


988,416 
811,470 
305,391 


1,350,428 
1,711,951 

775,881 




Wisconsin 






Minnesota 


1858 


81,259 
















6,077 


173,855 




1840 


50,914 














4.3,112 


192,214 


674,948 


Missouri 


1821 


67,380 








20,845 


C6,5S6 


140,455 


383,702 


682,044 


1,182,012 


Kansas 


1801 


78,418 


















107,206 


California 


1850 


155,500 
















92,597 


379,994 




1850 


80,000 
















13,294 


52,465 


Washington 


1853 


176,141 


















11,594 




1861 
1860 


45,812 
131,320 
















"ii,"sso 


6,857 
40,273 


Utah 


New Mexico 


1850 


220,000 
















61,547 


93,516 


Colorado 


1861 


105,818 


















34,277 


Nebraska 


1854 


122,007 


















28,841 


Dakotah 

Total 


1801 


318,128 


















4,837 


2,819,811 


3,928,827 


5,308,937 


7,239,814 


9,638,191 


12,860,702 


17,017,723 


23,151,876|bl,3o5,120| 



POPULATION OP THE CHIEP CITIES OP THE WORLD. 

Frcmi latest returns {Almanack de Gothct, 1805). 

Cities. Inhabitants. 

Alexandria, Egypt, about 170,000 

Amsterdam, 1865 261,455 

Antwerp, 1864 120,444 

Athens and Pirreus 47,723 

Barcelona, 1361 252,015 

Basle, 1860 37,913 

Berlin, 1805 547,571 

Berue,1860 29,016 

Bombay, 1864, above 600,000 

Bordeaux, 1862 162,750 

Breslau, 1865 163,179 

Brussels, 1864 184,932 

Cairo, estimated 265,000 

Calcutta, 1304, about S.')0,000 

Christiania, 1855 3S,953 

Cologne, 1365 122,162 

Cons'tantinople, estimated 1,07.5,000 

Copenhagen, 1860 15.5,143 

Dresden, 1864 145,728 



Cities. Inhabitants. 

Florence, 1802 114,303 

Frankfort, 1864 73,177 

Geneva, 1860 41,415 

Genoa, 1862 127,980 

Ghent, 1804 122,960 

Glasgow, 1865 423,723 

Hamburg, 1860 17.5,683 

Jeddo, reputed 1,800,000 

Leipsic, 1864 8.5,394 

UOge, 1864 101,710 

Lisbon, 1863 224,063 

Lisle, 1862 131,827 

Liverpool, 1865 476,368 

London, 1865, estimated 8,015,494 

Lyons, 1862 818,803 

Madrid, 1861 47.5,785 

Marseilles, 1362 260,910 

Messina, 1862 62,024 

Mexico, estimated 200,000 

Milan, 1862 190,109 

Montreal, 1364 120,000 

Moscow, 1858 377,838 



roR 



377 



FOR 



Cities. Inlmliitnnls. 

Munich, 1SG4 167,(154 

Kaiikin, ostimalcd 1,0U0,0U0 

Nantes, iscj 113,625 

Napl''^ 1 ^''■- 418,068 

New Orleaut', 1S60 168,675 

New York, 1«60 805,651 

Oporto, ls(;:i 86,257 

Pakn-ino, 1862 167,625 

I'ari!^, etc., 1862 1,696,141 

Pukin, reimtcd 4,()UU,0(iO 

Pcsth, 1857 lol,705 

Philadelphia, ISOO 562,529 

Pra-iue, 1S57 142,588 

Quebec, 1861 51,109 

Kio Janeiro, 1855 296,136 

Home, 1864 203,896 

Kottcrdam, 1865 114,052 

Kouen, 1862 102,649 

Seville, 1861 152,000 

Smyrna, 1863 

Stockholm, 1863 124,691 

St. I'etersl)urir, 1858 586,283 

Stiitti,'ardt, 1864 69,084 

Teheran, estimated 80,000 

Toulouse, 1862 113,229 

Tunis, estimated 200,000 

Turin, 1862 180,620 

Venice, 1857 118,172 

Vienna, 1864, about 560,000 

Warsaw, 1 865, about 223,000 

PORCELAIN. See Puttcnj. 

PORT EGMONT, a fine harbor on the N.W. coast 
of Falklaud Islands. Co)nm. Byron was disjjatched to 
found a colony here in 1765. See Falklaud Idands. 

PORTEOUS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Ediuburg, 
on April 1.5, 1736, commanded the guard at the execu- 
tion of Wilson, a smuggler, who had saved the life of 
a fellow criminal by springing upon the soldiers 
around them, and by main force keeping them back, 
■while his companion fled. The execution of Wilson 
excited great commiseration, and the spectators pelt- 
ed the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, Porteous 
ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and seventeen 
persons were killed or wounded. He was found guilty 
of murder, June 22, 1736; but the queen granted him 
a reprieve (the king being then in Hanover). The 
people, at night, broke open the prison, took out Por- 
teous, and hanged him on a dyer's sign-post, iu the 
Grass Market, Sept. 7, 1736. None of the rioters was 
ever detected. 

PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage ob- 
tained its appellation on account of its having been 
drunk by porters in the city of Loudon about 1730.* 
The number of licensed brewers iu 1850, in England, 
•was 2257 ; in Scotland, 154 ; and in Ireland, 96— total, 
2507. Ou Oct. 17, 1814, at Meux's brewhousc, two large 
vats burst, destroying many neighboring houses. Sev- 
eral lives were lost ; and the total loss of porter was 
estimated at between 8000 and 9000 barrels. 

PORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for por- 
terage of small parcels, passed 1799. 

PORT JACKSON (New South Wales), thirteen miles 
north of Botany Bay, was so named by Capt. Cook iu 
1770. See Sydney. 

PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. The first was 
the "Coalition ministry," of which William Henry 
Cavendish, duke of Portland, t as first lord of the treas- 
ury, "'as the head. It obtained the name of the "Co- 
alition" ministry from its including Lord North with 
Mr. Fox, formerly inveterate opponents. Formed 
April 5; 1783; dissolved by Mr. Pitt's coming into 
power, Dec. same year. 

FIRST AUMINISTKATION. 

Duke of Portland, First Lord of the Treasury. 
Viscount Stormont, President of the Council. 
Earl of Carlisle, J'riry Seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, Hovw 
and Foreign Secretaries. 



* The iniilt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, and twopenny, 
and it was customary to call Jbr a pint or tankard of half and half— "i. 
e.,half of ate nndhalf of beer. In tlie course of time it also became the 
practice to ask for n pint of three thirds, meaning a third of ale, beer, 
and twopenny. To avoid trouble, Harwood, a brewer, made a liquor 
which partook of the united flavors of ale, beer, and twopenny, calling 
it entire, or entire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely from 
one cask or liutt. Being relished by porters and other working people, 
it obtained its name of porter, and wastirst retailed at the" Blue Last,'' 
Curtain Uond.— ZfiV/A. 

t Born 17. .8 ; became lord chamberlain, 17G5 ; lord lieutenant of 
Ireland, ITSO • premier, 178:1; home secretarv, 1794 ; lord president, 
J801 ; premier again, 1807 ; died, 1809; when Mr. Spencer Perceval be- 
came premier. 



Lord John Cavendish, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 

Viscount Keppel, Admiralty. 

Viscount Townsheud, Ordna^ice. 

Lord Loughborough, Chief Cotnniissioner of Great Seal. 

Charles Townsheud. 

Edmund Burke. 

Richard Fitzpatrick, etc. 

(Sec also Aberdeen and Broad Bottom Administration.) 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, Mai'ch 25, 1807. 
Earl Camden, Lord President. 
Earl of Westmoreland, Lord Privy Seal. 
Hon. Spencer Perceval, Lord Hawkesbury (afterward 

Earl of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and Visc<iunt Cas- 

tlereagh (afterward Marquess of Londonderry), 

Home, Foreign, and Colonial Secretaries. 
Earl Bathurst and Mr. Duudas, Boards of Trade and 

Control. 
Lord ]\Iulgrave, Admiralty. 
Earl of Chatham, Ordnance. 
Lord Eldoii, Lord Chancellor. 

PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset). Fortified before 
1142. Portland Castle was built by Henry VIII. about 
1536. Ofl' this ijeninsula a naval engagement com- 
menced between the English and Dutc'h, Feb. 18, 1653, 
which continued for three days. The English de- 
stroyed eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchant- 
men. Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake 
of the English. — Here is found the noted freestone 
used for building the finest edifices. The Portland 
lights were erected 1710 and in 1789. The pier, with 
nearly half a mile square of land, was washed into the 
sea in Feb., 1792. Prince Albert laid the first stone of 
the Portland Breakwater, July 25, 1849. A mutiny 
among the convicts here iu Sept., 185S, was promptly 
suppressed. 

PORTLAND ou BARBERINI VASE. This beauti- 
ful specimen of Greek art (composed of a glass-like 
substance, with fiirures and devices raised ou it on 
white enamel; height, 10 inches; diameter iu the 
broadest part, 7; with a handle in each side) was dis- 
covered about the middle of the 10th century, in a mar- 
ble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at a place called Mon- 
te del Grano, about 2}4 miles from Rome. The sep- 
ulchre was supposed to have been that of the Roman 
emperor Alexander Severus (222-235), and his mother 
Mammcisa, and the vase is supposed to have been the 
cinerary urn of one or other of these royal personages. 
It was placed iu the palace of the Barberini family, at 
Rome, where it remained till 1770, when it was pur- 
chased by Sir William Hamilton, from whose posses- 
sion it passed to that of the Duchess of Portland, and 
in 1810 it was deposited in the British ;Museum by the 
duke, who was one of the trustees. There it remained 
till Feb. 7, 1845, wheu it was smashed to pieces with a 
stone by a man named William Lloyd. The vase was 
skillfully repaired, and still exists in the Museum, but 
is not shown to the public. Josiah Wedgwood made 
a mould of this vase, and took from it a number of 
casts. 

PORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by Colum- 
bus, Nov. 2, 1,^02, was taken by Morgan, the buccaneer, 
in 1068; by the British under Admiral Vernon, from 
the Spaniards, Nov. 20, 1739. It was again taken by 
Admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifications, iu 
1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons 
in 1748, It was the great mart for the rich commerce of 
Peru ancl Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO, capital of Elba (which see) ; built 
and fortified by Cosmo I., duke of Florence, iu 154S. 
The fortifications were not finished till 1628, wheu 
Cosmo II. completed them with great magnificence. 
See France. 

PORTRAIT GALLERY. See Natioval Portrait Gal- 
lery. 

PORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words signify- 
ing the governor of a port or harbor). The chief mag- 
istrate of London was so styled ; but Richard I. ap- 
pointed two bailiffs, and afterward London had may- 
ors. — Camden. See Mayors. 

PORT HUDSON (Louisiana), at the terminus of the 
Clinton and Port Hudson Railroad, 25 miles above 
Baton Rouge. This post, which began to be fortified 
August, 1862, lay within the limits of the Department 
of the Gulf, of which Banks took command, Dec, 14, 
1862. In j\Iarch, 1863, Banks made a strong demon- 
stration against this post, as a diversion in favor of 
Admiral Farragut, who then ran the Port Hudson bat- 
teries. After a victorious campaign iu Louisiana, iu 
which Dick Taylor was driven to Shreveport, leaving 
Alexandria an easy prey to Porter's fleet (May 6), 
Bauks again moved against Port Hudson, then com- 



POR 



378 



roR 



manded by General Gardiner. On the 25tli of May 
Port Hudson was invested by Banks's army, 12,000 
Bti-oui,'. An unsuccessful assault was made on the 
2Tth, which involved a national loss of over 2000 men. 
A second assault (June 14) was also repulsed, but re- 
sulted in a nearer approach to the Confederate lines. 
Port Hudson was surrendered July 9, with over COOO 
prisoners and 51 guus. 

PORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a considerable town, 
was destroyed by an earthquake in Juue, 1092 ; laid in 
ashes by a lire in 1702; reduced to ruins by an inunda- 
tion of the sea in 1T22 ; and destroyed by a hurricane 
iu 17T4. After these extraordinary calamities, the cus- 
tom-house and public offices were removed to Kings- 
ton. Port Royal was again greatly damaged by tire in 
1750 ; by another awful storm iu 178-1 ; and by a de- 
vastating fire in July, 1815. In 1S50, this place suffered 
by cholera. 

PORT ROYAL EXPEDITION. This expedition 
(Oct. 29-Nov. 7, 1801) was under the joint command of 
General T.W. Sherman and Commodore Dupont. The 
fleet consisted of 50 vessels. Fort Walker, on Hilton 
Head, and, on the opposite side of Broad River, Fort 
Beauregard, were reduced November 7. Forty-three 
guns were captured, and possession was taken of Hil- 
ton Head, which became, subsequently, an important 
centre of naval operations. 

PORT ROYALISTS, the learned members of the 
celebrated convent of the Port Royal des Champs 
(founded about 1230, and refounded in 1620), who oc- 
cupied their time there in religious exercises, and in 
instructing youth, from about 1036 to 1656, when they 
were expelled by Louis XIV. as Jansenists and here- 
tics. Among the distinguished persons connected 
with Port Royal were Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Ni- 
cole de Sacy, and Tillemont. Their school-books were 
greatly esteemed. The establishment was suppressed 
in 1709. 

PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most considerable 
haven for men-of-war, and the most strongly fortified 
place in Eugkiud. The dock, arsenal, and store-houses 
were estal)lished in the reign of Henry VIII. Popula- 
tion iu 1851, 72,096; iu 1861, 94,546. 

PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The present 
name is derived from Porto Callo, the original appel- 
lation of Oporto. After a nine years' struggle under 
Viriathes, a brave, able leader, the Lusitauiaus sub- 
mitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. Portugal 
underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of 
the Roman Empire. There are in Portugal two uni- 
versities, that of Coimbra, founded in 1308, and the 
smaller one of Evora, founded in 1533. Lisbon has 
also its royal academy, and the small town of Thomar 
has an academy of sciences; but iu general, literature 
is at a low ebb in Portugal. The poet Camoens, called 
the Virgil of his country, and author of the Lusiad 
(1569), translated into English by Mickle, was a native 
of Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies 
in 1863, 8,037,194. 

Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here 472 

Conquered by the Moors 713 

The kings of "Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, 

and Alfonso III. establishes bishops 900 

Tiie Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI., the Valiant, 
of Castile, assisted by many other princes and 
volunteers. Among those who shone most in 
this celebrated expedition was Henry of Besan- 
C-on (a relative of the Duke of Burgundy and 
King of France). Alfonso bestowed up(m him 
Theresa, his natural daughter, and Portugal as 
her marriage portion, which he was to hold of 

him T 1095 

Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish kings, and 

is proclaimed king (see Oiirique) 1139 

Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to 

the Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from the Moors,1147 
Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sanchol.,1189 
Reign ofDionysiusL.orDenis, father of his coun- 
try, who builds 44 cities or towns iu Portugal. . .1279 

University of Coimbra founded 1308 

Military o'rders of Christ and St. James instituted, 

1279 and 1325 

Ines de Castro murdered 1354 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into 

Africa 1415 

Maritime discoveries 1419-30 

Madeira and the Canaries seized 1420 

Code of laws digested 1425 

Lisbon made the capital about 1433 

Discovery of the Brazils 1499 

Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 



Hope discovered, 1487 ; first voyage of Vasco de 

Gama 1500 

Camoens, author of the LvMad, born about 1520 

The Inquisition established 1526 

University of Evora founded 1451 or 1533 

Disastrous African expedition ; King Sebastian de- 
feated and slain in ilie battle of Alcazar, Aug. 4,1578 

The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain 15S0 

The Dutch seize the Portuguese Indian settle- 
ments 1602-20 

The Portuguese throw oft" the yoke, and place 

John, duke of Braganza, on the throne 1640 

The great earthquake which destroys Lisbon (see 

Earthquake) Nov., 1755 

Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and narrowly 

escapes death 1753 

[This aflair caused some of the first families of 
the kingdom to be tortured to death, their very 
names being forbidden to be mentioned ; j'et 
many were unjustly condemned, and their inno- 
cence was soon afterward made manifest. The 
Jesuits were also expelled on this occasion.] 
Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from 
the pope to enable his daughter and brother to 

intermarry (see Incest) 1760 

The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which 

is saved by the English 1762 and 1763 

Regency of John (afterward king), owing to the 

queen's lunacy 1792 

War with Spain 1801 

The court, on the French invasion, emigrates to 

the Brazils \ .Nov. 2,1807 

Marshal Juuot enters Lisbon Nov. 29, " 

Convention of Ciutra (see Cintra) Aug. 30,1808 

Battle of Busaco Sept. 27,1810 

The British Parliament grants the sufferers In Por- 
tugal £100,000 1811 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France ; 1814 

LTuion of Portugal and Brazil 1815 

Revolution in Portugal Aug. 29,1820 

Constitutional Junta Oct. 1, " 

Return of the court July 4,1821 

Independence of Brazil ; the prince regent made 

emperor (see Brazil) Oct. 12, 1822 

The king modifies the Ccmstitution Juue 5,1823 

Disturbances at Lisbon ; Dom Miguel departs, etc.. 

May 1-9,1824 

Treaty with Brazil Aug. 29,1825 

Death of John VI March 10,1820 

Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and 

confirms the regency April 26, " 

He relinquishes the throne in favor of his daugh- 
ter. Donna Maria da Gloria May 2, " 

Dom Miguel takes the oath of fealty at Vienna, 

Oct. 4, " 
Marquess of Chaves's insurrection at Lisbon in 

favor of Dom Miguel Oct. 6, " 

Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed (see Iiv- 

cest) Oct. 29, " 

Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
Dec. 3 ; departure of the first British auxiliary 

troops for Portugal Dec. 17, " 

Bank of Lisbon stops payment Dec. 7,1827 

Dom Miguel made regent ; he arrives in Loudon, 
Dec. 30, 1827, and takes the oaths at Lisbon, 

Feb. 22,1828 
The British armament quits Portugal, April 28 ; 

foreign ministers withdraw May 3, " 

Sir John Doyle arrested June 13, " 

Dom Miguel assumes the title of king July 4, " 

He dissolves the three estates July 12, " 

His troops take Madeira Aug. 23, " 

Release of Sir John Doyle Sept. 7, " 

The queen Donna Maria arrives in London Oct. 6; 

and at Windsor Dec. 22, " 

Dom Misruel's expedition against Terceira defeat- 
ed .... . ; Aug. 11,1829 

Duke of Palmella appointed regent March,lS30 

Dom Pedro arrives m England June 10,1831 

Insurrection in Portugal in favor of the queen ; 

more than 300 lives lost Aug. 21, " 

Dom Pedro's expedition sails from Belle Isle, Feb. 
9 ; at Terceira he proclaims himself regent of 

Portugal, April 2; and takes Oporto July 8,1832 

The Miguelites attack Oporto, and are defeated 
with considerable loss on both sides.. . .Sept. 19, " 

Mount Cavello taken April 9,1833 

Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadnm off 

Cape St. Vincent July 2, " 

Lisbon is evacuated by the Duke of Cadaval's 

army ; the queen proclaimed July 24, " 

After various conflicts, Dom Miguel capitulates to 
the Pedroite forces, and Santarem surrenders. 

May 26,1834 



POR 



379 



POS 



Dom Mij^iel is permitted to leave the country uu- 
molesieil, aud he embarks at Evora for Genoa, 

May 31,1834 

Massacres take place at Lisbon June 9, " 

The Cortes declare the queen to be of age, Sept. 15, " 

Dom Pedro dies Sept. 21, " 

Oporto Wine Com])any abolished " 

Prince Aui;ustus of Portugal (Duke of Leuchten- 

berg), just married to the queen, dies. .March 28,1835 
The queeu marries Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Co- 

burg.. April 9,1836 

Revolution at Lisbon Aug. 9, " 

Another outbreak there Nov. 8, " 

The Duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 

Pedro's charter Aug. 18,1837 

He and Saldanha fail iu the attempt, and embark 

for Eiiirland Sept. IS, " 

Oporto Wine Company re-established April T,1838 

The northern province iu a state of insurrection 

about this time April 20,1846 

The Duke of Palmella resigns his miuistrj', Oct. 31, " 
Action at Evora ; the queen's troops defeat the in- 

surgeut forces Oct. 31, " 

British squadron uuder Admiral Parker arrives in 

the Ta^'iis at the queeu's request Oct. 31, " 

Palmella banished Nov. 20, " 

Marquess of Saldanha defeats Count Bomfiu at 

Torres Vedras Dec. 22, " 

The insurgents enter Oporto Jan. 7,1847 

London conference, by which England, France, 
and Spain determine to assist the Queen of Por- 
tugal to terminate the civil war May 21, " 

Submission of Sa de Bandeira to the queen, June 11, " 
A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto ca- 
pitulates June 20, " 

Au American squadron arrives in the Tagus to 
enforce claims against the Portuguese govern- 
ment June 22,1850 

Military insurrection, headed by the Duke of Sal- 
danha, who, being outstripped in his march on 
Santarem by the King of Portugal, flees north- 
ward April 10,1851 

Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the city 
for Vigo to embark for England, but is called 

back by the insurgents April 24, " 

Saldanha's triumphal entry into Oporto. .April 29, " 
The Conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns, 
and embarks on board a British ship for En- 
gland, where he arrives May 10, " 

Dom Miguel marries the Princess of Lowenstein- 

Rosenberg Sept. 21, " 

Revision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned 
by the queen; the prince royal takes the oath 

to the Constitution July 18,1852 

Conversion of the public debt Dec. 18, " 

Death of the queen, Maria II Nov. 15,1853 

King-consort recognized as re_Mnt Dec. 19, " 

The young king visits England June,1854 

The slaves on royal domains freed Dec. 30, " 

The king visits Prance May,lS55 

Inauguration of the king Sept. 10, " 

Resignation of the Saldanha ministry June5,185G 

First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Sauta- 

rera) opened Oct. 26, " 

Fever rages iu Lisbon ; the king very active in re- 
lieving the sufferers Oct. and Nov., 1857 

The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles ct 

Gcorrjes, seized Nov. 29, " 

Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum 

sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships of war to the Tagus ; the 

vessel restored (see Charles e.t Georgea). . .Oct. 25,1653 

Death of the Duke of Terceira, prime minister, 

April 26; succeeded by the Seuhor Aguiar, May 

2, who resigns ' July 2,1800 

Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his 

brother, the Duke of Oporto Nov. 11,1801 

Death of Dom John, the king's brother. . .Dec. 29, " 
The law of succession altered in favor of the king's 

sisters Jan. 3,1862 

The Due de Louie becomes minister Feb. 21, " 

The king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy 
by proxy, at Turin, Sept. 27 ; at Lisbon. . .Oct. 6, " 

Elections : majority for the government Nov., " 

Birtli iif Dom Carlos, heir to the throne. .Sept. 2S,1S63 

Ministerial changes Jan. ,1864 

Death of the celebrated statesman, the Duke of 

Palmella April 2, " 

Free-trade measures introduced June 1, " 

Frontier treaty with Spain concluded Sept. 29, " 

U. S. vessels yiuiiara and Sacramento in the Tagus 
fired on, through suspicion of their sailing after 
the Confederate vessel Stanewall, March 27 ; the 
difficulty with the U. S. goverument arranged, 

April 7,1SC5 



The premier, De Louie, resigns ; Marquess de Ban- 
deira forms a ministry April 17,1865 

Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies. 

May, " 

Another prince born July 31, " 

New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier Sept. 4, " 

The international exhibition at Oporto opened by 

the king Sept. 18, " 

The king visits England and France Dec, " 

COUNTS AND KINGS OF POETCGAL. 

1093. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 

1112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 

1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

1139. Alfonso I. declared Kino, having obtained a sig- 
nal victory over a prodigious army of Moors on 
the plains of Ourique. 

1185. Sancho I., sou of Alfonso. 

1212. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 

1223. Sancho II., or the Idle: deposed. 

1248. Alfouso IIL 

1279. Denis orDionysius, styled the father of his coun- 
try. 

1325. Alfonso IV., the Brave. 

1357. Peter, the Severe ; succeeded by his son. 

1367. Ferdinand I. ; succeeded by his natural brother. 

13S3. John I., the Bastard, and the Great; married 
Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, duke of 
Lancaster. 

1433. Edward or Duarte. 

1438. Alfonso V., the African. 

1481. John II., whose actions procured liim the titles 
of the Great and the Perfect ; succeeded by his 
cousin, 

1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 

1521. John III., son of Emmanuel ; he admitted into 
his kingdom the religious institution of the 
Inquisition. 

1557. Sebastian : drowned after the great battle of 
Alcazarquivir, in Africa, Aug. 4, 1578, when 
the crown reverted to his great uncle, 

1578. Heniy, the Cardinal, son of Emmanuel. 

1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel ; de- 
posed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Por- 
tugal to his other dominions till 1040. 

1040. John IV., duke of Braganza: dispossessed the 
Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
proclaimed king, Dec. 1. 

1050. Alfonso VI. : deposed in 1067, and his brother 
and successor Peter made regent : the latter 
ascended the throne in 

1683. Peter II. ; succeeded by his son, 

1700. John V. ; succeeded by his son, 

1750. Joseph Emmanuel. The daughter and successor 
of this prince married his lirother, by dispen- 
sation from the pope, aud they ascended the 
throne as 

1777. Maria-Frauces-Isabella and Peter III. jointly. 

1780. Maria, alone : this princess afterward falls into 
a state of melancholy and derangement ; dies, 
1810. 

1792. Regency — John, son of the queen, and afterward 
king, "declared regent of the kingdom, 1791. 

1810. John VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn 
iu 1807, owing to the French invasion of Por- 
tugal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the dis- 
content of his subjects obliged him to return 
in 1821 ; died in 1820. 

1820. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son of John VI. : mak- 
ing his election of the empire of Brazil, abdi- 
cated the throne of Portugal in favor of his 
daughter, 
" Maria II. (da Gloria), who became queen at seven 
years of age. 

1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
crowm, which he retained, amid civil conten- 
tions, until 1833. 

1833. Maria II. restored : declared in Sept., 18.34 (bein^ 
then 15), to be of age, and assumed the royal 
power accordingly : died Nov. 15, 1853 ; suc- 
ceeded by her son, 

1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), born Sept. 10. 1837; died 
Nov. 11, 1801 ; succeeded by his brother, 

1801. Luis L, the i>kesfnt (1809) king ; born Oct. 1, 1838, 
married to Maria Pia, daughter of Victor Em- 
manuel, king of Italy, Oct. 0, 1S02. 
llleir: Dom Carlos (sou), born Sept. 28, 1SG3.] 
POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 1772 

and 1793; made part of the duchy of Warsaw, 1807; 

restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection here was 

quelled in May, 184S. 
POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY* set forth by Auguste 



■ It sets aside theology and metaphysics as two merely preliminary 



POS 



380 



POT 



Comte, an eminent mathematiciau, born about 1795 ; 
died at Paris, 1S52. 

POSTS, said to have originated in the regular cour- 
iers established by Cyrus, who erected post-houses 
throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 536 B.C. 
Augustus was the tirst who introduced this institution 
among the Romans, and who employed post-chaises. 
This was imitated by Charlemagne about A.D. 800.— 
Ashe. Louis XI. first established post-houses in Prance 
owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the 
first institution of this nature in Europe, lilO.—He- 
■nault. An International Commission respecting post- 
al arrangements met at Paris May 11, and broke up 
June 0, iSG3. 

POST-OFFICE or England. In England, in the 
reign of Edward IV., 14S1, riders on post-horses went 
stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other, 
in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence 
of the events that passed in the course of the war that 
had arisen with the Scots. — Gale. Richard III. im- 
proved the system of couriers in 1483. In 1543 similar 
arrangements e.xisted in England. — Sadler's Letters. 
Post "communications between London and most 
towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland existed in 
1GS5.—Strijpe. The first chief postmaster of England 
was Thomas Randolph, appointed by Queen Elizabeth 
in 1581. James I. appointed Matthew de I'Equester as 
foreign postmaster; and Charles I. appointed William 
Frizell and Thomas Witherings in icyi. A proclama- 
tion of Charles I. states in the preamble that "whereas 
to this time there hath been no certain intercoiu-.se be- 
tween the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the 
king now commands his postmasters of England for 
foreign parts to settle a running post or two to run 
night and day between Edinburg and London, to go 
thither and come back again in six days,"* 1G31. An 
enlarged office was erected by the Parliament in 1643 ; 
and one more considerable in 1657, with a view "to 
benefit commerce, convey the public dispatches, and 
as the best means to discover and prevent many dan- 
gerous wicked designs against the commonwealth by 
the inspection of the correspondence." — Ashe. 
The Post-ofTice as at present constituted was 

founded 12 Charles II Dec. 27,1060 

Cross posts established by Ralph Allen 1720 

The mails were first conveyed by coaches, Aug. 2, 
17S4, when the first mail left London for Bris- 
tol. See Mail Coaches. 
Penny Post first set up in London and its suburbs 
byaMr. Robert Murray, upholsterer, in 1681. He 
assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. 
Dockwra, a merchant, 16S3-; but on a trial at the 
King's Bench bar it was adjudged to belong to 
the Duke of York, as a branch of the general 
post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue 
of the crown, 1090. This institution was consid- 
erably improved in and arouud London, and 
was made a two-penny post, July, 1794, ct seq. 

A penny post was first set up in Dublin 1774 

The mails first conveyed by railway, ISDO ; by the 

overland route to India 1835 

Early in 1S37, Mr. Rowland Hillt broached his plan 
of penny 2^ostage, which was adopted after a full 
investigation by a Committee of the House of 

Commons in 1839 

The new postage law, by which the uniform rate 
of 4f/. per letter was tried as an experiment, came 

into operation Dec. 5, " 

The uniform rate of Id. per letter of half an ounce 

weight, etc., commenced Jan. 10,1840 

The stamped postage covers came into use. May 6, " 
Reduction in postage — to be Id. instead of M. for 

every ounce above the first April, 1865 

Number of letters delivered in the last year of the 
heavy postage (1839) was 82,470,596, including 
6,563,024 franks. 
In 1S40, the number was 168,768,344; in 1851, 

statues in liie, and abandon3 all search after causes and essences of 
things, and restricts itself to the observation and classification of phe- 
nomena and the discovery of their laws. Comte asserted that Europe 
had now arrived at the tnird stage of its progress. He aimed at being 
the founder of a new religion as well as a new philosophy, " the relig- 
ion of humanity." 

* The king also commanded his ** postma^ster of England for foreign 
parts" to open a regular communication by running posts between the 
metropolis and Edinburg.West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, Plymouth, 
Exeter, etc. (Rates of postage — 1 letter carried under 80 miles, id. ; 
under 140 miles, 4d. ; above that distance in England, 6d. ; to any 
part of .Scotland, Sd.) Even so late as between 1730 and 1140, the post 
was only transmitted three days a week between Edinburg and Lon- 
don ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, onlt/ sent a single letter ^ 
which wfts for an Edinburg banker named Ramsay. 

t A national testimonial was presented to him June 17, 1846 ; on 
Nov. 30 he was appointed secretary to the post-office, and created K. C. 
B. in 1860. 



360,651,187, whereof 36,512,649 were in Scotland, 
and 35,982,782 were in Ireland. 

The number in 1856 was, England, 388 millions; 
Scotland, 42 millions; Ireland, 48 millions; total, 
478 millions; being an increase of 4% per cent, 
on 1855, and an average of 17 to each person. 

On Feb. 14, 1856, 618,000 letters passed through the 
general post-offlce. 

In 1859, 544,796,000 letters were posted in the 
United Kingdom, being an increase of 4}^ per 
cent, on 1858. The average annual number to 
each person — in England, 22 ; Scotland, 16 ; Ire- 
land, 7. 

In 1860, 564 millions of letters were delivered in 
the United Kingdom : in 1S61, 593 millions ; 1862, 
605 millions ; 1864, 679,084,822. 

Book-Post. — On June 5, 1855, a treasury warrant 
was issued providing for the carriage by post of 
hooks, pamphlets, etc., uuder certain restrictions 
—4 oz. for Id. ; 8 oz. for 2d., etc. 

PxMic receptacles for letters befcn-e 1840, about 4500. 

In 1860 there were in the United Kingdom 11,412 
post-oflices ; 1862, 11,316. 

The street Letter-hoxes were erected in March, 1855. 
The first one was placed at the corner of Fleet 
Street and Farringdou Street. There were 1958 
in 1860 ; 3460 in 1862. 

Officers employed Dec. 1, 1861, 25,473. 

A Money-Order Office, set up in 1792, was little used 
on account of the expense till 1840. In 1839, 
188,291 money orders were issued for £313,124; 
in 1861, 7,580,455 orders for £14,616,348. 

The Postal Guide first appeared in 1856, in which 
year London and the vicinity were divided into 
districts for postal purposes, viz.,East,West, etc. 
The postmaster general has issued Annual Re- 
ports (1854-64). 

The Post-office Directory first appeared in 1800. 

POST-OFFICE OF THE LTnited States. The whole 
number of post-offlces in the United States in 1863 was 
29,047. During the year 1863 the receipts of the post- 
offlces nearly equaled the expenditures, and so rapid 
has been the improvement that there is good reason 
to expect that soon the department will be self-sus- 
taining. 
The expenditures of 1803 were $11,-^14,206 84 

" " of 1862 " 11,12.%.".64 13 

Increase in 1863 $lb8,b42 71 

The actual revenues of 1863 were $11,163,789 59 

" " " of 1862 " 8,299,820 90 

Increase in 1863 2,863,908 69 

The postage in any part of the United States is three 
cents for each half ounce. Printed matter (except 
books) at the rate of two cents for each and every four 
ounces. Double these rates are charged for books. 

P0STIK6. Post-chaises were invented by the 
French, and, according to Grainger, were introduced 
into this country by Mr. William Tull, son of the well- 
known writer on Husbandry. Posting was fixed by 
statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 154S. By 
a statute, re-establishing the post-offlce, none but the 
postmaster or his deputies could furnish post-horses 
for travelers, 1660, and hence the name. The post- 
horse duty was imposed in 1779. Post-horse duty 
yielded, in 1852, in England, £128,501, and in Scotland, 
£16,933. 

POTASSIUM, a most remarkable metal, discovered 
in 1807 by Humphry Davy, who first succeeded in sep- 
arating it from potash by means of a powerful voltaic 
battery in the laboratory of the Royal Institution, Lon- 
don ; and also the metals Sodium from soda, Calcium 
from lime, etc. The alkalis and earths had been pre- 
viously regarded as simple substances. Potassium 
iguites on contact with water. 

POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, originally 
brought to England from Santa Fe, in America, by Sir 
John Hawkins, 1563. Others ascribe their introduc- 
tion to Sir Francis Drake, in 1586 ; while their general 
introduction is mentioned by many writers as occur- 
ring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred 
to Sir Walter Raleigh, who had large estates in that 
country, about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is 
said that potatoes were not known iii Flanders until 
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from 
America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding- 
ton, near Bedford, 1765; and its culture became gen- 
eral soon after. The failure of the potato crop in Ire- 
land four successive years from 1845 caused famine 
among the poor, to which succeeded pestilent disease, 
of which multitudes died ; among them many priests 



roT 



381 



PEA 



and i)hysicians. Parliameut voted ten millions ster- 
liiii,' iu this awful exiureucy, and several couutries of 
Europe, aud the United States of America, forwarded 
provisions aud other succors. See Ireland.* 

POTID^A, a town iu Macedonia, a tributary of 
Athens, against which it revolted Hi B.C., but sub- 
mitted iu 429. It was taken from the Athenians after 
three years' siege by Philip II. of Macedou, in 35S B.C. 

POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines were here discovered 
by the Spaniards iu 1545 ; they are in a mountain iu 
the form of a sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of Prussia. 
It was made an arsenal in 1721. Here is situated the 
palace of Sana Soiici, embellished by Frederick II., 
which was occupied by Napoleon I. in Oct., 1S06. Here 
also is the new palace, the residence of Prince I'reder- 
ick William aud his wife, the princess royal of England, 
married Jan. 25, 1S5S. 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. The manufacture 
of earthcu-ware (the ceramic art) existed among the 
Jews as an honorable occupation (see 1 Chron. iv., 23) 
and tlie power of the potter over the clay as a syrabo'l 
of tlic iiower of God is described by Jeremiah, B.C. 605 
(Ph. xviii.). Earthen-ware was made by the ancient 
Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, aud Romans. 
Ihe art, which was lost at the subversion of the Ro- 
man Western empire, reappeared in Spain with the 

The Majolica, Raffaclle, or Umbrian ware of the 
15th century was probably introduced into Italy 
h-om the Moors, as colored tiles of the Cth aud 
ah century adorn some ancient churches 

Pottery was manufoctured at Beauvais, in Frauce 
m the 12th century. ' 

St. Cloud enameled pottery made about 16SS 

Luca della Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin 
enamel to terra-cotta. Fayence ware was made 
in France by Bernard Palissy (died 15S9) aud his 
family. 

Porcelain, formed of earth kaolin, was made in 
China in the 2d century after Christ. Chinese 
porcelain is mentioned in histories of the IGth 
century, when it was introduced iuto England, 
and eagerly sought after. 

Porcelain was made at Bow, near Loudon, early in 
the ISth century, and at Chelsea before 1098 

The first European porcelain was made at Dresden 
by Boetcber about Uqq 

[The manufacture was fostered by the kini--' Au- 
gustus II.] ■'a 

The Capo di MoiUe factory at Naples established 1T36 

Ihos.Frye patented porcelain, 1T49; andDr Wall 
established the manufacture at Worcester . 1750 

The St. Cloud china manufactory removed to 

feeVreS J-.gg 

Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made" !l762 
Birch s "History of Ancient Pottery" (1S5S); Mar- 
ryat's "History of Pottery and Porcelain, Medi- 
eval and Modern" (1857) ; aud Brougniart's "Arts 
Ceramiques," are valuable works. 
The British manufacture greatly improved by Her- 
bert Miuton, who died in Ig5g 

The duty on earthen-ware taken off in.'.".'.! .'.'.'.'.'.' [is'oo 
POUND, from the Latin Poiulus. The value of the 
Roman jMndo is not precisely known, thou"-h some 
suppose n was equivalent to an Attic inina,oi- £3 4s 
Id. Ihe pound sterling was in Saxon times, about 
671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twen- 
tieth part; consequently the latter was three times as 
large as it is at v^ftsent.-Peacham. Our avoirduuo s 
weight poundcame from the French, and contains six- 
teen ounces ; it is m proportion to our troy weic'ht as 
seventeen to fourteen. See under Standard 

POWDERING THE HAIR is said to have taken its 
rise Irom some of.the ballad-singers at the ftiir a"st 

ridkuW ""VlT^ "'"''■ ''°"^1« t° make themsdves 
TTncri., ;>,„">,'■''''''''"'' ^''■'^'■y general about 1614. In 
England the hair-powder tax, one guinea for Vie 

Cs'atits'iercM ''tUP- '^^T'^";^ timethe practice 
was ai MS neight. The tax still ex sts, vieldiu" in En- 
gland a few years ago, £4000 per yeai^bu onTv Sl200 
in 18G3. It was abolished iu Ireland. ^ 

POWER-LOOMS. See Looms and Cotton. 

PR^MUNIRE, Law of. This law (which obtained 
IS name from the first two words, "P.^r^ri-"', 
"Prcevmmrifacia^,'^ "Cause to be'forewarned " and 
Which IS applied to any offense in the way of contempt 
of th^sovereigu or his government) derived its ori^Fu 

* From statistical returns, it nprears tlint tl,.. T,„t„i '■ 

nncertaiu tl>at it oup;l,t not to b/r^lied „'^„l^st^ar',f ^rticTe 'oVr^or^ 



from the aggressive power of the pope in England. Tlie 
ollense introduced a foreign power into the land, and 
created an impcrium in impcrio. The first statute of 
Prajinunire was enacted 35 Edward I., 1306. — Cofe 
Ihe pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, 
etc., before they were void, upon favorites, on pre- 
tense of providing the Church with better qualified 
successors before the vacancies occurred. To put a 
stop to these encroachments, Edward IIL enacted a 
statute in 1352. The statute commonly referred to as • 
i-H?o^ Tj"**^ of Prasmuuire is the IGth of Richard IL, 
■'" :■ ^ ,, s'^veral other enactments, with similar ob- 
ject, followed in subsequent reigns. 

PR^TORIAN GUARDS were instituted by the Em- 
peror Augustus (13B.C.): their numbers were enlarged 
by Tiberius, Vitellius, and their successors. At first 
supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually be- 
came their masters, actually putting up the imperial 
diadem for sale (as in A.D. 103, when it was bought by 
Didius Julianus). They committed many atrocities, 
aud were finally disbanded by Constantiue in 312. 

PR.ETORS, Roman magistrates. In 365 B.C one 
pi-ffitor was appointed; a second was appointed in 252 
B. C. One {pra-tor urbanus) administered justice to the 
citizens, and the other {2)rcetor peregrinm) in causes 
which related to foreigners. In 227 B.C. two more 
prsstors were created to assist the consul in the o-ov- 
ernmeut of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which 
had been lately conquered ; aud two more when Spain 
was reduced into the form of a Roman province, 197 
B.C. Sylla, the dictator, added two more, and Julius 
Ca;sar increased the number to 10, which afterward 
became 16. After this their number fluctuated, beino- 
sometimes 18, 16, or 12 : till, in the decline of the em- 
pire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers were 
reduced to three. 

PRAGA, a suburb of Warsaw, where a most bloody 
battle was fought, Nov. 5, 1794 ; 30,000 Poles ■i\'ere 
butchered by the Russian General Suwarrow. Near 
here, on Feb. 2.5, 1S31, the Poles, commanded by Skrzj'- 
necki, defeated the Russian army, commanded by Gen- 
eral Giesmar, who lost 4000 killed aud wounded, 6000 
prisoners, aud 12 pieces of cannon. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating 
to the Church, and sometimes state affairs. The ordi- 
nances of the kings of France are thus called ; iu one 
the rights of the Galilean Church were asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, by 
Charles VIL, iu 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction for 
settling the Empire of Germany in the house of Aus- 
tria, 1439. Again the Emperor Charles VI. published 
the Pragmatic Sanction, wherebv, in default of male 
issue, his daughters should succeed in preference to 
the daughters of his brother, Joseph L, in April 17, 
1713; and he settled his dominions on his daughter 
Maria Theresa, iu conformity thereto, 1723. She' suc- 
ceeded in Oct., 1740; but it gave rise to a war, in which 
most of the powers of Europe were engaged, which 
lasted till 1748. 

PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia {ivMcJi see). The 
old city was founded about 759; the new city was re- 
built m 1348 by the Emperor Charies IV., who made it 
his capital and erected a university. Prague has suf- 
fered much by war. It was taken by the Swedes in 
164S, and by the French in 1741 ; but they were obliged 
to leave it in 1742. In 1744 it was taken by the King 
of Prussia; but he was obliged to abandon it in the 
same year. The great battle of Prague was fought 
May 6, 1757. Iu this engagement the'Austrians were 
defeated by Prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole 
camp taken ; their illustrious commander. General 
Braun, was mortally wouuded, and the brave Prus- 
sian, Marshal Schwerin, was killed. After this vic- 
tory, Prague was besieged by the King of Prussia, but 
he was soon obliged to raise the siege.— An insurrec- 
tion in Prague, June, 1848, was suppressed iu a few 
days. 

PRAISE-GOD BAREBONES PARLIAMENT. See 

Barebones. 

PRASLIN MURDER. The Duchess de Choiseul- 
Praslin was murdered by her husband, the Due de 
Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, Aug. 17, 1847. She 
was the only daughter of the celebrated Marshal Se- 
bastiani, the mother of nine children, aud in her for- 
ty-first year. Circumstances were so managed by him 
as to give it the appearance of being the'act of an- 
other. During the arrangements for the trial the 
duke took poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK. See Common Prayer. 
PRAYERS. "Then began men to call upon the 
name of the Lord" (Ge/i. iv., 26),, 3875 B.C. Tho mode 



PRE 



382 



PRE 



of praying with the face to the east was iustituted by 
Pope Boniface 11., A.D. 532. Thi.s last custom, which 
prevailed among the Jews, has been recently adopted 
in some Protestant places of worship in England. 
Prayers for the dead were first introduced into the 
Christian Church about 19i).—Busebius. Prayers ad- 
dressed to the Virgin Mary and to the saints were in- 
troduced by Pope Gregory, 5'J3. 

PRECEDENCE was established in very early ages, 
and was among the laws of Justinian. In England 
the order of precedency was regulated chiefly by two 
statutes, 31 Ueu. VIIL, 1539, and 1 Geo. I., 1714. 

PREDESTINATION. The doctrine concerning this 
is defined in the seventeenth article of the Church of 
England. See Articles. It was maintained by St. Au- 
gustine, and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of 
the 5th century. In later times it has been maintained 
by the Augustinians, Jauseuists, the Church of Scot- 
laud, and 'many dissenters (termed Calvinistic), and 
opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and many dis- 
senters (termed Arminiau), especially by the Wesleyan 
Methodists. 

PREROGATIVE COURT, in which fomierly 
all wills were proved and all administrations taken 
which belonged to the Archbishop of Canterbury by 
his prerogative, a judge being appointed by him to de- 
cide disputes. Appeals from this court to the judicial 
committee of the Privy Council were iustituted in 1830. 
This court was abolished, and the Probate Court estab- 
lished in 1857. 

PREROGATIVE ROYAL. In England the sover- 
eign is the supreme magistrate, and it is a maxim that 
he can do no wrong. He is the head of the Established 
Church, of the army and navy, and the fountain of of- 
fice, honor, and privilege, but is subject to the laws 
unless exempted by name. The royal prerogatives 
were greatly exceeded by several despotic sovereigns, 
such as Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I. Elizabeth 
used the phrase "We, of our royal prerogative, which 
we will not have argued or brought iu question" (1 G91). 
James I. told his Parliament "that as it was blas- 
phemy to question what the Almighty could do of His 
power, so it was sedition to inquire what a king could 
do by virtue of his prerogative." These extreme doc- 
trines were nullified by the revolution of 1688 ; and the 
exercise of the prerogative is now virtually subject to 
Parliament. See Lords. 

PRESBURG, an ancient city in Hungary, where the 
diets have been held and the kings crowned. On Dec. 
26, 1805, a treaty was signed between France and Aus- 
tria, by which the ancient states of Venice were ceded 
to Italy; the principality of Eichstadt, part of the bish- 
opric of Passau,the city of AuMburg, the Tyrol, all the 
possessions of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Or- 
tenau, were transferred to the Elector of Bavaria and 
the Duke of Wurtemberg, who, as well as the Duke of 
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon. The 
independence of the Helvetic republic was also stip- 
ulated. 

PRESBYTERIANS* are so called from their main- 
taining that the government of the Church appointed 
in the New Testament was by presbyteries, or associ- 
ation of ministers and ruling elders, equal in power, 
office, and iu order. Presbyterianism was established 
in place of episcopacy in England iu 1648, but abol- 
ished at the Restoration in lOCt). It became the estab- 
lished form of Church government in Scotland. Its 
tenets were embodied iu the formulary of faith said to 
have been composed by John Knox iu 1560, which was 
approved by the Parliament, and ratified, 1507, and 
finally settled by au act of the Scottish senate, 1090, 
afterward secured by the treaty of union with En- 
gland in 1707. The first Presbyterian meeting-house 
m England was established at Wandsworth, Surrey, 
Nov. 20, 1572. 

PRESCOTT (Upper Canada). On Nov. 17, 1S3S, the 
Canadian rebels were attacked by the British under 
Major Young, aud (on the ISth) by Lieut. Col. Dundas, 
who dispersed the insurgents, several of whom were 
killed, and many taken prisoners, aud the remainder 
surrendered. The troops also suffered considerably. 

PRESIDENT OF tub CoiraoiL, Lokb, the fourth 
great officer of state, is appointed under the great 
seal, durante benepla^ito, and, by his office, is to attend 
the king's royal person, and to manage the debates 
iu council ; to propose matters from the king at the 
council-table; and to report to his majesty tlie reso- 
lutions taken thereupon, ^ea Privy Council ; United 
States, 1789 ; France, 1848 ; and Wrecks, 1841. 

* " Tlie elders (Greek jtreshf/terou^) I exhort, who am also an elder 
(si/iiipresbijUros)." Ifetery.,^. 



PRESS, LiBEKTT OF TUB. The imj>rhnatur "let it 
be printed" was much used on the title-pages of books 
printed iu the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
The liberty of the press was severely restrained, and 
the number of master printers in London and West- 
minster limited by the Star Chamber, 13 Charles I., 
July 1, 1637. " Disorders in printing" were redressed 
by the Parliament iu 1643 and 1649 ; and by Charles 
II. in 1662. The censorship of tlie press (by a license 
established in 1055 and 1093) was abandoned in 1695 
(6 Will. III.). The celebrated toast, "The liberty of 
the press: it is like the air we breathe — if we have it 
not we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor 
Tavern, at a Whig dinner in 1795. Presses were li- 
censed, and the printer's name required to be placed 
on both the first and last pages of a book, July, 1799. 
The severity of the restrictions on the French press 
was relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the Interior, 
iu Dec, 1860, but soon i^estored. The liberty of the 
press in the United States was greatly checked during 
the Civil War, 1S01-18C5. 

PRESS (Newspaper), a journal, published in Dublin, 
of considerable talent, but of a most revolutionary 
tendency. It was commenced in Oct., 1797, and the 
celebrated Arthur O'Connor, Mr. Emmet, the barrister 
(whose brother was executed iu 1803), aud several 
other conspicuous men, were contributors to it ; their 
writings served to inflame the public mind in Ireland 
on the eve of the memorable rebellion, which broke 
ont in 1798. The paper was suppressed by a military 
force, March 6, 1798, and Mr. O'Connor was arrested at 
Margate while attempting his escape to France. — The 
existing weekly Conservative paper, the Press, was 
first published iu May, 18.53. 

PRESSING TO DEATH. See Mute.— Fon. the Sea 
Service. See Impressment. 

PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell to- 
tally defeated the Royalists under Sir Marmaduke 
Langdale, Aug. 17, 1648. Preston was taken in 1715 by 
the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who proclaimed 
King James VII. They were defeated in a battle on 
Nov. 12, by Generals Wills and Carpenter, who, with 
the royal army, invested Preston on all sides. The 
Scots at length laid down their arms, and their nobles 
aud leaders were secured ; some of them were shot as 
deserters, and others were sent to London pinioned 
and bound together, to intimidate their party.— The 
stoppage of the cotton manufacture iu 1801 aud 1862 
occasioned great suflering in Preston. The festival 
termed "the Preston Guild," said to have been insti- 
tuted in Saxon times, and to have been kept once in 
20 years regularly siuce 1562, was duly celebrated in 
Sept., 1862.* A fiue art and industrial exhibition here 
was opened, Sept. 21, 1865. 

PRESTON-PANS, near Edinburg, the scene of a 
battle between the Young Pretender, Prince Charles 
Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the royal army 
under Sir John Cope, Sept. 21, 1745. The latter was 
defeated with the loss of 500 men, and fled. 

PRETENDERS. A name given to the son and 
grandsons of James II. of England.— The Old Pre- 
tender, or Chevalier de St. George, born June 10, 1688, 
was acknowledged by Louis XlV. as James III. of En- 
gland in 1701. He was proclaimed, aud his standard 
set up, at Braemar and Castletown, in Scotland, Sept. 
3, 1715 ; aud he landed at Peterhead, iu Aberdeenshire, 
from France, to encourage the rebellion that the Earl 
of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, Dec. 25, 
same year. This rehelliou having been soon sup- 
pressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from 
whence he proceeded to Gravelines), Feb. 4, 1716 ; and 
died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. — The Young Peetendeu, 
Charles Edward, was born in 1720. He landed in 
Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June, 1745. 
He gained the battle of Preston-pans, Sept. 21, 1745, 
aud of Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746 ; but was defeated at Cul- 
loden, April 16, same year, and sought safety by flight. 
He continued wandering among the wilds of Scotland 
for nearly six mouths ; and as X'30,000 were offered for 
taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British 
troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still 
rescued by some lucky accident, and at length escaped 
from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died Jan. 81, 



* Pkeston .Strike. — In 1353, a great number of strikes took place 
among the workmen in the north of England. Those at Preston struck 
for an increase of 10 per cent, on their wages. On Oct. 1 6, the masters, 
in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, and 20,000 persons were thrown 
out of employment, who were mostly maintained for a long time by 
subscriptions from their fellows. In the week ending Dec. 17, 1863, 
14,927 were relieved at the cost of ^£2820 Ss. The committee of work- 
men addressed Lord Palmerston, Nov. 15, 185.'?, who gave them his ad- 
vice Dec. 24 following. After many attempts at reconciliation, the 
strike closed for want of funds. May 1, 1854, 



PKI 



883 



PEI 



17SS. nis natural claughtcr assumed tlie title of Duch- 
ess of Albauy ; she died iu 17S9. His brother, the Car- 
dinal York, calling himself lleury IX. ofEuglaud, born 
March, 1725, died at liome iu Aug., 1S07. See Scotlcmd. 

TRICES. Sec C(irn, Bread, and Provisions. Mr. T. 
Tooke, in 1838, published a " History of Prices from 
1793 to 18D6." He was latterly aided by Mr.W. New- 
march. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. Ou Dec. C, 1C4S, Colonel Pride, 
at the head of two regiments, surrounded the house 
of Parliament, and seizing in the passage forty-one 
moniI)ers of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a 
low room, then called hell. Above 100 other members 
were excluded, and none admitted but the most furi- 
ous of the Independents. The privileged members 
were named the Ruiiij} Parliament, which was dis- 
missed by Cromwell, April 20, 1053. 

PRIEST (derived rrom presbijteros, elder), in the En- 
glish Church the minister who presides over the pub- 
lic worship. In Gen. xiv., 18, Melchizedek, king of 
Salem, is termed "priest of the most high God." (1913 
B.C. See Hebrews vii.) The Greek hicreus, like the 
Jewish priest, had a sacrilicial character, which idea 
of the priesthood is still maintained by the Romanists 
and those who favor their views. Among the Jews, 
the priests assumed their oiflce at the age of thirty 
years. The dignity of high or chief priest was fixed in 
Aaron's family, 1491 B.C. After the captivity of Bab- 
ylon, the civil government and the crown were super- 
added to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar priv- 
ilege of the high priest that he could be prosecuted iu 
no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The hea- 
thens had their arch-flamen or high priest, resembling 
the Christian archbishop. 

PRLMER. A book so named from the Romish book 
of devotions, and formerly set forth or published by 
authority, as the first book children should publicly 
learu or read iu schools, containing prayers and por- 
tions of the Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved 
of so early a date as IHSO.— Ashe. Henry VIII. issued 
a prayer-book termed a primer iu 1546. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right or. A usage brouo'ht 
down from the earliest times. The firstborn in the 
patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, 
and iu the absence of his father was priest to the fam- 
ily. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, 
primogeniture was of no account. It came in with the 
feudal law, 3 Will. I., IOCS. The rights of primogeni- 
ture were abolished iu Frauce iu 1790. 

PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND (N. America) was 
discovered by Cabot in 1497 ; was finally taken from 
the French by the British in 1758 ; united with Cape 
Breton as a colony iu 1703, but separated iu 1768. 

PRINCETON, Battle of. After the victory at 
Trenton, Washington recrossed the Delaware with his 
prisoners. He again advanced and took post at Tren- 
ton. Cornwallis marched upon him. Under cover of 
night, ou the 2d of January, Washington withdrew, un- 
perceived, and early the next morning (.January 3d, 
1777) was iu conflict with British troops under Colonel 
Mawhood, at Princeton, ten miles distant. The Amer- 
icans were victorious, but lost the brave General Huf^h 
Mercer. Just as the heat of the battle was over, Coni- 
wallis, with fresh troops, came from Trenton. The 
Americans, who had not slept, nor scarcely tasted food 
for 30 himrs, retreated, and Cornwallis did not pursue 
far. The Americans lost 100 men killed or wounded • 
the British lost iu killed, wounded, aud prisoner'*' 
about 400. ' ' 

PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND. See Pena7ir/. 

PRINTED GOODS. See Calico. 

PRINTING. Block-printing was practiced by the 
Chmcse several centuries before the Christian era 
The honor of printing with single types has been ap- 
propriatcd to Mentz, Strasbourg, Haarlem, Venice, 
1 Rome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but the names 
of the three first only are entitled to attention. See 

Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention 
to Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, "who 
printed with blocks a book of images and let- 
ters, Specuhim Humana; Salvationis, and com- 
pounded an ink more viscous and tenacious 
than common ink, which blotted, about . 1438 "* 



• In ISM Mr. Samuel Leigh Sothehy issued nn elaborate work, com 
piled by his father and himself, entitled " I'rinchna TrnmnTavlica " 
containing fnc-similes, etc., of the block-books of tlie ISth' century ■ and 
Mr. J. Russell bniith published ti fac-simile of the JSMia Paupemm a 
very early block-book. ^ ' 



[The leaves of this book, being printed on one side 

only, were afterward pasted together.] 
John Fust established a printiug-othce at Mentz, 

and printed tlic Tractatus Petri Hisixtni 1442 

John Guttenburg invented cut metal types, and 
usecl them in printing the earliest edition of the 
Bible, which was commenced iu 1444, and fin- 
ished in 14(30 

Peter Schoefler cast the first metal types in mat- 
rices, and was therefore the inventor of com- 
plete pttiNTi^'o 1452 

Book of Psalms, printed by FtisVaud Sc'liffiffer, 

mv. r, ^- ^ Aug. 14,14.57 

The Durandt Rationale, first work printed \\\i\x 

cast metal types 1459 

[Printing was introduced iuto Oxford aboiiV 'tiiLs 
time.— Collier. But this statement is discredit- 
ed by Dibdin.] 

A Livy printed {Du Fresnoi/) 146O 

The first Bible completed (idem) .' .'. " 

Mentz taken aud plundered, and the art of prVnV- 
ing, in the general ruin, is spread to other 

towns « » 

The types were uuiformly Gothic, or "old German 

(whence our old English or Black Letter), until.. 1465 
Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same 

year << 

Cicei-o da Offieiis printed by Fust at Meiitz".". ...... " 

Roman characters, first at Rome 1407 

A Chronicle, said to have been found iu the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact disputed), 
bearing the date " Oxford, anno 1468." 
William Carton, a mercer of London, set up the 

first press at Westminster* 1471 

He printed Willyam Caxton's Recuyel of the Hysto- 

rijes of Troy, by Raoul le Fcure {Phillips) " 

His first pieces were, .4 Treatise on the Game of 

Chesse and Tully's Offices (see below) {Dibdin)... li~4: 
JEsop\i Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to 

be the first book with its leaves numbered * * 

Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, aud a Greek book 

printed ap. A Idi. 1476 

He introduces the Italics * * 

The Pentateiwh, iu Hebrew. 14S2 

Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 

eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius 14SS 

Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos 1490 

Aldus Mauutins begins printing at Venice 1494 

Printing used in Scotland 1509 

The first edition of the whole Bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of Cardi- 
nal Ximeues (see Polyglot) 1517 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by 

Humphry Powell I550 

Printing iu Irish characters introduced lay Nicho- 
las Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's 1571 

The first newspaper printed in England {see I\eivs- 

papers) 15SS 

First patent granted for printing 1591 

First priuting-press improved by William Blaeu, 

at Amsterdam IGOI 

First printing in America, iu New England, when 
the Freeman's Oath and an almanac were print- 
ed 1639 

First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast {Har- 
dy's Tour) 1T04 

First types cast in England by Caslon {Phillijjs) . AT20 
Stereotype priutiug practised by William Ged, of 

Edinburg, about 1730 

The present mode of stereotype invented by Mr. 

Tilloch about 1779 

[Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in the 

last century (Pliitlips.)] 
Logograptliic Printing, in which words cast iu one 
piece were employed : patented bv H. Johnson 

and Mr. Walter of the Times (soon"disused) 1783 

Machine -printing {which see) first suggested by 

Nicholson 1790 

The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; in gen- 
eral use ". . . . 1800 

Columbian press of Clymer introduced 1814 

Albion press introduced 1816 

The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 

introduced " 

Cowper's aud Applegath's rollers 181T 

Printing for the Ijliiid O^y raised characters) be- 
gins 1827 



* To the west of the Sanctuary in "Westminster Abbey stood the 
Eleemosynary or Almonry, wliere the first printing-in-ess in England 
was erected 'in 1471, by William Caxton, encourage.l by the learned 
Thomas Miling, then abbot. He produced " Tlie Game aiid Play of 
Chesse,^' the first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a 
slight difference about the place in which it was printed, but all agree 
that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Liigh. 



PRI 884 

Pi-inter's Pension Society establishes! 1S2T 

Ti/pe-cornposing j^Iachinea.—iiy James Young's sev- 
eral numbers of the "Family Herald" were set 
up, beginning Dec. IT, 1S4'2; Hattersley's ap- 
peared at the Exhibition of 1S62 ; Hart's was 
shown at the meeting of the British Association 
at Cambridge Oct. 6,1SG2 

Printing-types electro-faced with. copper about. . .1S50 

Engraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron and 
nickel 1S5S 

W. H. Mitchel's machine was tried at Messrs. Spot- 
tiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines were said to be 
in use in America in Jan. ,1863 

Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram Street, London, 
in which female compositors are employed: the 
"Englishwoman's Journal" printed there, Aug., 
1861 ; appointed printer and publisher in ordi- 
nary to her majesty June,lS62 

(See Printing Machi)ie,Stereoti/pe,andXature-Pmiting.) 

TITLES OF TUE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND 
WYNKYN DE WOKDE. 

The Game and Pl.we of the Ciiesse.*— rrmwra^ed 
out of the Frmiche and emprijnted by me William Cax- 
ton. Fynysshid the last day of Marche the ycr of our 
Lord God a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

The Boke op Tulle of Olde age Emprynted by me 
simple persons William Caxton into Enylysshe as the 
playsir solace and revereiwc of men grouing in to old 
age^the xij day of August theyere of our Lord T^Loocc. 
Ixxxj. — Hekueet. 

Thp, Polyokonycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes 
of many Tymes in cyght Sokes. Imprinted by Wil- 
liam Caxton after having somewhat chaunged the rude 
and olde Engiysshe, that is to ivete [to wit] certayn 
Words ivhich in these Dayes be neither vsyd ne under- 
standen. Ended the second day ofjuyll at Westmestre 
the xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edtmrd the fourth, 
and of the Incarnacidn of oure Lord a Thousand four 
Hondred four Score and tioeyne [1482]. — Dibdin's Typ. 
Ant. 

Tjie Cronicleb of Englond Empnted by me Wyllyam 
Caxton thabbey of Wcstmynstre by london the v day 
of Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god m. 

CCCO.LXXX. 

PoLTORONYcoN.— _Bnc?erf the thyrtenth daye of Apryll 
the tenth yere of the reyne of hinge Harry the seuenth 
And of the Jnmrnacyon of our lord mcocolxxxxv. 
Emprynted by Wyukyu The worde at Wesmestre. 

The Hylle of Perfection cnqrrynted at the instance of 
the reverend relygyo^is fader Tlio. Prior of the hotis of 
St. Ann, the order of the charterousc AccomplyssheUX] 
and fynysshel&'i att Westmimstfr the uiii day of Jan- 
euer the yere of our lord Thousande coco.lxxxxvii. 
And in the xii yere ofkynge Henry the vii by me wyu- 
kyn de worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 

Tub Descripcvon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of 
tlie same Fynysshed and emprynted in Flefe strete in 
the syne of the Sonne by me Wyukyn de Worde the 
yere ofoiir lord a m. cccec and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense 
Mali]. — Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken 
out of the golden legend enipi-ynted at london in Flete- 
stret'e at y" sygne of y^ Sonne by wynkyn de worde. 
In the yere of our lord M.coooaviti. And ended the 
xi day of Maye. — Ames. 

The Lord's Prayer [as printed by Caxton in 1413].— 
Father our that art in heavens, halloived be thy name: 
thy kinydome come to us ; thy loill be done in earth as 
is in heaven : our every days bread give us to day ; and 
forgive us oure trespasses^ as we.forgive them that tres- 
pass against its ; and lead us not into temptation, but 
deliver us from all evil sin, amen. — Lewis's Life of 
Caxton. 

A Placard [as printed by William Caxton] — If it 
3}lese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye ony pies of 
two or three eomemoracios of Salisburi usei enprynted 
after the forme of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and 
truly correct, late him come to icestwonester in to the 
alm'onestye at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall 
have them good there. — Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

PkintinoMachines WilliamNicholson, editor of the 

Philosophical Journal, first projected (1790-1), but M. 
Ki'mig first contrived and constructed a working 
printing-machine, which began with producing the 

* A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent Figgina in 
1859. 

t Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies 
iPiea, Latin), as is supposed from the different color of the text and 
rubric. Our printing-type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers.— 
Wheathy. 



PRI 



Times of Nov. 2S, 1814, a memorable day in the an- 
nals of typography. 

In 1815 Mr. E.Cowper applied his inventive mind to 
the subject* 

Kiinig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side; 
Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
4200. This wasraised to 15,000 by Mr. Applegath's 
machine, which prints the Times. 

Hoe's American machine, introduced into Loudon in 
1858, prints 20,000 an hour. 

Printing in Colors was first commenced by the em- 
ployment of several blocks, to imitate the initial let- 
ters in MSS. (for instance, the Meutz Psalter of Fust, 
1457, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations 
of chiaroscuro soon followed ("Repose in Eg3'pt," 
engraving on wood after Louis Cranarh, in 1519, in 
Germany ; others by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-1754) attempted, without success, 
to imitate water-color drawings and to print paper- 
hangings. 

About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some 
chiaroscuros. 

In 1819-22 Mr. William Savage produced his remarka- 
able work, " Hints on Color Printing," illustrated 
by imitations of chiaroscuro and of colored draw- 
ings, giving details of the ilirocesses employed. 

In 1836 Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful speci- 
mens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, 
which expired in 18.'55. In some of the illustrations 
to the "Pictorial Album" (1S36), he employed twen- 
ty dift'ereut blocks. 

It has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo- 
lithography). 

In 1849 Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
water-color drawings by means of modifications 
and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 
he commenced color-printing by machinery, and 
has since availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and 
also of electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to 
obtain purity of color as well as durability. 

The large colored prints of The Illustrated Lomlon 
News were first issued in Dec, 1856. 

PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great abbeys, 
are mentioned in 722 in England. See Abbeys and 
Monasteries. The priories of aliens were seized by the 
kin^ (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeeding reigns with 
the breaking out of war with France, but were usually 
restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories' 
were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 
3 Hen. V., liM.—Rymcr's Fcedera. 

PRISONERS OK War, among the ancient nations, 
when spared, were usually enslaved. About the 13th 
century, civilized nations began to exchange their 
prisoners. 
The Sjianish, French, and American prisoners of 

war in England were 12,000 in number. .Sept, 30,1770 
The number exchanged by cartel with France from 

the commencement of the then war was 44,000, 

Juue,1781 
The English prisoners in France estimated at GOOO, 

and the French in England 27,000 Sept.,1798 

The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 

French, etc., in England to 47,600, in ISll 

PRISONS OF London. See Fleet, King's Bench, 
Neivgate, Poultry, Clerkenwell. 

Horsemonger Lane Jail was built in 1791 

The state of prisons greatly improved after the 

exertions of Howard, t Cold Bath-Fields Prison 

was built on his suggestion 1794 

The atrocities of Governor Aris in this prison were 

exposed in Parliament July 12,1800 

White Cross Street Prison for debtors was erected 

in 1813-15 

Borough Compter; mean and confined till visited 

by aParliamentary committee in 1817 

Savoy Prison, for the confinement of deserters from 

the Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was 

pulled down to make room for Waterloo Bridge,1819 
New Bridewell Prison was erected as a substitute 

for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in 1S29 

Tothill Fields Bridewell, built in 1618, was rebuilt 

in 1836 

The old Marshalsea Prison was pulled down 1842 

Pentonville Model Prison was completed in " 

* In 1S17 was published Blumenbach's Physiologj' by Elliotson, the 
first book printed by machinery. The machine employed being Bens- 
ley's patent, one which printed both sides in one operation at the rate 
of 900 sheets an hour (1816). 

+ Jolm Howard was born Sept. 2, 1726; made sheriff of Bedford, 
1773; investigated into the state of English prisons,. 1 7 7.S-5 ; and gave 
evidence thereon before tlie House of Commons, which led to amend- 
ments by law, 1774 ; he visited prisons all over the Continent, and died 
at Kherson Jan. 2U, 1790. 



PRI 



885 



PKO 



Middlesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, was 

erected iu 1S47 

Ilolloway Prison was opened '. Feb! 0,1852 

Act passed for ul)olishiijy: Ciuecu's Bench Prison. .1802 

Prison Ministers' Act passed 1863 

An act to consolidate and amend tlie law relating 
to prisons was passed July5,lS65 

PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY owes its existence 
to the philanthropic labors of Sir T. P. Buxton, M. P. 
It was instituted in 1S15, and held its tirst public meet- 
ing ill ls2o. Its objects are the amelioration of jails, 
by the difl'usion of information respecting their man- 
agement, the classitication and employment of the 
I)risouers, and the prevention of crime, by inspiring a 
dread of jninishment, and bj; inducing the criminal, oil 
his discharge, to abandon his vicious pursuits. 

PRIVATEER, a ship belonging to private individ- 
uals, sailing with a license (termed a Letter of Marque), 
granted by a government in time of war, to seize and 
plunder the ships of the enemy. The practice, said to 
have been adopted by Edward I. against the Portu- 
guese iu 1295, was general during the war between 
Spain and the Netherlands in the ITth century, and 
during the last French War. Privateering was abol- 
ished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 
March 30, 1S50. The United States government re- 
fused to agree unless the right of blockade was also 
given up. The British government declined this, as- 
serting '-that the system of commercial blockade was 
essential to its uaval supreniacv." On April IT, 1861, 
Jeflersoii Davis, president of the Southern Confed- 
eracy; announced his intention of issuing letters of 
marque, and on the 19th President Lincoln proclaimed 
that all Southern privateers should be treated as pi- 
rates. This decree was not carried out. See United 
litateii. All the great powers forbade privateering 
during the American Civil War. Among the princi- 
pal Confederate privateers were the following: The 
Savannah ran the blockade at Charleston, S. C, June 
2, 1861, captured June 4; the Sumter ran the block- 
ade at New Orleans, La., July, 1861, sold April, 1862; 
the Jejf. Davis escaped from Charleston, July, 1861, 
wrecked in Aug. ; the NashvUle escaped from Charles- 
ton, Oct., 1S61, destroyed by the Montauk, March 1, 1863 ; 
the Florida, built at Birkenhead, near Liverpool, re- 
ceived her armament at sea, entered Mobile Harbor, 
Aug., 1862, escaped from that port, Jan., 1863, captured 
by the Waehusett, Oct., 1864, and afterward sunk by col- 
lision m Hampton Roads; the Alabama, built at Liv- 
erpool, escaped July 29, 1862, destroyed by the Kcar- 
sarije, June 19, 1864. It is estimated that during the 
war thirty vessels of all description were employed by 
the Confederates. ^ J j 



PRmLEGED PLACES. See Asyluvis. 

PRI\'Y COT'NCIL. A council was instituted by 
Alfred, 895. The number of ihe council was about 
twelve when it discharged the functions of state, now 
confined to the members of the cabinet; but it had 
become of unwieldy amount before 16T9, in which year 
It was remodeled upon Sir William Temple's plan, and 
reduced to thirty members; Anthony Ashley, earl of 
Shaftesbury, being president. The number is now 
unlimited. To attempt the life of a privy councilor 
m the execution of his office was made capital, occa- 
Bioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the 
latter was examining him on a charge of hitrh trea- 
son, 9 Anne, 1711.* '^ 

PRI\Tf SEAL, THE LoKD, the fifth great officer of 
state, has the custody of the privy seal, which he must 
not put to any grant without good warrant under the 
king s signet. This seal is used by the kiu'T to all 
charters, grants, and pardons, signed by the kino- be- 
^°/f„*:'^cy come to the great seal. Richard Fox, brs'hop 
of \V inchester, held this office iu the reign of Henry 
VIII. previously to 1523, when Cuthbert Tunstall, bish- 
op of Loudon, was appointed. The privy seal has been 
on some occasions iu commission.— iJcaiso/i. 

PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made from 
the enemy, was decreed by government to be divided 



• Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.— In lieu of the 
Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chancellors of Great Brit- 
am and of Ireland in cases of lunacy— from the Ecclesiastical and Ad- 
miralty Courts of England, and the Vice-Admiralty Courts abroad— 
from the Warden of the Stannaries, the Courts of the Isle of Man, and 
other islands, and the Colonial Courts, etc.— fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will 
IV ., c. 41 , ls:i:i. Judgca—ihe president of the privy council, the lord 
chancellor, and such members of the privy council as may hold and 
have held the office of lord keeper or first commissioner of the irreat 
seal, lord chief justice of the Queen's Bench, master of the rolls, vice- 
chancellor, lord chief justice of the Couimon Pleas, lord chief baron 
judge of the Admiralty, chief judge of the Court of Bankruptcy, and 
others appointed by the queen, being privy councilors. 



into eijjht equal parts, and distributed by order of 
ranks, April IT, 1793. 

PROBATE COURT, established in 185T by 20 & 21 
Vict.,^ c. 77, which abolished all powers exercised by 
the Ecclesiastical Courts in the granting of probates 
of wills, etc. See Prerogative Court. The first judn-e, 
appointed Jan. 5, 1858, was Sir Cresswell Cresswell, 
who took his seat on Jan. 12. On his death. Sir James 
P. Wilde was appointed judge, Aug. 28, 1863. Probate 
IS the exhibiting and proving a will before the proper 
authority. 

PROCLAMATIONS, Royal, "have only a bindin<^ 
force when grounded upon and to enforce the laws o? 
the realm."— C«A-e. Henry VIIL, in 1539, declared that 
they were as valid as acts of Parliament. 

PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, 
was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his 
likeness was so taken, 330 B.C.— Ashe. "Until the 
end of the 3d century, I have not seen a Roman em- 
peror with a full face; they were always painted or 
appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a head 
iu a very majestic manner." — Addison. 

PROGRESSIONIST THEORY in NAxtiKAL His- 
TOKY supposes that the existing species of animals 
and plants were not originally created, but were grad- 
ually developed from simple forms. See Sjxcies. 

PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated and allowed 
to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed by a stamp 
in 1782 : the tax was increased iu 1804, and again iu 
ISOS, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congkeoatio de (congrega- 
tion for the proisagatiou of the faith of the Romfsh 
Church), was constituted at Rome by Gregory XV. in 
1622. 

PROPAGATION op the Gospel Society received 
its charter June 16, 1701. Its sphere is generally lim- 
ited to the British Colonies. 

PROPERTY TAX. In England, the assessments 
on real properly, under the property tax of 1815, were 
£51,898,423, of which Middlesex was £5,59.5,537, Lan- 
cashire, £8,087,774, and Yorkshire, £4,700,000; Wales, 
£2,153,801. See Ineome Tax. 

PROPHETS. See under Jc!fs. 

PROPHESYING. About 1570 the Puritanical part 
pt the clergy, particularly at Northampton, held meet- 
ings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and exposition 
of the Scripture. These were forbidden by (Jueeu 
Elizabeth, May 7, 1577, and immediately ceased. 

PROTECTIONIST, a name given to that section of 
the Conservative party which opposed the repeal of 
the corn-laws, and which separated from Sir Robert 
Peel in 1840. The name was derived from a "Society 
for the Protection of Agriculture," of which the Duke 
of Richmond was chairman, and which had been es- 
tablished to counteract the eflbrts of the Anti-Corn 
Law League, Feb. 17, 1844. Lord George Bentinck was 
the head of the party from 1846 till hi.s death, Sept. 21, 
1848. The Derby administration not proposing the 
restoration of the corn-laws, the above society was 
dissolved, Feb. 7, 1853. 

PROTECTORATES m England. That of the Earl 
of Pembroke began Oct. 19, 1216, and ended by his 
death the same year. Of Humphry, duke of Glouces- 
ter, in England, began Aug. 31, 1422 ; he was murdered 
Feb. 28, 1447. Of Richard, duke of Gloucester, be^an 
April 9, 1483, and ended by his assuming the royal dig- 
nity, June 22, the same year. Of Somerset began Jan. 
28, 1547, and ended by his resignation in 1549. Of Ol- 
iver Cromwell began Dec. 16, "1653, and ended by his 
death, Sept. 13, 1058. Of Richard Cromwell began Sept. 
14, 1658, and ended by his resignation, May 5, 1659. 
See England. 

PROTESTANTS. The Emperor Charles V. called 
a Diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from the Ger- 
man princes against the Turks, and to devise means 
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, 
owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman Catholic 
religion. Against a decree of this diet to support the 
doctrines of the Church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, 
with the deputies of thirteen imperial to^\^ls, formally 
and solemnly protesfcd, April 19, 1529. Hence the term 
Protestants was given to the followers of Luther, and 
it afterward included Calvinists, and all other sects 
separated from the see of Rome. The six protesting 
princes were John and George, the Electors of Saxony 
and Brandenburg ; Ernest aiid Francis, the two dukes 
of Lunenburg; tiie Landgrave of Hesse, and the Prince 
of Anhalt : these were joined by the inhabitants of 
Strasburg, Nuremberg, TJlm, Constance, Ileilbron, and 



PRO 



386 



PRU 



seven other cities. See LxdheranUm, Calvinism, IIu- 
guenots, Germany, etc. 

Protestauts persecuted in Scotland and Germany. .15-16 
Edward VI. established Protestantism in England, 154S 
Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the 

Protestants: above 300 put to death 1553-S 

Ridley, Bishop of Loudon, and Latimer, bishop of 
Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1565 ; 
and Craumer, archbishop of Canterbury,* 

March 21,1556 

Elizabeth restores Protestantism 1585 

Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ire- 
land 160S-11 

Thirty Years' War between Romanists and Prot- 
estants iu Germany 161S-4S 

testuuts persecuted at Thorn, iu Poland 1T24 



' Gordon's Xo-Popenj" 



Protestauts per 
Protestant association (see 

Mob) ITSO 

A society for planting communities of the j)oorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the 
northern counties of Ireland, established iuDub- 

i.iu in Oec. ,1829 

(London) Protestant Society, established 18-2T ; 
Protestant Association, 1835; Protestant Alli- 
ance 1819 

Protestant Conservative Society established 

Dec. 0,1831 

Protestant alliance formed at Armagh Nov. 7,1815 

PROVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S.E. France, was 
made a kingdom by the Emperor Lothaire for his sou 
Charles. It afterward became jiart of the kiugdom of 
Aries as a feudal country, and was reunited to the 
German Empire iu 1032 by Conrad II. On the fall of 
the Ilohenstaufens it was acquired by Charles of An- 
jou, kiug of Naples, in 1265, and was held by his suc- 
cessors till its annexation to France by Louis XI. iu 
1481. 

PROVERBS. The Book of Proverbs, by Solomon, 
is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter part were col- 
lected by order of Ilezekiah, about 700 B.C. Ray's 
collection of English proverbs appeared iu 1672, aud 
Bohu's general c'ollection in 1857. 

PROVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in Italy, formed 
to aid iu acquiring Rome aud Venice, elect Garibaldi 
as their chief, March 10, 1S62. They were tolerated by 
Ricasoli, but warned to be moderate by Rattazzi. 

PRUD'HOMMES, Conseils de {fvomxirudens homo, 
a prudent man), trade tribunals in France, composed 
of masters and workmen, were constituted to arbitrate 
on trade disputes iu 1806. Similar bodies with this 
name existed as far back as 1452 at Marseilles, aud at 
Lyons in 1461. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed 
by the Vcuedi, about 320 B.C. They were conquered 
by the Borussi, who inhabited the Riphrean Moun- 
tains ; aud from these the country was called Bonts- 
sia. Some historians, however, derive the name from 
Po, signifying near, and Pvssia. The Porussi after- 
ward intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic 

* His love of life bad induced Cranmer, some time previously, to sijrn 
a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led 
to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his 
riffht hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be 
consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, 
" This unworthy hand !" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with 
the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian Church, " Lord 
Jesus, receive my spirit." 

The following documents are taken from a "Boof: of the Jmmt Diet, 
Dinner, and Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and 
Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in the custody 
of those ofiicers, previously to their being burnt alive : 

1st OCTOBEK, 1554. DINNER. 

Breadandale £0 2 

Oysters 1 

Butter 2 

Eggs 2 

I.yng 8 

A piece of fresh salmon 10 

Wine 3 

Cheese and pears 2 

The three dinners io '1 6 

TO BURN LATIMEB AND KIDLEV. 

For 3 load of wood fagots £0 12 

Item, 1 load of furze fagots 3 5 

Item, for the carriage of these 4 loads 2 6 

Item, a post 14 

Item, 2 chains 3 4 

Item, 2 staples 6 

Item, 4 laborers 2 8 



£1 

TO nrRN CRANMER. 

For 100 wood fagots for the fire £0 

For 100 and >< of furze 

For the carriage of them 

For 2 laborers 



knights, and latterly with the Poles. The Constitu- 
tion, established Jan. 31, 1850, was modiiied April 30, 
1851 ; May 21, June 5, 1852 ; May 7 aud 24, 1853 ; June 
10, 18.54 ; May 30, 1855 ; and May 15, 1857. Population, 
with Lauenburg (annexed Aug. 14, 1865), 19,304,843. 
St. Adalbert arrives iu Prussia to preach Chris- 
tianity, aud is slain about 907 

Boleslaus of Poland reveuges his death by dread- 
ful ravages lOlS 

Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, iu 

the reigu of Albert the Bear 11 03 

The Teutonic knights, returnin<T from the holy 
wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia aud the 

conversion of the people .1225 

Thorn founded by them 1231 

KiJuigsberg, lately built, made the capital 1-SG 

The Teutonic knights almost depopulate Prussia. 
It is repeopled by German colonists in the 13th 
ceutury. 
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
reiguing family) obtains by purchase from Sigis- 
mund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of 

Brandenburg 1415 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against 

the oppression of the Teutonic knights 1440 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the Teu- 
tonic order, renounces the Roman Catholic re- 
ligion, embraces Lutheranisra, and is acknowl- 
edged Duke of East Prussia, to be held as a fief 

of Poland 1525 

University of Kiinigsberg founded by Duke Al- 
bert 1544 

John Sigismuud created Elector of Brandenburg 

aud Duke of Prussia 160S 

The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric 
of Minden transferred to the house of Branden- 
burg 1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an in- 
dependent state, under Frederick William, sur- 

namcd the Great Elector 165T 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
elector of Braudenburg aud duke of Prussia, to 
distinguish the part he had taken in restoring 

peace to Europe 1660 

Frederick III., in an assembly of the states, puts a 
crown upon his own head and upon the head of 
his consort, and is proclaimed King of Prussia 

by the title of Frederick I Jan. 18,1701 

Order of the Black Eagle instituted by Frederick 

I. ou the day of his coronation " 

Guelders taken from the Dutch 1702 

Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunburg, aud 

purchases Tecklenburg ". 1707 

The principality of Meurs added to Prussia 1712 

Reign of Frederick the Great, during which the 
Prussian monarchy is made to rank ainoug the 

first powers in Europe 1740 

Breslau ceded to Prussia 1T41 

Silesia, Glatz, etc., ceded 1742 

Frederick II., the Great, visits Englaud 1744 

" Seven Years' War" {which see) begins 1756 

Frederick II. victor at Prague, May 6; defeated at 

Kolin, May 18 ; victor at'Rosbaeh Nov. 5,1757 

General Lacy, with an Austrian-Russian army, 
marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- 
bution, etc. ; magazines destroyed 1760 

Peace of Hubertsburg (ends " Seven Years' War"), 

Feb. 15,1763 

Frederick the Great dies Aug. 17,1786 

War with France 1792 

The Prussians seize Hauover 1801 and 1806 

Prussia joins the allies ofEnglaud against France, 

Oct. 6, " 

Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt Oct. 14, " 

[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 

Berlin decree promulgated Nov. 20, " 

Peace of Tilsit (which see) July 7, '807 

Convention of Berlin Nov. 5,1808 

The people rise to expel the French from Ger- 
many at the king's appeal, and form the "land- 

wehr" or militia March 17,1813 

Treaty of Paris April 11,1814 

The king visits Englaud June 0, " 

Dines at Guildhall June 18, " 

Ministry of education established 1817 

Congress of Carlsbad Aug. 1,1819 

Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 77 Sept. 12, " 

[From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and 

undisturbed policy until 1S4S.1 
Serious attempt made on the life of the kiug by 
an assassin named Tesch, who fired two shots 

at him July 26,1844 

Insurrection in Berlin March 18,1848 

Berlin declared in a state of siege Nov. 12, " 



PRU 



387 



PRU 



The Constituent Assembly meets in Brandenburg 

Castle Nov. '^9,1848 

This assembly is dissolved, and the king issues a 

new Coustiiutiou to his subjects Dec. 5, " 

The German National Assembly elect the King of 
Prussia "hereditary emperor of the Germans," 

March t'S,lS49 
The king declines the imperial crown . . .April 29, " 

The kingdom put under martial law May lu, " 

The Prussians enter Carlsruhe June 23, " 

Armistice between Prussia andDeumark.. July 10, " 
Bavaria declared au imperial constitution, with 

the King of Prussia at its head Sept. S, " 

Treaty between Prussia aud Austria Sept. 30, " 

Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia 

with the minor states of German}' Nov. 12, " 

New Constitution, Jan. 31 ; the king takes the oath 

required by it Feb. 6,1850 

Ilauover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 

Feb. 25, " 
Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Wurtemberg to maintain the Ger- 
man union Feb. 27, " 

Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of 
the Kiug of Prussia, and annotmces a league be- 
tween Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under 

the sanction of Austria March 15, " 

Attempt to assassinate the king May 22, " 

Hesse -Barmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 

^ league June 30, " 

Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 

July 2, " 
A congress of deputies from the states included iu 
the Prussian Zollvereiu opened at Cassel, 

July 12, " 
Prussia refuses to join the restricted Diet olFrank- 

fort Au*^. ^5 " 

The Prussian government addresses a di'spatch'to 
the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve to 
uphold the Constitution in Hesse-Cassel, Sept. 21, " 
Count Brandenburg, prime minister of Prussia, 

^ dies Nov. 6, " 

Decree calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- 
lery, with lOSO tield-pieces Nov. 7, " 

The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the military- 
road iu that electorate Nov. 9, " 

The Prussian forces withdraw from the graiid- 

duchy of Baden Nov. 14 " 

General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 

Queen Victoria at Windsor Nov. 26, " 

Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of Ger- 

^ many Nov. 29, " 

The Prussian troops commence their retreat from 

Hesse-Cassel Dec. 5 " 

Priuce Schwartzenberg visits the king .' .' !bec. "S^ " 
The king celebrates the 150th annivel-sary of the 

Prussian monarchy Jan. 18,18.51 

The king visits the Czar of Russia May IS,' " 

The king and czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to 

meet tlie Emperor of Austria ]\Iay 27 " 

Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, inaugu- 
rated at Berlin May 31 " 

The king revives the Council of State as'i't existed 

before the Revolution of 1843 Jau. 12,1852 

A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at Berlin' 
„ . , May 28, " 

Prussia repudiates a Customs' Union with Aus- 

'-"a Juue 7, " 

But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 10,1858 

Plot at Berlin detected April " 

Death of Radowitz Dec. 25' " 

Vacillation of the governmeut upon the Eastern 

Question March aud April, 1854 

Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the inte"-- 
rity of Turkey, which is signed at Vieuna, '^ 
„ ,. , April T, " 

Continues neutral in the war Sept. 21, Oct. 13 " 

Excluded from the conferences at Vieuna . Feb 'lS55 
Dispute with Switzerland (see Xcvfchdtel), 
., . .„ , , Nov., 18.50, to May,1857 
Alarming illness of the king ; the Prince of Prus- 
sia appointed regent Oct 23 " 

Chevalier Bunsen ennobled '. . . . .Jan.'lS58 

Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to 

the princess royal of England Jan. 2i5, " 

Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam Ann-., " 

Prince of Prussia made pcnnaneiit reireut. .Oct.'^i, " 
Res!2:nation of the ManteiitTel ministry; succeed- 
ed by that of Prince Hohenzollern-Siirmaringen 
(Liberal) : the elections end iu favor of the new 

fjovernment Nov., " 

Prince Frederick William, son of the princess roy- 
al of England, born Jan. 27,1859 



Italian War— Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
arms to protect Germany May and June 1S59 

The regent announces that "the Prussian army- 
will be in future the Prussian nation in arms," 

mu ^ ■, , Jan. 12,1800 

ihe regent and several German sovereigns meet 
the Emperor of the French at Baden {>-ee Baden), 

T} T5 I- , June 15-17, " 

Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) Nov. 27 " 

Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Prussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted 

and censured, but not punished Nov " 

Death of Frederick William IV. Accession' of Wil- 
liam I.. . . Jan. 2,iSGl 

Meeting of the Chambers: on the motion for the 
address, M. von Vincke carries an amendment iu 
favor of Italian Unity and "a firm alliance with 

England" peb 6 " 

The Macdonald aflair* settled by a firm yet con- 
ciliatory dispatch from the Baron von Schleiu- 

. i t z May, " 

Attempted assassination of the king by Becker a 
Leipsic student, July 14, who is sentenced to '20 

years' imprisonment Sept. 23 " 

The king meets the Emperor Napoleon at c'om- 

_ Peig.ue Oct. 6-8, " 

The king and queen crowned at KiJnigsbero- ; he 
declares that he will reign by the "Grace of 

God" Oct. IS, " 

Bill for making the ministry responsible passed 

March 6,1S62 
The Chamber of Representatives oppose the gov- 
erument in regard to the length of military serv- 
ice, March 6 ; and resolve on discussing the items 
of the budget ; the ministry resigns ; the king 
will not accept the resignation, but dissolves the 

Chambers March 11, " 

The ministry (Liberal) resign, aud a reactionary 
cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 

March IS-April 12, " 
Elections go against the government : only one 

minister elected Mav " 

Parliament opens; ministers appeal to" the patril 

otism of the members May 19, " 

Severe discussion ou military expenditure; the 
Chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance 
of the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men 

^r 1 TT .,<. • Sept. 11-16, " 

Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier by 
the Count Bismarck Schonhausen, Sept. • who 
informs the Chamber that the budget is deferred 
till 1863; the Chamber protests against this as 
unconstitutional ." Sept. 30 " 

The Chamber of Peers passes tlie budget without 
the amendments of the Chamber of Represeut- 
atives, which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the 
act is contrary to the letter and spirit of the Con- 
stitution Oct. 11 " 

The kiug closes the session (G5th),' saying, "The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the 
Chamber of Representatives, having been i;e- 
jected by the Chamber of Peers on the ground 
of insufliciency, the government of his majesty 
is ttnder the necessity of controlling the public 
affairs outside the Constitution" Oct. 1.3, " 

Agitation in fttvor of the Constitution proceeding: 
passive resistance adopted ; several Liberal pa- 
pers suppressed Nov., " 

The Chambers reassemble; unconciliatory ad- 
dress from the king, Jau. 14, and bold reply of 
the deputies adopted Jan. 23,1803 

They recommend neutrality in the Polish War, 

Feb. 28, " 

Violent dissension between the deputies aud the 
ministry May, " 

The Chamber of Deputies address the king on 
their relation with the ministry and the state of 
the country. May 22 ; the king replies that his 
miuisters possess his confiderice, and adjourns 
the session May 27, " 

Resolves to govern without a Parliament " 

Thepress severely restricted, June 1; the crown 
prince, in a speech, disavows participation in 
the recent acts of the ministry, June 5, and cen- 
sures them in a letter to the king, July 6 ; recon- 
ciled to the king T ."...Sept. 8, " 

The Liberal members leted iu the provinces, 

July IS, 19, " 



* On Sept. 12, 1860, Captnin MacdonaM was committed to prison at 
Bonn for resisting tlie railway authorities ttiere. Tlie Enprlish resi- 
dents appealed and were also censured. A correspondence ensued be- 
tween tlie Prussian government and the British foreitrn secretary, and 
strong lancuasre was uttered in the House of Commons, April 26, and in 
the Prussian Chambers, May 6, 1861. 



PRU 31 

The Chamber of Deputies dissolved, Sept. 2 ; a 
Liberal majority re-elected Oct.,18C3 

A motiou iu favor of maintaiuiug the rights of the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein carried Dec. 
2 ; but the Chamber obstinately refuses its as- 
sent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec, " 

Chambers dissolved Jan., 1864 

(For the events of the war, see Denmark.) 

Preliminaries for peace with Denmark Aug. 1, " 

Peace with Denmarli signed Oct. 3U, " 

The opening of the Chambers, Jan. 14 ; revival of 
the constitutional agitation for control over the 
army budget Jan.l(J,lSC5 

International exhibition at Cologne opened by the 
crown prince Jime 2, " 

The deputies having rejected the budget, the bills 
for reorganizing the army and increasing the 
fleet, and meeting the expense of the war with 
Denmark, the Chamber is prorogued ; the gov- 
ernment will rule without it June 17, " 

The king, at Carlsbad, issues a despotic decree ap- 
propriating and disposing of the revenue, July 5, " 

A political dinner of the Liberal deputies prohib- 
ited at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Over- 
lahnstein iu Nassau July 24, " 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed Aug. 14, " 

The king takes possession of Lauenburg, pur- 
chased from Austria with his own money, 

Sept. 15, " 

The Chambers opened with a supercilious speech 

from M. Bismarck Jan. 15,1366 

(See German-Italian War.) 

MARGRAVES, ELECTORS, DUKES, AND KINGS. 
MAP.GKAVE8 OE ELECTORS OP BKANDENBDKG. 

1134. Albert I., surnamed the Bear, first elector of 

Brandenburg. 
IITO. Otho L 
1184. Otho 11. 
1206. Albert IL 
1221. John I. and Otho IU. 
12G6. John IL 
1282. Otho IV. 
1309. Waldemar. 

1319. Henry L, the Young. 

1320. [Interregnum.] 
1323. Louis I., of Bavaria. 

1352. Louis IL, surnamed the Roman. 

1365. Otho v., the Sluggard. 

1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 

1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 

13SS. Jossus, the Bearded. 

1411. Sigismund again, emperor. 

1414. Frederick I., of Nuremberg (of the house of Ho- 

iienzollern). 
1440. Frederick IL, surnamed Ironside. 
1470. Albert III., surnamed the German Achilles. 
1476. John III., his son, as margrave, styled the Cicero 

of Germany. 
1486. John III. as elector. 
1499. Joachim I., son of John. 
1535. Joachim IL, poisoned by a Jevyr. 
1571. John-George. 
1598. Joachim-Frederick. 
IOCS. John-Sigismund. 

DUKES OF PEUSSIA. 

1618. John-Sigismund. 

1619. George-William. 

1640. Frederick-William, his son; generally styled the 

"Great Elector." 
1688. Frederick III., son of the preceding; crowned 

king, Jan. 18, 1701. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701. Frederick I., king. 

1713. Frederick-William I., son of Frederick I. 

1740. Frederick IL (Frederick III. ; styled the Great), 
sou ; made iPrussia a military power. 

1786. Frederick-William II. , nephew of the preceding 
king. 

1797. Frederick -William III. He had to contend 
against the might of Napoleon, and after ex- 
traordinary vicissitudes he aided England in 
his overthrow. 

1840. Frederick- William IV., son ; succeeded June 7 
(born Aug. 3, 1770 ; died Jan. 2, 1861). 

1860. William I., brother; born March 22, 1707. 

[Heir. His son, Prince Frederick-William, born Oct. 
18, 1S31 ; married Victoria, princess royal of En- 
gland, Jan. '25, 1858. They have four children.] 
PRUSSIC ACID (or hydrocyanic acid) is colorless, 

smells like peach flowers, free"zes at 5° Fahrenheit, is 

very volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. It 

was accidentally discovered by Diesbach, a German 



8 PUM 

chemist, in 1709. Scheele first obtained this acid in a 
separate state about 1782. Simple water distilled from ■ 
the leaves of the Lauro cerasun was first ascertained to 
be a most deadly poison by Dr. Madden, of Dublin. 

PRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually elect- 
ed from 745 B.C. till the office was abolished by Cyp- 
selus, a despot, 655 B.C. 

PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by Solomon, 1000 
B.C. ; others were added 580 and 515 B.C. The old 
Church of England ver.sion iu metre by Sternhold and 
Hopkins was published in 1562 ; the New Version by 
Tate and Brady in 1598. 

PSEUDOSCOPE, a name given by Professor Wheat- 
stone (in 1S52) to the stereoscope, when employed to 
produce "conversions of relief," i.e., the reverse of 
the stereoscope: a terrestrial globe appears like a 
hollow hemisphere. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy, of Pe- 
lusium, iu Egypt (about A.D. 140), supposed that the 
earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that 
the sun, moon, and stars moved round once in twenty- 
four hours. This .system (long the oflicial doctrine of 
the Church of Rome) was universally taught till that 
of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) was revived by Copernicus, 
A.D. 1530, and demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and 
Newton (1687). 

PUBLIC EDUCATION, HEALTH, etc. See Edu- 
cation, Health. 

PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was est.ablished 
at Paris during the French Revolution on April 6, 
1703, with absolute power, in consequence of the co- 
alition against France. The severe government of 
this committee is termed the Reign of Terror, which 
ended with the execution of Robespierre and his asso- 
ciates, July 28, 1794. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS. See Education. 

PUBLIC WORKS ACT, passed July 21, 1863, to pro- 
vide work for unemplo3-ecl persons in the manufactur- 
ing districts at the time of the cotton famine. It en- 
abled corporate bodies to raise loans, and proved very 
successful. 

PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDINGS. The sum 
voted for this purpose iu 1802 was i;692,215; in 1863, 
£893,523; iu 1864, £867,518 ; in 1865, £799,370. 

PUDDLING, making the walls of canals water-tight 
by means of clay, was largely adopted by Brindley in 
constructing the Bridgewater canals, 1761 et seq. See 
also under Iron ManuJ'acture. 

PUEBLA, Siege of. When Scott was pressing for- 
ward to the Mexican capital, in Sept., 1847, with his 
victorious American army (see Vera Cntz and Cerro 
Gordo), Colonel Childs was left at Puebla, on the 
Cordilleras, with a large number of invalids. There 
he was besieged by the Mexicans for a month. Oii 
the 13th of October, Santa Anna appeared there with 
a considerable force, but all were frightened away by 
some Americans under General Lane, who had defeat- 
ed him in a conflict at Huamantla a few days before. 
Santa Anna was again defeated at Atlixco on the 18th, 
and then fled, a fugitive, toward the Gulf coast. 

PUGILISM. See Boxing. 

PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and 
other mechanical instruments, are said to have been 
invented by Archytas of Tareutnm, a disciple of P3'- 
thagoras, about 516 B.C. It has been ascertained that 
in a'single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. 
In a continued comlMnation, the power is equal to the 
number of pulleys, less one, doubled. 

PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XIL of S«^i^n 
was entirely defeated bv Peter the Great of liussrai 
July 8, 1709. He fled to"Bender, in Turkey. 

PULTLTSK (Russia), a battle was fought between 
the Saxons under King Augustus, aud the Swedes 
under Charles XIL, iu which the former were signally 
defeated. May 1, 1703. Here also the French under 
Napoleon fought the Russian and Prussian armies; 
both sidss claimed the victory, but it inclined in favor 
of the French, Dec. 20, 1806. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to have 
invented pumps (with other hydraulic instruments) 
about 224 B.C., although the invention is ascribed to 
Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.C. Pumps were in general 
use in England, A.D. 1425. An inscription on the 
pump in front of the late Royal E.xchange, London, 
stated that the well was first sunk iu 1282. The air- 
pump was invented by Otto Guericke iu 1G54, and im- 
proved by Boyle iu 1657. 



PUN 

PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to 
liavo li;ul any syf:tcm, and doubtless employed arbi- 
trary sijrn.s to disliniiuisli tlio parts of a discourse. Of 
our points tlie period (.) is the most ancient. The co- 
lon (:) was introduced al)()ut 14s,'); tlic comma (,) was 
first seen about 1,V21, and the semicolon (;) about 1570. 
In Sir I'hilip Sidney's "Arcadia" (15S7) they all appear, 
as well as the note of iuterrogatiou (?), asterisk (*), and 
liareutheses ( ). 

PUNIC WARS. See Cartharjc, 2G4 B.C. 

PUNISIDIENTS. See Behmditig, Blindinc;, Boiling, 
Death, Druu'iting, Flogyin;;, and Poisuninff. 

PUNJAB (N.W. Ilindostan), was traversed by Alex- 
ander the Great, 327 B.C.; and by Tamerlane, A.D. 
i:!9S. The war with the Sikhs began here Dec. 14, 
1S45, and was closed March 29, 1S49, when the Punjab 
was annexed. i>ce India. The Punjab has since flour- 
ished, and on Jan. 1, 1S59, was made a distinct presi- 
dency (to include the Sutlej states and the Delhi ter- 
ritory). See Durbar. 

PURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), par- 
ticularly cassia, niauua, and senna, are ascribed to Ac- 
tuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 

PURGATORY, the middle place between heaven 
and hell, where, it is believed by the Roman Catho- 
lics, the soul passes through the fire of purification 
before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine 
was known about 250, and was introduced into the 
Roman Church in the Gth century. It was set forth 
by a council at Florence, 1438. 

PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was ordained by 
the Jewish law, 14'.)0 B.C. {Ln\ xii.). See Cluirchirir/. 
The feast of the purification was instituted 542, in 
honor of the Virgin Mary's going to the Temple. 
(Liilce ii.) Pope Sergins I. ordered the procession 
with wax tapers, whence Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS, the name, first given about 15G4, to 
persons who aimed at greater purity of doctrine, ho- 
liness of living, and stricter discipline than others. 
They withdrew from the Established Church, profess- 
ing to follow the word of God alone, and maintaining 
that the Church retained many human inventions and 
popish superstitions. See Nonconformists and Preshy- 
terianism. 

PURPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discov- 
ered at Tyre. It is said to have been found by a dog's 
having by chance eaten a shell-fish, called murcx or 
purpura; upon returning to his master, Hercules 
Tyres, he observed his lips tinged, and made use of 
trie discovery. Purple was anciently used by the 
princes and great men for their garments by way of 
distinction, a"nd to this day the purple color is the 
livery of our bishops, etc. The dignity of au arch- 
bishop or sreat magistrate is frequently meant by the 
Enrple. The purple was first given to the cardinals 
y Pope Paul II., 1465. 

PURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of the sov- 
ereigns of England of purchasing provisions, etc., with- 
out the consent of the owners, led to much oppression. 
It was regulated by Magna Charta, 1215, and other 
statutes, and was only siirreudered by Charles II. in 
IGOO, for a compensation. 

PUSEYISM, a name attachedto the views of certain 
clergymen and lay members of the Church of England, 
who endeavored "to restore the practice of the Church 
of England to wliat they believed to be required by 
the laniruage of her Lituriry and Rubrics, but which 
were considered by their opponents to be contrary to 
her doctrine and discipline, and of a Romish tendeuc.v. 
The term was derived fnmi the name of the professor 
of llel)rew at Oxford, Dr. Pusey, who was popularly 
supposed to be the originator and chief supporter of 
those views. The heads of houses of the University 
of Oxford passed resolutions censuring Dr. Pusey's at- 
tempts to renew practices which are now obsolete, 
March 15, 1S41 ; and his celebrated sermon was cou- 



389 



PYX 



demned by the same body, May 30, 1S43. See Tra^t- 

anan.'i. 

PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last king of 
Macedon, was defeated and made prisoner by the^Ro- 
maus, commanded by ^milius Paulus, lOS B.C. 

PYRAMIDS op Egypt, according to Dr. Pococke 
and Sonnini, "so celebrated from remote antiquity, 
are the most illustrious monuments of art." The 
three principal pyramids are situated on a rock, at the 
foot ot some high mountains which bound the Nile. 
The first building of them commenced, it is supposed, 
about 1500 B.C. The greatest is said to have been 
erected by Cheops, 10S2 B.C. The largest, near Ghi- 
zeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular height, with a platform 
on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base 
is 746 feet. It occupies above twelve acres of ground, 
and is constructed of stupendous blocks of stone. 
There are many other smaller pyramids to the south 
of these.— The battle of the Pyramids, when Bona- 
parte defeated the Mamelukes, and thus subdued 
Lower Egypt, took place July 21, 17'jS. 

PYRENEES. After the battle of Vittoria (fought 
June 21, 1S13), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- 
dan, with instructions to drive the Allies across the 
Ebro, a duty to which his abilities were inferior, for 
Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 
20,000 men, having been defeated by Wellington in a 
series of engagements from July 25 to August 2. One 
at the Pyrenees on July 2S. A railway through the 
Pyrenees (from Bilbao to Miranda) was opened Aug. 
21, 1862. — The Peace op tue Pyrenees was concluded 
between France and Spain, by Cardinal Mazarin, for 
the French king, and Don Lewis de Haro, on the part 
of Spain, in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. 
By this treaty Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and 
her right to Alsace; and France ceded her conquests 
in Catalonia, Italj', etc., and engaged not to assist Por- 
tugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 

PYROMETER (fire -measurer), an apparatus em- 
ployed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, etc., 
where thermometers can not be employed; ^Muschen- 
broek's pyrometer (a metallic bar) was described by 
him in 1731. Improvements were made by Ellicott 
and others. Wedgwood employed clay cylinders about 
17S2. Professor Daniell received the Rnmford medal 
for an excellent pyrometer in 1S30. Mr. Ericsson's 
useful pyrometer appeared in the Great Exhibition of 
lS51.—Bng. Cijc. 

PYROXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun Cotton 
{which see). 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Pythagoras, of 
Samos, head of the Italic sect, flourished about 555 
B.C. He is said to have taught the doctrine of me- 
tempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul from one 
body to another ; forbidden his disciples to eat flesh, 
and also beans; to have invented the multiplication 
table; to have improved geometry; and to have taught 
the present system of astronomy. 

PYTHIAN GAMES, in honor of Apollo, near the 
temple of Delphi ; first instituted, according to the 
more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commem- 
oration of the victory which he had attained over the 
serpent. Python, from which they received their name ; 
though others maintained that they were first estab- 
lished by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or by Amphic- 
tyon, or, lasth', by the council of the Amphictvons, 
1263 B.C. 

PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep the 
consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the pyx, 
at Westminster Abbey, are deposited the standard 
pieces of gold and silver, under the joint custody of 
the lords of the treasury and the comptroller general. 
The "trial of the pyx" signifies the verification of a 
jury of goldsmiths of the coins deposited in the pyx- 
box by the master of the Mint. This took place on 
July 17, 1861, at the Exchequer Oflice, Old Palace Yard, 
in the presence of twelve privy councilors, twelve 
goldsmiths, and others. The ceremony of the trial 
was again performed, Jan. 19-20, 1S05. 



QUA 



590 



QUE 



a. 



QUACKERY is coeval with the art of medicine ; 
qwMk medicines were taxed in 1783, et seg. An in- 
quest was held ou the body of a young lady, Miss 
Casiiin, whose physician, St. Johu Long, was afterward 
tried for manslaughter, Aug. 21, 1830 ; he was found 
guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of £250, Oct. 30, fol- 
lowing. He was tried for manslaughter iu the case 
of Mrs. Catharine Lloyd, and acquitted Feb. 19, 1831. 
Dr.Vri6s," the black doctor," a professed cancer-curer, 
at Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprison- 
ment as an impostor iu Jan., 1800. See Homoeopathy 
and Uiiih-iiiiatliji. 

QUA1)KA(11<:SIMA SUNDAY, first Sunday in Lent. 
See Lent and Qurnquagesima. 

QUADRANT, the mathematical instrument in the 
form of a quarter of a circle. The solar quadrant was 
introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian astronomers 
under the caliphs, in A.D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 
feet S inches radius, and a sextant 5T feet 9 inches ra- 
dius. Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was pro- 
duced about lUOO. Hadley's quadrant iu 1731. See 
Xavitjation. 

QUADRILATERAL, a term applied to the four 
strong Austrian fortresses in N. Italy— Peschiera, ou 
an island in the Mincio ; Mantua, ou the Mincio ; Ve- 
rona and Leguano, both ou the Adige. See Peschiera, 
etc. 

QUADRILLE. This popular dance was introduced 
into this country in 1813, by the then Duke of Devon- 
shire, and others.^ — liaikcs. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, between Great Britain, 
France, and the emjjeror (signed at London, July 22, 
1718), on the accession of the states of Holland, Feb. 8, 
1719, obtained its name. It was for the purpose of 
guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families 
of Great Britain and France, and settling the partition 
of the Spanish monarchy. It led to war. 

QUAESTOR, in ancient Rome, was an officer who 
had the management of the public treasure; appoint- 
ed 484 B.C. It was the lirst office any perscm could 
licar iu the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in 
the senate. At first there were two quaastors, after- 
ward eight. Two were added in 409 B.C. Two were 
called i\rcgrini, two (for the city) Urhani. 

Q.UAKERS, or Sooiety of Fktf.nds, originally called 
Seekers, from their seeking the truth, and afterward 
Friends (3 John, 14). Justice Bednet, of Derby, gave 
the society the name of Quakers in 1050, because 
George Fox (the founder) admonished him, and those 
present, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This sect 
was commenced iu England about 1646 by George Fox 
(then aged 22), who was joined by George Keith, Wil- 
liam Pcun, and Kobert IJarclay, of Ury, and others." 
Fox rejected all rclii^ious ordinances: explained away 
the commands relative to baptism, etc. ; discarded the 
ordinary names of days and months, and used thee and 
thou for 11011; as more consonant with tmth. He pub- 
lished a book of instructions for teachers and profess- 
ors, and died Jan. 13, 1691. The lirst meeting-house 
in London was in White Hart- court, Gracechurch 
Street. The lirst meeting of Quakers in Ireland was 
in Dublin in 1658 ; and their first meeting-house in that 
city was opened in Eustace Street, 1692. The solemn 
aftirination of Quakers was enacted to be taken in all 
cases in the courts below, wherein oaths are required 
from other subjects, 1096. See Affirmation. In 1682, 
William Penu, with a company of Friends, colonized 
Philadelphia, where, ou Jan. 1, 1788, they emancipated 
their negro slaves. Ou Feb. 15, 1833, Edward Pease, a 
Quaker, was admitted to Parliament on his affirma- 

* Tile Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and 
America. At Boston, U. S., wliere tlie first Friends wlio arrived were 
fenialeg, they (even females) were cruelly scourged, and had their ears 
cut off. In 1069 they stated in Parliament that 2000 Friends had en- 
dured sufferings and fmprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered 
themselves at this time, by name to government, to be Imprisoned in 
lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fifty- 
five ^out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an order of 
council, lt)64. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some 
months, an embargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary 
wretch was at length found for the service. But the Friends wi>uld not 
walk on board, nor woul.l the snih.ra hoist tbcni into llic v.^s.l, ,uiil 
soldiers from the Tower w.r.' iinpl..v.-.l. In ICil.i tlir \ rss, I siiilpcl ; l.iit 
it was immediately miitiir.-d l.y th.-'Diitcli, wIk. lilKT:it 'il lumiv-.i-lii 
of the prisoners in Hothiiid, tli'.^ rest having' died of thi- jiln-uf in that 
year. Of tlie 120 few readied America. 



tion. The Quakers had iu England 413 meeting-houses 
in 1800, and 371 iu 18.51. At a Conference held ou Nov. 
2, 1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed mar- 
riages should be permitted, and that many of the pe- 
culiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be 
abandoned. Iu 1860 an act was passed rendering valid 
Quaker marriages when only oue of the persous is a 
Quaker. The first (Juakors iu America were two 
women, who appeared at Boston in 1050. The Puri- 
tans had been warned against them. With eight 
others who came the same year, they were sent back 
to England. A special act "against them was put iu 
force at Boston iu 1G57, but to'uo purpose. They per- 
sisted iu coming to New England, and many of them 
suft'ered stripes and imprisonments, and some death, 
at the hands of the Puritans. Some settled in North 
Carolina, and there George Fox, the founder, who vis- 
ited America in 1072, ministered to them. The (Quak- 
ers uow have over 700 meeting-houses in the United 
States, and a membership of about 250,000. 

QUAKER HILL, Battle of. Quaker Hill is near 
the north end of Rhode Island. There, on the 29tli 
of Aug., 1778, the Americans under General Sullivan, 
and the British (then occupying the island) under 
General Pigot, had a severe engagement. The Brit- 
ish were repulsed, but Sullivan, who had invaded the 
island, thought it prudent to withdraw. The Amer- 
icans lost in that attempt to recover Rhode Island 
about 200 men ; the British loss was about 220. 

(QUARANTINE, the custom first observed at Venice, 
1127, whereby all merchauts and others coming from 
the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. 
Lazarus, or the Lazai^etto, forty days before they were 
admitted into the city. Various southern cities have 
now lazarettos; that of Venice is built in the water. 
In the times of plague, England and all other nations 
oblige those that come from the infected places to per- 
form quarantine with their ships, etc., a longer or 
slunter time, as may be judged most safe. Quaran- 
tine acts were passed in 17.53'aud iu 1826. 

(QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the Tory 
party, first appeared in Feb., 1809, under the editor- 
ship of William Giflbrd, the celebrated translator of 
"Juvenal." 

(iUATRE-BRAS (Belgium), where, on June 16, 1815, 
two days before the battle of Waterloo, a battle w;is 
fought between the British and allied army under the 
Duke of Brunswick, the Prince of Orange, and Sir 
Thomas Picton, and the French under Marshal Ney. 
The British fought with remarkable intrepidity, not- 
withstanding their inferiority iu number, and their 
fatigue throligh marching all the preceding night. 
The 42d regiment (Scotch Highlanders) sufl'cred se- 
verely in pursuit of a French division by cuirassiers 
being posted iu ambush behind growing coru. The 
Duke of Brunswick was killed. 

(^LTEBEC (Canada) was founded by the French iu 

160H. 

Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, 
iu 1026, but restored in 1632 

Besieged by the English, but without success, in.. 1711 

Conqi'ieredby them after a battle memorable for 
the death of Genera! Wolfe in the moment of 
victory Sept. 13,1759 

Besieged in vain by the American provincials, im- 
dertheir geueral, Moutgomeiy, who was slain, 

Dec. 31,1775 

Public and private stores and several wharves de- 
stroyed by fire; the loss estimated at upward of 
i;260,000 Sept.,lS15 

Awful fire, 10.50 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 per- 
sons, burnt to the ground May 28,1845 

Another great fire, 1305 houses burnt June 28, " 

Disastrous lire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12,1846 

Visited by the Prince of Wales Aug. 18-23,1860 

(See Canada and Montreal.) 

QUEEN. The first woman invested with sovereign 
authority was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, 2017 B.C. 
In 1,554 an act was passed "declaring that the regall 
power of this realme is iu the queues majostie [Mary] 
as fully and absolutely as ever it was in any of her 
nioste noble progenitours kinges of this realme." The 
Hungarians call a queen-regnant king. See Ihingary. 

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established in Feb., 



QUE 

1704, by Quceii Anne, beincr the First Fruits with the 
'^cnlll^*, to iiicrcairo the iuconius of the i)t)orer clergy. 
There were 5&'.»7 clerical livings under i;5U jjcr auuiuu 
found by tlie coniniissionurs' under the act of Anne 
capable of auguicntation.— r//,(//((iv.s-. Act to consol- 
idate the ollices of Fir.'^t Fruits, Tenths, and liueeu 
Auue's Bounty, 1 Vict., 1S3S. 

QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. The popular (sto- 
ries of the great value of this coin are fabulous, al- 
thougli some few of particular dales have been j)ur- 
chased by persons at high prices. The current far- 
thing, with the broad brim, when in tine ])reservation, 
is worth X'l. The common patterns of ITK^ and 1714 
are worth xl. Tlie two patterns with Britannia under 
a canopy, and Peace t)n a car, r k k, are worth i'i 26-. 
each. The pattern with Peace on a car is more valu- 
able and rare, and worth X5.—Pinkerton (died 1S26). 

QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL, etc. 
Caroline Amelia Augusta, second daughter of 
Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 
born May 17, 17CS ; married to George, prince 

of Wales! April 8,1795 

Their daughter. Princess Charlotte, born. . .Jan. 7,17(iG 

The Delicate Investigation {which see) May 22,1S0G 

Charges against her again disproved 1S13 

Embarks for the Continent Aug.,lS14 

Becomes queen Jan. 20,1820 

Arrives in England June 0, " 

A secret committee in the House of Lords api)oint- 
ed to examine papers on charges of incontinence, 

June >i, " 
Bill of Pains and Penalties introduced by Lord Liv- 
erpool July 5, " 

The ijueeu removes to Brandenburg House, Aug.3, " 
Receives the address of the married ladies of the 

metropolis Aug. IC, " 

Her trial commences Aug. 19, " 

Last debate on the Bill of Pains and Penalties, 
when the report was approved by IDS against 
99; the numerical majority of nine being pro- 
duced by the votes of the ministers themselves. 
Lord Liverpool moves that the bill be reconsid- 
ered t/ntt dan •'"'•'^ iiioiitJis Nov. 10, " 

Great exultation throughout England, and illu- 
minations for three nights in London, 

Nov. 10, 11,12, " 

The queen goes to St. Paul's in state Nov. 29, " 

Slie jirotests against her exclusion from the cor- 
onation _ July 18,1821 

Taken ill at Drury Lane theatre, July 30; dies at 

Hammersmith Aug. 7, " 

Her remains removed on their route to Bruns- 
wick; an alarming riot occurs, owing to the mil- 
itary opposing the body being earned through 
the city Aug. i4, " 

(iUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship op War, a first-rate 
ship of the line, of 110 guns, the flag-ship of Lord 
Keith, then commanding in chief in the Mediterra- 
nean, was burnt by an accidental tire, ofl" the harbor 
of Leghorn, and more than 700 British seamen out of 
a crew of 850 perished by tire or drowning, March 17, 
1800. 

QUEEN'S LAND, Moreton Bay, Australia, now in- 
cluding the "plains of promise," Carpenteria, was es- 
tablished as a colony in 1S59. Admiral Sir George F. 
Bowen was appointed governor, and Brisbane, the 
capital, was made a bishopric. Population in Dec, 
ls,'59, 23,450 ; in Sept., ISO,'), about 90,000. Its chief 
productions are sugar, cotton, and tobacco. 

QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS, Battle on. On the 
morning of tlie 13th of Oct., 1812, an American force 
of 225 men, under Colonel Solomon van Rensselaer, 
crossed the Niagara River to Lewiston, to attack the 
British troops on the heights. Van Rensselaer was 
severely wounded, and the troops, pri'ssed forward 
under the command of Captain Johu E. Wool (now 
major general), successfully assailed a battery on the 
summit of tlio hill, and gained possession of the 
heights. General Sir Isaac Brock then approached 
with re-enforcements, and in attempting to regain the 
battery, was killed. The Americans were re-enforced, 
but were attacked by fresh troojis from Fort Gein-ge 
in the afternoon, and were defeated with great loss. 
They had 90 killed, 100 wounded, and 704 made pris- 
oners ; the British, it was thought, sustained heavier 
loss in killed and wounded. 

QUENTIN, St. (N. France). Philip IL of Spain, as- 
sisted by the English, defeated the French at St. Quen- 
tin, .\ug. If), 1,V)7; and in memory of his victory, the 
Si)anish monarch, in fullillinent oi'a vow he had "made 
before the engagement, built the famous monastery, 



391 



QUI 



etc., the Escurial, which is called by the Spaniards the 
eighth wonder of the world. See Excurial. 

QUERN. The quern, or hand-mill, is of Roman, or, 
as some say, of Irish invention ; Init the latter is not 
likely, as Roman querns have be<!n found in York- 
shire; and it is said by others that the Romans found 
querns there. 

QUESNOY (N. France) was taken by the Austrians, 
Sept. 11, li93, but was lecovered by the French, Aug. 
IG, 1(>»4. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the 
Netherlands, June 29, 1815, after the battle of Water- 
loo.— It was here that cannon were first used, and 
called bombards.— /ieHflHU. 

QUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British force 
landed here in 174G, but was repulsed. In the Bay 
Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the 
French Admiral Coiillans, and thus defeated the i)ro- 
jected invasion of Great Britain, Nov. 20, 17.'j9. Qui- 
beron was taken by some French regiments in the p.ay 
of England, July 3, 1795 ; but on July -Jl, owing to the 
treachery of some of these soldiers, the French'Repub- 
licans, under Iloche, retook it by surprise, and many 
of the emigrants were executed. About 900 of the 
troops, and nearly l.-joo Royalist inhabitants who had 
joined the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, ef- 
fected their embarkation on board the ships. 

QUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. Its 
use in refining silver was discovered 1540. There are 
mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at 
Almeida, in Spain, and at Idria, in Illyria ; the latter, 
discovered by accident in 1497, for several j'ears yield- 
ed 1200 tons. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. 
(Jnicksilver was congealed in winter at St." Petersburg 
in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical 
process, without snoV or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. 
Corrosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combina- 
tion of mercury and chlorine. See Calomel. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Moliuos, a Spaniard 
(1627-9(5), whose work, the Sjjiritual Guide, published 
in 1G7!>, was the foundation of a sect in France. He 
held that the purity of religion consisted in an inter- 
nal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of 
Christ and the mercies of God. Madame de la Mothe- 
Guyon was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions 
and prophecies, but released through the interest of 
Feuelon, archbishop of Cambray, between whom and 
Bossuet, bishop of JNIeaux, arose a controversy, 1097. 
These doctrines were condemned by Pope Innocent 
XL in 1085. 

•QUILLS are said to have heeu first used for pens in 
553 ; some say not before 635. 

QUINCE, the Pjirv^ Cijihrnin, brought to Ensiland 
from Austria belore 1573. The Japan (^»uince, or I'lj- 
rtis JdiJonica, brought thither from Japan, 17'.!6. 

QUININE, or Qcinia, an alkaloid (much used in 
medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier and Caveu- 
tou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cin- 
chona barks, especially of the yellow bark. See Jes- 
uits' Bark. 

QUINQUAGESi:\rA SUNDAY. The observation 

was appointed by I',.i)e Gregory the Great about 1.572. 
The first Sunday in Lent having been termed IJuadra- 
ijc'hmt, and the three weeks preceding having been 
apijrojtriated to the gradual introduction of the Lent 
fast, the three Sundays of these weeks were called by 
names significant of their position in the calendar; 
and reckoning by decades (tenths), tlie Sunday lire- 
ceding Quadragesima received its present name, (Jniii- 
qua<jesi'ma, the second i^exagcsima, and the third Sep- 
tuagesima. 

QUINTILTANS, heretics in the 2d century, the dis- 
ciples of INIontanus, who took their name from Quin- 
tilia, a lady whom he had deceived by his pretended 
sanctity, aiid whom they regarded as a prophetess. 
They made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and al- 
lowed women to be priests and bishops.— /"ardon. 

QUIRINUS, a Sabine god ; afterward identified with 
Romulus. L. Pajiirius Cursor, general in the Roman 
army, first erected a sun-dial in the temple ofcjiiiri- 
nus, from which time the days began to be divided 
into hours, 293 I!. C. — A spin. The sun-dial was some- 
times called the (.[uirinus, from the original place in 
which it was set up. — Ashe. The Roman citizens 
were termed Quirites. 

QUITO, a presidency of Colombia {rehich see), cele- 
brated as having been the scene of the measurement 
of a degree of tiie meridian by the French and Span- 
ish niatlicinatici.-uis in the reign of Louis XV. Forty 
thousand souls were hurled into eternity by a dread- 



QUI 



392 



EAI 



ful earthquake whicb almost overwhelmed the city of 
Quito, Feb. 4, 1797. Since tlieu violent shocks, but not 
so disastrous, occurred; till one, on March 21, lS5!i, 
when about 5000 persons were killed. See Earth- 
quakes. 

QUIXOTE. See Don Quixote. 

QUOITS, a game said to have originated with the 
Greeks. It was first played at the Olympic games by 
the Id;ei Dactyli, fifty years after the DeluM of Deuca- 
lion, 1453 B.C. He who threw the discus farthest, and 
with the greatest dexterity, obtained the prize. Per- 



seus, the grandson of Acrisius, by Dauae, having in- 
advertently slain his grandfather when throwing a 
quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which he 
was heir, for that of Tiryuthus, and founded the king- 
dom of Mycence, about 1313 B.C. 

QUO WARRANTO ACT, passed 12S0. By it a writ 
may be directed to any person to inquire by what au- 
thority he holds any oflice or franchise. Charles II. 
directed a writ against the corporation of London in 
1US3, and the Court of King's Bench declared their 
charter forfeited. The decision was reversed in 1690. 



li. 



RACES, one of the exercises among the ancient 
games of Greece. (See Chariots.) Horse-races were 
known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stepheu, 
who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the de- 
light taken by the citizens of Loudon in the diversion. 
In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly 
in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York 
there were races, and the prize was a little golden 
bell, 1G07. — Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, 
races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. pat- 
ronized them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, 
or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. added to the 
plates (as did Queen Anne), and founded an academy 
for riding. 

The first racing calendar is said to have been pub- 
lished by John Cheuy in 1727 

Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 

horses, 13 Geo. II 1739 

The most eminent races in England are those at 
Newmarket (which see), established by Charles 
II. in 16U7 ; at Epsom, Isegnn about 1711, by Mr. 
Parkhurst (annual since 1730, ^1 Hen's Surreij) ; 
at Ascot, begun by the Duke of Cumberland, 
uncle to George III. ; at Doncaster, established 
by Col. St. Leger in 1778, and at Goodwood, be- 
gun by the Duke of Richmond, who died in 1806 

The Jockey Club began in the time of George II. 
Its latest rules, by which races are regulated, 

were enacted in 1828 

On the accession of Queen Victoria, the royal stud 

was sold for £16,470, on Oct. 25,1837 

Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy 
Grimshaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of 

£10m a year March, 1865 

"Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse-flesh," 
was established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde 
Park Corner (hence termed " the Corner") in 
176(1, for the sale of horses. The lease of the 
ground having expired, the new premises at 
Brompton were erected and opened for busi- 
ness on April 10,1805 

EACE-nORSES. 

Flying ChiWers, bred in 1715 by the Duke of Devon- 
shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the 
fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that 
was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six 
minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 35>r; 
miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He 
died in 1741, aged 26 years. 

Eelipsa was the fleetest horse that ran in England 
since the time of Childers; he was never beaten, and 
died in Feb., 1789, aged 25 years. His heart weiuhed 
14 lbs., which accounted for his wonderful spirit and 
courage.— Chri'itie White's Hist, of the Turf. 

EEOENT WINNERS OF " THE DEKBY" AT ErSOM. 

1846. Pyrrhus. 1858. Beadsman. 

1847. Cossack. 1859. Musjid. 
184S. Surplice. 1860. Thormanby. 

1849. Flying Dutchman 1861. Kettledrum. 

1850. Voltigeur. 1862. Caractacns. 

1851. Teddington. 1863. Maccaroni. 

1852. Daniel O'Rourke. 1S64. Blair Athol. 
18,58. M'est Australian. 1S65. Gladiateur. 
18.54. Andover. 1866. Lord Lyon. 
185.5. Wild Dayrell. 1867. Hermit. 

1856. Ellington. 1S6S. Blue Gown. 

1857. Blink Bonny. 1869. Pretender. 

RACK, an engine of torture for extracting a con- 
fession from criminals, was early known in the south- 
ern countries of Europe. The early Christians suf- 
fered by the rack, which was in later times an instru- 
ment of the Inquisition. The Duke of Exeter, in the 
reign of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then 



called the Duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen iu 
the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who mur- 
dered the Duke of Buckingham, the judges of En- 
gland nobly protested against the proposal of the 
privy council to put the assassin to the rack, as being 
contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravaillac and Tor- 
ture. 

RADSTADT, or Rabtabt (in Baden), where a peace 
was signed, March 0, 1814, by Marshal Villars on the 
part of the French king, and by Prince Eugene on the 
part of the emperor; it restored the Gei-man frontier 

to the terms of the peace of Ryswick The Congress 

OF RAnsTADT, to treat of a general peace with the Ger- 
manic powers, was commenced Dec. 9, 1797; and ne- 
gotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. 
The atrocious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries 
atRadstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler took 
place April 28, 1799. 

RAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for outcast desti- 
tute ragged children, set up in large towns. The in- 
struction is based on the Scriptures, and most of the 
teachers are unpaid. They existed in London pre- 
vious to 1844, but did not receive their name till that 
year, when the "Ragged School Union" was formed, 
principally by Mr. S.lstacey and Mr.Wm. Locke (since 
hon. secretary). The Earl of Shaftesbury was chair- 
man. In 1S56 there were 150 Ragged School institu- 
tions. 

128 Sunday-schools, with 16,937 scholars. 
98 day schools, with 13,057 scholars. 

117 evening schools, with 8085 scholars. 
84 industrial classes, with 3224 scholars. 

103 paid teachers in day schools. 

126 paid teachers in week-night schools. 
43 paid refuge and industrial masters. 
2139 voluntary teachers. 

There were, in 1850, 16 refuges, where 500 inmates 
are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. In 1860, 560 
Ragged Schools existed. In nearly all the northern 
cities of the United States there are free evening 
schools for such of the poor as are obliged to work by 
day. These schools have been in many instances very 
successful, being attended by a large number of adults, 
both male and female. That of Boston for the news- 
boys has been peculiarly successful. The teaching in 
these schools is a voluntary contribution, the only ex- 
penses being the hiring and lighting of the scliool- 
room. See Shoe-black Brigade. 

RAGMAN ROLL (said to derive its name from Rag- 
imunde, a papal legate in Scotland) contains the in- 
struments of homage and fealty to Edward I., sworn 
to by the nobility and clergy of Scotland at Berwick 
in 1296. The original was given up to Robert Bruce, 
king of Scotland,'ln 1328, when his son David was con- 
tracted in marriage to the Princess Joanna of En- 
gland. 

RAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south con- 
fines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Venetians, 1171, 
but soon after became an independent republic, 1358. 
It suffered much by an earthquake, 1667 ; was taken 
by the French in 1807, and given up to Austria in ;S14. 

RAILWAYS. There were short roads iu and about 
Newcastle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as 
1002, which are thus mentioned in 1676: "the manner 
of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the 
colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and 
bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting those 
rails, wherel)y the carriage is so easy that one horse 
will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, and is 
an immense benefit to the coal-merchants." — Roger 
North. They were made of iron at Whitehaven iu 
1738. See Tram-roads. 



EAI 



393 



EAI 



An iron railway was laid down near Sheffield by John 
Can- iu ITTii, which was destroyed by the colliers. 

The first considerable iron railway was laid down at 
Colebrook Dale iu 1786. 

The first iron railway sanctioned by Parliament iu 
ISOl (with the exception of a few undertaken by 
canal companies as small branches to mines) was 
the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames 
at Wandsworth to Croydon. 

Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high- 
pres.-iure Ideoiiiotiiv eiiLrine in 1802. 

William Iledley, of Wylam colliery, constructed a lo- 
comotive in 1813. 

Stockton and Darlington Railway, constructed by Ed- 
ward Pease and George Stephenson, was opened 
Sept. 2T, lS-25. 

The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced in 
Oct., lS-.'(!, and opened Sept. 15, 1S30. See Liverpool. 
This railway led to similar enterprises throughout 
England anil the Continent. 

The examination of railway schemes, before their in- 
troduction into Parliament, by the Board of Trade, 
was ordered ISli. 

7 & S Vict., c. 85, required companies to run cheap 
trains every day, and to permit erection of electric 
telegraphs, and authorized government, after Jan. 1, 
ISUG, to buy existing railways with the permission 
of Parliament, 1SJ4. 

An act passed 10 Vict, Aug. 2S, 1S46, for constituting 
commissioners of railways, who have since been in- 
corporated with the Board of Trade. 

In 1S24, the first locomotive constructed by George Ste- 
phenson traveled at the rate of miles per hour; in 
1829, the Rocket traveled at the rate of 15 miles per 
hour ;* in 1834, the Firefly attained a speed of 20 
miles per hour ; in 183!), ilie North Star moved with 
a velocity of 37 miles per hour ; and at the present 
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 
miles per honry During the same period, the quan- 
tity of fnel required for generating steam has been 
diminished five sixths ; that is, six' tons of coal were 
formerly consumed for one at the present time, and 
other expenses are diminished in a corresponding 
ratio. 

The CAPITAL invested in railway undertakings has be- 
come enormous. Up to lS40,'it was 09 millions; on 
March 1, 1853, it was estimated at 803 millions; iu 
1S50, at 330 millions ; in ISGO, £348,130,127. 

The Railway Mania and panic year, when 270 railway 
acts passed, was 1846. 

An act for the better regulation of railways passed 
1854. 

An act for compensating families of persons killed by 

accidents (see Campbell's Act) passed 1846. 
An act passed to enable railway companies to settle 
their difi'erences with other companies by arbitra- 
tion in 1859. 
Railway Clauses Consolidation Act passed 1SG3. 
A joint committee of both houses of Parliament ap- 
pointed to report on railway schemes, Feb. 5, 1SG4. 
(See Atmospheric and Street Railioatjs.) 

HaT OF TUE PKINOIPAL RAILWAYS OF TUE TJiNITED 
KINGDO.M. 

The railways are generally tiamed after their termini. 

Railways. Da,te of Opening;. 

Arbroath and Forfar Jan. 3,1839 

Atmospheric Railway {ivhich sec) 1840 

Aylesbury Branch June 10,1839 

Banixcn- and Carnarvon July,lS52 

Belfast and county of Down April, 1850 

BirmiuL-'ham and Derby Aug. 12,1839 

Birmingham and Ghmcester Dec. 17,1840 

Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valle}', 

Jalv,lS52 

Brighton and Chichester June 8,1846 

Brighton and Hastings June 27, " 

Bristol and Exeter May 1,1?44 

Bristol and Gloucester July,1845 

Caledonian 1848 

Canterbury and Whitstablo May,lR30 

Charing Cross Railway, London, opened. .Jan. 11,1864 

Cheltenliam and Swindon May 12,1845 

Chepstow and Swansea, South Wales June,lS50 

Chester and Birkenhead Sept. 22, 1840 

Ch' ster and Crewe Oct. 1, " 

Cockermouth and Workington April 28,1847 

Colchester and Ipswich June 15,1846 

Cork and Bandou Dec. ,1851 

Cornwall May 1,1859 

Coventry and Leamington Dec. 2,1844 

Croydon and Epsom May 17,1847 

* It obtjiiiiod the prize of £snn offered by the directors of the Liver- 
pool and Manchester Railway Company for the best locomotive. 



Railways Date of Opening. 

Dublin and Carlow Aug. 10,1846 

Dublin and Drogheda May 20, 1844 

Dublin and Kingstown Dec. 17,1834 

Dublin and Belfast Junction June,lS52 

Dundee and Arbroath April 8,1840 

Dundee and Newtyle Dec. ,1831 

Dundee and Perth May 22^847 

Dunfermline and Alloa ; Sterling and Dunfcrm- 

^ liuu Aug.,1850 

Durham and Sunderland June 28,1839 

Eastern Counties June IS, " 

Eastern Union (Loudon and Colchester), March 29,1843 
East and West India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
tion ; from Blackwall Railway to CauTden Town, 

Aug.,1850 

Edmburg and Berwick June 18,1846 

Edinburg and Dalkeith 1831 

Edinburg and Glasgow Feb. 8,1842 

Edinburg, Leith, and Grantou 1846 

Edinburg and Musselburgh July 14,1847 

Ely and Iluutiugdon " 

Ely and Peterborough Jan., " 

Exeter and Crediton May,1851 

Exeter and Plymouth (part) May 29,1846 

Glasgow and Ayr Sept. 19,1840 

Gilasgow and Greenock March 24,1841 

Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge Jul}',lS45 

Gloucester and Chepstow Sept., 1851 

Grand Junction from Birmingham to Newton, 

Jiily,1837 

Gravesend and Rochester Feb. 10,1845 

Great Western June 30,1841 

Great Northern 1842 

Hertford Branch of Eastern Counties Oct. 31,1843 

Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund's Dec. 24,1846 

Kelso ; Branch of North British June,lS50 

Kendal and Windermere 1S4T 

Lancaster and Carlisle Dec. 16,1846 

Lancaster and Preston June 30,1840 

Leeds and Bradford July 1,1846 

Leeds and Derby July,lS40 

Leeds and Selby Sept. ,1834 

Liverpool and Birmingham July 4,1837 

Liverpool and Manchester Sept. 15,1830 

Liverpool and Preston Oct. 31,1838 

London and Birmingham Sejjt. 17, " 

London and Blackwall Aug. 2,1841 

London and Brighton Sept. 21, " 

London and Bristol June 30, " 

London and Cambridge July,1845 

London and Colchester March 29,1843 

Loudon and Croydon June 1,18.39 

Loudon and Dover Feb. 6,1844 

London and Greenwich Dec. 26,1838 

London and Richmond July 27,1846 

London and Southampton May 11,1840 

London and Warrington ; Branch of the Great 

Northern Aug.,1850 

Lowestoft branch of the Norwich and Yarmouth.. 1847 

Lynn and Ely " 

Manchester and Birmingham Aug. 10,1842 

Manchester, Bolton, and Bury May 29,1838 

Manchester and Leeds March 1,1841 

Manchester and Sheffield Dec. 22,1845 

Mara'ate Branch of the London and Dover 1846 

Merthyr-Tydfil and Cardiff April 12,1841 

Metropolitan, London ; act obtained 1853 ; con- 
struction began 1860; opened Jan. 10,1863 

Middlesborough and Redcar June 4,1846 

Newcastle and Berwick July,lS47 

Newcastle and Carlisle June 18,1839 

Newcastle and Darlington 1844 

Newcastle and North Shields June 18,1839 

Newmarket and Cambridge Oct.,1851 

Newtown-Stewart and Omagh Sept., 1852 

Northampton and Peterborough June 2,1845 

North and Southwestern Junction Dec, 1853 

Northern and Eastern July,lS45 

Norwich and Brandon " 

Norwich and Yarmouth May 1,1845 

Nottingham to Grantham July,lS50 

Nottingham and Lincoln Aug. 3,1846 

Mottingham Branch of Rugby and Derby. .May 30,1839 
Oxford'Branch of London and Bristol.. ..June 12,1844 

Oxford and Banburv Aug., 1850 

Oxford,W^orcester, and Wolverhampton May,1852 

Paisley and Renfrew May,183r 

Penzance to Cambourne Jan. ,1853 

Rugby and Derby July,l840 

Rusbv and Leamington Feb.,18.51 

St. Andrew's July,1852 

St. Helen's ; first act passed 1830 

Salisbury branch of the London and Southampton 1S4T 



EAI 



39-1: 



EAI 



Railways. Date of Opening. 

Sheffield aud Eotherham Oct.,lS38 

Shre\v.sl)iiry aud Chester Nov. 4,1S46 

Shrewsbury and Ludlow April, l.S5'2 

Southampton and Dorchester June 1,1847 

Southeastern Feb. 6,1844 

Southeastern ; North Kent line 1849 

Stockton and Darlington Sept.,lS25 

Stockton aud Hartlepool Feb. 10,1841 

Stourbridi<e and Dudley Dec, 18.52 

Swinton tind Barnsley June, 1851 

Taff Vale Oct. 8,1840 

Teigumouth to Newton Dec. 31,1846 

Tipperary aud Clonmel April, 1S5'2 

Trent Valley June 20,1847 

Tunbridge- Wells Branch Oct., 1846 

Ulster Aug., 1839 

Warrington and Retford; Branch of the Great 

Northern July,1852 

West audEast India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
tion from the Blackwall Railway to Camdeu 

Town Aug., 1850 

West Durham June,lS40 

West Loudon (part) May 27,1844 

Worcester and Droitwich Jau.,1852 

York and Darlington Jan. 4,1841 

York and Newcastle June 17,1847 

York and Normanton June 30,1840 

York and Scarborough July 7,1845 

EXTENT or EAILWAYS IN 1S4S. 



Miles 

America 3S00 

Germany 1570 

Holland 200 

Belgium 1005 

France 2200 

Italy 115 



Miles 

Denmark 106 

Cuba 800 

Russia 52 

British Colonies 1000 

East India 500 

[864 miles iu 1861.] 



EXTENT OF EAiLWATs, .TCNE, 1858 (from Captaiu Gal- 
tou's Report). 



Miles 

Austria 20S6 

Belgium 813 

Denmark 220 

France 4509 

Germany ( without 
Austria and Prus- 
sia) 2030 

Great Britain : 

England 6706 

Scotland 1243 

Ireland 1070 

Holland 182 

Naples 64 



Miles 

Portugal 29 

Prussia 2544 

Russia 715 

Sardinia 390 

Spain 456 

States of the Church 12 
Sweden aud Norway 88 

Switzerland 310 

Tuscany 150 

Total 24,592 

U. S. of America . . . 17,481 

Grand total.... 42,073 



EXTENT OF RAILWAYS IN EUROPE IN 1867 (Suiiles'S Life 

of the Slepheusons). 

Miles 

Belgium 1,073 

France 9,624 

German V (including 

Austria) 13,.'?92 

Great Britain 13,000 

Holland 607 



Italy 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland . 
Total.... 



Miles 
2,752 
2,800 
3,101 
1,100 
795 



49,'_'14 



EXTENT OF KAILWAYS IN 1867 IN THE BKITISH COLONIES. 

Miles 

Australia 1200 

Canada 2200 

Hindostan 36.37 

Total T037 

ITNITED KINGHOM — LENGTH OP RAILWAY OPENED, NUM- 
BEE OF PASSENGEK8, AND TOTAL RECEIPTS. 



Year. 


Miles then 
oiieiiert. 


Travelers. 


Receipts. 


1845 


2848 
4355 
5" 02 
9540 
9795 

10,869^ 

12,322 


33,791,253 
63,841,539 
111,206,707 
76,529,202 
67,229,700 
173,721,139 
204,699,466 


i;6,277,S92 
9,174,945 
12,825,826 
11,862,639 
28,561,3.55 
31,156,397 


1849 


1854 

1858 (X year) 

1859 (}i year) 
1861 (year). . . 
1803 (year)... 





PERSONS KILLED BY 


RAILWAY 


ACCIDENTS. 




|l8.i4-5. 


1855-6. 


1856. 


1857-8. 


1858-9. 


1869-60. 


1861. 


Total i 

Bvcau 

thei 

trol 


ses beyond 


B36 


259 
29 


2S1 
38 


211 
38 


261 
35 


236 
23 


284 
69 

















It has been calculated that out of 16,168,459 travel- 



ers by railway one person is killed, aud out of 458,370 
one is injured by causes beyond their own control. 
In 1864, 68 persons were killed and 831 injured. 

MEiMOEAULE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 

Vary inanij, lohcre only 2])ersons killed, are not noted; 
in tiearly all cases a large nuniher loere injured. 

W. Huskisson, M.P., killed at the opening of the 
Liverpool aud Manchester Railway Sept. 15,1830 

Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) : train runs 
off line ; 3 killed Dec. 3,1836 

Brentwood (Eastern Counties): carriages over- 
turned ; 3 killed Aug. 21,1840 

Cucktield (London and Brighton) : engine "runs 
off line ; 4 killed Oct. 2,1841 

Suunvhill Cutting, uear Reading : engine forced 
off the Hue ; 8 killed Dec. 24, " 

Versailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked 
iu ; 52 or 53 lives lost, including Adiniral D'Ur- 
ville May 8,1842 

Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; Mr. 
Boteler and others killed, many injured, Oct. 20,1845 

Stratford (Eastern Counties) : collision through 
great carelessness; Mr. Hind killed, many mu- 
tilated July 18,1846 

Peveusey (Brighton aud Hastings) : collision ; 40 
persons injured Aug. 24, " 

Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express runs 
offline; 2 killed, many injured Dec. 15, " 

Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs off 
bridge ; 4 killed, great number injured. .May 18,1847 

Wolvertou (Northwestern) : collision ; 7 killed, 
many injured June 5, " 

Shrivenham (Great Westeru): collision; 7 killed, 
many iujured May 10,1S4S 

Carlisle (Caledonian): axletree of carriage breaks; 
5 killed Feb. 10,1849 

Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warriugtou Junc- 
tion) : collision ; 6 killed April 30,1851 

Newmarket Hill (Lewes aud Brighton): train runs 
offline; 4 killed June 6, " 

Bicester (Buckinghamshire) : collisiou ; 6 killed, 

Sept. 6, " 

Burnley (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : collision; 4 
killed July 12,1852 

Dixoufold (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : eugiue 
wheels broke ; 7 killed March 4,1853 

Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, Ire- 
land) : collision ; 13 killed Oct. 5, " 

Near Harliug, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : collis- 
ion ; 6 killed Jan. 12,1854 

Croydon (Brighton aud Dover): collision; Skilled, 

Aug. 24, " 

Burlington, between New York and Philadelphia ; 
21 killed Aug. 29, " 

Reading (Southeastern) : collisiou ; 5 killed, 

Sept. 12,1855 

Near Paris : collisiou ; 9 killed Oct. 9, " 

Between Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed, 

Oct. 23, " 

Campbell (N. Pennsylvania) : collision ; above 100 
killed July 17,1S5G 

Dunkett (Waterford aud Kilkenny) : collisiou ; 7 
killed Nov. 19, " 

Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collisiou ; 200 
iujured, none killed June 27,1857 

Lewisham (N.Kent): collision; 11 killed, June 28, " 

Between Pyle and Port Talbot: collision; 4 killed, 

Oct. 14, " 

Attleborough (Northwestern) : train thrown off 
the line through a cow crossing the rails ; 3 
killed May 10,1858 

Near Mous, Belgium: coke wagon ou the rails; 
21 killed June, " 

Chilham (Southeastern) : either too great speed 
or broken axletree ; 3 killed June ;;0, " 

Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
hampton)— excursion train: collision; 14 killed, 

Aug. 23, " 

Tottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed Feb. 20,1860 

Helmshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) excursion 
train ; collision ; 11 killed Sept. 4, " 

Atherstone (Northwestern): collisiou of mail and 
cattle trains ; 11 killed Nov. 16, " 

Near Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed Jan. 28,1861 

Railway tunnel fall^ in uear Haddon Hall, Derby- 
byshire: 5 men killed July 2, " 

Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : collis- 
ion ; 23 killed, 176 iujured •. . . Auir. 25, " 

Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, 
820 injured Sept. 2, " 

Market Harborough: collisiou ; 1 killed and 50 iu- 
jured .'" Aug. 28,1862 



KAI 

Near Winchburs;li (Edinburt? and Glasgow) : col- 
lision ; 15 killed, lUU wounded Oct. 13,1802 

Near Streatham (Loudon and Brif>:liton) : explo- 
sion of boiler through attempting too great 
speed ; 4 killed : above 30 injured May 30,1803 

Near Lynn (Lynn and Hunstanton) : carriages up- 
set through bullock on the line ; 5 killed, Aug. 3, " 

Egham (Southwestern) : collision ; 5 killed, ab'ove 
20 injured June T,18G4 

Canada: train ran ofl" a bridge at St. Hilaire in 
crossing ; about 83 killed, 21)0 wounded, June 29, " 

Blackheath Tunnel:* fast train ran into a ballast 
train; G killed Dec. IG, " 

NearKedual (on a branch of Great Western), train 
ran off insecure rails: 13 killed, about 40 injured, 

June 7,1805 

Near Staplehurst (Southeastern) : train ran off in- 
secure rails, etc. ; 10 killed and many injured, 

June 9, " 

Near Colney Hatch (Great Northern): collisiou 
with coal trucks; above 50 persons injured, 

Aug. 30, " 
RAILWAYS IN THE United States. The following 

table, compiled from the "Eailway Journal," shows 

the c<indition of the railways in the United States, 

their cost, and the number of miles open for traffic on 

the 1st of January, 1852, and the 1st of January, 1S02. 



Jlaine 

N. Hampshire 

N'ermont 

Massachusetts 
Rhode Island. 
Connecticut . . 

New York 

New Jersey. . . 
Pennsylvania. 

Delaware 

Maryland 

\'irginia 

N. Carolina... 
S. Carolina. .. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi. . . 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee.. . . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

California 

Oregon 



Miles 
open, 
Jan. i, 

1852. 



Miles open I 
and nnder Miles 
Construe- open lor 
tion, Jan. Trafflc. 
1,1 S6S. 



283 

403 

309 

1,053 

50 

570 

1,751 

290 

1,320 

16 
355 
443 
249 
283 
605 

21 
113 

G5 
117 



134 

93 

890 



474; 1, 
533! 2, 
271 3, 
20 2, 
1, 
2, 
1, 
1 



639.78 
684.29 
5T5.67 
.,880.01 
130.82 
751.90 
1,302.17 
809.26 
;,598.05 
157.00 
528.80 
,310.98 
,287.42 
,015.93 
,603.10 
586.50 
,434.70 
,072.12 
83S.O0 
,087.00 
704.33 
,403.49 
869.90 
,094.00 
,404.15 
,487.17 
,849.70 
223.09 
107.50 
,008.80 
G2G.00 
000.00 
348.23 
3.80 



449.56 
057.88 
555.07 

1,257.73 
104.32 
616.17 

2,708.52 
032.28 

2,918.40 
136.59 
445.80 

1,729.20 
943.30 
900.93 

1,419.15 
401.50 
743.10 
807.12 
338.75 
402.50 
38.50 

1,253.28 
531.20 

4,232.00 
799.30 

2,109.17 

3,041.20 

922.09 

0.00 

892.15 

898.45 

10.00 

70.05 

3.80 



10,900 51,114.92 43,222.37 .$1,192,400,424 



Cost of 
Road and 
Equipment. 



$16,901,057 

22,070,234 

22,508,705 

58,091,457 

4,475,488 

22,519,440 

131,142,742 

30,130,585 

147,748,900 

4,847,357 

22,414,958 

60,759,158 

17,087,295 

21,990,909 

28,543,595 

8,028,000 

19,851,067 

23,098,000 

12,329,009 

14,431,345 

2,800,000 

32,289,852 

18,875,104 

118,300,158 

32,290,379 

72,391,805 

113,591,014 

33,030,093 

2.000,000 

21,382,557 

43,999,315 

250,000 

3,600,000 

80,000 



RAILWAY ACCIDENTS DURING THE 


YEAES 


1861 AND 1862. 


Months. 


IS6I. 1 lSf,o. 1 


Acci- 
dents. 


Killed. 


Wound- 
ed. 


Acci- 
dents. 


Killed. jWound- 
1 ed. 


January . . 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

Julie 

July 

August . . . 
September 
October. . . 
November 
December. 


4 
5 
8 
4 

3 
4 
4 
13 
9 

'3 
63 


3 
3 
4 
2 
5 
4 
4 
1 
64 
9 

'2 


10 
21 
17 
19 
33 
9 
27 
61 
234 
23 

"e 


13 
10 

9 

10 
4 
5 
8 
5 
8 

12 
9 
6 


19 
29 
22 
15 

7 
10 
17 
19 
24 
62 
32 

8 


38 
49 
30 

101 

4 

47 

127 
87 

155 

130 
90 
13 


101 1 459 1 99 


264 877 1 



_ RAINBOW. Its theory was developed by Kepler 
in 1611, and by Rene Descartes in 1629. See Spectrum. 

* On Dec. 97, 18B4, the queen wrote to the directors of the railway 
companies of London, requesting them " to be as careful of other pas- 
senf^ers as ol hersell." *^ 



395 RAV 

RAMADAN, the Mohammedan month of fa-stin". 
in lb05, Jan. 28 to Feb. 27; in 1800, Jan. IS to Feb fo! 
inclusive. It is followed by the festival of Bairam 
{whicli sec). 

RAMILIES (in Belgium), the site of a battle between 
the English under the Duke of Marlborough and the 
Allies on one side, and the French on the other, com- 
manded by the Elector of Bavaria and the Marshal de 
\ illeroy, on Whitsunday, May 23 (O. S. 12), 1706. The 
French were soon seized with a panic, and a sreneral 
rout ensued : about 4000 of the allied army were slain 
in the engagement. The duke pursued and achieved 
one ot his most glorious victories, which accelerated 
the fall of Lou vain, Brussels, etc. Parliament settled 
his honors upon the male and female issue of his 
daughters. 

RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese Em- 
pire, was taken by Sir A. Campbell on May 11, 1824 
In Dec., 1820, it was ceded to the Burmese on condi- 
tion of the payment of a sum of money, the reception 
ol a British resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce 
Oppression of the British merchants led to the second 
Burmese War; Rangoon was taken by storm by Gen- 
eral Godwin, April 14, 1852, and annexed to the British 
dominions in December following. 

EANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the invention 
of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is made by dissolving 
common flint (silica) in heated caustic alkali, adding 
tine sand. The mixture is pressed into moulds and 
heated to redness. 

RANTERS, a name given to a sect which arose in 
1045, similar to the Seekers, now called Quakers. It 
is now applied to the Primitive Methodist's, who sep- 
arated from the main body in 1810. See Wedeijans. 

RAPE was punished by the Jews with death ; by 
mutilation and the loss of eyes in William L's reign. 
This was mitigated by the statute of Westminster 1, 
3 Edw. I., 1274. Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 
12_Edw. IIL,1338; and without benefit of clergv, 18 
Eliz., 1575. Rape made punishable by transportation 
in 1841 ; by penal servitude for life or a less period, 
1801. ^ ' 

RAPIIIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochns IIL, 
of Syna,was defeated by Ptolemy Philopator, ofEgypt, 

RAPHOE (a bishopric in N. Ireland). St. Columb- 
kille, a man of great virtue and learning, and born of 
royal blood, founded a monasterv in this place, and it 
was afterward enlarged by other holy men ; but it is 
the received opinion that St, Eunan erected the church 
into a cathedral, and was the first bishop of this see in 
the 8th century. Raphoe was united to the bishopric 
of Deny by act 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833. See Bishops. 

RAPPAHANNOCK CASE. See Trials, 1805. 

RASPBERRY is not named among the fruits that 
\yere early introduced into this country from the Con- 
tinent. The Virginian raspberry {Hubus Occidcntalis) 
before 1696, and the flowering raspberry (Rubus odor- 
atits) about 1700, came from North America. 

RASTADT. See Radstadt. 

RATIIMINES (near Dublin). Colonel Jones, gov- 
ernor of Dublin Castle, made a sally out, routed the 
Marquis of Ormond at Rathmines, killed 4000 men, took 
2517 prisoners, with their cannon, baggage, and am- 
munition, Aug. 2, 1049. 

RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who reject a 
divine revelation, and admit no other means of ac- 
quiring knowledge but reason. The leading writers 
are Reimarus of Hamburg (died 170S), Paulus of Hei- 
delberg, Eichhorn, Reinhard, and Strauss. 

RATISBON (in Bavaria) was made a free imperial 
city about 1200. Several diets have been held here. 
A peace was concluded here between France and the 
Emperor of Germany, by which was terminated the 
war for the Mantuan" succession, signed Oct. 13, 1630. 
In later times, it was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, 
that the German princes seceded from the Germanic 
Empire, and placed themselves under the protection 
of the Emperor Napoleon of France, Aug. 1, 1806. Ra- 
tisbon was made an archbishopric in 1806, but secular- 
ized in ISIO. In 1815 it was ceded to Bavaria, and be- 
came again an archbishopric in 1817. 

RAUCOITX (Belgium). Here Marshal Saxe and the 
French army totally defeated the Allies on Oct. 11, 
1746. 

RAVAILLAC'S MURDER of Henry lY. of France, 
May 14, 1010.* 



■ His punislinientwas most dreadful. He w;i 



cdto the Creve, 



EAV 



306 



EEB 



RAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the Papal 
States. It was fouuded by Greek colonists. It fell 
under the Roman jjower abont 234 B.C. It was fa- 
vored and embellished by the emperors, and Houorius 
made it the capital of the Empire of the West about 
A.D. 404 In 568 it became the capital of an exarch- 
ate. It was sul)diied by the Lombards in 75'2, and 
their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered it to Pepiu, 
king of France, who gave it in 754 to the Pope Stephen, 
and thus laid the foundation of the temporal power 
of the Holy See. On April 11, 1512, a great battle was 
fought between the French under the great Gaston de 
Fois (Duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.), 
and the Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix perished 
in the moment of his victory, and his death closed the 
fortunes of the French in Italy. The confederate army 
was cut to pieces. The Duke of Nemours bad per- 
formed prodigies of valor, but, being too eager in his 
pursuit of the Spaniards, who were retiring in good 
order, he was slain. — Henavlt. Ravenna became part 
of the kingdom of Italy in 1S60. 

READING (Berkshire). Here Alfred defeated the 
Danes, STl. The abbey was founded in 1211 by Henry 
I. The last abbot was hanged in 153'J for denying the 
king's supremacy. 

REAPING MACHINES. One was invented in this 
country early in the present century, but failed from 
its intricacies. MacCormack's American machine 
was invented about 1S31, and perfected in 1S4(), and 
received a gold medal from the jurors of the Exhibi- 
tion of 1S51. Hussey's machine, also American, ex- 
hibited at the same time, was highly commended. 

REASON was decreed to be worshiped as a goddess 
by the French Republicans, Nov. 10, 1793. Thomas 
Paine's "Age of Reason" was published in 1794-5. 

REBECCA RIOTS. See Wales, 1S43. 

REBELLIONS (or Insukrections) in British His- 
tory. Among the most memorable from the period 
of the Norman Conquest were the following: 
Against William the Conqueror, in favor of Edgar 

Athelin^, aided by the Scots and Danes, 10C9. 
By Odo of Baj'eux and others, against William II., in 

favor of his brother Robert, 1088. Extinguished, 

1090. 
Of the Welsh, who defeated the Normans and English, 

commenced in 1095. 
In England, in favor of the Empress Maude, 1139. 

Ended, 1153. 
The rebellion of Prince Richard against his father 

Henry II., 11S9. 
Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant 

of Magna Charia, Jane 15 following. See Aagna 

Charta. 
Of the Barons, 1261. This rebellion terminated in 

1267. 
Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward 

II. on account of his favorites, the Gavestons, 1312. 

Again, on account of the Sjiencers, 1321. 
Of Walter the Tyler, of Dcjnford, vulgarly called Wat 

Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll- 
tax collector to his daughter. He killed the collect- 
or in his rage, and rai.s'ed a party to oppose the tax 

itself, 1381. See Tiiler. 
Of the Duke of Gloucester, and other lords, in En- 
gland, 13S7. 
In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and 

heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 
Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. 

to be deposed, 1399. 
Rebellion of the English and Welsh, 1400-2. 
Against King Henry IV. by a number of confederated 

lords, 1403. 
Of Jack Cade, in favor of the Duke of York, against 

Henry VI., 1450. See Cade's Insurrection. 
In favor of the house of York, 1452, which ended in 

the imprisonment of Henry VI., and seating Edward 

IV. of York on the throne, 1461. 
Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with 

the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of 

Henry VI. the same year. 
Under Edward IV., 1471, which ended with the death 

of Henry VI. 

and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's 
cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which 
he did the murder, was first bnrned at a slow fire. Then the fleshy 
and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red-hot pincers, and 
into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil, pitch, and rosin were poured. 
His body was so robust that he endured this exquisite pain, and his 
strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to be 
pulled to pieces. The executioner, in consequence, cut him into quar- 
ters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged him 
through the streets. 



Of the Earl of Richmond against Richard III., 1485, 
which ended with the deatli of Richard. 

Under Lambert Simnel, who pretended to be Richard 
III.'s nephew, 1486, which ended the same year in 
discovering that Simnel was a baker's son ; he was 
pardoned. 

Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which ended in the exe- 
cution of Warbeck. 

Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in 
Cornwall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish 
war expenses. They marched toward London, and 
Lord Audley took the command at WSUs. They 
were defeated at Blackheath, June 22, and the three 
leaders were executed, June 2S, 1497. 

Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient lit- 
urgy, etc., 1549 ; suppressed same year. 

In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- 
pressed, Aug., 1549. 

In favor of Lady Jane Grey against Queen Mary. Lady 
Jane was proclaimed Queen of England on the death 
of Edward VI., July 10, 1553; but she resigned the 
crown to Mary a few days afterward : she was be- 
headed for high treason, in the Tower, Feb. 12, 1554, 
aged 17. 

Of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the poet, and others, against 
Q,ueen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, etc., 
fails ; he is beheaded April 11, 1554. 

Of the Roman Catholic Earls of Northumberland and 
Westmoreland against Queen Elizabeth, Nov. and 
Dec, 1567. The'former lied to Scotland, but was 
given up by the Regent Murray and executed. 

Of the Irish, under the Earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed 
in 1601. 

Under the Earl of Essex, against Queen Elizabeth, 
1600 ; it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish, under Roger More, Sir Phelim O'Neil, etc., 
against the English in Ireland; it ended in 1651. 

Rebellion of the Scots, 166G ; soon afterward put down. 

Under the Duke of Monmouth, 16S5; it ended in his 
death. 

Of the Scots in favor of the Old Pretender,1715; quelled 
in 1716. 

Of the Scots, under the Yonng Pretender, 1745; sup- 
pressed in 1746, when Lords Lovat, Balmerino, and 
Kilmarnock were beheaded. 

Of the Americans, on account of taxation, 1774. This 
rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss of our 
chief North American colonies, and to the independ- 
ence of the United States, 1782. 

In Ireland, called the Great Rchellwn, when great num- 
bers took up arms, commenced May 24, 1798 ; sup- 
pressed next year. 

Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmet, a gifted en- 
thusiast, July 23, 1803, when Lord Kil warden was 
killed, with several otliers, by the insurgents. 

Canadian Instirrection {which see), Dec, 1837, to Nov., 
1838. 

Of Chartists at Newport {which sec), Nov. 4, 1S39. 

Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in 
the defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his de- 
luded followers by Sub-inspector Trant and about 
sixty police constables, on Boulagh Common, Bal- 
lingary, county Tipperary, July 29, 1848. See Ireland. 

Rebellion in India (see India), 1857-8. 

REBELLION, Dork's. For nearly two hundred 
years the people of Rhode Island had lived under a 
charter from Charles II., according to which only 
those owning a certain amount of property could vote. 
In 1843 the desire to change this provision gave rise to 
two parties, the "Suft'rage" and the " Law and Order," 
each determined to seciire to their party the adminis- 
tration .of affairs, and each elected their own state offi- 
cers. Thomas W. Dorr was chosen governor by the 
" Suffrage" party, and took possession of the state ar- 
senal; the militia wei'e called out, and he was com- 
pelled to flee. In a second attempt, the party was 
overpowered by LTnited States troops, and Dorr was 
arrested, brotight to trial, convicted of treason, and 
sentenced to imprisonment for life; but some time 
after he was pardoned. A free Constitution was adopt- 
ed in the mean time by the people, under which the 
government is now conducted. 

REBELLION, Shayb's. At the close of the Revolu- 
tion, the United States were burdened with a very 
heavy foreign and domestic debt. They were impov- 
erished by the long war, and it was difficult to raise 
the means to meet'the arrears of pay due the soldiers 
of the Revolution. On the recommendation of Con- 
gress, each state endeavored to provide means for 
raising its quota by a direct tax. This effort produced 
much e.xcitement in some of the states, and, linally, in 
1787, a portion of the people of Massachusetts openly 
rebelled. Daniel Shays, who had been a captain in 



EEC 



307 



REF 



the Continental army, marched at tlie head of a thou- 
sand men, took posi-ossion of Worcester, and prevent- 
ed a !?essiou of tlie JSiijjrcme Court. He rei)o:\ted his 
performance at Spriiii,'iield; and the iusurrcctiou soon 
became so formidable that the governor was com- 
pelled to call out several thousand militia under Gen. 
Lincoln, to snpjjress it. This was speedily accom- 
plished. Thoui;h some of the insurgents were sen- 
tenced to deatli, ncme were executed. A free pardon 
was linally given to all. 

KECIPROCITY TREATY hetwcen Great Britain 
and tlie liiited States, regulating the relation between 
the latter and Canada in regard lo trade, lishcries, etc., 
was negotiated l)y Lord Klgin, and ratified Aujj. 2, 
1S54. Its abrogation was proposed by the United 
States' government in 1SC4. 

RECITATIVE, a species of singing differing but lit- 
tle from ordinary speaking, and lised for narratives in 
operas, is said to have been first employed at Rome 
by Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the claim of 
Riiu'.ccini to the introduction of the Italian opera, 
160(1. See Opera. It was soon after adopted in other 
parts of Italy, and throughout Europe. 

RECORDS, Public, in Engi-and, began to be regu- 
larly preserved in lloo, by order of Henry I. The re- 
positories which possessed materials the most ancient 
and interesting to the historian were, the Chapter- 
house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, 
and the Queen's Remembrancer's offices of the Ex- 
chequer. Tlie early records of Scotland, going from 
Loudon, were lost by shipwreck in 1'29S. In Ireland, 
the council-chamber and most of the records were 
burned, 1711. Public Records Act, 2 Vict., c. 94 (Aug. 
10, ISijS). — A new Recoku Ofi-ice has been erected on 
the Rolls estate, between Chancery and Fetterlanes, 
to which the records will be gradually removed. 

RECOVERY, Fort, Defense of. General Wayne 
succeeded St. Clair in command of the troops in the 
Northwest, and cm the site of the latter's defeat (see 
St. daii-'e Defeat) he erected a fort, and called it Re- 
covery. In June, 171)4, the garrison, commanded by 
Major William SI'Mahon, were attacked by a larcje 
force of Indians. M'Mahou was killed, with 22 of his 
command, and 30 were wounded. The Indians were 
repulsed. 

RECREATION. See Play-grotmd. 

REDEMPTORISTS. See Lif/uorians. 

RED RIVER CAMPAIGN or 1S04. After the cap- 
ture of Port Hudson, General Hallcck urged upon 
Banks (Aug. 6) the necessity, for diplomatic reasons, 
of occupying Texa.s. There was some diflerence in 
the views of these officers, Halleck preferring an ad- 
vance upon Shreveport, and Banks favoring a descent 
upon the coast and thence into the interior. An ex- 
pedition for the capture of Sabine Pass started from 
New Orleans, Sept. 5, 1863, but resulted in complete 
failure. lirazos Santiago, at the month of the Rio 
Grande, was occupied Nov. 2d. During that month 
nearly the entire Texan coast was occupied by Banks's 
forces. He was about to proceed against Galveston, 
when his attention was again called toHalleck's orig- 
inal plan for an advance up the Red River. On the 
25th of March his army was concentrated at Alexan- 
dria ; it advauced to Natchitoches (April 2-3) and to 
Pleasant Hill (April 7). On the Sth was. fought the 
battle of Sabine Cross Roads, in which Banks was de- 
feated by Kirby Smith. Then began the retreat. At 
Pleasant Grove the Confederates were checked by 
Emory's division of the Nineteenth Corps. On the 
0th the Confederates were defeated at Pleasant Hill ; 
but Banks continued his retreat, reaching Alexandria 
on the 22d. A. J. Smith's corps (10,000 "strong) oper- 
ated with Banks in this campaign; but the afl'air, from 
tirst to last, was mismanaged: and even if the expe- 
dition, with Porter's co-operating fleet, had reached 
Shreveport, that position could hot have been main- 
tained, and the fleet would have been captured or de- 
stroyed. General Steele, who marched a co-ojierative 
column from Little Rock against Kirby Smith, en- 
countered great difficulties in his movement, and be- 
fore lie could be of any assistance, Banks had already 
retreated. 

RED SE.\. In 1S26 Ehrenberg discovered that the 
color was due to the presence of marine plants, which 
he named '■'■Triclwdeismiuni Erythrmmi,." 

REFOR^M IN PAni.i AMENT, a chief source of agitation 
for many years. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reforni in Par- 
liament was lost by a majority of 20 in 17S2, of 144 in 
17>^:!, and of T4 in 178,5. Tlie first ministerial measure 
of Reform was in Earl Grey's administration, when it 



was proposed in the House of Commons by Lord John 
Russell, March 1, 1831. 

BILL OP 1831. 

First division ; second reading; for it, 302; against it, 
301— majority, one, March 22. On motion for a com- 
mittee. General Gascoyne moved an amendment, 
" that the number of representatives for England 
and Wales ought not to be diminished." 

Amendment carried on a division, 299 to 291— majori- 
ty, EIGHT, April 19. The bill was abandoned and 
Parliament dissolved, April 22. 

A new Parliament assembled, June 14. Bill again in- 
troduced, June 24. Division on second reading: for 
it, 367 ; against it, 261— majority, 116, July 4. Divis- 
ion on third reading of the bill : for it, 349 ; against 
it, 236— majority, 113, Sept. 21. 

In the Lords — first division on second reading: Lord 
Wharnclifte moved "that the bill be read that day 
six months." For the amendment, 199 ; against it, 
158 — majority, fortv-one, Oct. 8. LParliauVeut pro- 
rogued, Oct. 2U, 1831.] 

isiLL OP 1832.* 

Read in the Commons a first time, without a division, 
Dec. 12, 1831. Second reading; division, viz. : for 
the bill, 324; against it, 162— majoritj^ 1G2, Dec. 17, 
1831. 27M'rd reading; division, viz.: for the bill, 355; 
against it, 230— majority for it, 116, March 23, 1832. 

In the LoKDS — read a first time on motion of Earl 
Grey, March 26. Secoml reading: for the bill, 184; 
against it, 175 — majority, nine, April 14. In the 
committee Lord Lyndhurst moved "that the ques- 
tion of enfranchisement should precede that of dis- 
franchisement." The division was 151 and 116 — ma- 
jority against ministers, thirty-five, May 7. 

Resignation of ministers, May 9; great public excite- 
ment ensued, and they wereinduced to resume office 
on the king granting them full power to secure ma- 
jorities by'the creation of new peers. 

In the LoKi>B, the bill was carried through the com- 
mittee. May 30; read a third time: 106 against 22 — 
majority, eiguty-fock, June 4; received the royal 
assent, June 7, 1832. 

The royal assent given to the Scotch Reform Bill July 
17 ; and to the Irish one, Aug. 7, 1832. 

Lord John Russell introduced a ■new reforni hill, Feb. 
13, 1854, which was withdrawn, April 11, 1854, iu con- 
sequence of the war with Russia. 

On Feb. 28, 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform bill, 
which was rejected by the Commons on March 31 by 
a majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of Parlia- 
ment, and eventually a change of ministry. 

The new government (Lords Palmerstou and J. Rus- 
sell) brought forward a new bill, March 1, ISCO, but 
withdrewTt, June 11. No reform bill was brought 
forward by the government, 1861-65. See Commons, 
note. 

The discussion respecting Parliamentary Reform was 
revived in the autumn of 1864 and 1865, in connec- 
tion with the approaching elections, and various 
plans were proposed. Mr. Baines's Reform Bill was 
rejected by the Commons, May S, 1SC5. 

REFORMATION, Tue. Efforts for the reformation 
of the Church may be traced to the reign of Charle- 
magne, when Paulinus, Ijishnp of Aquileia, employed 
his'voice and pen to accomplish this object. The 
principal reformers were Wicklifle, IIuss, Jerome of 
Prague, Savonarola, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Cal- 
vin," Jlclancthon, Erasmus, Cranraer, Latimer, Knox, 
and Browne. Sec WiekHilites, Protectant'!, CaU-iniKts, 
Lutherans, rresbi/terianis'iit, etc. The eras of the re- 
formation are as follow : 

In England (JTiekhJe) 13G0 

In Bohemia {Hvss) 1405 

In Germany (Luther) I51T 

In Switzerland {Zuinglius) 1519 

In Denmark 1-'>21 

In Prussia 152T 

In France (Calvin: see Ilugtienots) 1529 

Protestants first so called " 

In Sweden (Petri) 1530 

In England (Hevm VIII.) 1534 

In Ireland (Archbishop Georrie Flrowne) 1535 

In England, completed (Cranmer, Pmcer, Fariivs, 
etc.)ri5l7 ; annulled by Mary, 1553 ; restored by 

Elizabeth 155S 

In Scotland (Knox), established 1560 

In the Netherlands, established 15C2 

* By tills "Act to anient! the Representation of the People in En- 
(rlnnd'anrt Wales" (i & 3 Will. 4, c. 45), 56 bovonghs in England were 
disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 
'22 new boroughs were created to send t\vo members (C), and 'JO to send 
one member (D.), and other important changes were made. 



EEF 



398 



KEN 



REFORMATORY SCHOOLS. The increasing nnm- 
ber of juvenile delinquents* has long occupied the 
minds of philanthropists, and various schemes have 
been devised to check the evil. Two great institu- 
tions have been recently set up for this purpose ; the 
Reformatory Schools at Mettray, near Tours in France, 
and Redhill, near Reigate in Surrey. The former was 
established in 1S39 by M. de Metz, formerly a councilor 
at Paris, warmly seconded iu his beneficent work by the 
Vicomte de Courcelles, who gave the estate on which 
the establishment is placed. The latter is situated on 
hind purchased in 1S49 by the Philanthropic Society, 
and was placed under the direction of the Rev. Syd- 
ney Turner. The first stone of the building was laid 
April 30, 1S49, by the prince consort. The inmates of 
these establishments are instructed in farm labor, and 
are divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juve- 
nile Ofteuders' Act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 great 
meetings were held on the subject ; and in Aug., 1850, 
the first grand conference of the National Reformatory 
Union was held. In 1852 the Northwest London Pre- 
ventive and Reformatorylnstitution, in the New Road, 
was established : iu this, all kinds of trades are taught. 
Acts for establishing reformatory schools were passed 
iu 1851 and 1858. Iu 1S63 there were fifty-one reform- 
atory schools in England, and nine in Ireland. In 
1805 an international exhibition of the works of these 
schools, at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, near Lou- 
don, was opened by the Prince of Wales. 

REGENCY BILLS. One was proposed to Parlia- 
ment in consequence of the mental illness of George 
III., and debated Dec. 10, 1788. It was relinquished 
on his majesty's recovery, Feb. 26, 1780. The return 
of the malady led to the Prince of Wales (afterward 
George IV.) being sworn in before the privy council 
as regent of the kingdom, Feb. 5, 1811. The Regency 
Bill providing for the administration of the govern- 
ment, shouldthe crown descend to the Princess Vic- 
toria while under eighteen years of age, passed 1 Will. 
IV., Dec. 23, 18.30. A Regency Bill appointing Prince 
Albert regent In the eveiit of the demise of the queen, 
should her next lineal successor be under age, Aug. 4, 
1840. 

REGENTS. See Protectorates. 

REGENT'S PARK, originally part of the grounds 
belonging to a palace of Queeu Elizabeth, near to the 
north'encl of Tottenham Court Road, pulled down in 
1791. Since 1600 the property was let to various per- 
sons, but the leases having expired, it reverted to the 
crown; and in 1814 great improvements were com- 
menced under the direction of Mr. Nash. The park 
consists of about 450 acres: within it are the gardens 
of the Zoological Society and the Royal Botanical So- 
ciety. 

REGGIO. See Rhegium. 

REGIMENTS of Infantry were formed in France 
about 15SS. See Infantry. The following are the 
dates of the establishment of several of the British 
regiments : 

CAVALRY. 

The Dragoon Guards, the Royal Irish, and the 
Scots Grays were formed by tf ames II. about. .1085-6 

Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
formed in the reign of Henry VIII. (tliey derive 
their name from their colonel, the Earl of Ox- 
ford) in 1661 

Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) add- 
ed Aug., " 

INFANTRY. 

Coldstream Guards, established by Monk in lOGO 

1st Roval 1033 

3d Buffs 1000 

2d Queen's Royal 1661 

4th King's Own 1685 

5th Northumberland Fusiliers " 

26th Cameronian 1689 

100th Canadian 1S5S 

101st to 109th (Indian), added Aug.,1801 

The Highland regiments are the 42d, Tlst, 72d, 78th, 
79th, 92d, and 93d. 

REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and con- 
veyances disposing of real estates was appointed to 
be eftected in Yoiijshire and Middlesex, 2 Anne, 1703, 
ct seq. By this regulation, greater security was made 
for purchasers aiicl mortgagees, and the value of es- 
tates increased iu the register counties. Wills have 
been for a series of years kept and registered, in Lon- 



* It was calculated (about 1856) that there were in London 30,000, 
and ill England 100,000 youths under 17 leading a vapabond life, and 
that out of 1S,000 who were committed for trial nearly half were in 
custody for the first time. 



don, at Doctors' Commons. See Wills. The register- 
ing of shipping in the Thames was commenced 1786; 
an"d throughout England, 1787: and several acts and 
amendmeiits of acts have since followed for keeping 
and improving registers. See Revising Barristers. 

REGISTERS, PARocni al, were established by Crom- 
well, Lord Essex, by which the dates of births, mar- 
riages, and burials became ascertainable, 27 Hen. VIII., 
1530-8. This measure was opposed by the people, who 
feared some uew taxation. A stamp-tax was laid ou 
them in 1784. Laws for their better regulation were 
enacted iu 1813, et seq. The great Registration Act 
(introduced by Lord John Russell), 6 &" 7 Will. IV., c. 
86, passed Aug. 17, 1836. See Bills of Mortal) ti/, etc. 

REGISTRATION op Voters in England was enact- 
ed by the Reform Act, passed June, 1832. 

REGIUM DONUM (royal gift), au allowance grant- 
ed by the sovereign to dissenting ministers iu Ireland, 
began in 1072, and has since been greatly increased. 
Its acceptance has been censured by some Noncon- 
formists. 

REICHSRATH, the representative council of the 
Empire of Austria, reconstituted by a decree, March 
5; met ou May 31, 1S60. Iu May, 1861, the upper 
house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, and 39 
peers. The lower house consisted of 136 elected dep- 
uties. No representatives came from Hungary, Tran- 
sylvania, Venetia, the Bauat, Slavonia, Croatia, and 
Istria. The Reichsrath was abolished by a rescript, 
Sept. 21, 1865, with the view of restoring autonomy to 
Hungary and other provinces. 

REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robespierre 
headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, 
demanding the dethronement of the king, July 17, 
1791. He was trium])hant iu 1793, and great numbers 
of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during 
his sanguinary administration. Billaud Varennes de- 
nounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tribune, 
July 2S, 1794. Cries of "Down with the tyrant!" re- 
sounded through the hall ; and he was immediately 
ordered to the place of execution and suft'ered death. 
A large number of his companions were also executed. 
See France. This has been termed the Red Terror. The 
reaction, disgraced bj' many atrocious acts of wanton 
cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The Jes- 
uits \vere conspicuous in the destruction of their ad- 
versaries. 

RELIGION (from rclign, I bind again, iu the sense 
of a vow or oath) comprehends a belief in the being 
aud perfections of God, and obedience to his com- 
mandments. The Christian religion is set forth in 
the New Testament, which is the spirit and interpret- 
er of the Old. Departure from these Scriptures has 
been the origin of all corrupt forms of religion, as 
foretold in them. See Muhammedanism, and other 
religions and sects under their names. The popula- 
tion of the globe with reference to religious worship 
is given by Balbi (who assumed the total population 
to be 1,050,000,000) and Dieterici (who assumed it to 
be 1,288,000,000) as follows: 

Balh! (ISSG). Diettricl (1861). 

Jews 4,500,000 5,000,000 

Christians 225,000,000 335,000,000 

Roman Catholics 160,000,000 170,000,000 

Mohammedans 155,000,000 160,000,000 

Idolaters, etc., not professing 

the Jewish, Christian, or 

Mohammedan worship.... 665,500,000 800,000,000 

REMONSTRANCE, Tuk Grand, was drawn up by 
the House of Commons, and presented to King Charles 
I., Dec. 1, 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, and dwelt 
bitterly on all the king's illegal aud oppressive acts. 

RENAISSANCE, a term applied to the revival of 
the classic style of art at the beginning of the 16th 
century, under the patronage of the Medici aud oth- 
ers. See Painters and Sculptors. 

RENTS were first made payable in money, instead 
of in kind, 1135. Numerous statutes have been enact- 
ed iu various reigns to define the relations and regu- 
late the dealings between landlord and tenant. 8 &9 
Vict., c. 106 (1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 
1709, no goods are removable from tenements under 
an execution until the rent shall have been paid to the 
landlord by the sheriff, 1709. In England the Duke of 
Sutherland received his rents iu the value of corn, and 
in Scotland iu the value of wool and sheep. The rent- 
al of Entrlaud, including land, houses, and mines, was 
X6,000,0fi0 about the year 1000, and twelve years' pur- 
chase the value of land. About 1690 the rental amount- 
ed to £14,000,000, and the land was worth eighteen 



EEr 



399 



years' purchase. — Davcnant on the Revcmwu. The pres- 
eut rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated 
iu the present century at i:i2T,000,U00. See Land, etc. 

REPEAL OF THE Union, Ikki.and. An Irisli associ- 
ation was formed with this object under the auspices 
of Mr. O'Conuell iu 1829. 

A proclamation of the lord lieutenant prohibited 
tlie meetings of a society "leagued for the pur- 
pose of procurins^ a repeal of the Union, under 
the name of the Irish Society for Legal and Leg- 
islative Kelief, or the Anti-Union Society," 

Oct. 18,1830 
The House of Commons, by a majority of 484, re- 
ject Mr. O'Connell's motion for repeal, April 2",1S34 
A new association in 1S41, 1842, and 1843 became 
more violent. Assemblies of the lower classes 
of the i)eople were held in the last-named year 
iu various parts of Ireland, some of them 
amounting to 150,000 persons, and called "mon- 
ster meetings." 
The great meeting at Trim took place on March 
.1!> ; other meetings were held at Mullingar, 
Cork, and Longford, on May 14, 21, and 2S, re- 
spectively; at IJrogheda, Kilkenny, Mallow, and 
Uundalk, on June 5, 8,11, and 29; at Donuy- 
brook and Baltiuglass, July 3 and 20; at Tara, 
Aug. 1.5; at Loughrea, Clifton, and Llsmore, 
. Sept. 10, IT, and 24"; and at Mullaghmast Oct. 1,1843 
A meeting t<i be held at Cloutarf, ou Oct. 8, was 
prevented by government ; and Mr. O'Conuell 
and his chief associates were brought to trial 
for political conspiracy, Jan. 15, 1844, and con- 
victed, Feb. 12 ; but the decision was reversed 
by the House of Lords, Sept. 4. See Ti-ials. 
The association for the repeal of the Union con- 
tinued for some time under the direction of Mr. 
John O'Connell, but was little regarded. The 
total "repeal rent" amounted to iri34,3T9. 
A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to revive 
repeal agitation Dec. 4,1800 

REPUBLICANS. See Democrats. 

EEPUBLICS. See Athens, Rome, Genoa, Venice, etc. 

RESACA DE LA PALMA, Battle of, between the 
Americans under General Taylor and the Mexicans 
under General Arista. The battle occurred ou the 9th 
of May, 1846, the day after the conflict at Palo Alto 
{which see). It was shorter, but more sanguinary than 
that. The Americans lost, in killed and wounded, 110 
men. The loss of the Mexicans was estimated at at 
least 1000, and 100 made prisoners ; among the latter 
was General La Vega. 

RESTORATION, The, that of King Charles II. to 
the crown of England, after an interregnum of eleven 
years and four mouths, between Jan^ .30, 1649, when 
Charles I. was beheaded, and May 29, IGOO, when 
Charles II. was restored, and entered London amid 
the acclamations of the people. 

_ RETREAT of thk Ten Tuodsanh Geefkb, who had 
joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt 
against liis brother, Artaxerses Mnemou. Cyrus was 
defeated and slain at Cuuaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerses 
having enticed the Greek leaders into his power and 
killed them, Xenophou was called by his countrymen 
to the command. Lender continual alarms from sud- 
den attacks, he led them across rapid rivers, through 
vast deserts, over the tops of mountains, till he reached 
the sea. The Greeks returned home after a march of 
11.55 parasangs or leagues (3465 miles), which w^as per- 
formed in 215 days, after the absence of fifteen months. 
This retreat has been immortalized by the account 
given by its conductor. 

REUSS-GREIZ and REUSS-SCHLEIZ, two princi- 
palities in Central Germany, with a united population 
of 121,200. The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, 
count of Osterode, iu the 10th century. The princely 
dignity was conferred by the Emperor Sigismund in 
1426. 

1S56. Reigning prince of Reuss-Schleiz, Henry LXIX., 

Sept. 16; born May 19, 1792. 
1859. Reigning prince of 'Reuss-Greiz, Ileury XXII., 
Nov. 8 ; born March 28, 1846. 

REVELATION. See Apocalypse. 

REVENUE, PriiLio, of England. The revenue col- 
lected for the civil list, and for all the other charges of 
government, as well ordinary as extraordinary, was 
i-'l, 200,000 per annum in 1660, the first after the res- 
toration of Charles II. in 1690 was raised £6,000,000, 
every branch of the revenue being anticipated; this 
was the origin of the funds and the uatioual debt, 2 



William and Mary.- 
amended in 1861. 



REV 

-Salmon. The revenue laws were 



GENEKAL yiEVV 



William I 

William Kufus 

Henry I 

Ste|)hen 

Henry II 

Richard I 

John 

Henry III 

Edward I 

Edward II. . . . 
Edward III. . . 
Richard IL . . . 

Henry IV 

Henry V 

Henry VI 

Edward IV.... 

Edward V 

Richard IIL . . 
Henry VIL ... 
Henry VIII. . . 
Edward VI. . . . 
Mary 



of tue t'Uhlic revenue since 
conquest. 

. .X40(i,00() Elizabeth £.500. 

. .. 3.^0,110(1 James 1 600! 

. .. :!oo,Oiio Charles 1 89.5! 

. .. 2.50,000 Commonwealth 1,517! 

... -joo.ooo Charles II 1,400! 

. .. 1.5i>,()oo J.imcs II 2,001, 

... 100,000 William III 3,895: 

80,000 Anne (at the Uu- 



150,900 
100,000 
1,54,000 
1:^0,000 

100,000 
76,643 
64,976 

100,000 
130,000 
400,000 
800,000 
400,000 
450,000 



ion) 5.691. 

George 1 6,76-.', 

George II S,52l', 

George III., 1788 15,572. 
" 1800, about SSjOOo! 
LTuited King- 
dom, 1820 65,599. 

George IV, 1825. 62,S7li 

William IV., 1830 55,431, 

" 1835 50,494, 

Victoria,lS45,nci 53,060, 

" 1850... 52,810. 

" 1853 ... 54,430i 



000 
000 
819 
24T 
000 
855 
205 

803 
643 
.540 
971 
000 

570 
300 
31T 
T32 
354 
080 
344 



Years. 


Revenue. 


Expenditure. 


1855, 7iet 


£63,364,605 
68,008,623 
66,056,055 
61,812,525 
65,477,284 
71,089,669 
70,003,561 
70.208,964 
70,313,436 
68,78.5,662 
68,663,515 


£65,692,962 
88,428,345 
75,588,667 
68,128,859 
64,663,882 
69,502,289 
69,302,008 
67,056,286 

67,434,769 
69,499,055 


18.56 


1857 




1859, gross 

1860 


1863 


1864 


1805 


1866 


1867 





Surplus ou the year ending June SO, 1865, £2,496,849. 

Previously to 1854 there had been an average sur- 
plus of £2,500,000 since 1849. In consequence of the 
Russian War, the deficiency in 1854 was £3,209,059 ; in 
1855, £21,141,183 ; iii 18.56, £10,104,412. In 1857 there 
was a surplus of £36,097; in 1858, of £1,127,657; iu 
1859, a deficiency of £2,019,584. 

REVENUE OP TUE United States : 

STATEMENTS OF TUE EEOEIPTS INTO THE NATIONAL TREAS- 
URY FROM CUSTOMS, INTEKNAL REVENUE, DIEEOT TAX- 
ES, SALES OF rUISLIO LANDS, AND LOANS AND TBEASDKY 
NOTES, FEOM 1789 TO 1859. 



Ynnr- 


Cus- 


Inter- 
n.il and 


Sales 


Aggre- 
gate 


Time 
Loans and 


Total 




toms. 


Taxes. 


Land. 


in each 
Year. 


Tre.as„ry 

INotes. 


Receipts. 




Dolls. 


Dolls. 


Dolls. Dolls. 


Dolls. 


Dolls. 


1789 


4,399,473 






4,399,473 


5,791,113 


10,210,026 


1199 


6,616,449 


779,136 




7,389,585 


6,074,647 


12,621,460 


1809 


7,296,621 


11,662 


442,252 


7,749,835 




7,773,473 


1819 


20,283,609 


313,244 


3,274,423 


23,871,276 


2,291 


24,605,665 


1829 


22,681,966 


25,838 


1,617,176 


24,224,979 




"4 s-'7 627 


18.39 


23,137,925 




7,261,118 


30,399,043 


3. >,:.;. ■';'; .■.■:,^-i .-ix?, 




28,346,738 




2,727,608 


31,074,.347 


2!»,i'T '' '\ ' ' '■ ^!'^; 


18.59 


49,568,824 .... 


3,920,641 


63,405,071 


■js.i'-:,-,'" -I,:- 'jm;!; 



Since the civil war of 1801-65 the revenue has been 
much increased by the internal revenue tax and income 
tax. 

REVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, published on 
Jan. .5, 166,5, by Denis de Sale, under the name of He- 
douville, was the parent of critical journals. It was 
soon imitated throughout Europe, and was itself trau.s- 
lated into various languages. It is still published. 
George III. spoke of this publication to Dr. Johnson, 
in the private interview with which he was honored 
by his m.ajesty, in the library of the queen's house, in 
Feb., nCi'.—nosii'rU. The Bibliotheque Awilaisc came 
out iu 1716-27. For Military Reviews, see Volunteers. 



Westminster 1824 

Southern American . . 1828 

Dublin 1836 

North British 1844 

British Quarterly 1844 

' " " .." 18.55 



Monthly Review 1749 

Critical 1756 

Anti-Jacobin 1798 

Edinburg 1802 

Quarterly 1809 

Eclectic 1813 1 National 

North American ISls'Saturdav " 

Retrospective 1820 , Fortnightly 1805 

REVISING BARRISTERS' COURTS, to examine 
the lists of voters for members of Parliament, were 
instituted by the Reform Bill of 1832. 

REVOLUTIONS : 
The Assyrian Empire destroyed, and that of the 



KEY 



400 



RIN 



Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the 

(3)-gat B.C. 530 

The Macedonian Empire founded on the destruc- 
tion of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Co- 

domauus, by Alexander the Great 331 

The Roman Empire established on the ruins of 

the Republic by Julius C;esar 47 

The Empire of the Western FranlvS begun under 

Charlemagne A.D. 800 

In Portugal --l^O^ 

In England I*>i9 and 16bb 

In Poland n04, 1T9.5, and 1830 

In Russia Ii30 and 1TG2 

In Sweden ITT'2 and 1S09 

In North America 17T5 

In France 1TS9, 1830, 1848, and 18,51 

In Holland, 1T95 ; counter-revolution 1813 

In Venice 179T 

In Rome 1T98 and 1848 

In the Netherlands 1830 

In Brunswick 

In Brazil 1831 

In Hungary 1848 

In Italy" 1859 and 1S60 

In United States lSCO-5 

(See the countries respectively.) 

REVOLVERS. See Pistols. 

RHEGIUM (now REGGIO), S. Italy, a Greek col- 
ony, flourished in the 5th century B.C. It was held 
by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterward severely 
punished for its rebellion. Reggio was taken by Gar- 
ibaldi, Aug., 1860. 

RHEIMS (N. France). The principal church here 
was built before 4UG; it was rebuilt iu the r2th cen- 
tury, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. 
Remy, the archbishop, is preserved behind the high 
altar in a magnificeut shrine. The kiugs of France 
were crowned at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, 
the founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 496. 
Several ecclesiastical councils have been held here. 
The city was taken and retaken several times in the 
last months of the French War, 1814. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were 
invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 B.C. 
Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius 
Gallus, about 87 B.C. He taught Cicero, who said, 
"We are first to consider what is to be said ; secondly, 
how ; thirdly, in what words ; and, lastly, how it is to 
be ornamented." A regius professor of rhetoric was 
appointed in Edinburg, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair 
became first professor. 

RHINE. This river was fortified as the frontier 
of the Roman Empire, 298 and 369, and became the 
boundary of the French Republic iu 1794. See Con- 
federation. 

RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. It 
was settled by Roger Williams in 1630. It was one of 
the original thirteen states. It was taken in the War 
of Independence by the British, Dec. Sth, 1776, but was 
evacuated by them Oct. 25th, 1779. 

RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia Minor, is 
said to have been peopled from Crete as early as 916 
B.C. The Rhodians were famous navigators, masters 
of the sea, and institutors of a maritime code which 
was afterward adopted by the Romans. The city was 
built about 432, and flourished 300-200 B.C. See Colos- 
sus. Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken 
by the Emperor Vespasian A.D. 71. It was held by 
the Kniffhts Hospitalers from 1309 to 1.522, when it 
was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. The 
knights retired to Malta {loMch see). Rhodes suffered 
severely by an earthquake on April 22, 1803. 

RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in platinum ore 
by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has been used for the 
points of metallic pens. 

RIALTO, Bridge op the, at Venice (mentioned by 
Shakspeare in his ''Merchant of Venice"), built about 
1590, consists of a marble arch across the Grand Ca- 
nal, 00 feet wide and 24 feet high. 

RIBBONISM, a term given to the principles of a se- 
cret society in Ireland, organized about 1820, to retal- 
iate on landlords any injuries done to their tenants, 
not scruplins even at assassination. To the Ribbon- 
men are attributed many of the agrarian murders. 

RICH MOUNTAIN (West Virginia), BattiIf. of. On 
the 13th of May,lS61, General George B. M'Clellan as- 
sumed command of the Department of the Ohio. Soon 
after the secession of Virginia cflbrts were made by 



Governor Fletcher to occupy West Virginia, and to se- 
cure possession of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. . 
Recruiting for the Confederate armies proved unsuc- 
cessful in West Virginia, owing to the devotion of the 
inhabitants to the Union. A Convention was held at 
Wheeling (May 13th), which, with the election of the 
23d, virtually separated West Virginia from the rest of 
the state. Then Colonel Porterfield, commanding a 
Confederate force at Grafton, proceeded to destroy 
the railroad. M'Clellan then determined to cross the 
Ohio and drive out ttiese hostile forces. Colonel Kel- 
ly, with a West Virginia regimeut, occupied Grafton 
(May 30), Porterfield falling back to Philippi. The 
next day General T. A. Morris arrived at Grafton with 
three Indiana regiments. On the 3d of June Porter- 
field was threatened by a movement in front and rear, 
aud narrowly escaped capture. During the month 
which followed. General R. S. Garnett was placed in 
command of the Confederate forces in West Virginia, 
and took up positions at Laurel Hill and Rich Moun- 
tain. M'Clellan then (June 21) took the field in per- 
son. On the 11th of Jul.v, Rosecraus, with 1842 men, 
was sent to occupy the Beverly Road, in the rear of 
Pegram's position at Rich Mountain. The march of 
eight miles was accomplished by Rosecrans, who at- 
tacked aud drove the Confederates, the latter leaving 
behind 135 killed, with their cannon and stores. 
M'Clellan failed to attack in front, not receiving in- 
formation of Rosecrans's success. Pegram attempted 
to escape, but on the road was compelled to surrender 
his command, GOO strong. Rosecrans occupied Bev- 
erly on the 13th, flanking Garuett's position at Laurel 
Hill. Garnett abandoned his works aud tried to es- 
cape by way of Cheat River Valley. Morris pursued 
and overtook Garnett at Carrick's Ford, where the 
latter was routed and slain. These national successes 
compelled Geueral Wise, who had accumulated a small 
Confederate army, to retreat to Gauley Bridge. 

RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, which 
in tlie Saxon tongue signifies resxilendent. Here stood 
a palace in which Edward I. and II. resided, and Ed- 
ward III. died, 1377. Here also died Anne, queen of 
Richard II. The palace was repaired by Henry V., 
who founded three religious houses near it. In"l497 
it was destroyed by fire ; but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and 
commanded that the village should be called Rich- 
mond, he having borne the title of Earl of Richmond 
(Yorkshire) before he obtained the crown ; and here 
he died in 1509. Queen Elizal)eth was a prisoner in 
this palace for a short time during the reign of her 
sister. When she became queen it was one'bf her fa- 
vorite places of residence ; aud here she died, March 
24, 1603. It was afterward the residence of Henry, 
prince of Wales. The beautiful park and gardens 
were inclosed by Charles I. The Observatory was 
built by Sir W. Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, 
Thomson "sang the Seasons and their change ;" and 
died Aug. 27, 1748. — Ricumond (Virginia) became the 
capital of the Southern Confederate States. The Con- ' 
gress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to Rich- 
mond, where it met July 20, 1861. After a siege of 
1452 days and many desperate battles, Richmond was 
evacuated by the Confederates, April 2, 1865. See 
United atates. 

RIFLE CORPS. See National Association and Fire- 
arms. 

RIGHTS, Bill or, one of the bulwarks of the Brit- 
ish Constitution, obtained by Parliament from King 
Charles I., although he had endeavored by various 
artifices to avoid granting it, June 26, 162S. To the 
Petition of Rights, preferred March 17, 1627-S, his 
majesty answered, " I will that right be done, accord- 
ing to the laws and customs of the realm." Both 
houses addressed the king for a fuller answer to their 
petition of rights, whereupon he gave them an answer 
less evasive,"" Sort /art comme il est desire," Jane T, 
1028. An important declaration was made by the 
Lords and Commons of England to the Prince and 
Princess of Orange on Feb. 13, 16S9), iu an act "declar- 
ing the rights and liberties of the subject, aud settling 
the succession of the crown." 

RIMNIK, near Martinesti, Wallachia. Here the 
Austrians and Russians, under Prince Coburg and 
Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, 
Sept. 22, 1789. 

RINDERPEST, German for cattlc-platjue {icJiich see). 

RINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved on 
them, to seal writings, and they are so used to this 
day. In Genesis xli., 42, it is said that Pharaoh gave 
Joseph his ring. Rings are now put upon women's 
fourth finger at marriage; but the first use of rings 



EIO 



401 



RIO 



by the Jews was at the espousal or contract lefore 
inunia^e. 

RIO JANEIRO (S. America) was made capital of 
the Empire of Brazil iu 1S07. 

RIOTS iu New York, July 13-10, 18G3. The imme- 
diate and excitiuir occasion of these riots was the con- 
scription. That pavticuhir feature of the eouscriptiou 
bill which exeiiiplcd those who i)aid $i!00 commuta- 
tion was especially iiiipi)|)ular. The opposition jour- 
nals of New Voik City dwelt upon this obnoxious feat- 
ure, and it is due mainly to articles printed iu these 
journals on the morniiii; of the liJth that the popular 
tuMuilt rcwe to its height and culminated in violence. 
The draft began on the 11th, and on that day there 
was no disturbance; the next day was Sunday, and 
the matter was tliat day made a subject of universal 
discussion, so that the dissatislied and turbulent only 
needed an incendiary sparli to llanie them into fury. 
The opposition press furnished this spark. The riot 
began at the corner of Forty-ninth Street and Third 
Avenue, where Captain Jenkins was about to recom- 
mence the drafting. The building in which the op- 
eration was proceeding was broken open and linally 
burned, the rioters not allowing the lire company to 
extinguish the lire. The city was denuded of troops, 
the militia having been sent to the front to resistLee's 
invasion of Pennsylvania. A detachment of marines 
was sent to disperse the mob. No sooner had these 
arrived and tired their volley of blank cartridges, than 
they were overwhelmed by the rioters, some of them 
killed, some terribly beaten, and the others dispersed. 
A squad of police also suflered a like fate in a similar 
attempt. The mol), in the mean while joined by gangs 
of thieves and desperadoes, gave itself up to the work 
of pillage, arson, and murder, and the city was panic- 
strickeii and helpless for defense. The negroes were 
the esi)ecial objects of its brutality, and were hunted 
down, and in many instances sulTered the most sliame- 
ful torture and death. The colored orphan asylum on 
Fifth Avenue was burned down. Several conflicts oc- 
curred between the police and the rioters, in wliich the 
former were almost invariably successful. Several 
buildings were burned. The mob was quiet iu its 
operations, Ijut exceedingly malignant. But with the 
city at its mercy, it is remarkable that its outrage was 
not more extensive and ruinous. The 14th was a rep- 
etition of the previous day, but tlie operations of the 
mob were chiefly directed against negroes. On this 
day what military force there was in the city was or- 
ganized, and was successful in all cases of collision. 
The citizens also began to take measures for self-de- 
fense. It was not until the 16th that quiet was re- 
stored. In these riots the mob suflered more than 
those opposed to it, losing over a thousand men. 

RIOTS in British IIistoky. The riotous assem- 
bling of twelve or more persons, and their not dis- 
persing upon proclamation, was first made high trea- 
son by a statute enacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI., 154S-'9. The 
present Riot Act was passed 1 Geo. I., 1714. See beloiv. 
Some riotous citizens of London demolished the con- 
vent belonging to Westminster Abbey ; the ring- 
leader was hanged, and the rest had their hands 
and feet cut off,"6 Ilen. III., 1221. 
Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in the 
streets of London ; several were killed ; tlie sheriffs 
quelled it, and thirteen were hanged, 1262. 
A riot at Norwich; the rioters burii the catliedral and 
monastery ; the king went thither, and saw the ring- 
leaders executed, 12T1. 
Riot of Evil May-day {which see), 1517. 
Dr. Lamb killed by the mob, June, 1C2S. 
A riot on pretense of pulling down houses of ill fitme ; 

several of the ringleaders'hanged, 1C6S. 
Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; sev- 
eral considerable persons who seized the lord mayor 
were concerned, 1682. 
At Edinburg and Dumfries, on account of the Union, 

17(17. 
In London, on account of Dr. Sacheverell's trial; sev- 
eral dissenting meeting-houses were broken open, 
Feb., 1710. 
Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond and 

Newcastle moos, 1715. 
The Mu'j-hmme riot, in Salisbury Court, between the 
Whigs and Tories. The riot quelled by the Guards. 
Five rioters hanged, July, 1716. 
Of the Spitallicld weaver.s, on account of employing 
Workmen come over from Ireland. Quelled by the 
military, but many lives lost, 1736. 
Portcous riot at Edinburi; (see Portemu<), 1736. 
The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birmingham, 
and make terms with the iron-merchants there, 1737. 
C o 



Of sailors who were robbed and ill used at a house of 
ill fame in the Strand ; being assisted by a large 
body, they pulled down the house and destroyed 
the furniture of several other houses, turning "the 
women naked into the streets, 1749. 

Of the Spitaltield weavers; the Duke of Bedford nar- 
rowly escaped death; many lives lost, 1765. 

A mob in St. George's Fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in the 
King's Bench Prison ; the military aid indiscreetly 
called for by the justices of the peace, and several 
innocent jjcrsons, particularly young Allen, fired 
upon and killed, 176S. 

Gordon's "A'o Popery" riots, 1780. 

At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
French Revolution, July 14, 1791, when several 
houses were destroyed. 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the Militia 
Act, Aug., 1797, when several were killed. 

At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
others. May 22, 1798 ; the Earl of Thauet, Mr. Fer- 
guson, and others, were active in endeavoring to 
rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and con- 
victed, April 25, 1799. 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a party 
of dragoons and a press-gang, June 27, 1809. 

O. P. riot {which see) at Covent Garden, Sept., 1809. 

In Piccadilly, in consequence of the House of Com- 
mons committing Sir Francis Burdett to the Tower, 
April 6, 1810. 

At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging to 
the local militia were destroyed, April 14, 18r2. 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 
Nov., 1811, to Jan., 1812. 

In various parts of the North of England, by the Ludd- 
ites, during 1811 and 1S12. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the cele- 
brated Bog of Montargiti, several nights, Dec, 1814. 

Alarming riots at Westminster on account of the Com 
Bill ; they lasted several days, March, 1815. 

At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
Americans were killed and thirty-five wounded, 
April, 1815. 

Popular meetings at Spaflelds, when the shops of the 
gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt shot 
in that of jMr. Bcckwith on Snow Hill, Dec. 2, 1816. 
Watson tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, 
1817. 

In the Park, on the prince regent going to the House, 
in which an air-gun was fired at him, Jan. 28, 1817. 

At Manchester, at a popular meeting, INIarch 3, 1817. 

Affray at Manchester, called the "Field of Peterloo," 
Aug. 10, 1819. See Manchester Rcforvi Meeting. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' dura- 
tion, 1819. 

Riot at Paisley and Glasgow; many houses plundered, 
Sept. 10, 1819. 

At Edinburg, on the acquittal of Queen Caroline, Nov. 
19, 1820. 

In London, at the funeral of the queen, through the 
military opposing the body being carried through 
the city, Aug. 14,1821. 

At Knightsbridge, between the military and the pop- 
ulacerou the funeral of Honey and Francis, Aug. 26, 
1821. 

At the Theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the '^Bottle 
Conspiracy " against the Marquess Wellesley, lord 
lieutenant, Dec. 14, 1822. 

Riot at Ballybay ; Mr. Lawless was arrested, Oct. 9, 
1828. 

Riot at Limerick; the provision warehouses plun- 
dered and mischief done, June 15, 1830. 

Fatal affrays at CastlepolIard,May 23,1831; andNew- 
tonbarry (which see), June IS, 1831. 

Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydfll among the iron- 
workei-s, several of who'm, fired on by the military, 
were killed and wounded, Jime 3, 1S31. 

Riot at the Forest of Dean, June 8, 1831. See Dean. 

Nottingham Castle burnt by rioters, Oct. 10, 1831. 

Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol), Oct. 29, 1831. 

Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkennj^ when a num- 
ber of police, attacked by the populace, were, wUh 
their commander, Mr. Gibius, killed, Dec. 14, 1831. 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by a 
body of pel-sons called Tliomites, headed by a fa- 
natic named Thom, or Courtenay, who, with otliers, 
was killed. May 31, 1838. See Thomites. 

Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by the 
Chartists. Suppressed by proclamation, Dec.l2, 1838. 

Riots iu Birmingham, when much mischief ensued, 
July 15, 1839. See Birmingham. 

Chartist riot at Newport (which see), Nov. 4, 1839. 

Meditated Chartist outbreak at Sheflield, with most 
destructive objects, providentially discovered, and 
many persons arrested, Jan. 11, 1840. 



EIO 



402 



ROC 



Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales, in 1843. 

Chartist demonstration (see Chartists), April 10, 1S48. 

Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, in Ire- 
land, between the Orangemen and the Roman Catho- 
lics; severalof the latter lost their lives, and some of 
their houses were ransacked and burnt, July 12, 1849. 

Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute between 
the ship-owners and the seamen, Feb. 23, 1851. 

Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 
Liverpool, and several lives lost, July 14, 18.51. 

Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two Catholic chapels de- 
stroyed and houses burnt, June 29, 1S52. 

Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur July 
14, 1852. 

Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge, in the county 
of Clare, in Ireland ; live persons shot dead by the 
military, July 22, 1852. See Six-mile Bridge. 

Riots at Wigan among the coal-miners, suppressed by 
the military without loss of life, Oct. 28, lb53. 

Bread riots at Liverpool, Feb. 19, 1855. 

Riots at Hyde Park, about Sunday Bill, July, 1855 ; 
about dearness of bread, Oct. 14, 21, 28, 1855. 

Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of the 
Rev. Hugh Ilanna, Sept. 6, 13, 20, 18.58. 

Religious riots at St. George's in the East, Loudon, on 
Sundays in Sept. and Nov., 1859. 

Breakout of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed by 
the military, Feb. 11, 18G1. 

Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange de- 
monstration, Sept. IT, 18U2. 

Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the favor- 
ers of Garibaldi) at Hyde Park, London, Sept. 28 and 
Oct. 5 ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Oct. 8 and 15, 
1862. 

Rioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of 
relief to unemployed cotton-workers), principally 
Irish, put down by the military, March 21, 1863. 

Fierce contlicts between Romanists and Protestants 
at Belfast; 9 persons killed and about 150 injured, 
Aug. 10-2T, 1864. 

(See Rehellions.) 

RIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 661 
an abbey cell was built here by Eata. Ripon was 
made a "bishopric by Archbishop Wilfred in 690, but 
did not endure so. It suffered much by the ravages 
of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and the Scots (1319 
and 1323). The present see was erected Oct., 1836, out 
of the archdeaconry of York in the West Riding. In- 
come, £4500. 

RIVER RAISIN is remarkable in history as the 
place of a foul massacre, on the 23d of January, 1813. 
General Winchester, with about 800 Americans, was 
encamped on that river, and at dawn on the 22d of 
January, General Proctor, with 1500 British and In- 
dians, fell upon them. After a severe action, Win- 
chester surrendered, under promise of protection 
from the ludians. But Proctor marched off, leaving 
no guard for the Americans. His Indians returned, 
and'killed and scalped a large number of them. The 
entire loss of the Americans was 397 killed, 27 wound- 
ed, and .35 officers and 487 men made prisoners. The 
British lost 24 killed and 158 wounded. 

ROAD MURDER. On the night of June 29-30, 1860, 
Francis Savilc Kent, four years old, was murdered, 
and his body hid in a garden water-closet. His sis- 
ter, Constance Kent (aged sixteen), and the nurse, 
Elizabeth Gough, the tirst suspected, after several 
examinations, were discharged for want of evidence. 
The coroner was severely blamed for charging the 
jury improperlj', but the Court of Queen's Bench, in 
Jan., 1861, refused to issue a writ for a new inquiry. 
Constance Kent, on April 25, 1865, before Sir Thomas 
Henry, at Bow Street, and on July 21 following, at her 
trial at Salisbury, confessed herself to be guilty of the 
murder. Her punishment was commuted to penal 
servitude for life. 

ROADS OP Enoi.ani). The first general repair of 
the highways of this country was directed about 1285. 
Acts were passed for the purpose in 1524 and 1555, 
followed by others in Elizabeth's and succeedimr 
reigns. Roads through the Highlands of Scotland 
were begun by Gen. Wade in 17467 Loudon M'Adam's 
roads w'ere introduced about 1818 ; he prescribes the 
breaking of stones to six ounces' weight, and calcu- 
lates the expense of breaking stones at a shilling a 
ton; clean flints and granite clippings answer best. 
Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in 
the streets of London ; at Whitehall in 1839, and in 
other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. 
See Roman Roads and Wooden Pavements. An act 
"for the better management of the highways" was 
passed in 1802, after much opposition. See WAdam. 



ROANOKE ISLAND (North Carolina), Battle or, 
Feb. 8, 1862. Roanoke Island was occupied by Gen- 
eral Wiire with 2500 men. On the north shore were ■ 
three forts— Barton, Huger, and Blanchard. An ex- 
pedition for the capture of this island started from 
Hampton Roads Jan. 11th. The fleet, consisting of 
20 vessels, 50 guns, was commanded by Flag-oflicer L. 
M. Goldsborough ; the military force, nearly 15,0U0 
strong, by General A. E. Burnside. The forts were 
bombarded Feb. 7th, and under cover of this bom- 
bardment the troops were landed. On the 8th, after 
a short conflict, Wise's commaud was surrendered. 
The National loss in all amounted to 260. On the 
Confederate side, a son of General Wise was killed. 

ROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is that of 
Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order of Sabacon of 
Ethiopia, 737 'R.C.—Lemjlet. Sir John Oldcastle, Lord 
Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, and M. Serve- 
tus, for heresy, at Geneva, in 1553. See Burning Alive 
and Martyrs. 

ROBBERS. First punished with death by Edmund 
I.'s laws, which directed that the eldest robber should 
be hanged. Remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, 
in England, 1189 (see Rohin Hood), and Claud du Val, 
"execttted at Tyburn," says a historian, quaintly, "to 
the great grief of the women." In Ireland, the famous 
MacCabe was hanged at Naas, Aug. 19, 1691. Gallop- 
ing Hogau, the Rapparee, flourished at this period. 
Freuey, the celebrated higliwayman, surrendered him- 
self. May 10, 1749. The a'ccomplished Barringtou was 
transported, Sept. 22, 1790. See Trials. 

ROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, in 
Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. Some assert that 
he was the Earl of Huntingdon, disgraced and ban- 
ished the court by Richard I. at his accession (1189). 
Robin Hood and Little John and their band are said 
to have continued their depredations till 1247, when 
Robin died. — Stow. 

"ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel de Foe, first ap- 
peared in 1719. 

ROCHELLE (W. France), a sea-port on the Atlantic, 
belonged to the English for some time, but finally sur- 
rendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. 
It became a strong-hold of the Calvinist party, and 
was vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou in 1573. It 
was taken after a siege of thirteen months by Cardinal 
Richelieu in 1628. The Duke of Buckingham was sent 
with a fleet and army to relieve it, but the citizens de- 
clined to admit him. A conspiracy here in 1S22 caused 
loss of life to Sergeant Bories and others. 

ROCHESTER, in Kent, an ancient city, built by the 
Romans, and called Durohrivis. The bishopric, found- 
ed by Augustine, 604, is the next in age to Canterbury. 
The first cathedral was erected by Ethelbert, king of 
Kent. St. Justus was bishop in 604; alterations were 
made in the diocese in 1845. Rochester is valued in 
the king's books at £358 3s. i}4,d. per annum. Present 
income," X5000. 

ROCKETS, destructive war implements, were in- 
vented by Sir William Congreve about 1803. The car- 
case-rockets were first used at Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1S06, 
when they set the town on fire, their powers having 
been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. 
Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, ISOG. Im- 
proved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 

ROCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. 

FIKST ADMINISTKATION, July, 1765, tO Allg., 1766. 

Charles, marquess of Rockingham, First Lord of the 
Treasury. 

William Dowdeswell, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

Earl ofWinchelsea and Nottingham, Lord President. 

Duke of Newcastle, Privy Seal. 

Earl of Northingtou, iorrf Chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, Lord Chamberlain. 

Duke of Rutland, ^faster of the Horse. 

Lord Talbot, Lord Steirard. 

Henry Seymour Conway and the Duke of Grafton, Sec- 
retaries of State. 

Lord Egmont, Admiralty. 

Marquess of Granby, Ordnance. 

Viscount Barrington, Secretary at War. 

Viscount Howe, Treasurer of the Navy. 

Charles Townshend, Paymaster of the Forces. 

Earl of Dartmouth, First Lord of Trade. 

Lords Besborough and Grantham, Lord John Caven- 
dish, Thomas Townshend, etc. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March to July 2, 1782, when 
the marquess died. 

Marquess of Rockingham, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Lord John Cavendish, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 



KOC 



403 



ROM 



Lord Camden, President of tlie Council. 

Duke ofCiriiftDii, Privij Seal. 

Lord Tlmilow, Lard Clmncellor. 

William, carl of Sliclbunie, aud Charles James Fox, 

Seci-itdi-ies of State. 
Aut^ustiis Kciii)el, Firfif Lord of the Admiralti/. 
I)aRc of Kichmond, Master General of the Ordnance. 
Thomas Townslicnd, Seeretarif at War. 
Isaac Barro, Edimuid Burke, etc. 

ROCKY SrOUNT, Batti.k at. On the .^Oth of July, 
1780, General Sumter, with a considerable force, at- 
tacked a British post at Rocky jMouut, on the Catawba 
River, in South Carolina. Tiie skirmish was severe, 
aud Sumter was rejiulsed. He lost three men killed 
and ton wounded. The British lost ten killed aud the 
same number wounded. 

ROCllOY (N. France). Here, May 19, 1C43, the Span- 
iards were totally defeated by the French, commanded 
by the threat Condc. 

RODNEY'S VICTORIES. Admiral Rodney fought, 
near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, Don Lan- 
gara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, capturing 
six of his ships, one of which blew nji, Jan. 10, ITSO. 
On April 12, 1TS2, he encountered the French fleet in 
the West Indies, commanded by the Count de Grasse, 
took five ships of the line, and sent the French admi- 
ral prisoner to England: Rodney was raised to the 
peerage, June, 17S'2. 

ROGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday received its 
title from the Monda.v, Tuesday, and Wednesday fol- 
lowing it, called Rogation Days, derived from the 
Latin 'co^'rtcc, to beseech.* 

ROniLLAS, an Afghan tribe, who emigrated from 
Cabul at the end of the ITth century, and established 
themselves in the eastern parts of Delhi. They were 
defeated by the English in 1TT4, aud nearly extermi- 
nated by the sovereigns ofOude; and after a struggle, 
Anally subdued by the English in 1S49. 

ROLLS. See 3Taster of the Rolls, and Records. 

ROLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by Henry III., 
iul'23;{, for ordaining Jewish rabbis converted to Chris- 
tianity. On the banishment of the Jews, the buildings 
now called the Rolls, and the Chapel, were annexed 
by patent to the office of the keeper or master of the 
rolls of Chancery, from which circumstance they took 
their name. A number of public records from the 
time of Richard III. were kept in presses in this 
chapel. 

ROMAGNA, a province of the Papal States, com- 
prised in the legations of Porli and Ravenna. It was 
conquered by the Lombards; but taken from them by 
Pepin, and given to the Pope, T53. Ciesar Borgia held 
it as a ducliy in 1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the 
Romagna threw off" the temporal authority of the pope, 
aud declared itself subject to the King of Sardinia, 
who accepted it in March, ISGO. It now forms part of 
the province of Emilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. 
Population (1860) 1,014,582. See Rome. 

ROMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights near 
Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, and Mar- 
mout were defeated by the Allies after a vigorous re- 
sistance, March 30, 1814. The next day Paris capitu- 
Lated. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS, called also Ro.manists and 
Papists. Their religion was the established one till 
the Reformation. Since then many laws were made 
against them, which have been repealed.t See Re- 
Ihjiun. 

Bishop Fisher, Sir Thomas More, and others, exe- 
cuted for denying the king's supremacy 1535 

Catholics al)solved from their allegiance to the 

king by Paul IIL,1535; by Pius VT 1570 

They rebel in 1549 aud 1567 

The Guni_)owder Plot (lohich see) 1005 

They suffer by Oatcs's fictitious Popish Plot 1678 

They are excluded from the throne 1089 

They suff'er by the Gordon Riots June,17S0 

Various disabilities removed in 1780 and 1791 

Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which 

he gives up lSOl-4 

* E.ttraonlinnry prnji'era and supplications for these tliree days are 
s.lid to liave been appointed in tlic 3il century, as a preparation for tlie 
devout observance of our Savior's ascension on the next (lay sncceedinR 
to them, denominated Holy Thursday, or Ascension Day. The whole 
week in which these days" happen is' styled Rogation NVeek ; and in 
some parta it is still kno'wn by the other names of Crop Week, (irass 
Week, and Procession Week. The perambulations of parishes have 
usually been made in this week. 

t Amonp other disabilities, Roman Catholics were excluded from 
corporate offices, 1867; from Parliament, 1691 ; forbidden to marry 
Protestants, l"(is ; to possess arms, 16a5, etc. See Scidlu'a Jlistoru of 
the Penal Lau-,,)»U. ' " '' \ 



Roman Catholic Association organized in Ireland, 
with the object of removing the political aud 

civil disabilities of Roman Catholics 1S24 

Bills in their favor frequently brought iu without 

effect from isi3 to 1828 

An act oi Parliament passed for the suppression 
of the Catholic Association, March 5, 1829; but 
it voted its own dissolution, Feb. 12, preceding. 
The Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel car- 
ry the great Catholic Emancipation Bill (10 Geo. 
IV., c. 7) iu the Commons, March 30; in the 
Lords, April 10 ; it receives the royal assent, 
„ _ April 13, 1S29 

The Duke of Norfolk, and Lords Dormer and Clif- 
ford, the first Roman Catholic peers, take their 

seats April 28, " 

The first English member returned, the Earl of 

Surrey for Horsham May 4, " 

Mr. O'Connell, elected for Clare, takes his seat (tirst 

Roman Catholic M.P. since 1689) Aug., " 

Mr. Alexander Raphael the first Roman Catholic 

sheriff" of London Sept. 28,1834 

Sir Michael O'Loghlen, the first Roman Catholic 
judge (as master of the rolls in Ireland), ap- 
pointed Oct. 30,1836 

Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman Catholic lord 

mayor of Dublin 1S41 

The " Papal Aggression" {which sec) ; Cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman appointed Archbishop of 

Westminster Sept. 30,1850 

Agitation in favor of the pope 1860-2 

[In 1851 there w^ere in England 570 Roman Catho- 
lic chapels, with 180,111 sittiug.s. The Roman 
Catholic Church in Ireland con.sists of four arch- 
bishops, 24 bishops, and (in 1854) 2291 priests ; 
there are numerous monasteries and convents.] 
Roman Catholic University founded at Drumcon- 

dra, Ireland July 20,1362 

Roman Catholic chaplains permitted for jails by 

Prison Ministers' Act Jul.y,18C3 

Sergeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the (iueen's 
Bench, the first Roman Catholic judge since the 

Reformation Dec. 15, " 

Death of Cardinal Wiseman, aged 03 ; 7th English 

cardinal since the Reformation Feb. 15,1805 

Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon iu the 
English Chiirch) consecrated Archbishop of 

Westminster June 8, " 

ROMAN ROADS in Englant>. Our historians 
maintain, but are mistaken, that there were but four 
of these roads. — Camden. "The Romans," says Isi- 
dore, "made roads almost all over the world, to have 
their marches in a straight line, aud to employ the 
people ;" and criminals were frequently condemned 
to work at such roads, as we learn from Suetonius, iu 
his life of Caligula, They were commenced and com- 
pleted at vario\is periods, between the 2d and 4th cen- 
turies, and the Roman soldiery were employed in mak- 
ing them, that inactivity might not give them an op- 
portimity to raise disturbances. — Bede. 
lst,WATLiNG Street, so named fromVitellianus, who 
is supposed to have directed it, the Britons calling 
him in their language Guctalin (from Keut to Cardi- 
gan Bay). 
2d, Ikenei.i) or Ikenild Street, from its beginning 

among the Iceni (from St. David's to Tynemouth). 
3d, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably frorii its having 
been defended by a fosse on both sides (from Corn- 
wall to Lincoln). 
4th, Ermin Street, from Trmunsul, a German word, 
meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- 
shiped under that name (from St. David's to South- 
ampton). 

ROMAN WALLS. One was erected by Agricola (79 
to 85) to defend Britain from the incursions of the 
Picts and Scots ; the first wall extended from the Tyne 
to the Solway Frith (80 miles) ; the second from the 
Frith of Forth, near Edinburg, to the Frith of Clyde, 
near Dumbarton (36 miles). The former was renewed 
and strengthened by the Emperor Adrian (121), and by 
Septimius Severus (208). It commenced at Bowness, 
near Carlisle, and ended at Wallsend, near Newcastle. 
It had battlcmeuts and towers to contain soldiers. 
The more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbi- 
cus in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many 
remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the 
southern one. See Bruce's "Roman Wall," published 
in 1853. 

ROMANCES. As Heliodorns, a bishop of Tricea, 
in Thessaly, was the author o{ Ethiopics, iu Greek, the 
first work in this species of writing, he is hence styled 
the " Father of Romances." He flourished 398. — Heiit 
dc Orirjinc Fahul. Roman. Dunlop's "History of Fie- 



ROM 



40i 



ROM 



tion," published in ISU, is an esteemed book on this 
subject. 

ROME. The foundation of the city, by Romulus, 
was laid on the 20th of April,* according to Varro, in 
the year 3961 of the Julian period (3251 years afier the 
creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 
431 years after the Trojan War, and in tlie fourth year 
of the sixth Olympiad." Other dates given : Cato, 751 ; 
Rolybius, 75U ; Fabius Pictor, 747; Cincius, 72S B.C.). 
The Romans conquered nearly the whole of the then 
known world. In tlie time of Julius Cresar, tlie em- 
pire was bounded by the Enpln-ates, Taurus, and Ar- 
menia on the east; byjEthiopia on the south ; by the 
Danube on the north ; and by the Atlantic on the west. 
Numerous ecclesiastical councils have been held at 
Rome, beginning in 197. 

Foundation of the city by Romulus B.C. 753 

The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a pub- 
lic spectacle, and detain them for wives 750 

The Cieninians defeated, and first triumphal pro- ^ 

cession 74S 

Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incorpo- 
rated with the Romans as one nation 747 

Romulus sole king of the Romans and Sabines. . . 742 

The Circeusiau Games established 732 

Romulus said to have been murdered by the sen- 
ators f IG 

Numa Pompilius elected king, 715 ; institutes the 

priesthood, the augurs and vestals 710 

Roman calendar of 10 months reformed and made 

12 " 

The Romans and the Albans, contesting for su- 
periority, agreed to choose three champions on 
each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman 
knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, having 
been elected by their respective countries, en- 
gaged in the celebrated combat, which, by the 
victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 

about GC9 
War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba de- 
stroyed 665 

Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built 627 

The first census of the Roman state is taken {Lemj- 

let) 56G 

Political institutions of Servius Tnllius 5.50 

The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin . . 510 
Royalty abolished : the Patricians establish an ar- 

istoci'atical commonwealth 509 

Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first con- 
suls ; first alliance of the Romans with Carthage 50S 
The Capitol finished, and dedicated to Jupiter Cap- 

itolinus 507 

First dictator Titus Lartius 501 

The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 

the republic, 501 ; defeated at the Lake Re^illus, 496 
Secession of the plebeians to the Sacred Mount; 

establishment of tribunes of the plebeians 494 

First agrarian law passed; Spurius Cassius put to 

death by the patricians 493 

C. Martins Coriolanus banished 491 

He (with the Volsci) besieges Rome, but withdraws 

at the suit of his wife and mother 4SS 

Contests between the patricians and plebeians re- 
specting the agrarian law 4S6 

The Pabii slain ^see Fabii) 477 

Consulship of Cincinnatus 460 

The Secular Games first celebrated 456 

The Decemviri created 451 

Virgiuius kills his daughter Virrrinia to save her 

from the decemvir Appius Clandiust 449 

The Canuleian law passed, pernntting marriages 

between patricians and plebeians 445 

Military tribunes first created 444 

Office of censor instituted 443 

Rome afflicted with an awful famine, and mauy 



* In it3 orio:inal state, Rome was but a smaU castle on the summit of 
Mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give his followers the appearance 
of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a 
common asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who iled from 
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. 
From such an assemblag:e a numerous body was soon collected, and be- 
fore the death of the founder the Romans had covered with their habi- 
tations the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, with 
Mounts Ccelius and Quirinalis. 

t Appius Claudius became enamored of her, and attempted to remove 
her from the place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his 
favorites as the daughter of a slave, and Appius had adjudged her to 
his friend, when Virginius arrived from the camp. The father demand 
ed to see his daughter, and when she came he plunged a knife into her 
breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter, I can give thee to pre- 
serve thee from the lust of a tyrant!" Virginius r.an to the camp with 
the bloody knife in his hand, and the incensed soldiers marched to 
Rome. Appius was seized, but destroyed himself in prison. Spurius 
Oppius, another decemvir, killed himself also. Marcus Claudius, the 
favorite of Appius, was put to death, and the decemviral power abol- 
ished. 



persons on account of it drown themselves in 

the Tiber B.C. 440 . 

The Veieutes defeated, and their king Tolumnus 

slain 437 

War with the Tuscans 434 

A temple is dedicated to Apollo on account of a 

pestilence 433 

^qui and Volsci defeated 431 

Two new qusestors are added to the former num- 
ber 421 

Another and more dreadful famine occurs at 

Rome 411 

Three quiestors are chosen from the plebeians for 

the first time 409 

Institution of the Lectisternian festival on account 

of a pestilence 399 

Veil taken after a sie^e of more than ten years. . . 390 

Banishment of CamiUus 391 

The Gauls, under Breunus, besiege Clusium (see 

Gauls) 300 

They are expelled by Camillus 389 

Rome burnt to the ground by the Gauls, who be- 
siege the Capitol 3S7 

M. Manlius Capitolinus thrown from the Tarpeian 
Rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign power 3S4 

The first appointment of curule magistrates 371 

Lucius Sextus, the first plebeian consul 366 

Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had 

opened in the Forum 362 

The Gauls defeated in Italy 350 

War with the Samnites, which lasts 51 years 343 

Embassy to Alexander the Great 324 

Defeat at Caudium 321 

Priests first elected from the plebeians 300 

End of the Samnite War 290 

The Gauls invade the Roman territory; siege of 

Arezzo 2S4 

The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimouian Lake, 

310 and 283 
Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, 2S1 ; defeats the 
Romans at Paudosia, 2S0 ; and at Asculum, 278 ; 

defeated by them at Benevento 278 

All Italy subdued by Rome 2C6 

First Punic War commenced (see Punic Wars) 264 

First Roman fleet built 260 

Attilius Regulus said to be put to a cruel death by 

the Carthaginians 255 

End of first Plrnii. War ; Sicily made a R(mian prov- 
ince 241 

Temple of Janus closed 235 

Corsica and Sardinia annexed 231 

First Roman embassy to Greece 228 

Great invasion of the Gauls ; repulsed 2'25 

Second Punic War breaks out 218 

The Romans are defeated-by Hannibal at Thrasy- 

meue, 217; Cannse 216 

Syracuse taken by Marcellus 212 

S'cipio defeats Hannibal at Zama, in Africa 202 

The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 and 

200 ; his defeat at Cynoscephalie 197 

Death of Scipio Africanus the elder 1S5 

Third Macedonian W\ar begins, 171 ; Macedon con- 
quered and annexed 168 

First public library erected at Rome 107 

Philosophers and rhetoricians are banished from 

Rome 161 

Third Punic War begins 149 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans 

(see Corinth and Carthage) 146 

Numantine War in Spain 153-133 

AttalusIII. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom 

and riches to the Romans 133 

The Servile War in Sicily 132 

Two plebeian consuls chosen " 

The Jugurthine War 112-106 

The Mithridatic M^ar {which see) 108-63 

The Ambrones defeated by Marius 102 

The Social War 90-88 

Rome besieged by four armies (viz., those of Ma- 
rius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken ... 87 

Sylla defeats Marius 82 

Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by King Ni- 

comedes 74 

Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves 73-71 

Syria conquered by Pompey 05 

The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero 03 

The first triumvirate : CiBsar, Pompey, and Crassus 00 

Csesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain 55 

Crassus killed by the Parthians 53 

Gaul conquered and made a province 51 

War between Ctesar and Pompey 50 

Battle of Pharsalia (which see) 43 

Cajsar defeats Pharnaces at Zela, and writes home 
" Veni, vidi, vici" 47 



EOM 



405 



KOM 



Cato kills himself at Utica B.C. 40 

Cajsai- killed hi the seiiute-liousc Mar. 15, 44 

Second trimuviiale : Octavius, Antony, and Lcpi- 

duji 4D 

Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony " 

Diittlc ol" I'hilippi {wliich fsee) 42 

Lcpidus ejected from the triumvirale; war be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeat- 

• ed totally at Actium Sept. 2, 31 

Octavius becomes emperor, and assumes the title 

ol' Augustus 27 

Tlu! empire now at peace with all the W(nld ; the 
Temple of Janus shut; Jesus CniusT born (see 
J(fws) April 4, 5 

Ovid banished to Tomi A.D. 9 

Death of Ovid and Livy IS 

Tiberius retires to Caprca; tyranny of Sejauus. .. 20 

A census being taken by C'iaudius, the emperor 

and censor, tlic inhabitants of Home are stated 

to amount to C,944,0U0.— [It is now considered 

that the population of Rome within the walls 

was under a million.] 4S 

Caractacus brought in chains to Rome 51 

St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome 0:2 

Nero burns Rome to the ground, and charges the 

crime upon the Christians 04 

Seneca, Lucan, etc., put to death 05 

Peter and Paul said to be put to death OT 

Jerusalem leveled to the ground by Titus. . Sept. S, TO 

Coliseum fonnded 75 

The Uacian War (continues 15 years) SO 

Pliny junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajau 

his celebrated account of the Christians 102 

Trajan's expedition into the East against the Par- 

thiaus, etc. ; subdues Dacia 100 

Trajan's column erected at Rome 114 

Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall li!l 

The Capitol destroyed by lightning ISS 

Byzantium taken ; its walls razed 190 

The Goths are paid tribute 222 

[The Goths, Vandals, Alanl, Suevi, and other 
Northern nations attack the empire.] 

Pompey's amphitheatre burnt 24S 

Invasion of the Goths 251) 

Pestilence throughout the empire 252 

Great victory over the Goths obtained by Clau- 
dius ; 300,000 slain 209 

Dacia relinquished to the Goths 270 

Palmyra conquered, and Louginus put to death. . 273 

The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian 2S4 

The Franks settle in Gaul {Freret) 2S7 

Constantius dies at York 300 

Four emperors reign at one time 308 

Coustantine the Great, it is said, in consequence 
of a vision, places the Cross on his banners, and 

begins to favor the Christians 312 

Coustantine defeats Licinius at Chrysopolis, and 

reigns alone Sept. 18, 323 

He tolerates the Christian faith " 

Puts his sou Crispus to death 324 

Coustantine convokes the first general council of 

Christians at Nice 325 

The seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- 
tium, 32S ; dedicated to Coustantine 330 

Coustantine orders the heathen temples to be de- 
stroyed " 

Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed ... 830 
Death of Constantine soon after being baptized.. 337 
The army under Julian proclaims him emperor... 300 
Julian, who had been educated for the priesthood, 
and had frequently officiated, abjures Christian- 
ity, and reopens the heathen temples, becoming 

the i)agau pontiff 301 

Julian killed in battle; Christianity restorecl by 

Jovian 303 

The empire divided into Eastern and Western by 
Valentinian and Valens, brothers; the former 

has the Western portion, or Rome 304 

(Sec W'istera and Eastern Empires; aud Italy.) 

Rmnc placed uuder the exarchate of Ravenna 404 

Taken by Alaric 410 

Taken and pillaged by Genseric June, 455 

Odoacer lakes Rome, and thus becomes King of 

Italy 470 

Rcjme recovered for Justinian by Belisarius 530 

Retaken by the Goths, 540; recovered by Belisa- 
rius, 547; seized by Totila, 549; recovered by 

Narses, and annexed to the Eastern Empire 5S3 

Rome independent uuder the i)opes, about 72S 

Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the ■ 
Lombards, to cede Ravenna aud other places to 

the Holy Church 7.'i5 

Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne 774 



Charlemarae crowned Emperor of the West by the 

pope at Rome A.D.Dec. 25, SCO 

The Emperor Henry IV. takes Rome March, 1084 

Arnold of Brescia, endeavoring to reform Church 
aud State and to establish a senate, is pttt to 

death as a heretic 1155 

The pope removes to Avignon 1809 

Nicola di Rienzi, as tribune of the people, estab- 
lishes a republic, but is compelled to abdicate, 

1347 ; returning, is assassinated Sept. 6,1354 

Papal court returns to Rome 1371 

Rise of the families Colouua, Orsini, etc., about. . .1377 
Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 

Perugia 1503-13 

The city greatly embellished by Pope Leo X. .1513-21 
It is captured by the Coustable dc Bourbon, who 

is slain June 0,1527 

Ferrara annexed 1597 

Harassed by the French, German, aud Spanish 

factions from the IGth to the ISth centiuy. 
The French invasion ; the legations incorporated 

with the Cisalpine republic 179G 

The French proclaim a Roman republic, March 20,1798 

Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitaus 1799 

Retaken by the French ISOO 

Restored to Pope Pius VII 1801 

Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, 

and declared second city of the empire 1808 

Restored to the pope, who returns Jan. ,1814 

He re-establishes the Inquisition aud the Jesuits, 

Aug., " 
The papal government endeavor to annul all in- 
novations, aud thus provoke much opposition ; 

the Carbonari increase in numbers 1815-17 

Political assassinations in the Romagna 1817 

The "Young Italy" party established by Josejoh 
Mazziui; temporary insurrections at Bologna 

suppressed by Austrian aid 1831 

Election of Pius IX., June 10, 1840, who proclaims 
an amnesty, and authoiizes a national guard 

aud municipal institutions 184T 

The Romans desire to join the King of Sardinia 
against the Austrians; the pope hesitates; the 
Alitonelli ministry retires; aud the Mamiani 

ministry is formed 1848 

Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 
government, assassinated on the staircase of 

the Chamber of Deputies at Rome Nov. 15, " 

Insurrection at Rome; the populace demand a 
democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a 
conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular 

ministry Nov. 10, " 

[Cardinal Palma,the pope's secretary, was shot iu 
this couflict.] 

A free Constitution published Nov. 20, " 

The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to Gaiita, 

Nov. 24, " 
M. de Courcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition to Civita Vecchia having pre- 
ceded him, to aflbrd protection to the pope, 

Nov. 27, " 
Protest of the pope against the acts of the provis- 
ional government Nov. 2S, 

A Constituent Assembly meets at Rome. . .Feb. 5,1849 
The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, aud adopts the republi- 
can form of government Feb. 8, 

The pope appeals to the great Roman Catholic 

powers Feb. IS, 

Civitavecchia occupied by the French force under 

Marshal Oudinot April 26, 

A French force repulsed from Rome with loss, 

April 30, " 
Engagement between the Romans and Neapoli- 
taus ; the former capture GO prisoners and 400 

muskets May 5, 

The French, under Marshal Oudiuot, commence ^^ 

an attack on Rome June 3, 

After a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate_^to ^^ 

the French armv J""? ^^' ,, 

The Roman Assembly dissolved July 4, 

An oflicer from Oudinot's camp arrives at Gaeta, 
to present the pope with the keys of the two 
gates of Rome by which the French army had ^^ 

entered the city .July 4, 

The re-establishmeut of the pope's authority pro- ^^ 

claimed at Rome Ju'y 15, 

Oudinot issues a general order stating that the pope 
(or his representative) now repossesses the ad- 
ministration of affairs, but that public security 
iu the pontifical domini<ms still remains under 
the special guarantee of the French army, Aug. 8, 



ROM 



406 



ROM 



The pope arrives at Portici on a visit to the King 
of Naples Sept. 4,1849 

He arrives at Rome ; Cardinal Autouelli becomes 
foreign minister April,lS50 

He issues the bull establishing a Roman Catholic 
hierarchj' in England (see Papal Arj/jression), 

Sept. 24, " 

Important concordat with Austria Aug., 1855 

The pope visits his dominions Juue,lS5T 

Insuirectiou in the Romagua, at Bologna, and 
Ferrara June,lS59 

They declare for adhesion to Piedmont Sept., " 

Accept Buoucompagni as governor general, Nov., " 

The pope appeals to Europe for help against Sar- 
dinia July 12, " 

The legations form a defensive alliance with Tus- 
cany', Parma, and Modeua Aug. 20, " 

The Q,ueen of Spain engages to send troops to 
Rome if the French retire Aug. 20, " 

TheAssembly atBologua vote annexation to Pied- 
mont, Sept. 7 ; the king engages to support their 
cause before the great powers, Sept. 15; the pope 
annuls the actsofthe Assembly at Bologna; and 
denounces the punishment due to those who at- 
tack the Holy See, Sept. 20 ; and dismisses the 
Sardinian charge d'aftaires at Rome Oct. 1, " 

The Romagna, IVIodena, and Parma formed into a 
province, to be called iEmilia Dec. 24, " 

The Sardinian irovernmeut annul the Tuscan con- 
cordat, Jan. 21 ; and the Lombard one, March 20,1800 

Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with great 
cruelty March 19, " 

The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 
rebellion in his states March 20, " 

General Lamoricicre takes command of the papal 
army, March ; which is reorganized, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, etc . . .May, " 

Irish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- 
dination ; many dismissed July, " 

The papal army estimated at 20,000 Aug., " 

Tuscan volunteers enter the Papal States and are 
repulsed May 19, " 

Insurrection in the Marches, Sept. 8 ; Fossembroue 
subdued by the papal troojis ; the people appeal 
to the Sardinian goverumeut, whose troops, un- 
der Cialdiui and Panti, enter the Papal States, 

Sept. 11, " 

Fanti takes Pesaro, Sept. 12 ; and Perugia, includ- 
ing General Schmidt and IGOO prisoners, Sept. 14, " 

Aucona besieged by sea and land Sept.17, " 

Severe allocution of the pope against France and 
Sardinia; he appeals to Europe for help, Sept. 28, " 

Cialdini defeats Lamoricicre at Castel-Fidardo, 
Sept. IS; and takes Aucona Sept. 20, " 

Additional French troops sent to Rome Oct., " 

TheMarches vote for annexation to Sardinia,Nov., " 

Monastic establishments suppressed in the lega- 
tions ; the monks pensioned ; educational insti- 
tutions founded Dec, " 

Subscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- 
tries ; the formal collection forbidden in France 
and Belgium ; permitted in England Nov., " 

The French emperor advises the pope to give up 
his revolted provinces Dec. 21, " 

Publication of Rome ct les Eveques, Jan. 6 ; and of 
La Franco, Rome et Vltalie, Feb. 15 ; great excite- 
ment, and strong advocacy of the pope's tem- 
poral government (attacked by Prince Napo- 
leon) in the French Chambers March, ISCl 

Petition to the Emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
French troops from Rome, signed by numbers 
of the Romans May 10, " 

The Emperor of France declines a union with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
pope's temporal power June, " 

Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japan- 
ese martyrs (see Canonization) June S, " 

The pope declares a severe allocution against the 
Italians June 0, " 

Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watch- 
word " Rome or death !" July 10,1802 

Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; its 
opening opposed by the papal government, Nov., " 

Earl Russell's ofl'er to the pope of a residence at 
Malta, Oct. 25 ; declined Nov.ll, " 

Antonelli's resignation of his office not accepted, 

March 5,1803 

Convention between France and Italy; French 
troops to quit Rome within two years, Sept. 15,1804 

Encyclical letter of the pope, censuring 80 errors 
in religion, philosophy, and politics (caused 
much dissatisfaction, and was forbidden to be 
read in churches in France and other coun- 
tries) Dec, 8, " 



Jews persecuted at Rome Dec. ,1804 

Fruitless negotiations between the pope and the 
King of Italy (by Vegezzi) ; mutual concessions 
proposed April 21 to June 2o,1805 

Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
(Freemasons, Fenians, etc.) Sept. 25, " 

Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 

Oct. 20, " 

A part of the French troops leave the papal do- 
minions Nov., " 

(See Italy, and France, 1SG2-5.) 

KINGS OF ROME. 
nEFOKK OnP.IST. 

735. Romulus, murdered by the senators. 

[Tatins, king of the Sabines, had removed to 
Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 
six years.] 

710. [Interregnum.] 

715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, 
elected; died at the age of 82. 

672. Tullus Hostilius, murde'red by his successor, by 
whom his palace was set on lire ; his family per- 
ished in the flames. 

040. Ancus Martins, grandson of Numa. 

010. Tarquinius Priscus, son of Demaratus, a Corinth- 
ian emigrant, chosen king. 

578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave, married the 
king's daughter, and succeeded by the united 
suffrages of the army and the people. 

534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius 
Priscus, assassinates his father-in-law, and 
usurps the throne. 

510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, 
and consequent insurrection, leads to the abo- 
lition of royalty and the establishment of the 
consulate.] 

REPUBLIC. 
BEFOEE CnillST. 

510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin 

to the dictatorship of Sylla. 
S2-27. Second 23eriod. From Sylla to Augustus. 

EMPERORS OF ROME. 
liEFORE CnRIST. 

48. Cains Julius Cicsar, perpetual dictator; assassin- 
ated March 15, 44 B.C. 

31. Octavianus Cresar; iif the j'ear 27 B.C. Augustus 
Impeeatob {Livy). 

AFTER CUEIST. 

14. Tiberins (Claudius Nero). 

ST. Cains Caligula, murdered by a tribune. 

41. Claudius I. (Tiber. Drusus), poisoned by his wife 

Agrippina, to make way for 
54. Claudius Nero ; depiii?cd"; kills himself, OS. 

08. Servius Sulpicius Galba, slain bv the praHoriaus. 

09. M. Salvius Otho, stabbed himself. 

" Aulus Vitellius, deposed by Vespasian, and put to 

death. 
" Titus Flavins Vespasian. 
79. Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
SI. Titus Flavins Domitian, brother of Titus ; last of 

the twelve Csesars ; assassinated. 
90. Cocceius Nerva. 
98. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 
117. Adrian or Hadrian (Pnblius ^Elius). 
138. Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 
101. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, 

his son-in-law ; the latter died in 109. 
180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Mar- 
cus Aurelius, poisoned by his favorite mistress, 
Martia. 
193. Publius-Helvius-Pertiuax, put to death by the 
prretoiian band. 
[Four emperors now start up : Didianus Juliauus, 
at Ron:o ; Pescennius Niger, in Syria : Lucius 
Septimius Severus, in Pannonia; and Clodius 
Albinus, in Britain.] 
" Lucius Septimius Severus, died at York, in Brit- 
ain, in 211 ; sttcceeded by his sons, 
211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 
murdered the same year by his brother, who 
reigned alone till 217, when he was slain by his 
successor, 

217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; be- 

headed in a mutiny. 

218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth, 

])ut to death fen- enormities. 
222. Alexander Severus, assassinated by some soldiers 

corrujjted by Maximinus. 
2.>'). Cains Julius Verus Maximinus, assassinated in 

his tent before the walls of Aquileia. 
237. M. Antouius Gordiauus and his sou ; the latter 



EOX 



407 



EOT 



having been killed in a battle with the partisans 
ofMaximinun, the father strangled himself iu a 
tit of despair, at Carlluigo, in liis SOtli year. 

23S. Ball)inus and Piipienus, put to death. 
" Giirdian, junior, grandson of the elder Gordian, 
in his Kith year ; assassinated by the guards at 
tlie instigation of his successor, 

2-1-1. riiilip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own sol- 
diers ; his son Philip was murdered at the same 
time, in his mother's arm.s. 

249. Melius Decius; he perished with his two sous, and 
tlicir army, in au engagement with the Goths. 

251. Galhis Ilostilius, and his sou Volusiauus ; both 

slaiu by the soldiery. 
253. .iEmiliauus ; put to death after a reigu of only 

f nir mouths. 
253. Valerianus and his son Gallienus ; the first was 

taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 

Hayed alive. 
200. Gallienus reigned alone. 

[Al)uut this lime tliirty pretenders to imperial 

power start up in different [larts of the empire ; 

of these, Cyriades is tlie lirst, but he is slain.] 
2CS. Claudius 11. (Gallienus having been assassinated 

by the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of 

the plague. 
270. Qniutillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the 

senate and troops ; Aurelian by the army in 

lllyricum. (iuintillus, despairing of success 

against his rival, who was marching against 

him, opened his veins and bled himself to death. 
270. Aurelian, assassinated by his soldiers ou his 

march against Persia, in Jan., 275. 

275. [Interregnum of about nine months.] 

" Tacitus, elected Oct. 25 ; died at Tarsus, iu Cilicia, 
April 13,276. 

276. Florian, his brother ; his title not recognized by 

the senate. 
270. M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops 
at Sirmium. 

252. M. Aurelius Cams ; killed at Ctesiphon by light- 

ning; succeeded by his sous 

253. Carinus andNumeriauus; both assassinated, aft- 

er transient reigns. 

254. Diocletian, who associated as his colleague in the 

government 
286. lyiaximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign 
in favor of 

305. Constantius Chlorns and Galcrius Maximianus; 

tlic lii-st died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the 
troops saluted as emperor his son 

306. Constantine, af;erward styled the Great, while at 

Rome the prretorian band proclaimed 
" Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides 

these were, 
" Maximianus Hercules, who endeavored to recover 

his abdicated power; 
" Flavins Valerius Severns, murdered by the last- 
named pretender; and 

307. Flavins Valerianus Licinius, the brother-in-law of 

Cnnstantine. 
[Of tliese, Maximianus Hercules was strangled in 
Gaul in 310; Galerius Maximianus died wretch- 
edly in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned iu the Ti- 
ber in 312 ; and Licinius was put to death by 
order of Constantine in 324.] 
323. Constantine the Great now reigned alone; died 
ou Whitsunday, May 22, 337. 

fsons of Coinstantiue, divided 
croiistintinp IT the empire between them ; 
337 iconstan« \ ^^'^ A'"^' ""''» sl^'u in 340, and 

tcCns autius II. 1 "^f '^econd mttrdered iu 350, 
V i/uoia uo when the third became sole 

L emperor. 
301. Julian the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris- 
tianity, having been educated for the priest- 
hood ; mortally wounded iu a battle with the 
Persians, 363. 

363. Jovian; reigned S months ; found dead in his bed, 

supposed to have died from the fumes of char- 
coal. 

364. Valeutiniau and Valens. 

375. Valen.s with Gratiau and Valeutiniau II. 
370. Theodosius I., etc. 
3'J"J. Theodosius alone. 

The Roman Empire divided. See Eastern Em- 
pire, Western Empire, and Popes. 

RONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, it is 
said, Charlemagne's paladin, Roland, or Orlando, was 
surprised, defeated, and slain, 778. On July 25, 181.3, 
iSIarshal Soult was defeated by the British entering 
France. 

ROOF. The largest iu the world is said to be that 



over a riding-school at Moscow, erected in 1791, being 
235 feet iu span. The jjroposed width of the roof of 
the London station of the Midland Railway is 240 feet 
(1S60). 

ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was patented 
by Richard March in 17S4, and by Edmd. Cartwright 
in 1792. Many improvements have been made since. 

ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was daughter 
of Lord Clifibrd, and mistress of Henry II. about 1154. 
A conspiracy was formed by the queen. Prince Henry, 
and his other sons, against the king, on account of his 
attachment to her. Henry kei)t her in a labvrinih at 
Woodstock, where his queen, Eleanor, it is said, dis- 
covered her apartments by the clew of a silk thread, 
and poisoned her. She was buried at Godstow church, 
from whence Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes 
removed, 1191. 

ROSARY. See Beads. 

ROSAS (N.B. Spain), Bay of, where a brilliant naval 
action was fought by the boats of the Cuviberland, 
Voluntmre, Ajxillo, Tiqnise, I'liilmncl, Scunt, and ruscan, 
commanded by Lieut. Tailour, which ended in the cap- 
ture or destruction of eleven armed vessels in the bay, 
Nov. 1, 1809. 

ROSBACH (Rosebec), in Flander.s. Here Charles 
VI. of France beat the Fleinin'j;s, who had revolted 
against their count, 1382. At Rosbach, iu Prussia, a 
great battle was fought between the Prussians, com- 
manded by Frederick the Great, and the combined 
army of French and Ausirians, in which the latter sus- 
tained a complete defeat and severe loss, Nov. 5, 1757. 

ROSE.* See under i^toit'ers. 

ROSES, Wars or the, between the Lancastrians 
(who chose the red rose' as their emblem) and the 
Yorkists (who chose the white rose), began 1455 and 
ended 14S5.t It is stated that in the Wars^of the Roses 
there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, and 
100,000 gentry and common people. The union of the 
roses was effected in the marriage of Henry VII. with 
the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1480. 

ROSETTA (in Eafypt), taken by the French in 1798 ;t 
aud by the British and Turks, April 19, 1801. The 
Turks repulsed the British here, May 21, 1807. Near 
Rosetta, at the mouth of the Nile, was fought the 
memorable battle of Aug. 1, 1798, between the fleets of 
France and England, the latter commanded by Nel- 
son. See Nile. All Pacha rendered great service to 
his country by constructing a canal between Rosetta 
aud Alexandria. 

ROSICRUCIANS, a sect of mystical philosophers, 
who tirst appeared in Germany in the 14th century, 
and again early iu the 17th century. They derived 
their uame from the Confessce Rosece Crucis of Valen- 
tine Andreas, 1615. They swore fidelit}', promised se- 
crecy, and wrote hieroglyphicall}', and aihrmed that 
the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldajaus, 
Magi of Persia, and Gyinnosophists of the Indies, 
taught the same doctrine. 

ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or An- 
selm, was born at No. 148 Judcngasse (Jew Lane), 
Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a 
money-lender and dealer iu old coins, in the same 



* The rose, a symbol of silence, pave rise to tlie phrase sub rasa, ** un- 
der the rose ;" said, by Italian writers, to have risen from the circum- 
stance of the pope's presenting consecrated roses, which were placed 
over the confessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. 

t Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward III. in 1377, 
was deposed aud succeeded in 1399 by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John 
of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III.), in prejudice 
to the right of Roger Mortimer (grandson of Lionel, duke of Cliirence, 
Edward's third son), who was declared presumptive heir to the throne 
in 13S5. Roger's grandson, Richard, duke of York, first openly claimed 
the crown in 1449. Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began 
in 1455. The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Alban's, May 23, 1455. 
The Protector Somerset was slain ; a truce was made, and Richard be- 
came his successor. The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated 
the Lancastrians at Bloreheath, Sept. 23, 1459, but eventually dispersed, 
and the duke was attainted. In 1460 he defeated his opponents at 
Northampton, took Henrv prisoner, and was declared heir to the crown, 
but fell into an ambuscade near Wakefield, and was put to death, Dec. 
31, 1460. His son (Edward) continued the struggle. He was installed 
as king, March 4, 1461 ; defeated the Lancastrians at Towton, March 
29 ; was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI., Sejit., 1470; 
defeated the Lancastrians at Barnct, April 14, 1471 ; and finally at 
Tewkesbury, May 4. The struggle ended with the defeat and death of 
Richard III. at Bosworth, Aug. 22, I4S5. 

X The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was brought 
from Rosetta in a French vessel, froni whence it was taken by Mr.Wra. 
R. Hamilton, who deposited it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. 
Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek inscription. 
It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long and 2>^ feet wide, with an 
inscription in three languages, viz., hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyph- 
ics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiph- 
anes (about 194 B.C.). It has been investigated by Dr. T. Young and 
Champollion. 



ROT 



408 



EUS 



honse, over wliich he placed the sign of the Red 
Shield (iu Gerniau, Roth Schild). Having had deal- 
ings with the Landgrave of Hesse, that prince intrust- 
ed him with his trelisure (said to have heeu £250,000) 
in ISOO, when the French held his country. With this 
sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large for- 
tune, and restored the £250,000 to the landgrave in 
1815. At his death his sons continued the business as 
partners. His sou Nathan began at Manchester in 
179S, removed to London in 1803, and died immensely 
rich, July 2S, 1S36. 

ROTTERDAM, the second city in Holland. Its im- 
portance dates from the 13th century. The commerce 
of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. It snflered 
much from the French revolutionary wars, and from 
inundations in 1775 and 1S25. Desiderius Erasmus 
was born here in 1467. The museum and picture-gal- 
lery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of the 
Scliieland palace, Feb. 10, 1804. 

ROUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, became 
the capital of Normandy iu the 10th century. It was 
held by the English king till 1204, and was retaken by 
Henry V., Jan.'lO, 1410. "Joan of Arc, the Maid of Or- 
leans, was burnt here. May 30, 1431. It was subdued 
by the King of France iu 1449, and was besieged 1662 
and 1591. 

ROUMANIA, the name assumed by the Dauubian 
principalities on Dec. 23, 1S61, when their union was 
proclaimed at Bucharest and Jas.sy. 

ROL^NDHEADS. In the civil war which began in 
1641, the adherents of Charles I. were called Cavaliers, 
and the friends of the Parliament were Roundheads. 
The term, it is said, arose from those persons who 
distinguished themselves by having a round bowl or 
wooden dish put upon their heads, and their hair cut 
by the edges or brim of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 

ROUNDWAY DOWN, near Devizes, Wiltshire. 
Here the Royalists defeated the Parliamentarians 
with great slaughter, July 13, 1643. 

ROXBURGHE CLUB was iustituted in 1812 by Earl 
Spencer and a number of gentlemen for the republi- 
cation of rare books or hitherto unpublished MSS. 

ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists met iu 
St. Peter's Court, St. Martin's Lane, about 1739, which 
Hogarth established as the Society of Incorporated 
Artists, who held their first exhibition at the Society 
of Arts, Adelphi, April 21, 17G0. From this sprang the 
Royal Academy, in consequence of a dispute between 
the directors and the fellows. On Dec. 10, 1768, the 
institution of the present Royal Academy was com- 
pleted under the patronage of George III. ; and Sir 
Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was ap- 
pointed its first president. — Leigh. The first exhibi- 
tion of the Academicians (at Pall-Mall) was in 1769. 
In 1771 the king granted them apartments in old Som- 
erset House, and afterward, in 1780, in new Somerset 
House, where they remained till 1838, when they re- 
moved to the National Gallery. Among its professors 
have been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith,"Macaulay, and 
Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the acad- 
emy for the award of a medal triennially for landscape 
painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. O. Lupton in 
1857. A commission of inquiry into the affairs of the 
academy, appointed iu 1862, recommended various 
changes in July, 1863. 

PRESIDENTS. 

1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
1792. Benjamin West. 
1820. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 

1850. Sir Charles Eastlake, died Dec. 23, 1865. 
1866. Sir Edwin Landseer elected president, declines 
Jan. 24 ; Francis Grant elected Feb. 1. 

ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), London. 
The foundation of the original edifice was laid by Sir 
Thomas Gresham, Juue 7, 1.566, on the site of the an- 
cient Tun Prison. Queen Elizabeth opened it in Jan. 
23, 1571, and her herald named it the lloiial Exchange. 
— Hume. It was totally destroyed by the great fire, 
Sept., 16G0. Charles II. laid the foundation-stone of 
the next edifice, Oct. 23, 1067, which was completed by 
Mr. Hawkesmoi-e, a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren's, 
in about three years ; it was repaired and beautified in 

1769. This also was burnt, Jan. 10, 1S.3S, with a num- 
ber of public oftices, etc. The new Royal Exchange, 
commenced in 1842 under the direction of Mr. Tite, 
was opened by the queen Oct. 28, 1844 The Royai, Ex- 
change, Dublin, was commenced in 1769, and opened 
in 1779. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION of Gkeat Britain, the 



earliest of the kind in London, was founded March, 
1799, by Count Rumford and Sir Joseph Banks, assist- 
ed by Earls Spencer and Morton, and other noblemen 
and gentlemen. It received the immediate patronage 
of George III., and was incorporated Jan. 13, ISOO, by 
royal charter, as "The Royal Institution of Great Brit- 
ain, for the diftusiug knowledge, and facilitating ihe 
general introduction of useful mechanical inventions 
and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of 
philosophical lectures and experiments, the applica- 
tion of science to the common purposes of life." It 
was enlarged and extended by an act of Parliament in 
1810, the ol'igiual plan, as drawn up by Count Rumford 
in 1799, having been considerably modified.* 

ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 several learn- 
ed men met in London to discuss philosophical ques- 
tions and report experiments, the Novum Organon of 
Bacon, published in 1620, having given great impulse 
to such pursuits. Some of them (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, 
etc.), about 1648-9, removed to Oxford, and with Dr. 
(afterward Bishop) Seth Ward, the Hon. Robert Boyle, 
Dr. (afterward Sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of di- 
vinity and phvsic, frequently assembled in the apart- 
ments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford. 
They formed what has been called the Philosophical 
Society of Oxfin-d, which only lasted till 1690. The 
inembei-s were, about 1658, called to various parts of 
the kingdom on account of their respective profes- 
sions; and the majority, coming to London, constant- 
ly attended the lectures at Gresham College, and met 
occasionally till the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1659. 
See Societies. 

RUBICON, a small river flo%ving into the Adriatic 
Sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy proper. Ro- 
man generals were forl)idden to pass this river at the 
head of an army. Julius Cpesar did so, 49 B.C., and 
thereby began a revolt and deadly civil war. 

RUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by Bun- 
sen by means of the spectrum analj'sis, and made 
known in 1861. 

RUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was founded in 
1.567 by Lawrence, sheriff", a London tradesman. Dr. 
Thomas Arnold, the historian, entered on the duties 
of head-master here in August, 1828, and uuder him 
the school greatly prospered. He died June 12, 1842. 

RUHMKORFF'S INDUCTION COIL. See Induc- 
tion. 

RULING MACHINES, used for ruling paper with 
faint lines for merchants' account-books, etc. They 
were invented by an ingenious Dutchman, resident in 
Loudon, in 1782, and were subsequently greatly im- 
proved by Woodmason, Payne, Brown, and others. 
They were improved in Scotland in 1803. An inven- 
tion' has lately rendered account-books perfect by the 
numbering of the pages with types, instead of the 
numbers being written by a pen, so that a pasre can 
not be torn out from them without being discovered. 

RUM (Fi-ench rhum), ardent spirit distilled from 
sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar flavor 
from a volatile oil. Rum is principally made in the 
West Indies. The duty (since 1858) on colonial rum 
imported into the United Kingdom is Ss. 2d. per gal- 
lon, on foreign rum (since 1846) is 15.s. per gallon. The 
duty on rum to be employed as methylated spirits was 
reduced in 1863. 

Imported 



Imported Gnlloiis 

1848 6,858,981 

18.51 4,74.5,244 

1853 5,206,248 



Gallons 

1855 8,714,.337 

1857 6,515,683 

1863 7,194,739 



RUMP PARLIAMENT. See Pride's Purge. 

RUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, Sur- 
rey. Here King John signed Magna Charta, June 15, 
1215. 

RUSSELL ADMINISTRATIONS. t See Palmerston 
A dministration, etc. 
FIRST ADMINISTRATION (formed ou the resignation of 

Sir Robert Peel), July, 1846. 
First Lord of the Treasnry, Lord John Russell. 



* The members are elected by ballot, and pay five guineas on admis- 
sion, and five guineas annually", or a composition of sixty guineas. 

t Lord John Russell, 3d son of John, duke of Bedford, was born Aug. 
19, 1792 ; M.P. for Tavistock, 1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymas- 
ter of the forces, 1830-34 ; secretary for home department, 1835-9 ; for 
the colonies, 1839^1 ; first minister, July, 1846, to March, 1862: sec- 
retary for foreign afTairs, Dec, 18S2, to Feb., 1853; president of the 
council, June, 1854, to Feb., 1865 ; secretary for the colonies, March to 
Nov., 1855 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Ju"ne, 1859, to Oct. , 1865, when 
he succeeded Lord Palmerston as premier ; created a peer as Earl Rus- 
sell, July .30, 1R61. His motion for reform in Parliament was negatived 
in 18'22; adopted March 1, 1831 : he introduced the Registration Bill 
and a new Marriage Bill, in 1836. ' 



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409 



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Lord Chancellor, Lord Cotteuham (succeeded by Lord 
Trin-o). 

Lord J'ri'Kidciit of tin' C<iimcil,'Ma.Yqi\ess of Lausdowue. 

Pririi ,SV',(/, K:irl of M into. 

Cliai'iccllor of the Exchequer, Mr. (now Sir Charles) 
Wood. 

Foreign, Home, mul Colonial Secretaries, Viscouut Pal- 
merston, Sir George Grey, and Earl Grey. 

Boarda of Control and Trade, Sir John llt)bhouse (now 
Lord Broughton) and Earl of Clarendon (succeeded 
by Mr. Laboucliere). 

Admirulti/, the Earl of Auckland (succeeded by Sir 
Francis Tliornhill Bariag). 

Durhit of Lancaster, Lord Campbell (succeeded by the 
Earl of Carlisle (late Viscouut Morpeth). 

Secretarii at II'«c, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, Marijucss of Clauricarde. 

T. 13. iMacaulay, etc. 

Lord John Husscll and his colleagues resigned their 
oflices, Feb. 21, ISSl, but were induced (after the fail- 
ure of Lord Stanley's party to form an administra- 
tion) to return to power March 3 following : 

BEcoNn AD.MiNisTRATioN (or contiuuatiou of his first), 
March, 1S51. 

First Lord of the Treasury, Lord John Eusscll. 

President of the Council, Marquess of Lausdowue. 

Lord Prinj Seal, Earl of Miuto. 

Chancellor of tlie Exchequer, Sir Charles Wood. 

Home, Fin-eiijn, and Colonial Secretaries, Sir George 
Grey, Viscount Palmcrston (succeeded by Earl Gran- 
ville, Dec. 2'J), and Earl Grey. 

Lord Chaiu^elliir, Lord Truro. 

First Lord of the Adrniraltij, Sir Francis T. Bariug. 

Board of Control, Lord Broughton. 

Board of Trade, Jlr. Labouchere. 

Secretary at iVar, Mr. Fox Maule (afterward Lord Pan- 
mure, and now Earl of Dalhousie). 

Postmaster General, Marquess of Clauricarde. 

Paymaster General, Earl Granville. 

Lord Seymour, Earl of Carlisle, etc. 

This ministry resigned Feb. 21, 1S52. See Berly Ad- 
ministration. 

TuiRi) APMiNisTKATioN. (Ou the deccase of Lord Pal- 
merston, Oct. 18, 1SG5, Earl Russell received her 
majesty's commands to reconstruct the administra- 
tion.) 

First Lord of the Treasury, John, earl Rtissell. 

LonI CJiaiirclliir, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Posfuiaster General, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President if the Poor-law Board, Chas. Pelham Villiers. 

iMrd President if the Council, George, earl Granville. 

Lord I'riey Seal, George, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of the Fxchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 

Secretaries — Foreiijn Affairs, George, earl of Claren- 
don ; Colonies, Edward Cardwell ; Home, Sir George 
Grey ; War, George, earl De Grey and Ripou ; India, 
Sir Charles Wood. 

First Lord of the Admiralty/, Edward, duke of Somerset. 

President of the Board of Trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

Chanecllor of the Diichii of Lancaster, Geo. J. Goschen. 

Seeretanj for Lrlaud, Chichester Fortescue. 

Resignation of Sir Charles Wood ; Earl de Grey be- 
comes Secretary for India, and Lord Hartington 
Secretary of War, Feb., ISGO. 

RUSSELL IMSTITUTION (Great Coram Street, 
London) was founded in ISOS by Sir Samuel Romilly, 
Francis Horner, Dr Mason Good, Henry Hallam, Lord 
Abinger, and others. The building comprises a libra- 
ry, lecture-room, news-room, etc. 

RUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Russell's trial for 
complicity in the Rye-house Plot was marked by a 
most touching scene. When he supplicated to have 
some one near him to take notes to help his memory, 
he was answered that any of bis attendants might as- 
sist Iiiin; upon wliich he said, "My wife is hei^e, and 
will do it for me." He was beheaded in Lincoln's Inn 
Fields, .Inly '.'1, 10S,3, having slept soundly the night 
before his execution. Lady Russell survfved him 40 
years, dying Sejjt. i'^, 1T2.3, in her eighty-seventh year. 
Tl;e altain<ler of this nobleman was reversed,! Will. 
III., IG^it, his execution having been deemed a mtrder. 

RUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. The 
name is generally derived from the Roxolani, a Sla- 
vonic tril)c. Ruric, a Varangian chief, ajjpears to 
have been the first to establish a government, sC'i. 
His descendants ruled amid many vicissitudes till l.V.ts. 
The progress of the Russian power under Peter the 
Great and Catharine II. is unequaled for rapidity in 
the history of the world. The established religion of 
Russia is" the Greek Church, with a free toleration, 
however, of other sects, cveu the Mohammedans. By 



an imperial ukase in 1802, six universities were estab- 
lished, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Wilna, Borpat 
(in Livonia), Charcov, and Kasan ; but literature has 
made little jjrogress, the native publications being 
very few, and the best books being all translations. 
The Russian language, though not devoid of elegance, 
is, to a foreigner, of very ditlicult pronunciation : the 
number of letters and diphthongs is forty-two. The 
estimated population of the empire iu 1SG5 was 
80,255,430. By the first Russian budget (1SG2), tlie 
estimated revenue was £34,500,000 : expenditure, 
£37,850,000. 

Russia invaded by the Iluns A.D. 376 

Ruric the Norman, or Varangian, arrives at Nov- 
gorod (or New City), and becomes grand duke 

[anniversary kept Sept. 20, 1S62] SG3 

Oleg successfully invades the Greek Empire 904 

Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the Em- 
peror Basil II., and is baptized 983 

The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part 

of Russia about 1223 

The Grand-duke Jurie killed in battle 123T 

The Tartars establish the Empire of the Khan of 
Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in Rus- 
sia 1242 

Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes, 

etc '1244 

He is made Grand-duke of Russia by the Tartars. .1252 

Tartar War, 1380 ; Moscow burnt 1388 

Tamerlane, after ravaging Tartary, invades Rus- 
sia ; but retires 1395 

Accession of Ivan III. the Great — able and des- 
potic 14G2 

The foundation of the present monarchy laid " 

Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into Russia, 1475 
Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 

Ivan 1479 

His general Svenigorod attacks them and annihi- 
lates their power 1481 

Ivan takes the title of czar 1482 

Accession of Ivan IV., a cruel tyrant 1533 

The English " Russian Company" established 1553 

Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade 1554 

Discovery of Siberia " 

The royal body-guard (the Strelitz) established.. .15G3 
Ivan solicits the hand of Queen Elizabeth of En- 
gland 1579 

The race of Ruric, who had governed Russia for 

700 years, becomes extinct 1598 

The imposition of Demetrius {see Imjjostors) 1600 

Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanofi", as- 
cends the throne 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden 1617 

Russian victories in Poland 16.''4 

First Russian vessel built 1CG7 

Subjugation of the Cossacks 1071 

Reign of Ivan and Peter I., or the Great 1682 

Peter sole sovereign 1GS9 

He visits Holland and England, and works in the 

dock-yard at Deptford 1C9T 

Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he 
cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; he 

beheads many with his own hand 1097 

The Russians begin their new year from Jan. 1 

(but retain the old style) 1700 

War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by 

Charles XII. at Narva Nov. 30, " 

Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital 1703 

The Strelitz abolished 1704 

Charles XIL totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, 

and flees to Turkey July S, 1709 

14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to colonize Siberia, " 
War with Turkey ; Peter and his army cross the 
Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; they 
escape by the energy of the Empress Catharine, 

who obtains a truce Juue,1711 

Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 

added to the empire ^TIS 

Peter visits German v, Holland, and France 1715 

The Jesuits expelled 1T18 

Conspiracy and mvsterious death of the Prince 

Alexis " July, " 

Peter II. (last of the Romauofls) deposed, and the _ 

crown given to Anne of Courland 1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in preju- 
dice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned 

for life IT-il 

Peter III. detliroi;od and murdered, succeeded by 

Catharine his wife 1702 

Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, put 

to death ^"64 

Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774; suppressed 1775 

Dismemberment of Poland : commenced by Cath- 
arine (see Poland ), 1772 ; completed 1795 



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410 



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Successful invasious of the Crimea 17C9-S4 

Catharine gives her subjects a new code of laws; 
abolishes torture iu punishing criminals; and 

dies 179C 

Unsuccessful war with Persia " 

Russian treaty with Austria and England 1T9S 

Suwarrow, with an army, j(jius the Austriaus, and 

checks the French in Italy 1709 

Mental derangement of Paiil IsdO 

He is murdered . . . . : March 23,1801 

Accession of Alexander I. (who makes peace with 

England) " 

He joins the coalition against France April, 1S05 

Allies defeated at Austerlitz Dec. 2, " 

Treaty of Tilsit with France July 8,1807 

Russians defeated by the Turks near Silistria, 

Sept. 26,1809 

War with France Juue,lS12 

The Russians defeated at Smoleusko, Aug. 17 ; and 

at the Borodino Sept. 7, " 

Moscow burnt by the Russians ; retreat of the 

French Sept., " 

Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct., 

1813 ; entered Paris March,lS14 

He visits England June, " 

Alexander forms the Holy Alliance 1815 

The Grand-duke Constautiue renounces the right 

of succession Jan. 20,18-22 

Emperor Nicholas crowned at Moscow Sept. 3, 1820 

Russian war against Persia Sept. 28, " 

Nicholas visits England ; invested with the Order 

of the Garter July 9,1827 

Peace between Russia and Persia Feb. 22,1828 

War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte de- 
clared (see Turkeij and Battles) April 26, " 

The war for the independence of Poland against 

Russia (see I'uland) Nov. 20,1830 

Failure of the expedition agaiust Khiva Jan. ,1840 

Treaty of Loudon (see Siiria) July 15, " 

The Emperor Nicholas arrives iu London, June 1,1844 
The Grand-duke Constautiue arrives at Ports- 
mouth in the Iivjcrmanland of 74 guns. .June 9,1846 
[For the participation of Rus.sia iu the Hungarian 

War of 1848-9, see llunganj.-] 
Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian 
and Polish refugees from Turkey (see Ttirkeij), 

Nov. 5,1849 

They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor Jan., 1850 

Ccmspiracy against the life and policy of the em- 
peror detected Jan. 6, " 

Harbor of Sebastopol completed Feb., " 

The emperor decrees seven men in each thousand 
of the population of Western Russia to be en- 
rolled in the armj', giving a total increase of 

180,000 soldiers Ang.,1850 

The czar visits Vienna May 8,1852 

Concentrates his forces ou the frontiers of Tur- 
key Feb.,lS53 

Origin of the Russo-Turkish War {lohich see, and 

liolij Places) March, " 

Conference between the Emperors of Russia and 

Austria at Olmutz Sept. 24, " 

And King of Prussia at Warsaw Oct. 2, " 

Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other Quakers with 

the czar, to obtain peace Feb., 1854 

Ten northern provinces put in a state of siege, 

^March 5, " 
The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he 
will combat only for the faith and Christianty, 

April 23, " 
Death of the Czar Nicholas, and accession of Al- 
exander IL ; no change of policy March 2,1855 

Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at Nico- 

laieft') Nov. 3, " 

He visits his army at Sebastopol Nov. 10, " 

Death of Prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74, Feb. 1,1850 
Amuesty granted to the Poles, May 27 ; political 

offenders, etc Sept. 7, " 

Alexander II. crowned at Moscow Sept. 2, " 

Manifesto on account of the English and French 

interference in the affairs of Naples Sept. 2, " 

St. Petersburg and Warsaw Railway begun by gov- 
ernment, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian Railway 
Company (about 335 miles, the half completed), " 
Grand-duke Coustantine visits France and En- 
gland April,1857 

The czar meets the Emperor Napoleon at Stut- 
gardt, Sept. 25 ; and the Emperor of Austria at 

Weimar Oct. 1, " 

Partial emancipation of the serfs on the imperial 

domains July 2,1858 

A Russian naval station established at Villa Fran- 
ca, on the Mediterranean, creates some political 
excitement Aug., " 



New commercial treaty with Great Britain, Jan. 12,1859 

Russia reproves the warlike movements of the 
German Confederation during the Italian War, 

May 27, " 

The czar protests against the recognition of the 
sovereignty of peoples Feb. 13,1860 

Fruitless'meetiug of the Emperors of Russia and 
Austria and the Regent of Prussia at Warsaw, 

Oct. 20-2.5, " 

Treaty with China for enlargement of commerce, 

Jan. 1,1861 

Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
(23,000,000) throughout the empire iu two years, 

March 3, " 

Demonstrations and repression in Poland {which 
see) Feb.-April, " 

Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- 
postor asserting himself to be a descendant of 
Peter III. ; many peasants shot and Hogged, 

INIay and June, " 

Inundations at Kiev, Moscow; CIS houses under 
water jSIav, " 

Death of Prince Michael Gortschakoft", governor 
of Poland ".May 30, " 

Student riots at the University of St. Petersb"urg, 
which is closed, Oct. C-9 ; reopened Oct. 24, " 

The nobles sign a petition for a political Consti- 
tution Nov., " 

Increased privileges granted to the Jews. .Jan. 26,1802 

Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the empire, 

March 23 or 24, " 

Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg, Mos- 
cow ; the government suppresses various educa- 
tional institutions June, " 

Russia recognizes the kingdom of Italy. . .July 10, " 

Anniversary of the foundation of the establish- 
ment of the Russian monarchy at Novgorod cel- 
ebrated Sept. 20, " 

Reorganization of the departments of justice de- 
creed ; juries to be employed in trials, etc., 

Oct. 14, " 

Trade tax-bill introduced; admitting foreigners 
to merchants' guilds, etc Nov. 26, " 

Insurrection in Poland Jan. 22-24, 1863 

[For events, see Poland.] 

Termination of serfdom March 3, " 

Provincial institutions established throughout 
Russia Jan. 13,1804 

Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Caucasus, 
March 31 : emigration of the Caucasian tribes 
into Turkey, April; submission ofthe Aibgas; 
the war declared to be at an end June 2, " 

The czarowitch betrothed to the Princess Dagmar 
of Denmark Sept. 28, " 

Serfdom abolished in the trans-Caucasian prov- 
inces; new judicial system promulgated.. Dec, " 

The Russian nobles request the emperor to estab- 
lish two houses of representatives [declined], 

Jan. 24,1865 

New province, " Turkestan," in Central Asia, cre- 
ated Feb. 14, " 

The Czarowitch Nicholas dies at Nice. . .April 24, " 

Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes. . .July 16, " 

Censorship ofthe press relaxed; law begins, 

Sept. 13, " 

DL'KES, CZARS, AND EMPERORS. 
UCKES OF KIEV. 

802. Ruric. 

878. I^or. 

935 fOlega, regent. 

■ (Swaitoshiw or Speudoblos. 

972. Jaropalk I. 

9S0. Vladimir, Wladimir, or Waldimir I., styled the 

Great. 
1015. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
1054. Isjialaw I. 
10 1 8. Wsewolod I. 
1093. Swiatopalk. 
1114. Vladimir II. 
1125. Mtislaw or Michael I. 
1132. Jaropalk II. 

1138. fWiatschelaw, 

1139. \Wsewolod IL 
114G. jlsjialaw II. 
11.54. (Rostislaw. 

1155. Jurie or George I. : the city of Moscow was built 
by this duke. 

GKANP-BUKKB OF WLADIMIK. 

..H-r /Andrew I. until 1175; first grand-duke. 

^^^'- tMichael IL 

1177. Wsewolod IIL 

1 ,11 o j Jurie or George IT. 

^-'^•^- (Coustantine, until 1218. 



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411 



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123S. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 

1-245. Alexaiider-Nevski or Ncwski, the Saiut. 

1-2G8. Jaraslaw III. 

127(1. Varali or Basil I. 

12TT. 'Dmitri or Demetrius T. 

12S4. "Andrew II. 

1294. 'Daniel-Alexaiidrovitz. 

i:iU2. Murie or George III. ; deposed. 

1305. "Michael III. 

1320. "Vasali or Basil II. 

1325. *Jurie or Georye 111. ; restored. 

[Those marked thus* are doubtful, owing to the 

dlUiculty that occurs at every step in early Kus- 

sian anuals.] 

GEANB-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 

1328. Ivan or John I. 

1.340. Simon, surnanied the Proud. 

1353. Ivan or John II. 

1359. Demetrius II., prince of Susdal. 

1362. Dcvietrius III., Douskoi. 

13S9. *Vasali or Basil III., Temuoi. 

1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 

CZAItS OF MUSOOVV. 

1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of 

czar 14S2. 
1505. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor 

from Maximilian I. 
1533. Ivan IV. 

1554. Feudor or Theodor I. : supposed to have been 

poisoned, and his son, Demetrius, murdered 
by his successor, 

159S. Boris-Godouof, who usurped the throne. 

1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a youut; Polish monk ; 
pretended to be the murdered prince Deme- 
trius ; put to death. 
" Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 

IGIO. [Interrcijnum.] 

1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 
descended from the Czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 

1645. Alexis, sou of the preceding, styled the father of 
his country. 

16T6. Feodor or Theodor II. 

ipco ilvau IV. and 

(Peter I., brothers of the preceding. 

EMPERORS. 

16S9. Peter I., the Great, alone ; born 1672 ; took the 
title of emperor in 1713; founded St. Peters- 
burg 1703, and elevated tlie em;, ire. 

1725. Catharine I., his consort; at first the wife of a 
Swedish dragoon, who is said to have been 
killed on theday of marriage. 

1727. Peter II., son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson 
of Peter the Great ; deposed. 

1730. Anne, duchess of Courlaud, daughter of the Czar 
Ivan. 

1740. Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 

Great; immured in a dungeon for 18 years; 
murdered in 1764. 

1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 

during Ivan's captivity. 

1762. Peter III., son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, 
duke of IIolsteiu-Gottorp ; deposed, and died 
soon after, supposed to have been murdered. 
" Catharine II., his consort: a great sovereign; 
extended the Kussiau territories on all sides; 
died in 17'J6. 

1796. Paul, her sou ; found dead in his chamber; sup- 
posed to have been murdered. 

ISOl. Alexander, his son ; who, after many adverse 
battles, and a forced alliance with France, at 
length aided iu the overthrow of Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

1S25. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; succeeded Dec. 
1, 1S25. 

1555. Alexander II., son of Nicholas, born April 29, 

ISIS; succeeded at his father's death, March 
2, 1S55; married April 28, 1S41, Mary, princess 
of Hesse ; the present Emjjeror of i^ussia. 
ineir: his son Alexander, born March 10, 184S.] 

EUSSO- TURKISH WAR.* The Russian and 



* In 1844,1 
of WfllinKton . 



the cz«r wa3 in Eneland, he conversed with the Dulse 
d Lord Aberdeeri (\vhoni_he had known many years) 



especting the dissolution of the Turkish Empire, and on his return he 
inilMidied his views in a memorandum drawn up liy Count Nesselrode, 



I transmitted to London, but kept secret till March, 1854. 
January and February of that year the czar had several conversations 
on the subject with the British envoy at St. Petersbur;,', Sir G. H. Sey- 
mour, in one of which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a man in a state 
of decrepitude and sickness, on the pomt of death, and made proposals 
to the British government as to the disposal of his property. He stated 
frankly that he would not permit the British to establish themselves at 
Constantinople, but said iu another conversation he would not object 
to their possessing Egypt. The purport of these conversations was 
John 



conveyed iu dispatches to Lord . 



Russell, who replied that the 



French governments having each taken a side in the 
dispute between the Greek and Latin churches as to 
the exclusive possession of the IMn Jiacc.s (irhich nee) 
in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation of a 
mixed commission, which decided in favor of the 
Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, 
March 9, 1S53 : to this decision the French acceded, 
although dissatisfied. 

The Russians make farther claims, and Prince 
Mentschikofl" (who arrived at Constantinople 
Feb. 2S, 18.53), by various notes (between March 
22 and May IS), demands that a convention 
should be signed by the sultan granting to the 
czar such a protectorate over the Greek Chris- 
tians in Turkey as the sultan considered inimi- 
cal to his own authority March 22-May 18,1853 

Mentschikoff's ultimatum rejected; he quits Con- 
stantinople May 21 , 

The sultan issues a hatti-sheriff confirming all the 
rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, 
and appeals to his allies June 6, 

The English and French fleets anchor iu Besika 
Bay June 13, 

The Russians, under General Luders, cross the 
Pruth and enter Moldavia July 2, 

Circular of Count Nesselrode in justification, July 
2; Lord Clarendon's reply July 16, 

The conference of representatives of England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
agree to a note, July 31, which is accepted by 
the czar, Aug. 10, but the sultan requires modifi- 
cations, Aug. 19, which the czar rejects. .Sept. 7, " 

Two English and two French ships enter the Dar- 
danelles Sept. 14, " 

The sultan (with the consent of a great national 
council) declares war against Russia Oct. 5, " 

The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a Rus- 
sian flotilla (the first act of war) Oct. 23, " 

The Turks cross the Danube atWiddon and occu- 
py Kalafat Oct. 2S-Nov. 3, " 

Russia declares war against Turkey Nov. 1, " 

English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, Nov. 2, " 

Russians defeated atOltenitza Nov. 4, " 

Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and 
Achaltzik Nov. 14, 18, 26, " 

Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope Nov. 30, " 

Collective note from the four powers requiring to 
know on what terms the Porte will negotiate 
for peace Dec. 5, " 

Contests at Kalafat (Russians defeated at Citatc, 
Jan. 6) Dec. 31, 1853-Jan. 9,1854 

At the request of thePorte (Dec.5), the allied fleets 
enter the Black Sea Jan. 4, " 

Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, contain- 
ing four points as bases of negotiation, viz., 1. 
The promptest possible evacuation of the prin- 
cipalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Main- 
tenance of religious privileges to the communi- 
ties of all confessions. 4. A definitive settle- 
ment of the convention respecting the holy 
places (dated Dec. 31), approved by the four 
powers Jan. 13, " 

Vienna conferences close Jan. 16, " 

Kalafat invested by the Russians Jan. 28-31, " 

Proposal in a letter from the Emperor of France 
to the czar (Jan. 29) declined Feb. 9, " 

Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the Rus- 
sians under Schilders Feb. 15, " 

Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. Pe- 
tersburg Feb. 27, " 

The czar "did not judge it suitable to give an an- 
swer" March 19, " 

Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C. Napier March 11, " 

Treaty between England, France, and Turke}', 

March 12, " 

Russians, under Gortschakofi", pass the Danube 
and occupy the Dobrudscha: severe conflicts; 
the Turks retire March 23, 24, " 

France and England declare war against Russia, 

March 27-28, '• 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece. . .March 28, " 

General Canrobert and French troops arrive at 
Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English, 

March .31, " 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai,May30, " 

English vessel Furimtx, with a flag of truce, fii-ed 
on at Odessa April 8, " 

Four powers si^n a protocol at Vienna, guarantee- 
ing the integrity of Turkey, and civil and relig- 
ious rights of her Christian subjects. . .April 10, " 



British government declined to make any provision for the contingen- 
cy of the full of Turkev. The czar made similar proposals to the 
French government, witli the same result. 



KUS 



412 



RYS 



Russians defeated at Kostelli by MustaiDha Pacha, 

April 10,1854 
Offensive and defensive alliance between England 

and France April 10, " 

Treaty between Austria and Prussia April 20, " 

Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet. . .April 22, " 
Kussians, under General Scbilders, assault Kala- 

fat; repulsed; the blockade raised. .April 19-21, " 
The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- 
tured by the Russians May 12, " 

Russians defeated at Turtukai May 13, " 

Siege of Silistria begun May 17, " 

Allied armies disembark at Varua May 29, " 

Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, 

June 1, " 
Russians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch and 

many officers wounded June .5, " 

Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) June 10, " 

Severe conflict before Silistria; the siege raised, 

JunelS-26, " 
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by Cap- 
tain Parker June 26, 27, " 

Captain Parker killed July 8, " 

Russians defeated at Giurgevo July 7, " 

10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for "the 

Baltic .\ . .July 1.'5, " 

Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, July 20, 

30 ; and near Kars Aug. 5, " 

Surrender of Bomarsund Aug. IG, " 

[In July and Aufxust the allied armies and fleets 

in the East suflered severely from cholera.] 
The Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia, 

about Aug. 28, " 

They evacuate the principalities Aug., Sept. 20, " 

By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14), the 
Austriaus under Count Coronini enter Bucha- 
rest Sept. 6, " 

Allies sail from Vai-na, Sept. 3, and land at Old 

Fort, near Eupatoria* Sept. 14, " 

Skirmish at the Bulganac Sept. 19, " 

Battle of the Alma (see Alvm) Sept. 20, " 

Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol, 

Sept. 23 " 

Allies occupy Ealaldava Sept. 2g| " 

Death of Marshal St. Aruaud Sept. 29, " 

General Caurobert his successor Nov. 24, " 

Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack 

(without success) Oct. 17, " 

Battle of Balaklava— charge of the light cavalry, 

with severe loss Oct. 25, " 

Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by Generals Evans 

and Bosquet Oct. 20, " 

Russian attack at Inkermann ; defeated. . .Nov. 5, " 
Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 

Nov. 6, " 
Great tempest in the Black Sea ; loss of the Prinee 

and store vessels Nov. 14-16, " 

Treaty of alliance between Enirland, France, Aus- 
tria, and Prussia— a commission to meet at Vi- 
enna; signed Dec.2, " 

Russian sortie Dec. 20, " 

Omar Pacha arrivesin the Crimea (followed by the 

Turkish army from Varna) Jan. 5,1855 

Sardinia joins England and France Jan. 26, " 

Great sufferings in the camp from cold and sick- 
ness Jan. and Feb., " 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 

Feb. 17, " 
Death of Emperor Nicholas; accession of Alexan- 
der II. (no change of policy) March 2, " 

Sortie from the Malakhoff tower March 22, " 

Capture of Russian rifle-pits April 19, " 

Arrival of Sardinian contingent May 8, " 

Resignation of General Caurobert, succeeded by 

General Pelissier May 16, " 

Despei-ate night combats May 22-24, " 

Expedition into the Sea of Azof (under" Sir E. 
Lyons and Sir G.Brown); destruction ofKertch 

and large amount of stores May 24-June .3, " 

Taganrog bombarded June 3, " 

Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of 

truce at Hango June 5, " 

Russians evacuate Anapa June 5, " 

The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 

June 6, 7, " 
Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower and 

Redan June IS, " 

Death of Lord Raglan ; succeeded by General 
Simpson June 28, " 

* 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful artillery 
were lauded in cue day. 



Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by 

General Williams July 15,1855 

Bombardment of Sweaborg Aug. 9, " 

Defeat of the Russians at theTchernaya. . Aug. 16, " 
Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff* taken ; 

Russian sortie repulsed Aug. IS, " 

The French take the INIalakhoft" (which see) by as- 
sault; the English assault the Redan without 
success ; the Russians retire from Sebastopol to 
the North Forts, and the allies enter the city; 
the Russians destroy or sink the remainder of 

their fleet Sept. 8, etc., " 

Tanan and Fauagoria captured Sept. 24, " 

The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 

great loss Sept. 29, " 

Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 prisoners) 
at Koughil, near Eupatoria, by the French, 

.Sept. 29, " 

Kinburn taken ! .Oct. 17, " 

Russians blow up Oczakoff. Oct. 18, " 

Large stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in the 

Sea of Azof Nov. 4, " 

Defeat of the Russians, and passage of thelngour 

by the Turks tinder Omar Pacha Nov. 6, " 

The czar visits his army near Sebastopol. .Nov. 10, " 
Sir Wm. Codringtou takes the command in room 

of Gen. Simpson Nov. 14, " 

Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder in the French 
siege-train at Inkermann, with great loss of life, 

Nov. 15, " 

Sweden joins the allies by a treaty Nov. 21, " 

Capitulation of Kars to Gen. Mouravieff, after a 

gallant defense by Gen. Williams Nov. 26, " 

Death of Admiral Bruat Nov. 27, " 

Russian attack on the French posts at Baidar re- 
pulsed Dec. 8, " 

Proposals of peace from Austria, with the consent 

of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg Dec. 12, " 

Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the En- 
glish Jan. 2,1S5C 

Council of war at Paris Jan. 11, " 

Protocol signed accepting the Austrian proposi- 
tions as a basis of negotiation for peace.. Feb. 1, " 

Destruction of Sebastopol docks Feb. 1, " 

Report of Sir John M'Neill and Col. Tulloch on 
state of the army before Sebastopol, published 

Feb. 5, " 
Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till 

March 31 agi-eed on Feb. 25, " 

Suspension of hostilities Feb. 20, " 

Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, April 2 ; in 

London April 29, " 

The Crimea evacuated July 9,* " 

RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in the ore 
of platinum by M. Clans in 1845. 

RUTHERFORD'S ACT, Lord (13 & 14 Vict., c. 36), 
for simplifying law proceedings in Scotland, passed 
1850. 

RUTHVEN, Raid or, a term applied to the seizure 
of the person of James VI. of Scotland by William 
Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, in 1582. 
They compelled the king to dismiss his favorites, Ar- 
ran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie was ju- 
dicially put to death by his two opponents in 1584. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think pretended) 
to secure the succession of the Duke of Monmouth to 
the throne in preference to the Duke of York (after- 
ward James II,), a Roman Catholic. Some of the con- 
spirators are said to have projected the assassination 
of the king, Charles II., and his brother. This design 
was said to have been frustrated by the king's hou"se 
at Newmarket accidentally taking Are, which hasten- 
ed the royal party away eight days before the ijlot was 
to take place, March 22, 16S,S. See Newmarket. The 
plot was discovered June 12 following. Lord William 
Russell on July 21, and Algernon Sidney on Dec. 7 fol- 
lowing, suffered death for being concerned in this con- 
spiracy. The name was derived from the conspira- 
tors' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Broxbourue, 
Hertfordshire. 

RYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated peace 
was concluded between England, France, Spain, and 
Holland, signed, by their representatives, Sept. 20, and 
by the Emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. 

* The En{2:li8h lost : killed in action and died of wounds, about 3500 ; 
died of cholera, 4244 ; of other diseases nearly 16,000 ; total loss nearly 
24,000 (including 270 officers) ; 2873 wer" disabled. The war added to 
the national debt JE41 ,041 ,000. The French lost about 63,500 men ; the 
Russians about half a million. The army suffered greatly by eicknesa. 
See Scutarij TimeSf and Nightingale* 



SAB 



413 



SAL 



S. 



SABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabbatarii, or 
Siibbathaires, among the sects of the IGth century on 
tlie Continent. l'i)on the publication of the " Book of 
fSjHirts" in l(;l^;, a Ions,' and violent controversy arose 
ainoni; English divines on these two points: tirst, 
whether the Sabbath of the fourth commandment was 
in force among Christians ; and secondly, whether, 
and on what ground, the tirst day of the week was en- 
titled to be distinguished and observed as "the Sab- 
bath." In IG-JS, The'iphilus IJradbotn-ne, a clergyman, 
published the lirst work in favor of the SeveiUh-day 
or .Salunlay, as the true Christian Sabbath. He and 
several others sufl'ered great persecution for this opin- 
ion ; but after the Kestoration there were three or four 
congregations observing the last day of the week for 
public worship in London, and seven or eight in the 
country parts of England. In 1S.51 there were three 
Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congregations iu 
England; but iu America (especially iiilhe New En- 
gland states) they are more numerous. 

SABBATH : ordained by God (Gen. ii. ; Exod. xx., 
8 ; I.miah Iviii., 13). Jews observe the seventh day in 
commemoratiou of the creation of the world and of 
their redemption from the bondage of the Egj'jjtians; 
Christians observe the lirst day of the week iu com- 
memoration of the resurrection of Christ from the 
dead, and the redemption of man. See Sunday. 

SABBATH-SCHOOLS. The first " Sabbath-school" 
was founded by Ludwig Hacker between the years 1740 
and 1T4T, at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, 
among the German Seventh-day Baptists there. The 
school-room was used as a hospital after the battle of 
Braudywine, fought iu ITTT. This event occasioned 
the breaking up of the school, about live years before 
the first Sunday-school was instituted in England, at 
Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about 1782. See Sun- 
daj-ticlwulti. 

SABBATICAL YEAR: a Jewish institution, 1491 
B.C. Every seventh year, during which time the very 
ground had rest, and was not titled : and every forty- 
ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liber- 
ty, and estates, etc., that were before sold or mort- 
gaged, returned to their original families, etc. — Jose- 
phm. 

SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptolemais, in 
Egypt), who flourished iu the 3d century, and who 
taught that there was but one person iu the Godhead, 
the other persons of the Trinity being but difterent 
names of the same person. This doc^'ine was con- 
demned at a council held at Rome, 2G3. 

SABINE8, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, 
took away their daughters by force, having invited 
them to some public" sports or shows on purpose. 
When the Sabines determined to revenge this aftVont, 
the women became mediators to their fathers in be- 
half of their husbands, the Romans, and a lasting peace 
was made between them ; the Sabines became a part 
of the Roman people, 750 B.C. One of the ecclesias- 
tical provinces is still called Terra Sabiua ; chief town, 
Magliano. 

SACKETT'S HARBOR, Defense of. A British 
force of 7.'>0 men landed from a British fleet and at- 
tacked Sacketl's Harbor, at the east end of Lake On- 
tario, on the 29th of May, ISl.'J. They were repulsed 
by 1000 men under Gen. Jacob Brown. The Ameri- 
cans lost 22 killed and 84 wounded ; the British loss 
was somewhat greater. 

SACRAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, obliga- 
tion, also mystery). The Council of Trent, in 1547, af- 
flrnicd tliat there were seven sacraments, viz., baptism, 
the Lord's Supper, confirmation, penance, holy orders, 
matrimony, and extreme unction. The name was giv- 
en to the I.ord's Supper by the Latin fathers. The 
wine was laid aside, and communion by the laity un- 
der one form alone, that of bread, took its rise in the 
West, under Pope Urban II., 1090.— ^V. </«> Mairtt. Com- 
muni(m in one kind only was authoritatively sanction- 
ed by the Council of Constance in 1414. — Dr. Hook. 
Henry VIII. of Germany was poisoned by a priest in 
the consecrated wafer, 1.S14. The sacramental wine 
was poisoned by the grave-digger of the church at Zii- 
rich, l)v wliieh sacrilegious deed a number of persons 
lost their lives, Sejjt. 4, 1770. In 1014, by the Test Act, 
all members of both houses of Parliament were order- 



ed to take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- 
duction of Roman Catholics. The act was repealed in 

1S2S. 

SACRAMENTO, St., a Portuguese settlement in S. 
America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but relinquished in 
1713 ; ceded in 1777 ; and acquired by Brazil in 1S25. 

SACRED WAR (Sacrum Bellum). The first, con- 
cerning the temple of Delphi, took place 44S B.C. The 
Athenians and Lacedtemonians were auxiliaries on 
opposite sides. The second Sacred War occurred on 
Delphi being seized by the Phociaus, 357 B.C. This 
latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon tak- 
ing all the cities of the Phocians, and dispersing the 
inhabitants, 346 B.C.— Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was of- 
fered to God by Abel, SS75 B.C. Sacrifices to the gods 
were introduced into Greece by Phoroueus, king of 
Argos, 1773 B.C. Human sacrifices seem to have orig- 
inated with the Chaldreans, from whom the custom 
passed into other Eastern nations. All sacrifices to 
the true God were to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 
33 (Heb. s., 12, 14). Pagan sacrifices were forbidden 
by the Emperor Constautius II., 341. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans nsed 
neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in use in 
the 3d century, and are mentioned as made of leather 
iu 304, and were known in England about GUO. Side- 
saddles for ladies were introduced by Anne, queen of 
Richard II., in 1388.— .S'toit;. 

SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have been 
founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, about 200 B. 
C, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught 
that there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spir- 
it; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no 
resurrection of the body from the dead. The Saddu- 
cees were opposed by the Pharisees. 

SADLER'S WELLS (N. London), so called after Mr. 
Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain the inva- 
lids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. In time 
the orchestra was inclosed, and the building became a 
place for dramatic performances. The present thea- 
tre was opened iu 17G5. Eighteen persons were tram- 
pled to death at this theatre, on a false alarm of fire, 
Oct. 15, 1807. See under Theatres. 

SAFETY-LAMP. One was invented in 1S15 by Sir 
Humphry Davy to prevent accidents which happen iu 
coal and other mines. The safety-lamp is founded on 
the principle that fiame, in passing through iron-wire 
meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable 
of igniting inflammable gases. It should be men- 
tioned that the father of all safety-lamps is Dr. Reid 
Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improve- 
ments are authenticated in the Transactionft of the So- 
cietij of ArtH for 1S17. A safety-lamp, the "Gcordy," 
was also devised by George Stephenson, the engineer, 
in 1S15. A miner's electric light, by MM. Dumas and 
Beuoit, was exhibited iu Paris on Sept. 8, 1SG2. 

SAFFRON (SafTran, French ; Safrann, Italian), the 
flower of crocus.'was first brought to England in the 
reign of Edward III. by a jiilgi-im, about 1339, jjrobably 
from Arabia, as the wm-d is from the Arabic mjihar.— 
Miller. It was cultivated iu England in 1582 ; and the 
best grows iu Essex, between Cambridge and Saffron 
Walden. 

SAGE {Saufje, French ; Salvia, Latin), a wholesome 
herb, comfortable to the brain and nerves.— jl/o/^'jficr. 
A species of this garden plant grew early in England, 
and some varieties were imported. The Mexican sage. 
Salvia Mcxicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
blue African sage. Salvia Africana, and the golden Af- 
rican sage. Salvia avren, were brought to England 
from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. 

SAGUNTUM (now Mukviedro, in Valencia, Eastern 
Spain), renowned fn- the dreadful siege it sustained, 
219 B.C. The heroic citizens, after performing incred- 
ible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried 
in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Han- 
nibal. They burnt themselves, with their houses and 
all their eflects, and the conqueror became master of 
a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. 

SALADS, introduced into England from the Low 
Countries, 1520^7. 



SAL 



4U 



SAN 



SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the Saracens 
861. The University was founded 1240, and the Cathe- 
dral built 1513. Near here the British and Allies, 
commanded by Lord Wellington, totally defeated the 
French army "under Marshal Marmout, July '22, 1812. 
The loss of the victors was most severe, amounting in 
killed, wounded, and missing to nearly 60U0 men. 
Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 
pieces of cannon, (> stands of colors, and 2 eagles. 
This victory was followed by the capture of Madrid. 

SALAMIS (near Athens). In a great sea-fight here, 
Oct. 20, 4S0 B.C., Themistocles, the^Greek commander, 
with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, king 
of Persia, which consisted of 2000 sail.— Near Salamis, 
in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated the Persian fleet, 44'J 
B.C. 

SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean, northward of 
the Cape of Good Hope. Here, on Aug. 17, 1796, a 
Dutch squadron, under Admiral Lucas, was captured 
by Vice Admiral Sir George Keith Elphinstone, with- 
out resistance ; Sir George was created Lord Keith. 

SALEM WITCHCRAFT. See Witchcraft. 

SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a victory 
was gained bv the Imperialists, under Prince Louis of 
Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the Grand Viz- 
ier Mustapha Kiuprigli, Aug. 19, 1(591. 

SALIQUE, or Salio Law, by which females are ex- 
cluded from inheriting the crown of France, is said to 
have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, and ratified 
iu a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of 
the French monarchy, iu fiW.— He nault. This law 
prevailed long in Spain, but was formally abolished, 
March, 1S30 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. his 
dauL'hter succeeded to the sceptre as Isabella II., Sept. 
29, iS83. See S)inui. By this law also Hanover was 
separated frotn England when Queen Victoria ascend- 
ed the English throne in 1S37. 

SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the beginning of 
the 13th century, on the removal of the Cathedral 
hither from OldSarum. National councils or Parlia- 
ments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, particularly 
in 1290, by Edward I. :"in 1328, by Edward IIL ; and in 
1384. Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, was exe- 
cuted here, by order of Richard IIL, in 14S3. On Sai.- 
iBiiDRV Plain is Stoneheuge (lohich see). This plain 
was estimated at 500,000 acres. On it were so many 
cross-roads, and so few houses to take directions from, 
that Thomas, earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each 
milestone from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the trav- 
eler's guide. The first seat of the Bisuopeio was at 
Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. Herman re- 
moved the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072 ; and the see 
was removed to this city, under the authority of a pa- 
pal bull, in 1217. It has yielded to the Church of Rome 
one saint and two cardinals. The building of the Ca- 
thedral commenced April 28, 1220, and was completed 
in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our finest ec- 
clesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest in the 
kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 1804, and 
subscriptions were begun for itsrepair. The bishop- 
ric is valued in the king's books at £1367 lis. 8(7. 
Present income, £5000. 

SAL:M0N FISHERIES. The laws relating to them 
were consolidated and amended in 1861, and the re- 
port of a commission of inquiry (including Sir Wm. 
Jardiue) was published in Feb., 1862. An a^t restrict- 
ing the exportation of salmon at certain times was 
passed in 1SG3. 

SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the gas 
chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from rocks 
in the earth, from salt-springs, and from sea-water. 
The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, near Cracow, in 
Polaud, have been worked 600 years. The salt-works 
in Cheshire, called the wiohes (Nantwich, North wich, 
and Middlewich), were of great importance in the 
time of the Saxon Heptarchy. Since 1797 salt has 
been largely employed in the manufacture of bleach- 
ing powder (by obtaining its chlorine; and soap (by 
obtaining its soda). On this are based the chemical 
works of Cheshire and Lancashire. The salt-mines 
of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. Salt du- 
ties were first exacted in 1702 ; they were renewed in 
1732 ; reduced iu 1823 ; and iu that year were ordered 
to cease in 1825. During the French War, the duty 
reached to £30 per ton. For the salt-tax in France, 
see Gcibellc. The government monopoly iu India was 
abolished in May, 1803, by Sir C. Trevelyan. 

SALTPETRE (from sal petrce, salt of the rock), or 
NiTEE, is a compound of nitric acid and potash (nitro- 
gen, ox3-gen, and potassium), and hence is called Ni- 



trate of Potash. It is the explosive ingredient in gun- 
powder, many detonatiug powders, and lucifer match- 
es. Boyle, in the 17th ceiitury, demonstrated that salt- 
petre was composed of atjua fortis (nitric acid) and 
potash ; but the discoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and 
Davy (1807) showed its real composition. Its manu- 
facture iu England began about 1625. During the 
French Revolutionary War, the manufacture was 
greatly increased by the researches of Berthollet. 

SALUTE AT Sea. It is a received maxim at sea, 
that he who returns the salute always fires fewer guns 
than he receives, which is done even between the 
ships of princes of equal dignity; but the Swedes and 
Danes return the compliment without regarding how 
many guns are fired to them. The English claim the 
right of being saluted first in all places, as sovereigns 
of the seas ; the Venetians claimed this honor within 
their gulf, etc. See Flag and Naval Salute. 

SALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and the 
first point of laud discovered in the West Indies or 
America by Columbus. It was previously called Gu- 
anahama, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (iu acknowledg- 
ment to God for his deliverance) named it San Salva- 
dor, Oct. 11, 1492. — A small republic, with a Constitu- 
tion, established January 24, 1S59. It has been much 
troubled by internal dissension. Present president, 
Francis Duenas, elected April, 1865. The capital, San 
Salvador, was destroyed by an earthquake, April 16, 
1854, and is now abandoned. 

SAMARCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by the 
Mohammedans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 1219 ; and by 
Timour in 1359. 

SA]^L\RITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, 925 B. 
C, and became the capital of the kingdom of Israel. 
On the breaking up of that kingdom (721 B.C.), the 
conqueror Shahnaneser placed natives of other coun- 
tries at Samaria. The descendants of these mixed 
races were abominable to the Jews, and much more 
so iu consequence of the rival temple built on iMount 
Gerizim by Sanballat, the Samaritan, 332 B.C., which 
was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 130 B.C. (See Juhn 
iv., and viii., 48, and Luke x., 33.) 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. Italy, who stren- 
uously resisted the Roman power, and were not subju- 
gated till after three sanguinary wars, from 343 to 292 
B.C. Their brave leader, Caius Pontius, who spared 
the Romans at Caudium, 320, having beeu taken pris- 
oner, was basely put to death, 292. They did not ac- 
quire the right of citizenship till 88 B.C. 

SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia Minor. 
Colonized by lonians about 1043 B.C. The city was 
founded about 986. Here Pytha^ras was born 555 B. 
C, and flourished in the favor of Polycrates, who aid- 
ed him in his travels, 532. Samos Avas taken by the 
Athenians, 440; and, with Greece, became subject to 
Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, A.D. 1125, 
who here made velvet {xamet)., and became subject to 
the Turks, 1459. 

SANCTUARIES. See Asylums. Privileged places 
for the safety of offenders are said to have beeu grant- 
ed by King Lucius to churches and their precincts. 
St. John's, of Beverley, was thus privileged in the time 
of the Saxons. St. Burein's, iu Cornwall, was privi- 
leged by Athelstan, 935; Westminster, by Edward the 
Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Being much 
abused, the privilege of sanctuary was limited by the 
pope in 1.503, at the request of Henry VII. ; it was abol- 
ished at the Reformation. — Iu London, persons were 
secure from arrest in certain localities : these were 
the Miuories, Salisbury Court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's 
Reut.s, Mitre Court, Baldwin's Gardens, the Savoy, 
Clink, Deadman's Place, Montague Close, and the 
Mint. This security was abolished 1696, but lasted in 
some degree till the reigu of George IL 

SANDALS. See Shoes. 

SANDEMANIANS. See Glasites. 

SANDERS'S CREEK, Battle of. This engage- 
ment occurred a few miles north of Camden, South 
Carolina, ou the morning of the 16th of August, 1780, 
between the Americans, under Gen. Gates, and the 
British, under Cornwallis. They were approaching 
each other over a deep sandy road, without each oth- 
er's knowledge of the fact, and met suddenly iu the 
dark at a little past midnight. A brief skirmish then 
ensued between the vanguards, and early in the morn- 
ing a general battle began. The Americans were ut- 
terly defeated and dispersed, the British being over- 
whelming in numbers. The loss of the Americans in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners was about 1000 men. 



SAN 415 

Among the killed was the Barou dc Kalb. The Brit- 
ish loss was 325. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS, a Kronp in the Pacific 
Ocean, (liscovoix'd by Captain Conli in 1778. In Oichy- 
liiv or llatraii, one of tlietc islands, lie Ibll a victim to 
tlic s\ul(len resentment of the natives, Fqb. 14, 177'.). 
Tlie kinj: and queen visited London iu 1S24, and died 
there in .Inly. These people have made great prog- 
ress in civiirzation, and embraced Christianity before 
any missionaries were sellled anKuiL: lliem. The pres- 
ent kinLr,Kanu'hanK'ha V., sncceeded his brother, Nov., 
I'^i;:!. Tlie precedini,' kini;-, Kamoliameha IV'., married 
!Miss Kninia Kooker, lS5i>. She came to England in 
lsi;r>, landiniT at Southampton July la, and visited the 
queen, Sept. 9. An English bishopric was established 
at Honolulu in ISGl, for which Dr. Thomas Staley was 
consecrated, Aug. IS, 1SG2. 

SANDY CREEK. On the .^Oth of May, 1814, a party 
of liJO British landed at Sandy Creek, on Lake Ontario, 
and attacked ilajor AppliuL;', who was stationed there 
witli 120 rillemen and some Uneida Indians. The Brit- 
ish weie all killed, wounded, or made prisoners. They 
had 10 killed and yo wounded. The Americans had 
one riilemau and one Indian warrior killed. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jevi'ish council of the 
highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some say, sev- 
enty-three members, usually considered to be that es- 
tablished by Moses, ^luiib. xi.. Id— 1490 B.C. It was 
yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, Jolin. xviii., 81. 
A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the Emperor 
Napoleon I. at Paris, July 23, 1S06, and assembled ac- 
cordingly, Sept. 18. 

SANITARY LEGISLATION. Strict cleanliness is 
enjoined iu the law of Moses, 1490 B.C. Great atten- 
tion has been paid to the public health in France since 
1S02. Tardieu published his "Dictionnaire de Hy- 
giene," 1S52-54. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
attributable the honor of commencing the agitation 
on the subject of public health in England about 1832, 
Lis "Philosophy of Health" having excited much at- 
tention. Since 1838 he has published numerous sani- 
tary reports, having been much employed by the gov- 
ernment. Among the results are- 
Nuisance Removal Acts passed (repealed).. .1S45-1S60 

Baths and Wash-houses Act 1840-1847 

Public Health Act, and subsequent Supplemental 

Acts 1848 

Common Lodging Houses Act 1851-1853 

Laboring Classes" Lodging Houses Act 1851 

Smoke "Nuisance Abatement Act (and amend- 
ment) 1S53 

Diseases Prevention Act 1S55 

Public Health Act " 

Metropolitan Interments Acts 1850-1855 

SAN SALVADOR. See Salvador. 

SANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmins of India, 
spoken at the time of Solomon, has been much stud- 
ied of late years. Sir William Jones, who published a 
translation of the poem Sakuntala in 1783, discovered 
that a complete literature had been preserved iu In- 
dia, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history and 
philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and 
translations of many works have been published by 
the aid of the East India Comjiany, the Oriental Trans- 
lation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship 
of Sanskrit at Oxford was founded by Colonel Boden. 
Tiie first professor, II. W. Wilson, appointed in 1832, 
translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhitii, the sacred 
hymns of the Brahmins, and several poems, etc. The 
present professor, Monier Williams (elected 1860), ]nib- 
lished an English and Sanskrit Dictionarv, ls5I. Pro- 
fessiu- Max Miiller published his History of Sanskrit 
Literatuio in ls.S9, and has edited part of the original 
text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an 
intinntte connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, 
Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandi- 
navian languages. 

SANTA CRL'Z (Teneriffe, Canary Islands). Here 
Admiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed 
slKteeu Spanish ships, secured with great nautical 
skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the 
shore, April 20, IG&l .—Clarendon. In an unsuccessful 
attack made upon Santa Ci'uz by Nelson, several offi- 
cers and 141 men were killed, and the admiral lost his 
right arm, July 24, 1797.* 



SAR 



* It waa remarkable tllut Captain Fn;niantle, tlie friend of Nelson, 
and his companion in moat oi hia brilliant achievements, waa also 
wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had received his wotmd 
in the same limh. The following characteristic note, addressed to the 
la ly of Captain Frcmantle (who was on board with her husband at the 
time he wrote), has been preserved, as being the first letter written by 



SANTA ROSA ISLAND (Florida). This island is a 
sand reef opposite Fhjrida, on the Gulf coast, and in- 
closing Peusacola llarl)or. On the western extremity 
of the island is Fort Pickens. An attack was made 
on the night of October 8, 1801, by the Confederates 
upon the Sixth New York Zouaves, Col. " Billy" Wil- 
son. The National troops were surprised at first, but 
succeeded iu repulsing IUl' Confederates. 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA (N.W. Spain), was 
sacked by the Moors iu 995, and held bv them till it 
was taken by Ferdinand IIP iu 123.5. the order of 
Santiago, or St. James, was founded about 1170 to pro- 
tect pilgrims to the shrine of St. James, said to be bur- 
ied in the cathedral. The town was taken by the 
French in 1809, and held till 1814.— Santiago, the cap- 
ital of Chili, S. America, was founded by Valdina iu 
1.541, has suftered much by earthquakes, especially iu 
1S22 and 18-29. About seven o'clock in the evening of 
Dec. 8, 1SG3, the feast of the Immaculate Couceotion 
of the Virgin Mary, and the last day of a series of 
religious celebrations in the " month of Mary," the 
church of the Camiiania, when brilliantly illuminated 
in a dangerous manner, was burnt down, the file be- 
ginning amid the combustible ornaments, and above 
2000 persons, principally women, perished, the means 
of egress being utterly insufticient. On the 20th the 
government ordered the church to be razed to the 
ground, and much public indignation was excited 
against the liiuatical priesthood. 

SAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, the lyric 
poetess of Mitylene. She was equally celebrated for 
her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion for Phaon, 
a youth of her native country, on which last account it 
is said she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leu- 
cas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, 
paid her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 
694 B.C. Some consider the story fabulous. 

SAPPHIRE, a precious stone of an azure color, and 
transparent; in hardness it exceeds the ruby, and is 
next to the diamond. Thamas Kouli Khan is said to 
have jjossessed a sapphire valued at i;300,000, 1733. 
Artificial sapphires were made in 18.57 by M. Gaudin. 
Equal parts of alum and sulphate of potash were heat- 
ed in a crucible. 

SARACENS, an Arab race, the first disciples of Mo- 
hammed, who within forty years after his death ((')32) 
had subdued a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 
They conquered Spain in 711, et scq., and (under Ab- 
derahman) established the caliphate of Cordova in 
7.55, which gave way to the Moors in 1237. The em- 
pire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by 
the Tartars, V2b%.— Blair. 

SARAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Csesarea Au- 
gusta, was taken from the Arabs by Alfonso of Spain 
m 1118. Here Philip V. was defeated by the Archduke 
Charles in 1710. On Dec. 17, 1778, 400 of the inhabit- 
ants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa was 
taken by the French, after a most heroic defense by 
General Palafox, Feb. 20, 1809. The inhabitants, of 
both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, fam- 
ine, and pestilence. 

SARAH SANDS. See Wrecks, 1857. 

SARATOGA (New York State, U. S.). Here General 
Burgoyne, commander of a body of the British army, 
after a severe engagement with the Americans (Oct. 
7), being surrounded, surrendered all his army (5791 
men) to the American General Gates, Oct. 17, 1777. 
This was the greatest check the British sufl'ered iu 
the war. 

SARAWAK. See Borneo. 

SARDINIA, an island iu the Mediterranean, suc- 
ces>^ively possessed by the Phcenicians, Greeks, Car- 
thaginians (550 B.C.), Romans (subjugated it 231), 
Saracens, Genoese, and Spaniards. From settlers be- 
longing to these various nations the present inhabit- 
ants derive their origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of 
Savoy, acquired Sardinia in 1720, with the title of 
king. See Savoy. Population of the Sardinian do- 
minions in 1S5S,'5,194,S07. The King of Sardinia was 
recognized as King of Italy by his Parliament in Feb., 
1861. See Italy. 
James of Aragou becomes master of a large part 

of Sardinia.' 1324 

Conquered by the English naval forces under Sir 

John Leake and Gi'iieral Stanhope 1708 

Giveu to the P^mjicror Cliarles VI 1714 

Recovered by the Spaniards 1717 



the hero with his left hand : " Mv n 
how Tom is; I hope he has saved hi 
Uod ! I am as well as I hope he la. i 



Alt Mrs. FnEMANTLE, — Tell me 
1 arm. Mine is off; hut, thank 
ver yours, Horatio Nelson." 



SAE 



41G 



SAV 



Ceded to the Dnke of Savoy with the title of king, ^ 

as au equivalent for Sicily 1720 

Victor Amadeus abdicates iu favor of his son 1730 

Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, and 

dies in prison 1T32 

The court kept at Turin till Piedmont is overrun 

by the French 1T92 

The king resigns his crown to his brother, Duke 

of Aosta June 4,1S02 

Piedmont annexed to Italy, andNapoleon crowned 

King of Italy Dec. 20,1805 

The king resides in Sardinia 179S-1S14 

Piedmont restored to its rightful sovereign, with 

Genoa added to it Dec, " 

King Charles- Albert promulgates a new code 1S37 

Cavour establishes the newspaper "II Eisorgi- 

mento" ("the Revival") 1847 

The king grants a Constitution, and openly es- 
pouses the cause of Italian regeneration against 

Austria March 23,1848 

Defeats the Austrians at Goito, and takes Pes- 

chiera May 30, " 

Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky July 20, " 

The Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky, 

Aug. 5, " 
Armistice between Sardinia and Austria, Sept. 21, " 

Hostilities resumed March 12,1849 

Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and 

occupies Mortara March 21, " 

Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the Aus- 
trians at Novara March 23, " 

Charles-Albert abdicates in favor of his son, Vic- 
tor-Emmanuel March 23, " 

The Austrians occupy Novara March 25, " 

Another armistice March 26, " 

Death of Charles-Albert at Oporto July 28, " 

Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia 

signed Au^. 0, " 

Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes ec- 
clesiastical jurisdictions April 9,1S50 

Arrest of the Bishop of Turin May 4, " 

He is released from the citadel June 2, " 

Cavour minister of foreign affairs 1851 

Bill for suppression of convents passed. .March 2,1855 
Convention with England and France signed; 
a contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied 

against Russia April 10, " 

10,000 troops under General La Marmora arrive in 

the Crimea May 8, " 

Who distinguish themselves iu the battle of the 

Tchernaya Aug. 10, " 

The king visits London, etc Nov. 30, etc., " 

Important note on Italy from Count Cavour to 

England April 10,1856 

Eupture with Austria; subsequent war, see Aus- 
tria, 1S5T, et seq. 

Cavour declares iu favor of free trade June,1857 

Prince Napoleon Jerome marries Princess Clo- 

tilde Jan. 30,1859 

Preliminaries of peace signed atVilla Franca, July 
11 ; Count Cavour resigns, July 18 ; Ratazzi ad- 
ministration formed July 19, " 

The Emperor Napoleon's letter to Victor-Emman- 
nel, advocating the formation of an Italian Cini- 
federation: the latter declares it to be impracti- 
cable, and maintains his engagements with the 

Italians T . .^ Oct. 20, " 

Treaty of peace signed at Zurich Nov., " 

Garibaldi retires into private life Nov. 17, " 

Count Cavour returns to office Jan. 16,1860 

The Sardinian government refers the question of 
annexation of Tuscany, etc., to the vote of the 

people Feb. 29, " 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 
French government; the Sardinian government 

refer it to the vote of the people Feb. 25, " 

Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimous- 
ly by Emilia, March 14; by Tuscany, March 10; 

acce'pted by Victor-Emmanuel March 18-20, " 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed 

March 24, " 
Prussia protests against the Italian annexations, 

March 27, " 

New Sardinian Parliament opens April 2, " 

Annexation to France almost unanimously voted 

for by Nice, April 15 : by Savoy April 22, " 

The government professes disapproval of Gari- 
baldi's expedition to Sicily {ii'hich see). .May 18, " 
The Chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy 

and Nice May 29, " 

The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 

(see Ttahj and Rome) Sept. 11, " 

Victor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples, 

Oct. 15, " 



Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia, 

Oct. 21,1860 
[For future history, see Italy.'\ 
[For the disputes, and war with America, and the 
events of 1859-01, see Austria, France, Rome, 
Sicily, and Naples.} 

KINGS OF SARDINIA. See Suvoy. 
1720. Victor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) : resigned, 

in 1T30, in favor of his son ; died in 1732. 
1730. Charles-Emmanuel I., his son. 
1773. Victor-Amadeus II., his son. 
1796. Charles-Emmanuel IL, son of the preceding; re- 
signed his crown in favor of his brother. 
1802. Victor-Emmanuel I. 

1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of 
which the Emperor Napoleon was crowned 
king. May 26, 1805.] 
1814. Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned iu March, 

1821 ; and died iu 1824. 
1821. Charles-Felix; succeeded by his nephew. 
1S31. Charles-Albert; abdicated in favor of his son, 
March 23, 1849. Died at Oporto, July 28, 1849. 
1849. Victor-Emmauuel II., March 23; born March 14, 

1820 ; the PRESENT King of Italy. 
IFIeir: Humbert, prince of Piedmont; bom March 14, 
1844.] 

SARDIS. See Seven Churches. 

SARMATIA, the ancient name of modern Russia 
and Poland. 

SARUM, Oi.T) (Wiltshire), an ancient town, the 
origin of Salisbury, which see. 

SATIRE. About a century after the introduction 
of comedy, satire made its appearance at Rome in the 
writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in this 
species of composition that he has been called the in- 
ventor of it, 110 B.C.— Livy. The Satires of Horace 
(35 B.C.), Juvenal (about A.D. 100), and Perseus (about 
A.D. 60), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and 
those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729) in modem 
times. 

SATRAPIES, divisions of the Persian Empire, 
formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. 

SATURDAY (the last, or seventh day of the week ; 
the Jewish Sabbath. See Sabbath). It was so called 
from an idol worshiped on this day by the Saxons, 
aud, according to Verstegan, was named by them Sat- 
erne's day. — Pardon. It is more properly from Saturn, 
dies Sa tiirni. — A ddison. 

SATURN, the planet, ascertained to be about 900 
millions of miles distant from the sun, and its diame- 
ter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the eight satellites 
was discovered by Huyghens (March 25,1655); four by 
Cassini (1671-84) ; two by Sir William Herschel (1789), 
and one by Bond and Lassels (1848). The ring was 
discovered to be twofold by Messrs. Ball, Oct. 13, 1605; 
and an inner ring was detected in 1850 by Dawes iu 
England (Nov. 29) and by Bond in America. 

Sx\TURNALIA, festivals in honor of Saturn, father 
of the gods, were instituted long before the founda- 
tion of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and 
equality which prevailed on the earth in his golden 
reign. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia 
were first observed at Rome in the reign of Tullus 
Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines; 
while others suppose that Janus first instituted them 
in gratitude to Saturn, from whom he had learned ag- 
riculture. Others assert that they were first celebra- 
ted after a victory obtained over the Latins by the Dic- 
tator Posthumius. During these festivals no business 
was allowed, amusements were encouraged, aud dis- 
tinctions ceased. — Lenglet. 

SAVANNAH, Capture or. Sir Henry Clinton, per- 
ceiving the exposed condition of the South, sent Colo- 
nel Campbell to invade Georgia at the close of 1778. 
lie landed at Savannah on the 29th of December, with 
about 2000 troops, where he was opposed by 1000 Amer- 
icans under Gen. Robert Howe. Howe was repulsed, 
fled up the Savannah River, and took refuge in the 
bosom of South Carolina. Campbell took possession 
of the capital of Georgia. The Americans lost, iu 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, 553 men, including S3 
officers. 

SAVANNAH, Siege op. A combined force of Amer- 
icans under CJeneral Lincoln, aud Frenchmen under 
the Count D'Estaing, laid siege to Savannah in the 
autumn of 1779. A cannonade and bombardment was 
opened upon the British works on the morning of the 
4th of October, and continued five days. On the 9th a 
vigorous assault was made upon the to^^•n. The con- 



SxVV 



417 SAX 



flict c •>ntinned five hours, during which nearly 1000 of 
the Froiicli and Americans had been Ivillcd or wound- 
ed. Tlicre was a truce to bury the dead. D'Estaiug, 
anxious to leave the coast oefore the autumn storms 
commenced, would not renew the conflict. The siege 
was raised, D'Estaiug went to sea, and Lincoln re- 
treated into South Carolina, leaving the British iu 
possession of Savannah. The French lost 037 men, 
the Americans 4.5T, and the British 120. 

SAVINGS' BANKS.* The Rev. Joseph Smith, of 
W'endover, began a Benevolent Institution iu 1799; 
and iu l«o,S-4 a Charitable Bank was instituted at 
Tottenham by Miss Priscilla Wakefield. Henry Buu- 
das established a parish bank at Kuthwell iu ISIO. 
One was opened at Edinburg in 1814. The benefit 
clubs, among artisans, having accumulated stocks of 
money for their progressive purposes, a plan was 
adopted to identify these fimds with the public debt 
of tlie country, and an extra rate of interest was held 
out a.s an inducement ; hence were formed savings' 
banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest 
on demand. 
Sir Geo. Rose developed the system and brought it 

under Parliamentary control, 1S16. 
In 1S40 there were 550 banks; 766,354 depositors; 

amount, X22,0l50,90-4. 
Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relating 
to savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 , ex- 
tended to Scotland La 1S35; again consolidated and 
amended in 1SG3. 
On Nov. 20, 1851, the number of savings' banks in 
Great Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 
twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable 
institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were 
1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but 
unknown number of persons: the amount of de- 
posits was X32,S93,511. 
x\mount of stock held on account of savings' banks 
in 1S53, £34,540,334; in 1857, £35,108,590; in 1859, 
jE38,995,876. In 1801 the savings' banks received 
£8,704,870 ; paid, £9,621,539 ; estimated capital, 
£41,532,945 (depositors, 1,479,723). The military 
savings' bank held £204,377 ; the seamen's savings' 
banks held £26,448. 
For Post-ofHce Savings' Banks, established in ISOl, 

see under Post-office. 
The deposits in the old savings' banks had not di- 
minished in consequence in 1864. 
SA\'INGS' BANKS in the United States. The 
system of savings' banks, introduced in England iu 
1817, was early adopted in this country. The num- 
ber, resources, and liabilities of the various institu- 
tions in this country are not known. In the state of 
New York, as reported iu 1858, the resources of the 
savings' banks were put at $43,885,991. 

S.WOY, the ancient Sfy)aMf/(rt or Sabawlia, formerly 
a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. It became a 
Roman province about 118 B.C. The Alemanui seized 
it in A.D. 395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the 
revolutions of Switzerland till about 1048, when Con- 
rad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Humbert, with the 
title of count. Count Tliomas acquired Piedmont in 
the 13th century. Amadeus, count of Savoy, having 
entered his dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect 
them into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, Feb. 19, 
1417. Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the 
hiugdom of Sicily, by a treaty from Spain, in 1713, 
which he afterward exchanged with the emperor for 
tke island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1720. See 
iiarilima. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and 
made it a department of France, under the name of 
Mont Blanc, in 18(10. It was restored to the King of 
Sardinia in 1S14, but was once more annexed to France 
in isoo, in accordance with a vote by universal suf- 
frage, Ai)ril 23, 1860. Savoy was visited by the Em- 
peror and Empress of the French in August, 1860. 
The annexation was censured in England. 

DUKES OF S.VVOV. 

Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1417 ; he 
was named pope as Felix V. He abdicated as 
Duke of Savoy, 1439; renounced the tiara, 1449; 
died in 1451. 



1391. 



1439. 
1405. 
1472. 
14>2. 
14S9. 
1490. 
1497. 



* The first of these wna instituted at Heme, in Switzerland, in 17S7, 
by the name of caisae rfe domestiqurs, being intended for servants only ; 
another was set up in Basel in 1 *<.<'.>, open to all depositors. 
D D 



Louis. 
Amadeus IX. 
Philibert I. 
Charles I. 
Charles IL 
Philip n. 
Philibert II. 



1.504. Charles IIL 
1.'353. Emmanuel-Philibert. 
1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. 
1030. Victor-Amadeus I. 
1637. Francis Hyacinthe. 
103S. Chas.-Emmanuel 11. 
1675. Victor-Amadeus II. 



became King of Sicily, 1713; exchanged for 
Sardinia in 1720. 

SAVOY PALACE (London) was given to Peter of 
Savoj', uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry III., in 1236. 
Here was held the oonfeeence between the clergy and 
the Non-conformists in 1661. It was partially taken 
down to make way for Waterloo Bridge. The ancient 
chapel was destroyed by fire, July 7, 1804, and was re- 
built at the queen's expense, and reopened, Nov. 26, 
1805. 

SAW. Invented by Dsedalus Pliny. Invented by 

TAXn^.—Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having found 
the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut through a 
piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron 
like it. Saw-mills w-ere erected in Madeira in 1420 ; 
at Breslau in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 
1530. The Bishop of Ely, ambassador from Mary of 
England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill 
there, 1555. The attempts to introduce saw-mills in 
Eugland were violently opposed, and one erected by 
a Dutchman iu 1003 was forced to be abandoned. 
Saw-mills were erected near London about 1770. Ex- 
cellent saw-machinery exists in Woolwich dock-yard. 
Powis and James's band-saw was patented in 1858. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capi- 
tals Gotha and Coburg. Population, December, 1861, 
159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, 
younger son of Ernest, who became Elector of Saxony 
iu 1464. 

DUKES. 

182G. Ernest I., duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; mar- 
ried Louisa, heiress of Augustus, duke of Saxe- 
Gotha, and became by convention Duke of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Nov. 12.' 
1S44. Ernest IL, son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818 (mar- 
ried Alexaudrina, duchess of Baden, May 3, 
1S42 ; no issue). 
[Heir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, born 
Aug. 6, 1844 (in whose favor the Prince of 
Wales resigned his rights, April 19,1863).] 
SAXE-W^EIMAR (Central Germany). The grand- 
dukes are descended from John Frederick, the Prot- 
estant Elector of Saxony, who was deprived by the 
emperor iu 1548. See Saxony. The houses of Sase- 
Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Gotha, liilberghausen, and Saxe- 
Meiningen also sprang from him. They are all termed 
the senior or Ernestine branch of the old family. — 
Saxe-Weimar became a grand-duchy iu 1815. The 
dukes have greatly favored literature, and their capi- 
tal, Weimar, has been called the Athens of Germany. 
Population of the duchy, Dec, 1801, 273,252. 

GEAND-DFKES. 

1815. Charles Augustus. 
1828. Charles Frederick. 
1853. Charles Alexander, July S ; born June 24, 1S18, 

the PRESENT (1806) grand-duke. 
[.Heir : Charles Augustus, born July 31, 1844.] 

SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The Saxons 
were a fierce, warfike race, the terror of the inhabit- 
ants of the later Western Empire, frequently attacked 
France, and conquered Britain {which sec). After a 
long series of sanguinary conflicts they were com- 
pletely subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted many 
fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witikind, their 
great leader, who claimed descent from Woden, pro- 
fessed Christianity about 78,5. From him descended 
the first and the present ruling family (the houses of 
Suppliuburg, Guelf, and Ascania intervened from 1106 
to 1421). Saxony became a duchy, 8S0 ; an electorate, 
IISO ; and a kingdom, 1800. It was the seat of war in 
1813, the king being on the side of Napoleon. Popu- 
lation, Dec, 1801, 2,225,240. 

ELE0T0K8. 

1423. Frederick L 
1428. Frederick II. 

[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] 
1404. Ernest. 
1486. Frederick III. 
1525. John. 
1532. John Frederick ; deprived by the Emperor Chas. 

V. ; succeeded by 
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
1553. Augustus. 
1580. Christian I. 
1591. Christian IL 
1011. John George I. 
1050. John George II. 



• His brother, Leopold, married the Princess Charlotte of England, 
May 2, 1816 ; became Kinc of the Belgians, Julv I'i, ls:il ; and Ferdi- 
nand, the son of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da Gloria, queen 
of Portugal, April 9, 1S36. 



SCA 418 



SCO 



1G80. John George III. 

1691. Johu George IV. 

1694. Frederick Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 

1733. Frederick Augustus II., kiug of Poland. 

1763. Frederick Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 

KINGS. 

1800. Frederick Augustus I. 

1827. Anthony Clement. 

1836. Frederick Augustus II. succeeded by his brother. 

1854. John, Aug. 9"(boru Dec. 12, 1801), the pkesent 

king. 
IHeir: His son,FrederickAugustus Albert, born April 
23, 1S28.] 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special statute re- 
lating to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to 
high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, 
ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other 
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scan- 
dalous statements, false news, or horrible messages, 
by which any debate or discord between them and the 
commons, or any scandal to their persons, might 
arise.— C/i««i6crs. This law was-flrst enacted 2 Kich. 
II., 1378. 

SCANDrNA^^A, the ancient nSime of Sweden, Nor- 
way, and great part of Denmark' {which see), whence 
proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered 
Normandy (about 900), and eventually England (1060). 
They were also called Sea-kings or Vikmgs. They 
settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the 
northern regions of America, about the 9th century. 
A "National Scandinavian Society" has been formed 
at Stockholm. See Sweden. Dec, 1864. 

SCARLET, or kermes dye, was known in the East 
in the earliest ages ; cochineal dye, 1518. Kepler, a 
Fleming, established the tirst dye-house for scarlet in 
England, at Bow, 1643. The art of dyeing red was im- 
proved by Brewer, \oai .—Beckmann. 

SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalty than 
the cro-ma. In the earlier ages the sceptres of kings 
were long walking-staves ; afterward carved and made 
shorter. Tarquin the Elder was the first who assumed 
the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B.C. The 
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden 
rod, A.D. 481.— Le Oendre. 

SCHELDT TOLL was imposed by the treaty of 
Muuster (or Westphalia), 1648. The toll was abolished 
for a compensation. The House of Commons voted 
£175,650 for the British portion on March 9, 1864. The 
Scheldt was declared free on Aug. 8, with much re- 
joicing at Antwerp and Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, where 
Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer royal, made 
his observation with a plumb-line in 1774, from which 
Button calculated that the density of the earth is five 
times greater than water. 

SCHLESWIG. See HoUtein, Denmark, and Gastein. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced in 
London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor 
into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1087.— 
Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland, 
1733. — Scully. In England there were, in 1847, 13,642 
schools (exclusively of Sunday-schools) for the educa- 
tion of the poor; and the number of children was 
998,481. The parochial and endowed schools of Scot- 
land were (exclusively of Sunday-schools) 4836, and 
the number of children 181,467. The schools in Wales 
were 841, and the number of children 38,164 ; in Ire- 
land, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In 1S.'51 there 
were 2310 schools in connection with the Education 
Committee actually inspected in England and Scot- 
land. They included: 1713 Church of England schools 
in England and Wales; 282 Protestant Dissenting 
schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic 
schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools 
in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the Free Church ; the 
whole aff'ording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. 
See Ediication, Design, etc. 

SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin Islands). 
They held commerce with the Phoenicians; and are 
mentioned by Strabo as being ten in number. A mem- 
orable shipwreck of the British squadron imder Sir 
Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral, 
returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook 
these rocks for laud, and struck upon them. His ship, 
the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many 
persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to 
the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the 
Homncy and Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of 
the fleet escaped. Oct. 22, 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body, 
being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in 



Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected 

to his memory. 

SCIO MASSACRE. See Chios. 

SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation chair 
was brought from Scone to Westminster Abbey by Ed- 
ward I. in 1296. 

SCOTLAND. (See Caledonia.) A kingdom till the 
death of Queen Elizabeth, when James VI. of Scot- 
land, as the most immediate heir, was called to the 
throne of England. Each country had a separate Par- 
liament till 1707, when both kingdoms were united un- 
der the general name of Great Britain. See England. 
Camelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Kenneth 
II., and every living creature put to the sword 

or destroyed 843 

The Norwegians invade and occupy Caithness in 
the 0th century. 

The feudal system established by Malcolm II 1004 

Divided into baronies 1032 

The Danes driven out of Scotland 1040 

Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, 

by whom the crown is seized " 

Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, 
meets the usurper at Dunsinane ; Macbeth is 

killed by Macdufi^ 1057 

The Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- 
land by fugitives from England escaping from 

the Normans , 1080 

Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm IIL killed 1093 

Reign of David I., a legislator 1124^3 

Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, with 
160 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are cut 
to pieces by Alexander III., who now recovers 

the Western Isles 1263 

Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the 

throne Oct. 7,1290 

Johu Baliol and Edward Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, 

decides in favor of John Nov., 1292 

John Baliol, king of Scotland, appears to a sum- 
mons, and defends his own cause in Westmin- 
ster Hall against the Earl of Fife 1293 

Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, 
dethrones Johu, ravages the country, destroys 
the monuments of Scottish histor}', and seizes 

the prophetic stone (see Coronation) 1296 

William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated at 
Falkirk, July 22, 1298 ; taken by the English, and 

executed at Smithfield Aug. 24,1805 

Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the En- 
glish, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313 ; defeats 

the English at Banuockburn June 25,1814 

David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham 
by Queen Philippa of England (and detained in 

captivity 11 years) 1340 

Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy and 

Earl Douglas (see Otterburn) Aug 15,1388 

Robert IIL defeated at Homelden Hill 1402 

James I. captured by the English near Flambor- 

ough Head on his passage to France 1406 

St. Andrew's LTniversity founded by Bishop Wil- 
liam Turnbull 1451 

University of Aberdeen founded 1494 

Battle of Flodden Field ; James IV. is slain, and 

his army cut to pieces Sept. 9,1513 

James V. banishes the Douglases 1528 

He establishes the Court of Session 1532 

Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived 1540 

Mary, the queen of Scots, born, Dec. 8; succeeds 

her father, James V Dec. 13, " 

The regent, Cardinal Beaton, persecutes the Re- 
formers, 1539, 1546 ; he is assassinated at St. An- 
drew's May 29,1546 

The Scots defeated at Pinkie Sept. 10,1547 \ 

Mary marries the Dauphin of France April, 155S 

Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow Dec. ,1560 

The Reformation begins in Scotland during the 

minority of Mary between 1550 and " 

The Reformation is consummated by John Knox, " . 
Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at 

Leith from France Aug. 21,1501 ' 

Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by 
order of Queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were 

found in London (Stoic) 1562 

Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
ley July 27,1565 

David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered 

by Darnley, in her presence March 9,1560 

Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his 
house (Mary accused of conniving at his death), 

' Feb. 10,1567 



SCO 



419 



SCO 



Jamos ITepbnrn, carl of Botlnvell, carries off the 

qiioi'ii. who marries him May 15,1507 

Mary made prisoner at Carberry llill by her no- 
bles Juue 15, " 

ResijJins her crowu to her iufaut sou, James VI. ; 

the Earl of Murray ajjpoiuted rcgeut July 22, " 

Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the Kegent Murray 

at the battle ofLaugside May 15,1563 

The Hegeut Murray murdered Jan. 23,1570 

The Earl of Lennox appointed regent July 12, " 

The Karl of Lennox murdered ; the Earl of Mar 

chosen regent Sept. 6,1571 

Death of the Reformer John Knox Nov. 24,1572 

[His funeral in Edinburg is attended by most of 
the nobility, and by the Regent Morton, who ex- 
claims, "There lies he who never feared the face 
of man !"] 

The University of Edinburg founded 15S2 

The Raid of Ruthven {t^ee livthven) " 

Mary, having taken refuge in England, May IC, 
156S, is, after a long captivity, beheaded at Foth- 

eringay Castle (see Fotherintjay) Feb. S,15S7 

Govvrie's conspiracy. Aug. 5,1000 

Union of the crowu of Scotland with that of En- 
gland by the accession of James VL, JLirch '24, 
100:5 ; James is proclaimed by the style of "King 
of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. . .Oct. 24,1004 
Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the En- 
glish Liturgy 1037 

Solemn League and Covenant subscribed, March 1,1638 

A Scotch army enters England 1040 

Charles joins the Scotch armv, 1046 ; betra3'ed into 

the hands of the English Parliament. . ..Jan. 30,1047 
Marquess of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 

Sept. 13, 1645; put to death at Edinburg, May'21, 1050 
Charles II. crowned at Scone, Jan. 1 ; defeated at 

Worcester Aug. 22,1651 

Scotland united to the English Commonwealth by 

Oliver Cromwell Sept., " 

Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland 1661 

The Covenanters defeated on the Peutlaud Hills. .1666 
Archbishop Sharpe murdered near St. Andrew's by 
some fanatics, headed by John Balfour of Bur- 
ley : May 3,1079 

The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drumclog, 
Juue 1, but are routed at Bothwell Bridge, 

June 22, " 
Revolution effected by a convention in favor of 
William III. and establishment of presbytery, 

March 14,10S9 
Insurrection of Claverhouse ; killed at Killiecran- 

kie July 27, " 

Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe. . .Feb. 13,1692 
Legislative union of Scotland with England, 

May 1,1707 
Insurrection under the Earl of Mar in favor of the 

sou of James II. (see Pretender) 1715 

The rebels defeated at Preston, Nov. 12; and at 

Dumblaue (or Sherifl'muir) Nov. 13, " 

Captain Porteous is killed by a mob in Edinburg 

(see Porteous) Sept. 7,1736 

Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, Sept. 
4; at Edinburg, Sept. 16; with the Highlanders 
defeats Sir John Cope at Preston-pans, Sept. 21 ; 
takes Carlisle, Nov. 15; arrives at Manchester, 
Nov. 2S; at Derby, Dec. 4 ; retreats to Glasgow, 

Dec. 25,1745 
Defeats General Hawley at Falkirk, Jan. 17 ; is to- 
tally defeated at Culloden April 10,1746 

The Highland dress prohibited by act of Parlia- 
ment Aug. 12, " 

Lords Kihnarnock and Balmeriuo executed for 

high treason on Tower Hill Aug. 18, " 

Simon Frascr (Lord Lovat), aged SO, executed, 

April 9,1747 

Thomson, the poet, dies Aug. 27,1748 

The Old Pretender, "Chevalier de St. George," 

dies at Rome Dec. 30,1765 

Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young 

Pretender, dies at Rome Jan. 31,1788 

Death of Robert Burns July 21,1796 

Scott's " Lay of the Last IMinstrel" published 1806 

Cardinal Henry, duke of York (last of the Stuarts), 

dies Aug., 1807 

The Court of Session is formed into two divisions, " 

" \Vaverley" published 1814 

The establishment of a jury court under a lord 

chief commissioner 1815 

Visit of George IV. to Scotland Oct., 1822 

Sir Walter Scott dies Sept. 21,1832 

Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogie 
are deposed by the General Assembly of the 
Church of Scotland for obeying the civil iu pref- 



erence to the ecclesiastical law. (Their deposi- 
tion was formally protested against by the mi- 
nority of ministers, headed by Dr. Cook), 

May 28,1841 

Ihe General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
grievance to the cause of true religion that 
ought to be abolished May 23,1842 

Visit of tho queen. Prince Albert, and the court; 
she lauded at Grantou pier Sept. 1, " 

The queen embarks Sept. 13, " 

Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
Church of Scotland (about 400) at the General 
Assembly (see Free Church) May 18,1843 

Death of Jeffrey Jan. 26,1850 

National Association for vindication of Scottish 
rights formed Nov.,1853 

Act for better government of the universities 

passed Aug.,lS5S 

(See Edinburg.) 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 
BEFORE CIIKIST. 

[The early accounts of the kings are by many histori- 
ans deemed in a great measure fabulous. The se- 
ries of kings is carried as far back as Alexander the 
Great.] 
330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea.* 

AFTER CURIST. 

357. Eugenius I., eon of Fincormachirs ; slain in bat- 
tle by Maximus, the Roman general, and the 
confederate Picts. 
*»* With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, 
after having existed from "the coronation of 
Fergus I., a period of 706 years ; the royal fam- 
ily fled to Denmark. — Boccc ; Bxu;hanan. 
[Interregnum of 27 years.] 

404. Fergus II. t (L), great-grandson of Eugenius and 
40th king; slam in battle with the Romans. 

420. Eugenius II., or Eveuus, sou of Fergus; reigned 
31 3-ears. 

451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother of Eugenius; 
defeated and drowned. 

457. Constantine I., brother of Dongardus; assa.siua- 
ted by Dugall, a noble whose'' daughter he had 
dishonored. 

479. Congallus I., nephew; just and prudent. 

501. Goranus, brother; murdered. — Boece. Died while 
Donald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. 
—Scott. 

535. Eugenius III., nephew— "none excelled him in 
justice." 

558. Congallus II., brother. 

569. Kinnatellus, brother; resigned for 

570. Aidanu^ or Aldan, son of Goranus. 

605. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 

606. Eugenius IV., son of Aidanus. 

621. Fefchard or Ferquhard I., son ; confined for mis- 
deeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands 
upon himself. — Scott. 

632. Donald IV., brother; drowaied in Loch Tay. 

640. Ferchard II., sou of Ferchard I. — "most execra- 
ble." 

004. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his 
wife for his supposed infidelity, for vvhich crime 
she was immediately afterward burnt. 

684. Eugenius V., brother. 

OSS. Eugenius VL, son of Ferchard 11. 

698. Aniberkeletus, nephew; fell by an arrow from 
an unknown hand. 

099. Eugenius VII., brother; some rutHans, designing 
the king's murder, entered his chamber, and he 
being absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 
death.— .S'co^t. 

715. IMordachus, son of Aniberkeletus. 

730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VIL 

701. Eugenius VIII., son of Mordachus; sensual and 
tvrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 

764. Fergus III., son of Etfinus; killed by his jealous 
queen, who afterward stabbed herself to escape 
a death of torture. 

707. Solvathius, son of Eugenius '\^II. 

787. Achaius; a just and wise prince. 

819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 

824. Dougal or Dougal, sou of Solvathius ; drowned. 

* Ferpus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army of Scots, 
and was chosen king. Having defeated the Britons and slain their king 
Coilus, the kingdom of the Scots was entailed upon his posterity for- 
ever. He went to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there, was 
drowned on his return, launching from the shore, near the harbor, 
called Varrick- Fergus to this day,3699 A.M.— .^nrferson. 

t Some call this Fergus the/r»< king, and suppose that either the 
foregoing kings were fabulous, or that they were only chiefs or gener- 
als of armies, having no royal authority. The controversy thus aris- 
ing I leave to be decided by the antiquaries, and must follow the re- 
ceived histories of Scotland. — Anderson. 



SCO 



420 



SCY 



S31. Alpine, son of Achaius; beheadedhy the Picts. 

SS-i. Kenneth II., son of Alpine, and surnamed Mac 
Alpine ; defeated the Picts, slew their king, 
and united them and the Scots under cue 
sceptre, and became the first sole monarch of 
all Scotland, 843. 

854. Donald v., brother; dethroned; committed sui- 
cide. 

858. Constantine II., son of Kenneth II. ; taken in 
battle by the Danes and beheaded. 

8T4. Eth orEtlius, surnamed Lightfoot; died of grief 
in prison, having been thrown into confinement 
for his sensuality and crimes. 

876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 

893. Donald VI., son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 

904. Constantine III., son of Ethus; became a monk, 
and resigned in favor of 

944. Malcolm I., son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 

,953. Indulfus or Goudulph ; killed by the Danes in an 
ambuscade. 

061. Duff or Duftus, son of Malcolm; murdered by 
Donald, the governor of Forres Castle. 

965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus; avenged the 
murder of his predecessor; assassinated at 
Methveu by a thane, whose daughter he had 
dishonored. 

9T0. Kenneth III., brother of Duffus; murdered by 
Fenella, the lady of Fettercairu. 

994. Constantine IV., son of Cullen ; slain. 

995. Grimus or the Grim, sou of Dufl'us; routed and 

slain in battle by Malcolm, the rightful heir to 
the crown, who succeeded. 

1003. Malcolm II., son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated 
on his way to Glamis; the assassins, in their 
flight crossing a frozen lake, were drowned. 

1033. Duncan I., grandson: assassinatedby his cousin. 

1039. Macbeth, usurper ; slain by Macdufi", the thane 
of Fife. 

* ^* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the num- 
ber of the kings, the dates of succession, and 
the circumstances narrated, that no account 
can be taken as precisely accurate. 

1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan ; killed 
while besieging Alnwick Castle. 

1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother of the usurp- 

er ; fled to the Hebrides. 

1094. Duncan II., natural son of Malcolm; murdered. 
" Donald Bane again; deposed. 

1098. Edgar, son of "Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
married his sister Maud). 

1107. Alexander the Fierce, brother. 

1124. David I., brother; married Matilda, daughter of 
Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 

1153. Malcolm IV., grandson. 

1165. William, surnamed the Lion ; brother. 

1214. Alexander II., son; married Joan, daughter of 
John, king of England. 

1249. Alexander III. ; married Margaret, daughter of 
Henry HI. of England ; dislocated his neck 
when hunting near Kinghorn. 

1285. Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway," grand- 
daughter of Alexander, "recognized by the 
States of Scotland, though a female, an infant, 
and a foreigner," died on her passage to Scot- 
land. 

A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. of 
England decides in favor of 

1292. John Baliol, who afterward surrendered his 
crown and died in exile. 
[Interregnnm.] 

1306. Robert (Bruce) I., a great prince. 

1329. David (Bruce) II., son ; Edward Baliol disputed 
the throne with him. 

1.832. Edward Baliol, son of John; resigned. 

1342. David II. again ; eleven years a prisoner in En- 
gland. 

1371. Robert (Stuart) II., nephew. 

1390. Robert III., son (whose name was John). 

1406. James I., second son; imprisoned eighteen years 
in England ; set at liberty in 1423 ; conspired 
against and murdered at Perth, Feb. 20, 1437. — 
Banks. 

1437. James II., son; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
Castle by a cannon bursting, Aug. 3, 1460. 

1460. James III., son; killed in a revolt of his subjects 
at Bannockburu field, June 11, 14S8. 

1488. James IV., son; marriedMargaretTudor, daugh- 
ter of Henry VII. of England; killed at the bat- 
tle of Flodcien. 

1513. James V., son ; succeeded when little more than 
a year okl ; a sovereign possessing many vir- 
tues. 

1542. Mary, dauL'hter ; born Dec. S, 1.542, succeeded in 
her infancy. See Annals, above. 



1567. James VI., son. Succeeded to the throne of En- 
gland, and the kingdoms became united, 1603. 
(See Enfjlaml.) 

SCREW was known to the Greeks. The pumping- 
screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising 
water, invented 236 B.C., is still in use. It is stated 
that with the assistance of the screw, one man can 
press down or raise up as much as l.'iO men can do 
without it. — The Sokew-Proi>eller consists of two or 
more twisted blades, like the vanes of a windmill, set 
on an axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, 
and revolving beneath the water at the stern. It is 
driven by a steam-engine. The jirinciple is as old as 
the windmill. It was shown by Hooke in 1081, and 
since by Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. Patents for 
propellers were taken out by Joseph Bramah in 1784; 
by Wm. Lyttelton in 1794; and by Edward Shorter in 
1799. But these led to no useful result. Ilov/ever, in 
1836, patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and Caj)- 
tain John Ericsson, and to them the successful appli- 
cation of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The 
first vessels with the screw were the Archimedes, built 
on the Thames in 1836, and the Rattler, built in the 
United States (1814), and tried in England in 1845. 
Double screw-propellers are now employed. 

SCULLABOGUE. See Massacres, 1798. 

SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the Egyp- 
tians. Pausanias refers the nearest approach to per- 
fection in the art to 560 B.C. Bezaleel and Aholiab 
built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all 
the vessels and ornaments, 1491 B.C., and their skill is 
recorded as the gift of God. — Exod. xxxi., 3. Dipoenus 
and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at 
Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first who 
sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues before 
their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alexander gave 
Lysippus the sole right of making his statues, 326 B.C. 
He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were so 
highly valued in the age of Augustus that they sold 
for their weight in gokl. Sculpture did not fiourisli 
among the Romans; and in the Middle Ages had 
much'degraded. With the revival of painting, it re- 
vived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, 
A.D. 13S3, was the earliest professor among the mod- 
erns. An institute of sculptors was established in 1861. 

EMINENT SCULPTORS. 



Pheidon flourished B.C.809 

Mvron 480 

Phidias 442 

Praxiteles 303 

Lysippus 328 

Chares 288 

Michael Angelo Buona- 
rotti A.D. 1474-1504 



Bacon 1740-1799 

Canova 1757-1822 

Flaxman 1754-1726 

Chautrey 1781-1841 

Thorwaldsen . . . .1770-1844 
SirR.Westmacottl775-lS56 

Ranch 1777-1857 

J.Thomas 1813-1862 



Bernini 1598-1680, Wm. Behnes 1864 

Roubiliac, statue C. Kiss 1802-1865 

Sir I. Newton. . died 1762' J. Gibson 1791-1866 

Among the more celebrated American sculptors are 
Paul Akers, Crawford, Hiram Powers, H. K. Brown, 
Greenough, Miss Harriet Ilosmer, Miss Margaret Fo- 
ley, Miss" Emma Stebbins, and Miss Lander. 

SCUTAGE or Escdage. The service of the shield 
(scutum) is either uncertain or certain. Escuage un- 
certain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to 
follow his lord ; and is called Castleward, where the 
tenant is bound to defend a castle. Escuage certain 
is where the tenant is set at a certain sum'of money 
to be paid in lieu of such uncertain services. The first 
tax levied in England to pay an army, 5 Hen. II., 1159. 
— Coioel. 

SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople, 
of which it is a suburb. It was anciently called Chry- 
sopoUs, golden city, in consequence, it is said, of the 
Persians having established a treasury here when they 
attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here Con- 
stantine finally defeated Liciuius, 324. The hospital 
was occupied by the sick and wounded of the Anglo- 
French army in 18.54-5, whose sufl'erings were much 
alleviated by the kind exertions of Miss Florence 
Nightingale and a band of nurses under her, aided by 
a large "fund of money (£15,000) subscribed by the 
public and placed in the care of the proprietors of the 
Times newspaper. See Times. 

SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts of 
Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown to 
the ancients. The Scythians made several irruptions 
upon the more southern ])rovinces of Asia, especially 
6''4 B.C., when they remained in possession of Asia 
Minor for twenty-eight years, and at difi'erent periods 
extended their conquests in Europe, penetrating as far 
as Egypt. See Tartanj. 



SEA 



421 



SEI 



SEA-FIGIITS. Sec Xaval nattles. 

SEALS or Signets. Eiitrraved trcnis were nsecl as 
such by the Egyptiaus, Jews, Assyrians, and Greeks 
(sec Exitd. xxviii., 14). The Komaiis in the time of 
tlio Tar(iuiiis (about COO B.C.) hud gemmed rings. 
They sealed rooms, granaries, bat;s of money, etc. 
Tlie (icrnian emperor Frederick I. (.\.D. 115'-') had 
seals of gold, silver, and tin. Ini])ressions of the seals 
of Saxon kings are extant; and the English great seal- 
is attributed to Edward the Confessor' (1041-()6). "A 
seal with armorial bearings before the llth century is 
certainly false." — Fofibrohc. The most ancient English 
seal with arms on it is said to !)e that of Richard I. or 
John. White and colored waxes were used. Our pres- 
ent sealing-wax, containing shellac, did not come into 
general use in Germany and England until al)out 1556. 
Red wafers for seals came into use about \&2i, but were 
uot used for public seals till the ISth century. 

SEA, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England to 
nile the British seas is of very ancient date. "Arthur 
is said to have assumed it, and Alfred afterward sup- 
ported this right. It was maintained by Selden, and 
measures were taken by government in consequence, 
8 Chas I., 160:5. The Dutch, after the death of Charles 
I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly 
treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and oth- 
er powers of the North armed to avoid search, 1T80 ; 
again, 1800. See Armed Seutralitij and Flar/. 

SEBASTIAN, St. (N. Spain), was taken by the 
French, under the Duke of Berwick, in 1T19. It was 
besieged by the British and Allied army under Wel- 
lington. After a most heavy bombardment, by which 
the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it was storm- 
ed by General Graham (afterward Lord Lynedoch), 
and taken Aug. 31, 1S13. The loss sustained by the 
besiegers, though not considerable, was chietiyBrit- 

ish ^Ou May 5, IS.-iC, the fortilied works, through the 

centre of wliich ran the high road to Hernani, were 
carried by the English auxiliary legion under General 
Evans, after very" hard lighting. The British naval 
squadron off St. Sebastian, under Lord John Hay, lent 
very opportune aid to the victors in this contest. — A 
vigorous assault was made on the lines of General De 
Lacy Evans at St. Sebastian by the Carlists, Oct. 1, 
1S3C. Both parties fought with bravery. The Carl- 
ists were repulsed, aftei^ suffering severely. The lose 
of the An<jlo-Spanish force was"3T6 men and 3T offi- 
cers killeci and wounded. General De Lacy Evans was 
slightly wounded. 

SEBASTOPOL or SEVASTorot, a town and once a 
naval arsenal at the S.W. point of the Crimea, former- 
ly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were 
commenced iu 1754 by Catharine 11. after the conquest 
of the country. . The town is built iu the shape of an 
amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill thittened on its 
summit, according to a plan laid down before 1704, 
which has been since adhered to. The fortifications 
and harbor were constructed by an English engineer. 
Colonel Upton, and his sons, since 1S30. The popula- 
tion in ls:!4 was 15,000. This place will be memorable 
hereafter for its eleven months' Siege by the English 
and French iu 1S54 and ISS.^. Immediately after the 
battle of the Alma, Sept. 20, 1S54, the Allied army 
marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on 
the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand 
attack and bombardment commenced Oct. 17, 1854, 
without success.* After many sanguinary encounters 
by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a 
grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Mal- 
akhoft" tower and the Redans, the most important for- 
tifications to the south of the town. The French suc- 
ceeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhotf. The 
attacks of the English upon the great Redan, and of 
the French upon the little Redan, were successful, but 
the assailants were compelled to retire, after a desper- 
i\U'. strugu'le, with great loss of life. The French lost 
1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 
ll(i inferior officers, 4500 woiVnded, and 1400 missing. 
The English lost iiS5 killed (29 being commissioned 
and 42 non-commissioned officers), 1SS6 wounded, and 
176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned 



* In consequence of the sufferinprs and disasters of the army in tlie 
winter of 1S54-5, the Schastopol Inquiry Committee was appointed, and 
the Aberdeen administration re8itrned,"Feb,, 1855. The conmiittee sat 
from Murcli 1 to May 15, Lord Aberdeen beinp: the last person exam- 
ined. Its report was presented June 18. Mr. Roebuck, the chairman, 
moved on July 17 that the House should pass a vote of severe reprehen- 
sion on every member of the At)erdeen administration. On July 19 his 
motion was 'lost by a majority of 107 atrainst it. In 1855 the govern- 
ment sent Sir John M'Neill and Col. TuUoch to inquire into the state 
of the armies in the Crimea. Tlieir report was presented to Parliament 
in Feb., 1^5t>. A commission was appointed to consider the stjitements 
in the report (which were very unfavorable to many officers), but tlie 
substance of the report was uusbaken. 



the southern and principal part of the town and forti- 
fications, after destroying as much as possible, and 
crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt 
the remainder of their fleet. The Allies found a very 
great amount of stores when they entered the place, 
July 0. The works were utterly destroyed in April, 
1856, and the town was restored to the Russians iu 
July. See Uusso-Turkish War. 

SECESSION ORDINANCES. The beginning of the 
Civil War in the United States dates from the seces- 
sion from the Union of the Southern States in the 
spring of 1801. The Ordinances of Secession were 
passed by these states in the following order: By 
South Carolina, December 20, 1860 ; Florida, January 
7, 1861 ; Mississippi, January 9, 1861 ; Alabama, Janu- 
ary 11, 1861 ; Georgia, January 19, 1861 ; Louisiana, 
January 26, 1S61 : Texas, February 7, 1861 ; Virginia, 
April 17, 1861 ; Arkansas, :Mav 6, 1861 ; Tennessee, May 
6, 1861 ; North Carolina, Jlay 20, 1861. At the close of 
a four years' war, iu which the armies of the seceded 
states (which had united in a corporate body styled 
"the Confederate States of America") were subdued 
by the National forces, these ordinances were annulled. 

SECRETARIES op State. The earliest authentic 
record of a secretary of state is in the rei^n of Henry 
III., when John Maimsell is described as ^^ Secretarius 
Xoster," 1253. — Rijincr. Toward the close of Henry 
VIII.'s reign, two secretaries were ajipoiuted ; and, 
upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as 
secretary for Scotch atfairs : this appointment was aft- 
erward laid aside; but iu the reign of George III. the 
number was again increased to three, one forlhe Amer- 
ican department. In 1782 this last was abolished by 
act of Parliament, and the secretaries were appointed 
for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there 
were but two secretaries, one held the portcfeuille of 
the Northern department, comprising the Low Coun- 
tries, German}^ Denmark, Sweden, "Poland, Russia, 
etc. ; the other, of the Southern department, including 
France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Tur- 
key ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to the elder sec- 
retary ; both secretaries then equally directed the 
home affairs. — Bcatson. There are now five secreta- 
ries — home, foreign, colonial, war, and India (appoint- 
ed iu 1858), all in the cabinet. See Administrations. 

SECTS, RELIGIOUS. See under Worship, and their 
respective titles. 

SECULAR GAMES {Lxuli Sceculares). Very an- 
cient Roman games, celebrated on important occa- 
sions. Horace wrote his "Carmen Sfficulare" for their 
celebration, in the reign of the Emperor Augustus (17). 
This took place again iu the reign of Claudius (47), of 
Domitian (88), and for the last time, of Philip (248), be- 
lieved to be 2000 years after the foundation of the city. 

SEDAN CHAIRS, so called from Sedan, on the 
Meuse, in France. The first seen in England was iu 
1481. One was used iu the reign of James I. by the 
Duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the 
people, who e.xciaimed that he was employing his fel- 
low-creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs 
came into fashion in London in 1634, when Sir Francis 
Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and 
hire a number of such covered chairs for fourteen 
years. They came into very general use iu 1649. 

SEDGEMOOR (Somersetshire), where the Duke of 
Monmouth (the natural son of Charles II. by Lucy 
Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession 
of James II., was completely defeated by the royal 
army, July 6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner, in 
the disguise of a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, 
overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. He was 
beheaded on July 15 following. 

SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the reign 
of George III. The proclamation against seditious 
writings was published May, 1792. Tlie celebrated Se- 
dition Bill passed Dec, 179,5. Seditious societies were 
suppressed bv act, June, 1797. The Seditious Meetings 
and Assemblies' Bill passed March 31, 1817. In Ire- 
land, during the Roman Catholic and Repeal agita- 
tion, acts or proclamations against sedition and sedi- 
tious meetings were published from time to time until 
1848. 

SEEKERS. See Qtiakers. 
SEICENTO. See Itali/, p. 2G0, note. 

SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought April 
10, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. The Poles 
obtained the victory after a bloody conflict, taking 4000 
prisoners and several pieces of cannon. The killed 
and wounded on both sides amounted to many thou- 



SEI 



422 



SER 



sands. This success was soon followed by fatal re- 
verses. 

SBISMOMETRY (from seismos, Greek for earth- 
quake), au apparatus for measuring the violence of 
the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert Mallet iu 
his work on earthquakes, published in 1S5S. 

SELENIUM, a grayish-white metal discovered iu 
the stone riolite by Berzelins iu 1S17. 

SELEUCIA, a part of Syria, was made the capital 
of the Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nica- 
tor, 312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidoe it became 
a republic, 65 B.C. It was taken by Trajan, A.D. 116 ; 
was i^everal times given up and retaken; was subju- 
gated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, G36. 
SELEUCIDES, Er.*. of the, dates from the reign of 
Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria for many years, 
and frequently by the Jews until the 15th century, and 
by some Arabians. Opinions vary as to its commence- 
ment. To reduce it to our era (supposing it to begin 
Sept. 1, 312 B.C.), subtract 311 years 4 months. 

SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which ordained 
that no member of Parliament should hold any civil or 
military office or command conferred by either or both 
of the houses, or by authority derived from them, was 
passed April 3, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who 
thus removed the Earl of Essex and other Presbyteri- 
ans out of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance 
was adopted by the Parliament at Melbourne, iu Aus- 
tralia, iu 1858. 

SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans under 
Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus Doson aud 
the Achajaus, 221 B.C. 

SEMINCAS (Castile, Spain). Here, in 93S, the Moors 
were totally defeated by Ramirez II., king of Leon and 
Asturias. It is said that more than 80,000 of the iufl- 
dels were slaiu. 

SEMINOLE WAR. Toward the close of 1835, the 
Semiuole Indians in Florida, guided by their head 
sachem, Micauopy, and led by their principal chief, 
Osceola, commenced a most distressing warfare upon 
the frontier settlements of Florida and Georgia. The 
cause of the outbreak was an attempt, by the Federal 
government, to remove them to the wilderness beyond 
the Mississippi. Provision had been made for their 
peaceable removal. The Indians refused to go, and 
United States troops were sent into Florida, to remove 
them by force, if necessary. For almost seven years 
the Seminoles, iu their swamps and everglades, re- 
sisted the large number of United States troops who 
were sent there under the most eminent army officers. 
At one time the Creeks, who were about to be re- 
moved from Georgia and Alabama, aided their breth- 
ren in Florida by attacking white settlers within their 
domain. This war cost the United States many valu- 
able lives and millions of treasure. See Battles. 

SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here was fought a bat- 
tle between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria, 
July 9, 1386. The Swiss gained a great victory, n ■ d 
the duke was slain. The liberty of their country was 
established, and the day is still commemorated at 
Sempach. 

SEMPER R4 7) B.U ("Always the same"), one of the 
mottoes of Queen Elizabeth, was adopted by Queen 
Anne Dec. 13, 1702. Many suspected this motto to de- 
note her Jacobitism. It ceased to be used after her 
reign. 

SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French royal 
household. In the reign of Philip I., 1059, the office 
was esteemed the highest place of trust. 

SENONES, a Celtic tribe. Invaded Lower Italy, and 
were defeated by Camillus, 367 B.C. They defeated 
Metellns the consul at Arretium, 284, but were almost 
exterminated by Dolabella, 283. 

SENTINUM (Central Italy). The site of a great 
victory of the Romans over the Samnites and Gauls, 
whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 295 B.C. 

SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdh'i, Hiudostanee for a 
soldier), the term applied to the native troops in India. 
Under able generals they greatly aided in establishing 
British rule in India. For their mutinies, see Madras, 
1S07, and India, 1857. 

SEPTEMBER, the seventh Roman month reckoned 
from March (from Septimus, seventh). It became the 
ninth month when January and February were added 
to the year by Numa, 713 B.C. The Roman senate 
would have given this month the name of Tiberius, 
but the emperor opposed it; the Emperor Domilian 
gave it his own name, Germanicus; the senate under 



Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commo- 
dus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the Emperor 
Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. 

SEPTBMBRIZERS. In the French Revolution a 
dreadful massacre took place in Paris, Sept. 2-5, 1792. 
The prisons were broken open, and the prisoners 
butchered, among them au ex-bishop, and nearly 100 
non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number 
of persons slaiu at 1200, others at 4000. The agents iu 
this slaughter were named Septembrizers. 

SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Edward L held 
but one Parliament every two years. In the 4th Ed- 
ward III. it was enacted "that a Parliament should 
be holden every year once." This continued to be 
the statute-law till 16th Charles I., 1041, when an act 
was passed for holding Parliaments once in three 
years at least; repealed in 1604. The Triennial Act 
was re-enacted in 1694. Trienuial Parliaments thence 
continued till the second year of Geor^'e I.'s reign, 
May, 1716, when, in consequence of the allegation 
that "a popish faction were designing to renew the 
rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an inva- 
sion from abroad, it was enacted that the then Parlia- 
ment should continue for seven years." This Sejitcn- 
nial Act has ever since been iu force. See Parlia- 
ments. Several unsuccessful motions have been made 
for its repeal ; one in May, 1837. 

SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY in 1S66, Jan. 28; in 
1867, Feb. 17 ; in 1S6S, Feb. 9. See Quadragesima Sun- 
day and Week. 

SEPTUAGINT VERSION or the Bibt.e, made from 
Hebrew into Greek, 277 B.C. Seventy-two translators 
were shut up in thirty-six cells; each pair translated 
the whole ; and on subsequent comparison, the thirty- 
six copies did not vary by a word or letter. — Justin 
M%rt!ir. St. Jerome affirms that they translated only 
the Pentateuch; but St. Justin and others say they 
translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave the 
Jews about a million sterling "for a copy of the Testa- 
ment, and seventy translators half a million more for 
the translation.— ./o.s?J9/m(.s. Finished in seventy-two 
Aays.—Heidett. The above statements are merely tra- 
ditional. See Bible. 

SERAPIS, Temple or (near Naples), was exhumed 
in 1750. The investigations of Lyell and Babbage into 
the history of the sinking and burying of this temple 
are of great geological interest. 
SERFS. See Slavery (note), and Russia, 18C1, 1SG3. 
SERINGAPATAM (S.India). Seeil^/sorc. The bat- 
tle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of Arikera, 
in which tlie British defeated Tippoo Sahib, was 
fought May 15, 1791. The redoubts were stormed, 
and Tippoo was reduced by Lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 
1792. After this capture preliminaries of peace were 
signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one half of Mysore, 
and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about i:3,300,00d ster- 
ling) to England, and to give up to Lord Cornwallis 
his two eldest sons as hostages. — In a new war, the 
Madras army, under General Harris, arrived before 
Seringapatam April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bom- 
bay army April 14 ; and the place was stormed and 
carried by Major General Baird, May 4, same year. Iu 
this engagement Tippoo was killed. 

SERVIA, a hereditary principality nominally sub- 
ject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The Servians are 
of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about 
640. The Emperor Manuel subjected them in 1150; 
but they recovered their independence in 1180, and 
were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till 
their countrv was finally subdued by the Sultan Mo- 
hammed II. 'in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000. 

A Servian rebellion quelled 17.3T 

The Servians assist Austria by free companies,17SS-90 

Again rebel, and capture Belgrade 1806 

Kara George, aided by the Russians, establishes a 

government 1807-11 

The Turks break a treaty and Kara George flees.. 1814 

Their governor Milosch rebels ..March, 1815 

Kara George, returning, is executed 1816 

Milosch I. recognized as hereditary prince by the 

sultan Aug. 15,1829 

Milosch, becoming despotic, is compelled to abdi- 
cate, and a new Constitution established, 

June 13,1839 
His son Michael also retires ; Alexander, sou of 

Kara George, chosen prince , Sept. 14,1842 

Alexander, becoming unpopular, is compelled to 
abdicate, and Alexander Milosch is re-elected 

prince Dec, 23,1858 

Plot against Milosch frustrated, July 11 ; the Ser- 
vian assembly meets ..July 13,1860 



SES 



423 



SHA 



Milosch dies; succeecled by his son Michael III., 

Obreuovitch {present ruler) Sept. 20,1SG0 

Risiiic; movemeut to reuder Serviii iudepeudeut 

of Till key M!UTh,lSGl 

Di.spiite.s between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belirrado, wliich leads to bloodshed; 
June 15, tlu' cit v l)ciiiil)ardcd ; submits, June 17; 

the Turkish paslia dismissed June 19,1802 

A conference of the representatives of the <,'reat 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte 
agrees to liberal concessions to the Servians, 

which tlieir prince accepts Oct. 7, " 

SESSION COURTS in England were appointed to 
he hold quarterly in 1413, and the times for holding 
them regulated in 1831. See Qimrter Sessions and 
Court, of Session. The kirk-session in Scotland con- 
sists of the ministers and elders of each parish. They 
superintend religious worship and discipline, dispense 
the money collected for the poor, etc. 

SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus. See Helles- 
pont. Near Sestus was the western end of Xerxes's 
bridge across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Sestus was re- 
taken from the Persians by the Athenians 478 B.C., 
and held by them till 404, giving them the command 
of the trade of the Euxine. 

SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the succession 
to the British throne, to the exclusion of Roman Cath- 
olics, was passed in 10S9. This name is also given to 
the statute by which the crown, after the demise of 
William III. and (Jiieen Anne, without issue, was lim- 
ited to Sophia, electress of Hanover, granddaughter 
of James I., and to heirs being Protestants, 1702. The 
Irish Act of Settlement, passed in 1G62, was repealed 
in 1089. See Hanover. 

SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the angels (min- 
isters) of which the Apostle John was commanded to 
write the epistles contained in the 2d and 3d chapters 
of his Revelation, viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, 
Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 90. 

1. kpliesus (which see). Paul founded the church here, 
57. In 50 he was in great danger from a tumult cre- 
ated by Demetrius : to the elders of this church he 
delivered his warning address, 00 (Acts xix., xx.). 
Ephesus was in a ruinous state even iu the time of 
Justinian (527), and still remains so. 

2. Smijrna. Now an important commercial city and 
sea-port of Ionia. Polycarp, its first bishop, suffered 
martyrdom, 175. 

3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same 
name, founded by Philetserus, whom Lysimachus, 
one of Alexander's generals, had made governor, 
283 B.C. He was succeeded by Eumenes I., 203; 
Attains (who took the title of kiii'^'), 241 ; Eumenes 
II. (who collected a great library), 197 ; Attains II., 
159 ; Attains III., 138. He bequeathed his kingdom 
to the Romans, 133. It revolted, was subdued, and 
made the Roman province, Asia. Pergamos is still 
an important place, called Bergamo. Parchment is 
said to have been invented here. 

4. Thi/atira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called 
Ak-hissar, " W' hite Castle." 

5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom 
of Crcesus (500 B.C.), is now a miserable village 
named Sart. 

C. J'hihuUlphia was built by Attains (III.) Philadel- 

phus, king of Pergamos (159-138 B.C.) ; was taken 

by Bajazet I., A.l). 1390. It is now called Allah 

Shehr, " The city of God," and is a miserable town 

of 3000 houses. 
7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia, has suffered much 

from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place called 

Eske-his^ar, "The old castle." 

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the conflict maintained by 
Frederick H. of Prussia against Austria, Russia, and 
France, from 1750 to 1703. See Battles. He gained Si- 
lesia. 

SEVENTH-DAY BAPTIST. See article Sabbatari- 
ans, etc. 

SRVERUS'S WALL. See lioman Walls. 

SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalls of the Phoeni- 
cians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the capital 
until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, 
1503. It oi)ened its gates to the Saracens in 712, and 
was taken from them by the Christians in 1247, af.er 
an obstinate siege. The i)eace of Seville between En- 
gland, France, and Spain, and also a defensive alliance 
to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. In the 
Peninsular War, Seville surrendered to the French, 
Feb. 1, ISIO; and was taken by assault by the British 
and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamaiica, Aug. 27, 
1812. 



SEVRES. See Porcelain. 

SEWERS. An act was passed in 1S47 enforcing the 
conveyance of the sewerage of houses into the public 
sewers. The Commissioners of Sewers in Loudon 
were superseded by the Metropolitan Commissioners 
of Sewers, nominated by the government. Thev abol- 
ished the large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, 
and turned the contents of 30,no0 cesspools into the 
River Thames. The necessity for purifying the river 
led to the construction of a new system of drainage, 
under the superintendence of the Metropolitan Board 
of Works {which see). The main drainage (the plan 
of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) consists of the Northern Iligh- 
level, Middle-level, and Low-level, and Southern High- 
level and Low-level. On March 14, 1805, the works 
were said to be completed, except the Low-level sewer 
on the north side, which was waiting for the comple- 
tion of the Thames embankment, etc. On April 4, 
1805, the Prince of Wales started the engines which 
commenced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, 
at Crossness Point, near Erith.* Estimated total cost, 
i;4,000,000. See Carbolic Acid. 

SEWING MACHINE. First invented by Elias 
Howe, of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts (born 1819, 
died 1807). His first invention was given to the pub- 
lic in 1847, but he could not find any one willing to 
believe that it was a success. He carried his machine 
to England with no better result. At last the tide 
turned in his favor, and in 185-1 his rights were gener- 
ally acknowledged. Many other machines have been 
invented, but they are all more or less indebted to 
Howe for the idea, particularly the needle. These 
machines are adapted for any fabric, and the amount 
of work which can be done with them is almost in- 
credible. 

SEX AGESIMA SUNDAY. See Quadragesima Sun- 
day and Week. 

SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, con- 
taining sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle, in- 
vented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. — Vince's 
Astron. The Arabian astronomers are said to have 
had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, 
about 995.— .4s;ie. 

SHAKERS, a religious society of celibates in the 
United States, which originated in England at the 
middle of the last century. Ann Lee, wife of a black- 
smith, professed to have liad a revelation that marriage 
and its rites were impure, and that she was the female 
manifestation of Christ in the world (Jesus of Naza- 
reth being the male), the Deity being composed of the 
two sexes, and became incarnate in the form of man 
and woman at different periods. They live in com- 
munities, the men and women separate, are remarka- 
ble for the purity of their lives, cleanliness, industry, 
and thrift. Ann Lee came to the United States, with a 
few followers, just as the Revolution was kindling, and 
established the "Millennial Church" at Niskayuna, a 
few miles from Albany, where her remains lie buried. 
Her followers almost worship her, and call her Mother 
Ann. They have 18 societies in the United States, 
with an aggregate membership of about 4000. 

SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shakspeare was 
born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, April 23, 
1504, and died on his birthday, 1010. The first collect- 
ed edition of his works is dated 1023 [a fac-simile of 
this edition was published 1802-5] ; the second, 1032 ;t 
the third, 1044 ; the fourth, 1085— all in folio. Critical 
editions of the text, edited by Alexander Dyce, were 
published in 1857 and 1804-0 ; Boydell's edition, with 
numerous plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 
1802. Ayscongh's Index to Sliakspcare was publish- 
ed in 1790; Twiss's Index, in Ino."); and Mrs. Cowden 
Clarke's Concordance, 1847. See Irclamrs Forgeries. 
Shakspf.arf.'s Globe Tiieatrk, London, was situated 
near the spot still called Bankside, at the com- 
mencement of the 17th century. Shakspeare was 
himself part proprietor; here some of his plays 
were first produced, and he himself first performed 

» The ^itUizatlon of disinfected sewage as manure ia now much advo- 
cated. Great success is said to have 'been attained at Edinhurg, Car- 
lisle, Croydon, and other places. Much hot controversy has arisen re- 
specting "this disposal of the London sewage. On Nov. 15, 1864, the 
Jtetrop'olitan Board accepted a contract for its disposal from Messrs. 
Hope and Napier. The Sewage Utilization Act and the JMetropoUtan 
Sewage and Essex Reclamation Acts were passed in June, 1S65. 

t In 1849, Mr. .1. P. Collier, editor of an edition of Shakspeare, pur- 
chased a copy of the second folio, on which was written in pencil a 
number of corrections, supposed to have been made soon after tlie time 
of publication. At first he thought little of these marks; but in 1853 
he was induced to publish " Notes and Emendations" derived from this 
volume. Much controversy ensued as to the authenticity of these cor- 
rections ; and in 1S59 it was generally agreed that they were of modern 
date, and conseouently of little value. 



SUA 



424 



SHI 



in them. It was of a horse-shoe form, partly covered 
with thatch. After it was licensed, the thatch took 
fire, through the negligent discharge of a piece of 
ordnance, and the whole building was consumed. 
The house was crowded to excess, to witness the 
play of Henry VIII., but the audience escaped un- 
hurt. This was the end of Shakspeare's connection 
with this theatre : it was rebuilt the following year, 
much in the same style, about 1603. 

Shaksprake's Jubilee, and that projected by David 
Garrick, was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avou, Sept. 
6-8, 17G9; a similar festival was kept April 23, 1830. 
The tercentenary of Shakspeare's birth was cele- 
brated with many festivities at Stratford-on-Avon, 
April 23, 1865. 

Siiakbpeaue's Native Place.— In 1847, a number of 
persons of distinction interested themselves for the 
preservation of the house in which Shakspeare was 
born, then actually set up for sale : they held a meet- 
ing at the Thatched-House Tavern, Loudon, Aug. 26, 
in that year, and took measures for promoting a sub- 
scription set on foot by the Shakspeariau Club at 
Stratford-upon-Avon, and a committee was appoint- 
ed to carry out their object. In the end Shakspeare's 
house was sold at the Auction Mart in the city of 
London, where it was "knocked down" to the Unit- 
ed Committee of London and Stratford for the large 
sum of £3000, Sept. 16, 184T. In 1866, a learned Ori- 
ental scholar, John Shakspeare, no relation of the 
poet, gave £2500 to purchase the adjoining house, 
that it might be pulled down, in order to insure the 
poet's house from the risk of tire. 

Shakspeare's Garden was bought by subscription got 
up by Mr. J. O. Halliwell, in Oct. and Nov., 1861. 

SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock used by 
the Irish was introduced by Patrick M'Alpine, since 
called St. Patrick, as a simile of the Trinity, 432. When 
he could not make them understand him by his words, 
he showed the Irish a stem of clover or trefoil, there- 
by exhibiting an ocular demonstration of the possibil- 
ity of three uniting into one, and one into three. 

SHAWLS are of Oriental origin. The manufacture 
was introduced by Barrow and Watson, in 1784, at Nor- 
wich. It began at Paisley and Edinburg about 1805.— 
lire. 

SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, and, 
the breed being thereby improved, produced the fine 
Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woolen 
manufacture, 8 Edw. IV., li&T .—Anderson. Their ex- 
portation was prohibited on pain of fine and imprison- 
ment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United King- 
dom has been variously stated— by some at 43,000,000, 
by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 
1840. The number must have progressively increased 
to the present time, particularly as the unrestricted 
importation since 1S46 vastly swells the amount. In 
1851 there were imported into England 201,859 sheep 
and lambs ; in 185S, 184,482 ; in 1864, 49l>,243. In Aug. 
and Sept., 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of smafl- 
pox; and (m Sept. 11, government declared its inten- 
tion of enforcing the act for the prevention of conta- 
gion. The evil soon abated. 

SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dock-yard, planned 
and fortified by Charles II. in 1667, was taken by the 
Dutch, under De Ruyter, June 11, same yfear. Im- 
proved since 1815. 

SHEFFIELD, on the River Sheaf, West Ridino- 
Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated goods etc' 
Shettield thwytles are mentioned by Chaucer, iii the 
time of Edward III. ShefHeld, in the time of the Con- 
queror, was obtained by Roger de Buisli, and has since 
been held by the Lovetots, Nevils, Talbots, Howards. 
St. Peter's church built temp. Henry I. 
Hospital and almshouses erected by the Earl of 

Malmesbury \f,\& 

Cutlers' Cimipany incorporated ., . !i624 

The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken 

and demolished by the Parliamentarians 164S 

Cutlers' Hall built 17-26 

Plate Assay Office established '. !l773 

Made a borough by the Reform Act 1832 

Wesley College opened 1838 

Sheffield and Manchester Railway opened 1845 

Atheufeum and Mechanics' Institution opened 1849 

John A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck, of 

Sheffield, M.P. for Sheffield) May, 1849-66 

Embankment of the Bradiield Water Reservoir 
broke down, and flooded Sheffield and the coun- 
try 12 or 14 miles round ; about 250 lives were 
lost; many buildings and much property de- 
stroyed ; estimated loss, X327,000 March 11,1SG4 



£52,751 had been collected for the sufferers, 

April 29,1864 • 
The Surrey Music Hall burnt March 25,1865 

SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, formed at the 
death of the Marquis of Rockingham, July, 1782; ter- 
minated April, 1783; and was succeeded by the "Co- 
alition" administration. 
The Earl of Shelburne (afterward Marquess of Lans- 

duwne), Fii-Kt hunl of the Treasury. 
William Pitt, ChunreUor if the Exchequer. 
Lord (afterward Earl) Camden, President of the Coun- 
cil. 
Duke of Grafton Privy Seal. 
Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend 

(afterward lord Sydney), Secretaries. 
Viscount Keppel, Admiralty. 
Duke of Ricliinond, Ordnance. 
Lord Thurlow, Lord Chancellor. 
Henry Dundas, Isaac Barre, Sir George Yonge, etc. 

SHELLS. See Bombs. 

SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shire-reve, 
governor of a shire or county. London had its sheriffs 
prior to William I.'s reign ; but some say that sheriffs 
were first nominated for every county in England by 
William in 1079. According to other historians, Hen- 
ry Cornhill and Richard Reynere were the first sherift's 
of London, 1 Rich. I., 1189. The nomination of sheriffs 
according to the present mode took place in 1461. — 
Stoiv. Anciently sheriffs were hereditary in Scotland, 
and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The 
sheriffs of Dublin (first called bailifls) were appointed 
in 1308, and obtained the name of sheriff" by an incor- 
poration of Edward VI., 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were 
fined, and eleven excused in one year, rather than serve 
the office for Loudon, 1734. See Bailiffs. 

SHERIFFMUIR. See Dumblane. 

SIIERIMAN'S MARCH. This expression is used to 
designate the bold and important movement of Sher- 
man's army, between 60,000 and 70,000 strong, from 
Atlanta to Savannah, and thence through the Caro- 
linas to Goldsborough, Nov. 10, 1864-March 22, 1865. 
When Hood, after the loss of Atlanta, moved against 
Sherman's communications, the latter followed him 
with nearly his entire army, iu order to protect the 
railroad until it should have served his purpose. Aft- 
er the Coni'ederate reverse at Allatooua Pass, Hood 
evaded a battle, and Sherman gave up the chase, left 
the Department of the Mississippi virtually in Thom- 
as's hands, and, on the 16th of Nov., having destroyed 
Atlanta and made a wreck of the railroad back to lial- 
ton, marched eastward for the Atlantic coast. He de- 
stroyed the railroad as he moved, threatened both Ma- 
con and Augusta, thus forcing the Confederates to di- 
vide their forces, then passed both, and moved down 
the peninsula between the Ogeechee and Savannah 
Rivers. About the middle oi^ Dec, Sherman stood 
before Savannah, then held by the Confederate Gen- 
eral Hardee, almost completely invested the city, and 
captured Fort M'Allister (Dec. 13), thus gaining access 
to Dahlgren's fleet. Hardee evacuated Savannah Dec. 
20, and the nest day Sherman's army entered that city. 
Over 200 guns were captui-ed with Savannah, and 35,000 
bales of cotton were seized as a legitimate prize of war. 
Sherman transferred the forts and city to General Fos- 
ter (Jan. IS, 1865), and began his march through the Car- 
olinas. He threatened at once Augusta and Charles- 
ton, and jiassed both. On the 12th of Feb., Charleston, 
evacuated by Hardee, was occupied by the national 
forces. Whil^ Sherman was approaching Goldsbor- 
ough, Hardee's forces, with the remnants of Hood's 
old army and detachments from other sotirces, were 
gathered together in North Carolina and placed under 
General Johnston. A portion of this force, under Har- 
dee, contested Sherman's approach to Goldsborough 
(March 16) at Averysborough, and was defeated. 
Johnston's entire army was encountered at Benton- 
ville (March 18), but Slocum held his ground until the 
right wing came to his support, and Johnston retreat- 
ed on the"22d. Terry and Schofield in the mean time 
joined Sherman. After Lee's surrender (April 9), 
Johnston and Sherman entered into negotiations for 
surrender, which were disapproved by the govern- 
ment. Johnston's army was surrendered on the 20th 
of April. This was followed by the surrender of Dick 
Taylor (May 4-9), and of Kirby Smith (May 26). Jef- 
ferson Davis was captured May 10. 

SHETLAND ISLES. See Orkneys. 

SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the followers of 
Jephthah tested their opponents the Ephraimites, on 
passing the Jordan, about 1143 B.C.— Judrjes xii. The 
term is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. 



SIII 



425 



SIC 



SHTITES, a Mohammedan Bcct, predominated iu 
Persia. !Sce Molutiumi'daninni. 

SHILLING. Tlie value ol' the ancient Sax(m coin 
of this name was livepcuce,l)ut it was reduced to four- 
pence about a century before the Conquest. Afler the 
Conquest the French nulidtts of twelvepeuce, iu use 
amoiiu the Normans, was called nhiliiiKj. The true 
English shillinEc was tirst coined, but iu small quan- 
tity, 18 Hen. Vll., 1503.— />(•. lu-ll,/. In lr>m.—Iiixh()p 
Fleet iriiod. A peculiar shilliufr, value ninei)ence, but 
to be current at twelve, was struck iu Ireland, 15G0 ; 
and a larije but very base coinage in England for the 
service of Ireland, 159S. Milled shillings were coined 
13 Chas. IL, 1G02. See Coins. 

SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably a gal- 
ley) was brouirht to Egypt from Greece by Danaus, 
14S,') I5.C. — Dlair. The" tirst double-decked ship was 
built by the Tyriniis, TSO DA'. — LciKjlct. The first 
double-decked one built in KuLcland was of lOUU tons 
burden, by m-der of Henry VIII., 1609; it was called 
the Gnat'irarrij, and cost £U,0(W.—Stnic. Port-holes 
and other imiirovemeuts were invented by Descharges, 
a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., 
about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a sci- 
ence by lloste, 1090. A 74-guu shij) was put upon the 
stocks at Van Dieraeu's Laud, to be sheathed with In- 
dia-rubber, 1S29. Iron is now greatly used iu ship- 
building. See Xavi/ and Steam rc.vscZ.s. 

SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to form a 
navy to oppose the Danes. This impost being illegal- 
ly levied l)y Charles I. in 1034-0 led to the Kevolution. 
He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 
15G0 men; Yorkshire iu two ships, of COO tous, or 
;ei'2,000; Bristol in one ship, of 100 tous; Lancashire 
in one ship, of 400 tons. John Hampden refused to 
pay the tax, and was tried iu the Exchequer in 1G36. 
Ship-money was included iu a redress of grievances in 
1641. The five judges, who had given an opinion iu its 
favor, were imprisoned. Hampden received a wound 
in a skirmish with Prince Rupert, and died June 24, 
1643. 

SHIPWRECKS. See Wrecks. 

SHIRTS are said to have been first generally worn 
in the west of Europe early in the Sth century. — Du 
Fresno;/. Woolen shirts were commonly worn in En- 
gland until about 1253, when linen, but of a coarse 
kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was 
first manufactured iu England by Flemish artisans. — 
Stow. 

SnOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground here, 
purchased in 1S42 and 1855, and by an act of Parlia- 
ment in 1802, was set apart as "ranges for the use and 
practice of artillery." See C«n«oH, note. Experiments 
with Mr.Whitworth's projectiles on the 12th Nov., 1802, 
Showed their great improvement in form and materia'. 
Shells were sent through 6)4 inch plate and the wood- 
work behind it. It was objected that they might not 
do this with ships in motion. 

SHOES, among the Jews, were made of leather, 
linen, rush, or wood. Iiloons were M'orn as orna- 
ments iu their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah 
iii., IS. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear 
shoes made of the bark of trees; probably that they 
miglit not wear what were made of the skins of ani- 
mals, as they refrained from the use of every thing 
that had life. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on 
their shoes; and Caligula enriched his with precious 
stones. Iu England, about 1402, the people wore the 
beaks or points of their shoes so long that they en- 
cumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to 
tie them up to their knees; the fine gentlemeu fast- 
ened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, and 
others with laces. This was prohibited, on the for- 
feiture of 20.'<., and on pain of being cursed by the 
cleriry, 7 Edward IV., 1407. See />;v.s-.s. Shoes, as at 
present worn, were introduced about 10.33. The 
oucUlc was not nsed till 16GS. — Stoiv ; Mortimer. The 
buckle -makers petitioned against the use of shoe- 
strimis iu 1791. 

SIIOKE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. and aft- 
erward of Lord Hastings. She did public ])enance in 
14s3, and was afterward confined in Ludgate; but 
upon the petition of Thomas Ilymorc, who agreed to 
marry her. King Richard III., in 1484, restored her to 
liberty; and Sii- Thomas iNIoore mentions having seen 
her, which contradicts the story of her having perished 
by hunger. — Uarleian MSS. 

SIIORT-IIAND. See Stcnncfraphji. 

"SHORT-LIVED" ADMINISTRATION— that of 
William Pulteuey, earl of Bath, Lord Carlisle, Lord 



Winchilsoa, and Lord Granville, existed from Feb. 10 
to Feb. 12, 174G. 

SHOT. In early times various missiles were shot 
from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413 ; and in 
141S Ileury V. ordered his clerk of the ordnance to get 
7000 stones made at the quarries at Maidstone. Since 
then, chain, grape, and canister shot liave been invent- 
ed, as well as shells, all of which are described in Scof- 
fern's work on "Projectile Weapons of War and Ex- 
plosive Compounds," 1S5S. See Bombs and Cannon. 

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. Charle= 
duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord treasurer July 30* 
1714, two days before the death of Queeu Anne; his 
patent was revoked soon after the accession of Geor"-e 
I., Oct. 13 following, when the Earl of Halifox became 
first lord of the treasury. See Halifax. The office of 
lord treasurer has been executed by commissioners 
ever since. 

SHREWSBURY (Shropshire) arose on the ruin of 
the Roman town Uriconium (see Wroxeter), and became 
one of the chief cities of the kingdom, having a mint 
till the reign of Henry III. Here Richard II. held a 
Parliament in 1397. On July 21 or 23, 1403, was fought 
the sanguinary battle of Shrewsbury between the army 
of Henry IV. and that of the nobles, led by Percy (sur- 
named Hotspur), son of the Earl of Northumberland, 
who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Ileury was 
seen in the thickest of the fight, with his son, after- 
ward Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unkuown 
hand gave the victory to the king.— Hume. Shrews- 
bury grammar-school was founded by Edward VI. iu 
1553, and endowed by Elizabeth. 

SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons 
were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, the re- 
nowned King of the Silures, became, through the 
treachery of the Queeu of the I3rigautes, a prisoner to 
the Romans, 50.* 

SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash-Wednes- 
da)', the first day of the Lent Fast. See Carnival. 

SIAM,t a kingdom in India, bordering on the Bur- 
mese Empire. Siam was rediscovered by the Portu- 
guese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the 
Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 
1G13. In 16S3, a Cephalonian Greek, Constantine 
Phaulcon, became foreign minister of Siam, and 
opened a communicatioii with France; Louis XIV. 
sent an embassy in 1085 with a view of converting the 
king, without "eflect. After several ineffectual at- 
tenipts. Sir John Bowring succeeded in obtaining a 
treaty of friendship and commerce between England 
and Siam, which was signed April 30, 1855, and ratified 
April 5, 1856; and one with France followed in Au- 
gust. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct., 
1S57, and had an audience with the queen ; they 
brought with them magnificent presents, which they 
delivered crawling, on Nov. 16. They were at Paris iu 
June, 1861. 

SIBERIA (N. Asia). Iu 1580 the conquest was be- 
gun by the Cossacks under Jermak Timofejew. Iu 
1710 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 

SIBYLS. Sibyllie were women believed to be in- 
spired, who flourished iu different parts of the world. 
Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^li- 
an of four, aud Varro of ten. An Erythrrean sibyl is 
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books contain- 
ing the Roman destinies, demanding for them 300 
pieces of gold. He denied her; whereupon the sibyl 
threw three of them into the fire, aud asked the same 
price for the other six, which being still denied, she 
burnt three more, and again demanded the same sum 
for those that remained; when Tarquin, conferring 
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two 
magistrates were created to consult them on all occa- 
sions, 531 B.C. 

SICILIAN VESPERS, the term given to the massa- 
cre of the French in Sicily, commenced at Palermo, 



* It is asserted that while Carartacus was being led tlirougii Rome, 
liis eyes were dazzled bv the splendors that surrounded him. "Alas !" 
he cried, " how is it possible that a people possessed of such maRnifi- 
cence at home, could envy me a humble cottajie in Britam?" The em- 
peror was aft'ected with the British hero's misfortunes, and won ly his 
address. He ordered him to be unchained upon the spot, and set at 
liberty with the rest of the captives. . . 

t Siamese Twins.— Two persons born about lSll,enjoymE all the 
faculties and powers usually possessed by separate and distinct individ- 
uals, although united toRether by a short cartilaginous band at the pit 
of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and were first dis- 
covered on the banks of the Siam River by an American, Mr. Robert 
Hunter by whom they were taken to New York, where they were ex- 
hibited. Captain Cottin brought them to England. After having been 
exhibited for several years in Great Britain, they went to America, 
where they settled on a farm, and married sisters. In 1SG9 they were 
said to be living in North Carolina in declining health. 



SIC 



426 



SIE 



March 30, 12S2. The French had become hateful to 
the Siciliiius, and a conspiracy against Charles of An- 
jou was already ripe, when the following occurrence 
led to its development and accomplishmeiit. On Eas- 
ter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at 
Palermo; and while the French were engaged in fes- 
tivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her 
train. She was observed by one Drochet, a French- 
man, who began to use her rudely, under pretense of 
searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at 
this affront, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a 
tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly murdered. 
The enraged populace now ran through the city, cry- 
ing out, "Let the French die!" and, without distinc- 
tion of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of that nation 
they could find, to the number of 8000. Even the 
churches proved no sanctuary, and the massacre be- 
came general throughout the island. 

SICILY (anciently Trincu-ria, three-cornered). The 
early inhabitants were the Sicani, a people of Spain, 
and Etruscans, who came from Italy about 1294 B.C. 
A second colony, under Siculus, arrived eighty years 
before the destruction of Troy,12S4B.C. Tlie Phceni- 
cians and Greeks settled some colonies here (T^.'J-SS'J). 
It is supposed that Sicily was separated from Italy by 
an earthquake, and that the Straits of the Charj'bdis 
were thus formed. Its government has frequently 
been united with and separated from that of Naples 
(which see) ; the two now form part of the kingdom of 
Italy. Population of Sicily in 1S56, 2,231,020. 

Arrival of Ulysses (Homer) B.C.11S6 

Syracuse founded (Etisehius) about 7.^2 

Gela founded (Thticydidca) 680 or 713 

Agrigentum founded 5S2 

Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to death (see 

Brazen Lull) 549 

Law of Petalism instituted 400 

Athenian expedition fails 413 

War with Carthage 409 

Dionysius becoaies master of Syracuse, makes 

peace with the Carthaginians arid reigns 406-367 

Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is ran- 
somed by his friends 360 

Dionysius expelled by Timoleou 343 

Who governs well, and dies 337 

Agathocles usurps sovereign power at Syracuse, 
317; defeated at Himera by the Carthaginians, 

310 ; poisoned 289 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sicily; expels 
the Carthaginians from most of their settle- 
ments, but returns to Italy 278-277 

The Romans enter Sicily 264 

Agrigentum taken by the Romans 262 

Palermo besieged by the Romans 254 

Archimedes flourishes about 230 

Hiero II. defeated by the Romans, 203 ; becomes 

their ally, and reigns till 216 

The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Sicily a 

province ; Archimedes slain 212 

The Carthaginians lose half their possessions, 241; 

all the remainder " 

The Servile Wars 135, 134, and 132 

Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he 

was accused by Cicero) 73-71 

Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great 
Pompey 42-36 

Invaded by the Vandals, A.D. 440 ; by the Goths, 
493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by Belisari- 
us A.D. 535 

Conquered by the Saracens 832 

The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
prince, Roger I., son of Tancred,1058, who takes 
the title of Count of Sicily 1061-1090 

Roger II., sou of the above-named, unites Sicily 
with Naples, and is crowned King of the Two 
Sicilies 1131 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the 
Norman princes, and makes himself king 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Sicilians, a 
general massacre of the invaders takes place. 
See Sicilian Ves]Kr8 1282 

Sicily is seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Ara- 
gon, but Naples remains to the house of Anjou, " 

Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Naples 1435 

The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic,1501 

Victor, duke of Savoy, made King of Sicily by the 
treaty of Utrecht I'n3 

Which he gives up to the Emperor Charles VI., and 
becomes King of Sardinia 1720 



Charles, son of the King of Spain, becomes King of 
the Two Sicilies 1735 

The throne of Spain, becoming vacant, Charles, 
who is heir, vacates the throne of the Two Sic- 
ilies in favor of his third sou Ferdinand, agreea- 
bly to treaty 1759 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which 
destroys 40,000 persons 1783 

The French conquer Naples (ivhich see) ; Ferdi- 
nand IV. retires to Sicily 1806 

Political disturbances 1810 

New Constitution granted, under British atxspices,1812 

The French expelled from Naples ; kingdom of 
the Two Sicilies re-established ; Ferdinand re- 
turns to Naples 1815 

He abolishes the new Constitution " 

Revolution at Palermo suppressed 1820 

The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the 
Constittttion ; a provisional government pro- 
claimed Jan. 12,1848 

The king nominates his brother, the Count of 
Aquila, viceroy, Jan. 17 ; promises a new Con- 
stitution Jan. 29, " 

The Sicilian Parliament decrees the exclusion of 
the Bourbon family, April 13, and invites the 
Duke of Genoa to the throne July 11, " 

Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapoli- 
tans Sept. 7, " 

Catania taken by assault, April 8; Syracuse sur- 
renders, April 23 ; and Palermo May 1.5,1849 

Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and 
Catania, April 4 et seq. ; the rebels retire into the 
interior April 21 et seq., \S60 

Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at 
Genoa, May 5, and land at Marsala, May 11 ; he 
abandons his ships and assumes the dictatorship 
in the name of the King of Sardinia May 14, " 

He defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, May 15; 
storms Palermo, May 27 ; which is bombarded 
by the royal fleet, May 28 ; an armistice agreed 
to May 31, " 

A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
June 3, which is evacuated by the Neapolitans, 

June 0, " 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 

July 20,2], " 

Convention signed, by •which the Neapolitans 
agree to eva'cttate Sicily (retaining the citadel 
of Messina) July 30, " 

The Sicilian Constitution proclaimed Aug. 3, " 

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples), 

Aug. 19, " 

Professor Saffi (late of Oxford) a short time dicta- 
tor Sept., " 

The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annex- 
ation to Sardinia (432,054 against 607). . .Oct. 21, " 

Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily Dec. 1, " 

Citadel of Messina blockaded, Feb. 28 ; surrenders 
to General Cialdini March 13,1861 

King Victor-Emmanuel warmly received at Mes- 
sina Mav,lS62 

Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, July 
19 ; he enters Catania, and establishes a provis- 
ional government, Aug. 19; embarks for Itnlv, 

Aug. 24, " 

Sicily placed under blockade ; removed in Sept. ; 

tranquil Oct., " 

(See Italy, 1862.) 

SICYON, nn ancient Grecian kingdom in the Pelo- 
ponnesus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.C. In 252 
it became a republic, and joined the Achrean league 
formed by Aratus. It was the country of the sculptors 
Polycletes (436) and Lysippus (238 B.C.). 

SIDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, to the north of 
Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus about 537 B.C., and 
surrendered to Alexander 332 B.C. See Phoenicia. 
The town was taken from the Pacha of Egypt by the 
troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some 
ships of the British squadron, under Admiral the Hon. 
Sir Robert Stopford and Commodore Charles Napier, 
Sept. 27, 1840. See Syria and Turkey. 

SIEGES, MEMOEAm^K. Azoth, which was besieged 
by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen 
years. — Usher. It held out for twenty -nine years. — 
Herodotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the 
annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most 
celebrated, and occupied ten years, 1184 B.C. The fol- 
lowing are the most memorable sieges since the 12th 
century; for details, see separate articles. 
Acre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 1840. 
Algesiras, isil. 
Algiers, 1681 : Bomb vessels first used by a French eiigi- 

iiccr -named Renazi, 1816. 



SIE 



427 



SIE 



Alkraner, 15T^. 

Almeida, An^'. 27, ISIO. 

Amiens, IWIT. 

Ancoiia, 1)74, 1 TOO, ISGO. 

Autwcip, 1570, 15S3, 15S5, 1T4G, 1S32. 

Arras, Ki-lO. 

Azof, 1730. 

Bailajos, March 11, ISll ; April C, 1S13 

Bagdad, I'.'ns. 

Barcelona, 1C.97, 1714. 

Bela;rado, 14:W, 1456, 1521, ICSS, 1717, 1739, 17S9. 

Belle Isle, 17()1. 

Bergcn-oi)-Zooni, 1G22, 1747, 1S14. 

Berwick, 1333. 

Bethnne, 1710. 

Bois-lc-l)nr, U\n?., 1794. 

Boloirii:!, ir,12, 1790, 1799. 

Bomarsuiid, ISTi-i. 

Bommul : tin- invention of the covert-u'ay, 1794. 

Bonn, 1072, 16.S9, 1703. 

Bouchaiu, 1711. 

Boulotrne, 1544. 

Breda", 1625. 

Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1S49. 

Breslau, 1S07. 

Brisac, 1038, 1704. 

Brussels, 1095, 1740. 

Buda, 1541, 1680. 

Burgos, 1812, 1S13. 

Cadiz, 1812. 

Calais, 1347 (British hititorians affirm that cannon were 

itsi'd at Cn'^aii, 1346, and here iii 1347. First tiscd here 

in 13S8._Ky.\iee's FtED.), 155S, 1596. 
Calvi, 1794. 
Caiidia : the largest cannon then knoion in Euroix used 

here hij the Tvrkti, 1667. 
Carthagena, 1700-7, 1740. 
Chains, 1199. 
Charleroi, 1003. 
Charleston, U. S., 1S04-5. 
Chartres, 1568. 
Cherbourg, 1758. 
Ciudad rfodritro, 1810, 1S12. 
Colchester. 1048. 
Comorn, ls49. 

CompicLrne (Joan of ,4 )•<■), 1430. 
Conde, 1070, 1793, 1704. 
Coni, 1091,1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1G5S, 1801, ISOT. 
Corfu, 1716. 
Courtrav, 1646. 
Cracow," 1702. 
Cremona, 1702. 

Bantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 
Delhi, 1857. 

Donelson, U.S., Feb., 1862. 
Donav, 1710. 
Dresden, 1750. 1813. 
Drosheda. 1649. 
Dublin, 1500. 
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
Flnshinsr, AuiT. 15, 1809. 
Frederickshald : Charles XII. killed, 1718. 
Gai-ta, 1435. 1734, lSGO-1. 
Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
Gerona, 1809. 
Ghent, 1708. 

Gibraltar, 1704, 1779, 1782-3. 
Gliitz, 1742, 1807. 
Gattiiiiren.lTOO. 
Granada, 1401, 1492. 
Graves, 1074. 
Groningen, 1594. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
ITarfleur, 1415. 
Heidelberir, ICSS. 
Herat, 1838. 
Ismail, 1790. 
Kars, 185.5. 
Kehl, 173.3, 1796. 
Landau, 1702 et seq., 1792. 
Landrecv, 1712, 1794. 
Laoii, 98'*, 091. 
Leipsic, 17.57 et seq., 1813. 
Lerida, 1047, 1707, 1810. 
Leyden, 1574. 
Lii'tre, 1408, 1688, 1702. 
Lille, 1708, 1702. 
Limerick, 1051,1691. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Lonisbonrg, 1758. 
Luxemburg, 1795. 
Lyons, 1793. 



Maestricht, 1579, 1673 : Vauhan first came into notice ; 

1076, 1748. 
Magdeburtr, 1631, 1800. 
Malaga, 1487. 
Malta, 150.5, 1798, ISOO. 
Mantua, 1707, 1799. 
Marseilles, 1524. 
Meniu, 1700. 
Mentz, 1689, 1793. 
Messina, 1282, 1719, 1S4S, 1S61. 
Metz, 1552-3. 
Mons, 1001, 1709, 1792. 
Montariiis, 1426. 
]Montauban, 1<;21. 
]\Iontevideo, Jan., 1807. 
Mothe : the French, taitght hv a Mr. Midler, first irrac- 

ticed the art of thriving shells, 1634. 
Namur, 1602, 1740, 1794. 
Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, ISOC. 
Nice, 1700. 
Nieuport, 1000. 
Olivenza, 1801, 1811. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, 1428, 1.503. 
Ostend, 1001, 1798. 

Oudenarde, 1706. , 

Padua, 1509. 
Pampeluna, 181.3. 
Paris, 806, 1420, 1594. 
Parma, 1248. 
Pavia, 1524, 1655. 
Perpignan, 1.542, 1042. 
Philipsburg, 1044, 1676, 1088, yirsi experiment of firing 

artiUerv d-ricochct, 1734, 1799. 
Platrea, 427 B.C. 
Poudicherry, 1748, 1793. 
Prague, 1741-1744. 
Qnesnov, 1793, 1794. 
Rheims' 1359. 
Rhodes, 1521. 
Richmond, IT. S., 1864-5. 
Riga, 1700, 1710. 
Rochelle, 1573, 1027. 
Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 
Romoreutiu ; artilleri/ first used in sieges. — Voltaiee, 

1356. 
Rouen, 1419, 1449, 1591. 
Roxburgh, 1460. 
St. Sebastian, 1813. 

Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809 ; the two last dreadful. 
Sebastopol, 1854-5. 
Schweidnitz : first experiment to reduce a fortress hy 

springing globes of com,prcSsion, 1757-1762. 
Scio (see Greece), 1822. 
Seringapatam, 1799. 
Sestos, 478 B.C. 
Seville, 1247-8. 
Silistria, 1854. 
Smolensko, 1632, 1S12. 
Stralsund : the method of throwing red-hot balls first 

practiced with certainty, 1715. 
Tarragona, 1811. 
Temeswar, 1716. 
Thiouville, 1792. 
Thorn, 1703. 
Tortosa, 1811. 
Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
Toulouse, 1217. 
Tournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1709 {this was the best de~ 

fense ever drawn from counter mines), 1792. 
Troves, 1035, 1673, 1075. 
Tunis, 1270, 153.5. 
Turin, 1040, 1700. 
Valencia, 170.5,1707, 1712. 
Valenciennes, 1077, 1793, 1794. 
Vannes, 1342. 
Venloo, 1702. 
Verdun, 1792. 
Vicksburg,IT. S.,1863. 
Vienna, 1,529, 1083. 
Wakefield, 1400. 
Warsaw, 1831. 
Xativa, 1246. 
Xeres, 1262. 
Yi)res, 1643. 
Zurich, 1544. 
Zutphen, 1586. 

SIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered in 1460. In 
1786, London swarmed with free negroes living in idle- 
ness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, most- 
ly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent 
out to Sierra Leone, at the charsre of government, to 
form a settlement, Dec. 0, 1786. The settlement was 



SIG 



428 



SIO 



attacked by the French, Sept., 1T04; by the natives, 
Feb., 1S02. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the 
colouy, mnrdered by the Ashautee chief, Jau. 21, 1824. 
16 & it Vict., c. 8G, relates to the goverumeut, etc., of 
the colony. It is now a bishopric. See Ashantecfi. 

SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Elizabeth 
had instructions drawn up for the admiral and gener- 
al of the expedition to Cadiz, to be announced to the 
fleet in a certain latitude : this is said to have been 
the first set of signals given to the commanders of the 
English fleet. A system for the navy was invented by 
the Duke of Yorkj afterward James II., lijij^.— Guth- 
rie. See Forj-signals. 

SIGNETS. See Seals. 

SIGN MANUAL ROYAL, a stamp employed when 
the sovereign was so ill as to be unable to write: in 
the case of Henry VIIL, 154T ; James L, 162S; and 
George IV., May 29, lum.—Rosse. 

SIKHS, a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul's 
empire, 1703-S. See Punjab and India, 1749. 

SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was in- 
vaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to him, 
13.55. It was conquered and lost several times during 
the Seven Years' War by Frederick of Prussia, but 
was retained by him at the peace in 1763. 

SILTCIUM (from silcx, flint), a metal, nest to oxy- 
gen, the most abundant substance in the earth, as it 
enters into the constitution of many earths, metallic 
oxides, and a great number of minerals. The mode 
of procuring pure silicium was discovered by Berzeli- 
us in 1823.— GrjjieJm. See Water-glass and Ransome's 
Stone 

SILISTRIA, a strong military town in Bulgaria, Eu- 
ropean Turkey. It was taken by the Russians, Sept. 20, 
1S29, after nine months' siege, and held some years by 
them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by 
the Porte, but was eventually returned. IulS54 It was 
again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under 
Prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults were made. 
The Russian general was compelled to return in con- 
sequence of a dangerous contusion. On June 2, Mus- 
ea Pacha, the brave and skillful commander of the gar- 
rison, was killed. On June 9 the Russians stormed two 
forts, which were retaken. A grand assault took place 
on June 13, under Prince Gortschakoft" and General 
Schilders, which was vigorously repelled. On the 15th 
the garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, 
defeated the Russians, and destroyed the siege works. 
The siege was thus raised, and the Russians com- 
menced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing 
near. The garrison was ably assisted by two British 
ofticers, Captain Butler and Lieutenant Nasmyth, the 
former of whom, after being wounded, died of exhaus- 
tion. To them, in fact, the successful defense is attrib- 
uted. They were highly praised by Omar Pacha and 
Lord Hardinge, and Lieutenant Nasmyth was made a 
major. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to 
Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Romein Tiberius's time, 
when a law passed in the senate prohibiting the use 
of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to de- 
base themselves by wearing silk, lit only for women. 
Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, A.D. 220. 
Silk was at first of the same value with gold, wein-ht 
for weight, and was thought to grow in the same man- 
ner as cotton, on trees. Silk-worms were brought from 
India to Europe in the 6th century. Charlemagne i-ent 
Ofta, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 7S0. 
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, kin"- of 
Sicily, at Palermo, 1140, when the Sicilians not only 
bred the silk-worms, but spun and wove the silk. The 
jnaniifacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into 
the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis 
I., about 1510; and Henry IV. propagated mulberrv- 
trees and silk-worms throughout the^kingdom, aboiit 
1600. In England, silk mantles were worn by some 
noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle, 1286 
Silk was worn by the English clergv in 1534. Manu- 
factured in England in 1004; and broad silk wove from 
raw silk in 1020. Brought to perfection by the French 
refugees in London at Spitalfields, 1088. A silk throw- 
ing-mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, 
by Sir Thomas Lombe, n'lerchaut of London, modeled 
from the original mill then in the King of Sardinia's 
dominions, about 1714. Six new species of silk-worm 
were rearing in France, 1861.* 



* In 1858, M. Guerin Mcneville introduced into France a Cliinese 
worm termed tlie Cyldhia Bomhyx, wliich feeds on tlie Ailanthus glim- 
dulma, a hardy tree of tlie oak Idnd. The Cynthia yields a sillt-like 
substance termed Ailanline, which promises to becorne valuable. It 
was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1S56. 



SILURES, a British tribe, occupying the counties 
of Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued by the Ko- 
inan general Ostorius Scapula, 50. The chief, Carac- 
tacus, was taken to Rome. — From this tribe is derivett 
the geological term "Silurian strata," among the low- 
est of the palaeozoic or primary series, from their oc- 
currence in the above mentioned counties. — Murchi- 
son's " Siluria." 

SILVER exists in most parts of the world, and is 
found mixed with other ores in various mines in 
Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the 
district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the 
silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In 1740, 
one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. 
From a mine in Norway a piece of silver was dug, and 
sent to the Royal Museum at Copenhagen, weighing 
560 lbs., and worth X16S0. In England silver-plate and 
vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumbrian 
bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, lOO.—Ti/nrll. Sil- 
ver knives, spoons, and cups were great luxuries in 
1300. See Mirrors. In 1855, 501,906 oz., and in 1857, 
532,800 oz., were obtained from mines in Britain. Pat- 
tinson's process for obtaining silver from lead ore was 
introduced in 1829. 

SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lyd- 
ians, some say at ^gina, in Greece, 783; others, by 
Pheidon of Argos, 869 B.C. At Rome it was first 
coined by Fabius Pictor, 209 B.C. Used in Britain, 25 
B.C. The Saxons coined silver pennies which were 
2->}4 grains weight. In 1S02, the penny was yet the 
largest silver coin in England. See ShiUiiu/s, etc. 
New silver coinage, 1816. "From 1810 to 1840^ inclu- 
sive, were coined at the mint in London, £11,108,265 
15.S. in silver, being a yearly average of X444,330. The 
total amount of the seniorage received on this coin 
was £010,747 8s. id.— Pari. Hot. From 1837 to 1847, 
the amount of silver coined was £2,440,614. See Coin 
of England. 

SIJIONASAKL See Japan, 1SG4. 

SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, Simon 
Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of social re- 
formers called St. Simonians sprang up in France in 
1819, and attracted consid^-able attention ; the doc- 
trines were advocated in England, particularly by Dr. 
Prati, who lectured upon them in London, Jan."24, 1834. 
St. Simon died in 1825, and his follower, Pere Eufautin, 
died Sept. 1,1804. 

SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from Switzer- 
land into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in 1801-7. It 
winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by gal- 
leries through solid rock, and has eight principal 
bridges. The number of workmen employed at one 
time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 

SINGAPORE. See Straits Settlements. 

SINGING. See Music and Hiimns. 

SINKING FUND. First projected by Sir Robert 
Walpole to redeem the debt to the Bank of England ; 
act passed in 1716. The act establishing the sinking 
fund of Mr. Pitt was passed in IMarch, 1786. A then 
estimated surplus of £900,000 in the revenue was aug- 
mented by new taxes to make up the sum of £1,000,000, 
which was to be invariably applied to the reduction of 
the national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was 
shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, the 
sinking fund was limited to the actual sui-plus of rev- 
enue. 

SINOPE (Sinoub), an ancient sea-port of Asia Minor, 
formerly capital of the kingdom ofPontus,said to have 
been the birthplace ofDiogenes, the Cynic philosojjher. 
On Nov. 30,18.53, a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three 
corvettes, and two smaller vessels, was attacked by a 
Russian fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, 
and three steamers, under Admiral Nachimofl", and to- 
tally destroyed, except one vessel, which conveyed the 
tidings to Constantinople. Four thousand lives were 
lost by fire or drowning, and Osman Pacha, the Turk- 
ish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In 
consequence of this event, the Anglo-French fleet en- 
tered the Black Sea, Jau. 3, 1854. 

SION COLLEGE ani> Hospital, situated on the site 
of a nunnery, which, having fallen to decay, was pur- 
chased by William Elsynge, a citizen and mercer, and 
converted into a college and hospital, called from his 
name Elsynge Spital. In 1340 he changed it to an 
Austin priory, which was afterward granted by Henry 
VIII. to Sir John Williams, master of the jewel office, 
who, with Sir Roland Hayward, inhabited'it till its de- 
struction by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having 
bequeathed £3000 towards purchasing and building a 



SIR 



429 



SLA 



college and alms-house on the ancient site, his execu- 
tors erected the i)iesenl college. It is held by two 
chai'ters of iucorporation, (i Chas. I., 1630, and IG Chas. 
II., 1('>04. It contains a valuable library (easily access- 
ible to the public), maintained by a treasury grant. 

SIRENE, an instrument for determining the veloci- 
ty of aerial vibrations corresponding to the difl'erent 
])itches of musical sounds, was invented by Barou 
C'agniavd de la Tour of Paris iu 1S19. 

Six ARTICLES. See Articles. 

SKEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded by 
Pyrrho, about :5;U B.C. Pyrrho was iu continual sus- 
pense oriud>;nicnt; he doubted of every thing; never 
made aii'v ciinclusions, and when he had carefully ex- 
amiiu'd I'lie subject, and investigated all its parts, he 
concluded by still doubting of its evidence. 

SKIXS. The raw skins of cattle were usually sus- 
pended on stakes, and made use of instead of kettles 
to boil meat, iu the north of England, and in Scotland, 
1 Edw. III., Vi27.—Leland. In 1S57, 4,489,163 skins of 
oxen, lambs, kid, etc., dressed and undressed, were im- 
ported into Great Britain. 

SLAVERY has existed from the earliest ages. The 
traffic in men came from Chaktea into Egypt, Arabia, 
and all over the East. In Greece, in the time of Homer, 
all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The La- 
ceda;monian youths, trained up in the practice of de- 
ceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time 
let loose upon them to show their proficiency ; and 
ouce, for amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in 
one night. — Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold 
the whole people for slaves, 335 B.C. See Helots. 
There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 31T B.C. In 
Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a 
great man's house, to give admittance to the guests 
invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the Twelve 
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, 
and keep them in their houses till by their services or 
labor they had discharged the sum they owed. C. 
Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest of- 
fense into his fish-ponds, to fatten his larnpreys, 42 
B.C. Crecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 1'2 
B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329.* 

SLAVERY IN England. Laws respecting the sale 
of slaves were made by Alfred. The English peas- 
antry were so commonly sold for slaves in Sa.xon and 
Norman times, that children were sold in Bristol mar- 
ket like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to 
Ireland, and others to Scotland. LTnder the Normans 
the vassals were termed villains (of and pertaining to 
the viU). They were devisable as chattels during'the 
feudal times. 

Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Rich- 
ard II., 13T7 and 13S5; the rebellion of Wat Ty- 
ler, 1.3S1, arose partly out of the evils of serf- 
dom, t 
In 1574 Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in 
the W'estern counties to be made free at easy 

rates 1574 

Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1060, when 
tenures in capite, knight's service, etc., were 
abolished. 
In 1772 it was decided that slavery could not exist 
in Englaud.t 



* Serfs were peasants attached to, and part of, the landed estates. 
The system was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia in 1702 ; by Chris- 
tian VII. of Denmark in nOli ; by the Emperor Joseph 11. in his hered- 
itary states in 17S1 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia, on the imperial domains, 
In inii ; and by his successor, Alexander II. (March 3, 1S61), through- 
out his empire. Slavery ceased in the Dutch West Indies on July 1, 
1863. 

t A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one 
who lived idly fur three days, should be broufrbt before two justices of 
the peace, and marked V w-itli a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged 
the slave of him who bought him for two years. He was to take the 
Blavo and pve him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and 
cause him to work by beatinp, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within 
that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on tlie 
forehead or cheek by n hot iron with an S, and be his master's slave 
forever; second desertion was made felony. It was lawful to put a 
ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child mi;;ht be put appren- 
tice, and, on running away, become a slave to his master, 1547. 

i Determined by the judgment of the Court of King's Bench, at the 
instance of Mr. Oranville Sharpe. A poor slave named Somerset, 
brouglit to England, was, because of his ill state, tnrned adrift by his 
master. liy the charily of Mr. G. Sharpe, he was restored to health, 
when hia unfeeling and avaricious master again claimed him. This 
was resisted, and a suit was the consequence, which established, by its 
result in favor of the black, the great point, tliat slavery could not ex- 
ist in Great rtrilain, June 2v, 1772. In 1853, John Anderson, a runaway 
slave, killed Septimus Digces, a planter of Missouri, who attempted to 
arrest him, and escaped to Cimada. The American government claimed 
him as a murderer. The Canadian judges deciding that the law re- 
quired his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, Q. C. (Jan. 15, 1861), obtained 
a writ of habeas corpus for his appearance before the Court of Queen's 
licnrh. Anderson was, liowcver, discharged on Feb. 16 following, on 
technical grounds. 



Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and fen- the promotion of indus- 
try among the manumitted slaves, and for com- 
pensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the 
services of such slaves by the grant from Parlia- 
ment of £20,000,000 sterling, passed. . . .Auc 28 1833 
Slavery terminated in the British possessions on 

Aug. 1, 1S34, and 770,280 slaves became free 
Slavery was abolished iu the East Indies. .Aug. 1,1838 
SLAVERY IN TUK United States. Before theWar 
of Independence all the states contained slave* In 
1783, the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Ricrhts, 
All men are born free and equal," was declared in 
the hupreme Court at Boston to bar slavcholdiii<' iu 
that state. Slaves iu the United States in 1790, 697,897: 
InSSm' ^'^l^-O- 2.009.031; in 1850, 3,204,313; 

Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordi- 
nance "for the government of the territory to 
the N.W. of the Ohio," which contained an "'un- 
alterable" article, forbidding slavery or involun- 
tary servitude in the said state, July 13, 1787; 
after 1800, several of the states prayed, without 
efl'ect, to be relieved from this prohibition. 
Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 

many as fatal to the Constitution 1803 

The enormous increase in the growth of cotton iu 
the Southern States (s^ee Cotton) led to a corre- 
sponding increase iu the demand for slave labor. 
The Missouri Comj>romisc, drawn up by Henry 
Clay, by which slavery was permitted in that 
state, but was prohibited iu all that part of it to 

the north of 36° 30' N. lat. carried Feb.,1820 

Contest between the slaveholders and their oppo- 
nents at the annexation of Texas; a similar di- 
vision to that of Missouri obtained Dec. 25,1845 

Another compromise eflected; California admit- 
ted as a free state ; but the Fugitive Slave Act 

passed {which see) 1850 

The Missouri Compromise was abrogated by the 
admission cf Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
holding states; civil war ensued (see A'ansas). .1854 

Bred Scot's case (see United States) 1S5T 

John Brown's attempt to create a slave rebellion 

in Virginia failed (see United States) Nov.,lS59 

Abraham Lincoln, the anti-slavery candidate, 

elected President of the United States . .Nov. 4,1860 
Secession of South Carolina (see United States), 

Bee, " 
Slavery abolished iu the District of Columbia, 

April 16,1SG2 
President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of slav- 
ery in the Southern States if they have not re- 
turned to the Union on Jan. 1, 1863 Sept. 22, " 

Slavery was extinguished by the defeat and sub- 
mission of the Southern States April, 18G5 

The total abolition of slavery in the United States 

officially announced Dec. IS, " 

(See United States, 1860-5.) 
SLAVE-TRADE. The slave-trade from Congou and 
Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481. The 
commerce in nian has brutalized a tract fifteen de- 
grees on each side of the equator, and forty degrees 
wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles; and men and 
women have been bred for sale to the Christian na- 
tions during the last 250 years, and war carried on to 
make prisoners for the Christian market. The Abbe 
Rayual computed (1777) that, at the time of his writ- 
ing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Eu- 
ropeans. The slave-trade is now (1869) approaching 
extiilction. 

In 1768 the slaves taken from their own continent 
amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number 
was about 100,000. 
In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by gov- 
ernment, that since 1792 upward of 3,500,000 Afri- 
cans had been torn from their country, and had ei- 
ther perished on the passage or been sold in the 
West Indies. 
Si.AVE-TBADE OF Engi.anp : beguH by Sir John Haw- 
kins. His first expedition, with the object of pro- 
curing negroes on the coast of Africa, and convey- 
ing them for sale at the West Indies, took place iu 
Oct., 1562. See Guinea. 
England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 

slaves, 1786. 
Slave-trade question debated in Parliament, 1787. 
The debate for its abolition lasted two days, April, 

1791. 
Mr.Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 

8.3, April i!, 1798. 
The question introduced under the auspices of Lord 
Grenville and Mr. Pox, then ministers, March 31,1806. 



SLI 



430 



SOB 



The trade abolished by Parliament, March 25, 1807. 
Thomas Clarksou, whose whole life may be said to 

have beeu passed iu laboring to eft'ect the extiuctiou 

of the slave-trade, died, aged 85, Sept., 1840. 
FoKEiGN Countries.— The trade was abolished by 

Austria iu 1782 ; by the French Convention in 1704. 
The Allies at Vienna declared against it, Feb., 1S15. 
Napoleon, iu the hundred days, abolished the trade, 

March 29, 1815. . 

Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 

Netherlands, May, ISIS ; with Brazil, Nov., 1S20. 
Its revival was proposed iu the Congress of the United 

States of America, Dec. 14, 1856, and negatived by 

1S3 votes to 58. 
In June, 1S57, the French government gave permission 

to M. Regis to convey .free negroes from Africa to 

GuadaloiTpe aud Martiuico, French colonies. This, 

having led to abuses aud consequent troubles (see 

Charles et Georges), was eventually giveu up in Jau., 

1859. 
It is said that about 40,000 slaves were lauded at Cuba 

in 1860. 
A treaty between Great Britain and the United States 

for the abolition of the slave-trade was signed April 

7 ; ratified May 20, 1862. 
The Spauish government denounce the slave-trade as 

piracy, Nov., 1865. 

SLIDING SCALE. See Corn Laios. 

SLING, an ancient missive weapon. In Judges xx., 
16, is mentioned the skill of the Beiijamite sliugers 
(about 1406 B.C.), and with a sling David slew Goliath, 
1063 B.C. (1 Ham. xvii.). The natives of the Balearic 
Isles (Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica) were celebrated 
sliugers, and served as mercenaries iu the Carthagin- 
ian aud Roman armies. Slings are said to have been 
used by the Huguenots at the siege of Saucerre iu 1672, 
to economize tlieir powder. 

SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. gained a 
signal naval victory over the French. The English 
had the wind of the enemy, aud the suu at their backs, 
and began the action, which was fierce and bloody, the 
English archers galling the French on their approach. 
Two hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; 
thirty thousand Frenchmen were killed, with two of 
their admirals ; the loss of the English was incousid- 
erable : Juue 24, 1340. 

SMALCALD (Ilesse), Treaty of, entered into be- 
tween the Elector of Brandenburg and the other 
princes of Germany in favor of Protestantism, Dec. 
31, 1530. See Protestants. The emperor, apprehensive 
that the kings of France and England would join this 
league, signed the treaty at Nuremburg iu July, 1532, 
allowing liberty of conscience. 

SMALL-POX, Variola (the diminutive of variis, a 
pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed to have 
beeu introduced into Europe from the East by the 
Saracens. Rhazes, an Arabian, was the first who ac- 
curately described it, about 900. From Europe it was 
carried to America, soou after its discovery, and raged 
there with great severity, destroying the Indians'by 
thousands. In 1694, Queen Mary of England died of 
emall-pox, as did in ITll and 1712 the Eniperor of Ger- 
many, Dauphin and Dauphiness of France aud their 
son, in 1730 the Emperor of Russia, in 1741 the Queen 
of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of France. It is 
stated that in the middle of the last century two mil- 
lions perished by it in Russia. In London in 1723 one 
out of fourteen deaths was caused by small-pox, and 
in France in 1754 the rate was one in ten. For the at- 
tempts to alleviate this scourge, see Inoculation, iutro- 
duced into England in 1722, and Vaccination, an- 
nounced by Dr. Jenner in 1798. In Sept. and Oct., 
1SG2, a great many sheep died of small-pox in the 
West of England, till successful preventive measures 
were resorted to. 

SMITIIFIELD, WEST, in the heart of London, was 
once a favorite walk of the Loudon citizens outside 
the city walls. Sir W. Wallace was executed here, 
Aug. 24, 1306. On June 13, 13Sl,Wat Tyler was met by 
King Richard II. at this place, and was stabbed by 
Walworth the mayor. Many tournaments were also 
held here. Iu the reira of Mary (l.')53-.S), 277 persons 
perished by fire; and Bartholomew Leggatt and Ed- 
ward Wightmau, Arians, were burnt here in 1612. — 
Bartholomew Fair was held here till 1853. — This place 
is mentioned as the site of a cattle-market as far back 
as 1150. The space devoted to this purpose was en- 
larged from about three acres to four and a half, and 
in 1834 to six and a quarter. The ancient regulations 
were called the "statutes of Smithfield." In one day 
there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 30,000 



sheep. The annual amount of the sales was about 
£7,000,000. In 1846 there were sold here 226,132 beasts, 
1,593,270 sheep and lambs, 26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. 
There were about 160 salesmen. The contracted space, 
of the market, the slaughtering places adjoining, aud 
many other nuisances, gave ground to much dissatis- 
faction, and after Parliameutary investigation, an act 
was passed on Aug. 1, 1851, appointing metropolitan 
market commissioners with powers to provide a new 
market, slaughtering places, etc., and to close the mar- 
ket at Smithfield.* 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, " for the increase 
and diflfusiou of knowledge among men," a haudsome 
building at Washington, 1). C, was founded in 1846 by 
means of a legacy of above £100,000, bequeathed for 
the purpose to the United States government by Jas. 
Smithson, illegitimate son of Sir Hugh Smithson, who 
became Duke of Northumberland iu 17G6. It publishes 
and freely distributes scientific memoirs and reports. 
The library was burnt on Jan. 25, 1865. 

SMOLENSKO (Russia). The French, in a most san- 
guinary engagement here, were three times repulsed, 
but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensko, and 
found the city, which had been bombarded, burning 
and partly iu ruins, Aug. 16-19, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, 
the Russian commander in chief, incurred the displeas- 
ure of the Emperor Alexander because he retreated aft- 
er the battle, and Kutusoft" succeeded to the command. 

SMUGGLERS. The customs duties were instituted 
originally to enable the king to afford protection to 
trade against pirates ; and they afterward became a 
branch of public revenue, but gave rise to much smug- 
gliug. The act so well kuown as the Smugglers' Act 
Avas passed iu 1736. Its severity was mitigated iu 1781 
and 1784. A revision of these statutes took place 1826 
and 1S35. 

SMYRNA. See Seven Churches. 

SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God bless you" 
to the sneezer originated, according to Strada, among 
the ancieuts, who, through au opinion of the danger 
attending it, after sneezing made a short prayer to the 
gods, as "Jupiter help me." Polydore Vergil says it 
took its rise at the time of the plague, A.D. 558, when 
the infected fell down dead sueeziug, though seemiug- 
ly in good health. 

SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England from the 
captures made of vast quantities of snuff by SirGeorge 
Rooke's expedition to Vigo iu 1702. It soon became 
general, from which the British revenue now draws, 
with tobacco, considerably more than £5,000,000 per 
annum. In 1839 there were imported into Great Brit- 
ain 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were 
entered for home consumption; the duty was £88,263. 
See Tobacco. In 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of suuff and cigars, 
in 1861, 2,110,429 lbs. were imported. 

SOANE MUSEUM, at No. 13 Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
was gradually formed by Sir John Soane, the archi- 
tect, who died in 1837, after making arrangements for 
its being open to the public. It contains Egyptian 
and other antiquities, valuable paintiugs, rare books, 
etc. 

SOAP was imperfectly kuown to the ancients. The 
first express mention of it occurs in Pliny aud Galen; 
aud the former declares it to be au invention of the 
Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic 
soap. In relnote periods clothes were cleaned by be- 
ing rubbed or stamped upon iu water. Nausicaa aud 
her attendants. Homer tells us, washed theirs by tread- 
ing upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odys- 
sey, book vi. The Romans used fuller's earth. Savon, 
the French word for soap, is ascribed to its having been 
manufactured at Savoua, near Genoa. The mauufac- 
ture of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per 
pound. In Britain the duty upon soap, imposed iu 
1711, was totally repealed iu 1S53, then set down by 
the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Gladstone, as 
yielding a yearly revenue of £1,126,000. 

SOBRAON (N.W. India). The British army, 35,000 
strong, under Sir Hugh (afterward Viscount) Gough, 
attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, Feb. 10, 1846. 
The euemy was dislodged after a dreadful contest, 
aud all their batteries taken; and in attempting the 
passage of the river by a floating bridge iu their rear, 
the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused 



* The Smil/ifetd Club, to promote improvements in the breed of 
cattle, was established in 1798. For many years the members sup- 
ported a cattle-show in December in GosweU Street, which was re- 
moved to Baker Street in 18411, and to the New Agricultural Hall, 
Liverpool Road, Islington, in IS62. 



soc 



431 



SOD 



it to break down, and more than 13,n00 Sikhs were 
killed, wouuded, or drowned. The I'.ritish loss was 
233S ineu. 

SOCIALISAI was advocated in London, Jan. 24, 1834, 
by tlie celebrated Robert Owen, lie labored indefat- 
ijijably to i)r<)pat,'ate liis doctrines, and cstabli-slied a 
settlement at New Harmony, in Amci-ica, in 1S24. He 
died Nov. IT, lsj)S, a.Ljed 00. The French Socialists, 
termed Cdtuiiiuiiifits, became a powerful political body 
in that country, and were much implicated iu the Rev- 
olution in 1S4S. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Association for 
the Promotion orSi)cial Science originated in a meet- 
intc at Lord IJroiiLrham's in May, 1S57. Its object is to 
promote improvements in the administration of law, 
in education, in public health, and in social economy. 
It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceed- 
ings. The first meeting was at Birmingham, Oct, 12, 
1S5T ; the 2d at Liverpool, Oct.ll,lS5S; the 3d at Brad- 
ford, Oct. 11, 1>;.')'.» ; the 4th at Glasgow, Sept. 24, 1S6U ; 
the rith at Dublin, Aug. 14, 1S61 ; the Ctli in London, 
June 5, 1SG2 ; the Tth at Edinburg, Oct. 7, 1SU3 ; the Sth 
at York, Sept. 22, 1S04; the 9th at'Sheffield, Oct. 3,1805; 
the luth at Alauchester, Oct. 3, ISGO. 

SOCIAL WARS. See Athens and ilarsi. 

SOCIETIES AND Institutions, Literary and Sci- 
entific, iu Great Britain. Further details of many 
of these will be found under their respective heads. 
All iu the list belovi' are in London, except otherwise 
stated. An act was passed, Aug. 11, 1S.54, "to afford 
facilities for the establishment of institutions for the 
promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of 
land, etc. ; and for their regulation. The Royal and 
London Institutions are exempted from the operation 
of the act. 

Royal Society Charter 1G62 

Christian Knowledfje Society 1698 

Society of Antiquaries (Charter 1751) 1717 

Society of Dilettanti 1734 

Royal Society of Edinburg (Charter 1783) 1782 

Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 1753 

Bath and West of England Society 1777 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. . .1781 

Highland Society 1785 

Royal Irish Academy Charter 1780 

Linureau Society (Charter 1802) 1788 

Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society 1793 

Royal Institution (Charter 1810) 1800 

Royal Horticultural Society (Charter 1809) 1804 

Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society (Charter 

1834) 1805 

London Institution " 

Geological Society (Charter 1826) 1S07 

Russell Institution 1808 

Swedenborg Society 1810 

Liverpool Citerary and Philosophical Society 1S12 

Roxburghe Club " 

Institution of Civil Engineers (Charter 1828) ISIS 

Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society " 

Egyptian Society 1S19 

Cambridge Philosophical Society. .(Charter 1832) " 

Royal Astronomical Society (Charter 1831) 1820 

]Medico-Botanical Society 1821 

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society 1822 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society " 

Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society " 

Royal Society of Literature (Charter 1826) 1823 

Royal Asiatic Society (Charter 1824) " 

Baimatyue Club, Edinburg " 

Athenrenm Club 1824 

AVesteru Literary Institution 1825 

Eastern Literary Institution " 

Zoological Society 1826 

Incorporated Law Society (Charter 1S31) 1827 

Mechanics' Institution, Loudon " 

Society for Difl'usion of Useful Knowledge " 

Ashmolean Society, Oxford 1828 

JIaitland Club, Glasgow " 

Royal (Jeographical Society* 1830 

(iaclic Society " 

Royal United Service Institution 1831 

Royal Dublin Society " 

Ilarvcian Society " 

British Association " 

Marylebone Literary Institution 1832 

Entomological Society 1833 

Statistical Society 1834 

Westmiuster Literary Institution " 

Surtees Society, Durham 



OUL Ll^US OUCIUI^ , IJllLlliim 

* M. Du Chaillu, after beint; robbed and undergoing many priva- 
tions, relurneil to London near the end of 1865, and gave anaccount 
of his journey at a meeting of the Society, Jan. 8, 1866. 



Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1S37) 1834 

Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society 1835 

Abbotstbrd Club, Ediuburg 1835-T 

Numismatic Societj' 1836 

Ornithological Society 1837 

Electrical Society 1S3T-8 

Etching Club 183S 

English Historical Society 1S3S-56 

Royal Agricultural Society 1838 

Camden Society " 

Royal Botanical Society 1839 

Microscopical Society " 

Bcclesiological Society " 

Spalding Club, Aberdeen " 

Royal Botanical Society of London " 

Parker Society 1840-55 

Percy Society 1840-52 

Irish Archasological Society, Dublin 1840 

London Library " 

Shakspeare Society " 

Chemical Society 1841 

Pharmaceutical "Society " 

Wodrow Society, Ediuburg 1S41-T 

Philological Society 1842 

JE,\Mc Society 1843-56 

Chetham Society, Manchester 1843 

Spottiswoode Society, Ediuburg " 

Archfeological Association " 

Archffiological Institute " 

Sydenham Society " 

Ethnological Society " 

Law Amendment Society " 

Handel Society 1844 

Syro-Egyptiau Society " 

Ray Society " 

Celtic Society, Dublin 1845-53 

Pathological Society 1S4G 

Sussex ArchiBoIogical Society, Lewes " 

Cambrian Archseological Association " 

Cavendish Society " 

Hakluyt Society " 

Palaetographical Society 1847 

Institute of Mechanical Engiueers (Birmingham), " 

Institute of Actuaries 1848 

Arundel Society " 

British Meteorological Society 1850 

North of England Institute of Mining Engineers..l851 

Photographic Society 1852 

Philobiblion Society 18.53 

Juridical Society 1S55 

Genealogical Society 1857 

National Association for Social Science " 

Horological Institute 1858 

Society" for the Encouragement of Fine Arts " 

Institution of Naval Architecture 1860 

Anthropological Society isr>3 

Aeronautical Society 186G 

SOCINIANS. Persons who accept the opinions of 
Faustus Socinus (died 1,562), and his nephew Lrelius 
(died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held— 1. That 
the Eternal Father was the one only God, and that 
Jesus Christ was not otherwise God than by his su- 
periority to all other creatures ; 2. Tliat Christ was 
not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure for a time, 
after which the soul and body will be destroyed ; and, 
4. That it is unlawful for princes to make war.— //ooA-. 
They established a church iu Poland, and made pros- 
elytes in Transylvania, 1503. 

SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained iu 1807 
by Sir Humphiv Davy from soda (which was formerly 
confounded ^vith poiash, but proved to be a distinct 
substance by Duhamel iu 1736). This metal, like po- 
tassium, was obtained by the agency of the electric 
battery. In consequence of Deville's improved pro- 
cesses," sodium is uow manufactured at greatly reduced 
cost. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is a com- 
pound of sodium and chloriue. 

SODOM AND Gomorrah (Palestine), with their in- 
habitants, were destroyed by fire from heaven, 1898 B. 
C, Gen. xix. 

SODOR is a village of Icolmkill. Dr. Johnson calls 
it "the Inminarv of the Caledonian regions, whence," 
he adds, " savag'e clans and roving barbarians derived 
the benefits of knowledge and the blessings of relig- 
ion." The bishop's seat was at Rushin, or Castletown, 
in tlie Isle of Man, and in Latin is entitled >;<>(l»i-<'iit<is. 
But when that island became dependent uiiou the 
kingdom of England, the Western Islands withdrew 
themselves from the obedience of their bishop, and 
had a bishop of their own, whom they entitled also 
Sodorensis, but commonly Bishop of the Isles. See 
Mes. Germanus was settled here by St. Patrick iu 



SOI 



432 



SOU 



44T. The Bishop of Sodor and Man is not a lord of 
Parliament. See Man. 

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic Suessiones, 
was subdued by Julius Csesar, 57 B.C. It was held by 
Svagrius, after his father ^gidius, till his defeat by 
Clovis, A.D. 4SG. Several Councils have been held at 
Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). 

SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, is said to 
have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 
B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, and all the plan- 
ets moving in elliptical orbits round it— a doctrine su- 
perseded by the Ptolemaic syetem {ivhich see). The 
system of Pythagoras, revived by Copernicus (1543), is 
called the Copernican system. Its truth was demon- 
strated by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. 

SOLEBAY, or Sodtuwold Bay (Suffolk), where a 
fierce naval battle was fought between the fleets of 
England and France on one side, and the Dutch on 
the other, the former commanded by the Duke of 
York, afterward James II., May 28, 1672. The English 
lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; but the enemy 
fled, and were pursued to their coasts. The Earl of 
Sandwich was blown up, and thousands were killed 
and wounded. 

SOLPERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the chief 
struggle in the great battle of June 24, 1859, between 
the allied French and Sardinian armies, commanded 
by their respective sovereigns, and the Austriaus un- 
der General Hesse, the emperor being present. The 
Austrians, after their defeat at Magenta, gradually re- 
treated across the Mincio, and took up a position in 
the celebrated Quadrilateral, and were expected there 
to await the attack. But the advance of Garibaldi on 
one side, and of Prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on 
the other, iuduced them to recross the Mincio and take 
the ofl'eusive, on June 2.3. The conflict began early on 
the 24th, and lasted flfteen hours. At first the Austri- 
aus had the advantage ; but the successful attack of 
the French at Cavriana and Solferino chanjjed the for- 
tune of the day, and the Austrians were, after desper- 
ate encounters, compelled to retreat. The French at- 
tribute the victory to the skill and bravery of their 
emperor and the Generals M'Mahon and iSTeil ; the 
Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the 
rifled cannon of their adversaries. The Sardinians 
maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San 
Martino, it is said against doixble their number. Loss 
of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers ; of 
the Allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers 
killed and wounded. This battle closed the war ; pre- 
liminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, July 
12. 

SOLPIDIANS (from solm, only, and fides, faith), a 
name given to the Antinomians {which see). 

SOLICITOR. See Attorney. 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. See Tcnqilc. 

SOLWAY MOSS, bordering on Scotland. On Nov. 
13, 1771, it swelled, owing to heavy rains. Upward of 
400 acres rose to such a height above the level of the 
ground that at last it rolled forward like a torrent 
above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, 
etc. It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed 
about 30 small villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots 
were defeated, Nov. 25, 1542. 

SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert isle, 
Robert Jeflery, a British man-of-war's man, was put 
ashore by his commander, the Hon. Captain W. Lake, 
for having tapped a barrel of beer when the ship was 
on short allowance. After sustaining life for eight 
days on a few limpets and water, he was saved by°au 
American vessel, Dec. 13, 1807, and returned to En- 
gland. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in 
Parliament, and he received £600 as a compensation 
from Captain Lake, who was tried bv a court-martial 
and dismissed the service, Feb. 10, isio. 

SOMERSET THE BLACK. See Slavenj in England. 

SOMERSET HOUSE (London), formerly a palace, 
founded on the site of several churches and other 
buildings leveled in 1549 by the Protector Somerset, 
whose residence fell to the crown after his execution. 
Here resided at times Queen Elizabeth, Anne of Den- 
mark, and Catharine, queen of Charles II. Old Som- 
erset House, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- 
molished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a desiffu 
by Sir William Chambers, was erected for public of- 
fices. The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in 
the apartments given to the members by the king, 
Jan. 17, 1771, and the Royal Society met here in 1780. 
Large suites of government buildings were erected in 
1774. The Naval Office, Pipe Office, Victualing and 



other offices, were removed here in 178S, and various 
governmeut departments since. The east wing, form- 
ing the King's College (see King's College), was com- 
pleted in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, the offices of 
the duchy of Cornwall were ordered to be transferred 
to Pimlico. 

SOMNATH GATES. The gates of an ancient Hin- 
doo temple in the town of Somnath, Kattywar, Guzerat, 
which was destroyed by Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. 
The priests wished to preserve the idol ; but Mahmoud 
broke it to pieces, and found it filled with diamonds, 
etc. He carried the gates to Ghuznee. When that 
city was taken by Gen. Nott, Sept. 6, 1842, Lord Ellen- 
borough ordered the gates to be restored, after an exile 
of 800 years. They are made of sandal-wood, and are 
figured in the Archieologia of the Society of Antiqua- 
ries, vol. XXX. 

SONDERBUND. See Switzerland, 1846. 

SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, the rhymes be- 
ing adjusted by rules, invented, it is said, by Guido 
d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most celebrated sonnets 
were written by Petrarch (about 1327), Shakspeare 
(1609), Milton (about 1C50), and Wordsworth (1820). 

SONNITES, the orthodox Mohammedans who now 
possess the Turkish Empire. See Mohammedanism. 

SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, brought to 
Bengal about 1830, where they prospered, till, partly 
froni the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the 
exactions of money-lenders, they broke out into re- 
bellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. 
They were quite subdued early in 1850, and many were 
removed to the newly-conquered province of Pegu. 

SOPHIA, St. (in Constantinople). The first church 
was dedicated to St. Sophia (wisdom) by Constantius 
II., 360; having been destroyed, the second, the pres- 
ent edifice, was founded by Justinian, 532. Since the 
Mohammedan conquest in 1453, it has been used as an 
imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 
243 feet. It abounds in curiosities. Six of its pillars 
are of green jasper, from the temple of Diana at Eph- 
esus; and of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun at 
Rome. Four minarets were added by Selim II., who 
reigned in 156G. The interior of the dome is beautiful- 
ly ornamented with mosaic work. 

SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at Paris, 
founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. The mem- 
bers lived in common, and devoted themselves to 
study and gratuitous teaching. They attained a Eu- 
ropean reputation as a faculty of theology, their judg- 
ment being frequently appealed to from the fourteenth 
to the seventeenth centuries. The influence of the Sor- 
bonne was declining when the society was broken up 
in 1789. 

SORCERERS and Magicians. A law was enacted 
against their seductions, 33 Hen. VIIL, 1541 ; and an- 
other statute equally severe was passed, 5 Eliz., 1563. 
The pretension to sorcery was made capital, 1 James 
I., 1603. See Witchcraft. 

SOUDAN, or Sofjah, the title of the lieutenant gen- 
erals of the caliphs, which they bore in their provinces 
and armies. These officers afterw.ard made themselves 
sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of Noured- 
din, kiiig of Damascus, was the first that took upon 
him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the 
Caliph Caym. 

SOUND. Robesval stated the velocity of sound to 
be 560 feet in a second ; Gassendi, 1473 ; Derham, 1142 
feet. The velocity increases as the temperature falls. 
At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varie- 
ties of weather, in 1738, it was found to be 1107. The 
range of percejjtiou of sound by the human ear was 
determined by Savart (1830) to extend from 7 to 24,000 
vibrations in a second. The fire of the British on 
landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles on the 
sea. See Acoustics. 

SOUNDINGS at Sea. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. 
a'Alrpus, in 1840 took extraordinary soundings at sea. 
One of these was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, 
where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. An- 
other sounding was made in the latitude of 33 degrees 
S., and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 miles from 
the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were 
sounded; the weight employed amounted to 450 lbs. — 
An invention of Mr. Brooke, an officer of the United 
States navy, has greatly facilitated the operation of 
deep-sea sounding, and it is now (1S69) possible to 
reach the bed of the ocean at a depth of 25,000 feet. 

SOUTHAMPTON, a sea-port (S. England), a county 
of itself, near the Roman Clausentum' and the Saxon 



sou 



433 



Hantune. It frequently suffered by Danish incursion^ • 
Canute, wlicu kmg, occasionally resided liere Tlie 
??!nWvl'T"* Ki-auted by Henry "l., and coulirmed by 
Richard I and John; and the free grammar-school 
was founded by Edward VI. On July 17, IStil, a mon- 
oT]\ ';'.r. '\?'"'^? Watts was inaugurated, 'and "n 
[LonlkhSon. '^ Institution was opened by 

• ^9H'^'^^ AUSTRALIA was discovered bv Cant Sturt 

Wr^ K ',ft"t ''^?'"'""^ '^V'^y "f^^'- '^y Capt^pXr and 
fr.A ^,'^'\® *'"'',"^V of whom was killed by the na- 
1 ti Jin%x?"'"\\'i''fv..°''' '^« province ^vere fixed by 
i-^A^- w n^-' ?■ ir- ^T'^^ = .""'' " '"^^ occupied Dec-; 
2(., 1830, by Capt. Hiudmarsh, the first governor It 
was colonized according to Mr. E. Gibbon Waliefield's 
scheme which was carried out by the South Austra- 
lian Colonization Association. The colony for several 
years underwent severe trials through the great intliix 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, etc^ 
AMuch produced almost universal bankruptcy in 1S3') 
In nvc years after the energy of the colonisHs had over^ 
come t.ieir dilhculties, and the prosperity of the colony 
appeared fully established. In 1S42 the highly prS 
tive burra Burra copper mines were discovered, and 
large fortunes were suddenly realized ; but iu 1S51 the 
discovery of go d in New South Wales and Victoria al- 
^Z ^^-l^^'-f'^ ^^'^ province by drawing off a large 
pai t ot_ the laboring population. Very little gold wis 
lound 111 South Australia; but a reaction took place 
in favor of the copper mines and agriculture, etc. Be- 
A^'!, M '^'^^overy of gold, little trade existed between 
Adelaide (the capital of South Australia) and Mel- 
bourne ; but in 1S52 gold was transmitted from the 
latter to the former to the amount of £2,215,167 priu- 
cipaliy for breadstuffs, farm produce, etc. The bisl - 
opric of Adelaide was founded iu 1847. Sir Domini^c 
Daly was appointed governor in Nov., 1S61. Poniili 
tiou m 1S66, 85,821 ; in 1S57, 1S5,C98. -t-opma 

SOI-TIICOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born in 1750 
came from Exeter to London, where her followers at 
one period amounted to many thousands, amoi c. 
whom were military officers, but the low and i-uorant 
were her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced her- 
self as the \voman spoken of in the book of Revela- 
tion, chap. xii. ; and a disorder gave her the appear- 
ance of pregnancy after she had passed her grand cli- 
macteric, favoring the delusion that she woitld be the 
mother of the promised Shiloh. She died Dec. 27, 
1814. In 1851 there existed four congregations profess- 
ing to expect her return. 

SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES. See Con- 
federates. 

SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern Ocean 
^'''*^,?'",^,^ traversed by Magellan in 1520, and exiDlored 
by Waljis and Carteret iu 1706, and by Cook in 1773 
and 1774. Of the southern continent little more is 
known than that it is ice-bound, and contains active 
volcanoes. It was discovered in the first instance by 
Capt. John Biscoe, on Feb. 27, 1S31, iu lat. 65° 57' S. 
long 47° 20' E., extending east and west 200 miles: 
this he named Enderby Land, after the gentleman who 
had equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe also 



SPA 



of fl,f Pot"f,'!*Tr of a range of the Blue Ridge north 
oi tue Potomac from Harper's Ferry. Turner's Gin 

R ,rnn,^I 1^ '^'°'' ^t^'^P ^''^'^^ ^ similar opening toward 

f 'iter ■sr,^SrriSe,% ?S 

17,000 Confederates. National loss, 812 killed and 1 2^4 
thnedsiVe^one S^' ''''■ This battle waTreay' 
fi4it thTbanrof A .^^•^''™P'''^-"• -"^^^^ ^'^'•^■«1 Lee to 

iSelf^li^^^^^k'^'r''^^^'''^ ^'ith the estab- 
iisnment ot the South Sea Compauy in 1710 which wis 
at first unwisely and afterward dishonesti; maua-ed 
It exploded in 1720, ruining thousands of fSesInd 
the directors estates, to the value of i^2,OlTooo were 
seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier ?b 

for "i o'om "' ^^'y ' ^^^ h« compoZled^ hSui 
ioi X10,000, and returned to England iu 1743. Almost 
all the wealthy persons in the kiugdom had ifecome 
speculators; the artifices of the direc'toi-rhav u 'ra?™d 
Uie shares originally XlOO, to the price of XIOOO A 
Parliamentary inquiry took place in Nov ,1720 "and 
Aislabie, chancellor of the Exchequer, and several 

,^S^^^{^3f^S,^wl^Sa^S 

luconveuieuce from the number of matefactors'who 
escaped thither in order to be out of the reach Lid 
cognizance of the city magistrates, and a grant was 
made of Soiithwark to the cfty of London by thlc rowu 
for a small annuity. In Edward VI.'s reign it Zas 
formed into a city ward, and was named Brid^-e Ward 
bl • o?'Y,^/f .^-T*"*''"'"'-* ,^"'^90 was begun Septem- 
bei 23, 1814, and was completed March 2(1 1S19 at an 
expense of £800,000. It consists of three great cast- 
iron arches, resting on massive stone piers'and abu - 
?PPM U ^^^ ^"'^"'^ betA,-een the abutment" is 708 
feet; the centre arch is 240 feet span • the two others 
210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 5308 tons 

SOUTHWOLD. See Solebaj/. 

SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British ^old 
com. In 1_4S9, 22><^ pieces, iu value 20.., "to be cafe 
the sovereign " were ordered to be coined out of a 
pound of gold.-i?«fZ»!j7. In 1542 sovereigns were 
a'iJrEruJvT t '^O^-'^H^'^ ■'•fterward, in 155o"and 155i 
(4 &0Edw.VL), passed for 24.9. and 30s. "Sovereio-us 



di.sco7e;ed-GVaham'rLa"nd ^•'n'f^b.'i.^.'^ibir.sul;^^^^^^^ f'^.f, new coinage were directe"l to pass toJS% 
m lat. 67° 1' S., long. Tl° 4S' W. The Messrs-.' Enderby ^nXf sovereigns for 10s. Oct. 10, 1S17. See Coin 
equipped three other expeditions in search of the ^^ ' 



equipped three other expeditions in search of the 
southern continent, the last (in connection with some 
other gentlemen) in 183S, when Capt. Balleny had com- 
mand, who on Feb. !», 1830, discovered the Ballenv Isl- 
ands, m lat. 67° S., long. 165° E., and in March, 1839, 
Salvina Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. 118° 30' E In 
1S40, a Freuch expedition, under the command of Ad- 
miral D'Urville, and an American expedition, under 
the command of Commodore Wilkes, greatly added to 
our knowledge in respect to the existence of a south- 
ern continent, and this was again increased by the ex- 
pedition which sailed from England in 1839, under the 
comm.and of Capt. Sir James Clark Ross, who discov- 
ered \ictona Land in 1S41, and subsequently nene- 
trated as far south as 78° 11'. 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near Brompton 
old church (containing the pictures presented by Mr 
Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. Ellison, and those be- 
queathed by Turner, the great painter, as well as spec- 
imens of sculpture and art, educational collections 
products of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kinc'- 
doms, etc.), was opened on June 24, 1S57. A special 
Exhibition of Works of Art, of immense value, lent 
for the occasion, was opened here in the summer of 
1SC2, and closed iu November. 

SOUTH MOUNTAIN (Maryland), B.vttlk of 
fought Sei)t. 14, 1862, three davs before the drawn bat- 
tle at Antietam. South Mouiitaiu is the name r^iynn 
Ee 



SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here upward of 30,000 
persons assembled to vote an address from the dis- 
tressed manufacturers to the prince regent, Nov 15 
1S16. A second meeting, Dec. 2 following, terminated 
in au alarming not ; the shops of several gunsmiths 
^?i? attacked for arms by the rioters ; and iu the shop 
ot Mr. Beckwith, on Snowhill, Mr. Piatt was wounded 
and much iujury was done before the tumult was sup- 
pressed. For this riot, Cashman, the seaman, was 
hanged, March 12, 1817. 

SPAHIS, African horsemen, incorporated by the 
French in Algeria in 1834; three regiments of them 
came to France in 1S03. 

SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The first 
settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tu- 
bal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Car- 
thaginians (360 B.C.) successively planted colonies on 
the coasts; and the Romans conquered the whole 
country, 200 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857 
15,464,078 ; of the colonies, 4,528,633. Estimated rev- 
enue iu 1861, £19,324,743; expenditure, £19,386,800. 
The Carthaginian.?, enriched by the mines of 

Spain (B.C. 480 et set].), form settlements . .B.C. 360 
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain 23S-''33 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdru- " 

bal 209 

At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 



SPA 



434 



SPA 



mancl, 221, and prepares for war, 220 ; he takes 
Sa<'uutuin, 219 : crosses the Alps, and enters It- 
aly B-C. 218 

The lioinaus carry the war into Spam ; two bcipios 

defeated and slain by Hasdrubal 212 

Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Car- 
tha"e, 210, and drives the Carthaginians out of 

Spaui 20T 

Nnmantine War 153-133 

Viriathns, general of the Celtiberians and Lusita- 
nians, subdued all West Spain, 145; makes peace 
with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; assas- 
sinated by order of the Romans 140 

Insurrection of Sertorius, 78; subdued by Pompey, 

and assassinated 72 

Julius Csesar quells an insurrection in Spain 67 

Pompey governs Spain GO-50 

Kevolt through the rapacity of Crassus 4S-1T 

The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spam from 

the Romans A.D. 409 

Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths... 414 

The Vandals pass over to Africa 427 

Theodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi 452 

Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 

master of all Spain. 4CC 

Eecared I. expels the Pranks 587 

He abjures Arianism, and rules ably till 601 

Wamba's wise adiiiiiiistration; he prepared a fleet 

for defense against the (Saracens 6T2-677 

The Arabs invited into Spain against King Rod- 
erick 709 

His defeat and death at Xeres 711 

Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova " 

Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik 712-13 

Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 

rules in Asturias and Leon 718 

The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Martel, 

732 or 733 

Abderahman the first king at Cordova 755 

Unsuccessful invasion of Charlemagne 777-78 

Sancho Ifiigo, count of Navarre, etc 873 

Sancho of Navarre becomes King of Castile 1020 

The kingdom of Aragou commenced under Rami 

rez I 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile 1037 

Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

Besanvon (see Portugal) 1095 

The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, 
call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who 
seize the dominions they came to protect, and 

subdue the Saracens 1001 ct serj. 

Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies about 1099 

Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova 1094-1144 

The Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso 

of Leon 1144 

Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova 1144-1225 

Cordova, Toledo, Seville, etc., taken by Ferdinand 

of Castile and Leon 1233-124S 

The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last 

refuge from the power of the Christians 1238 

The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family 

of France 1274 

200,000 Moors arrive to assist the King of Grauada,1327 
They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of Cas- 
tile with great slaughter 1340 

Reign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 

His alliance with Edward the Black Prince 1.363 

Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain 1309 

Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Cas- 
tile ; and near!3f the whole Christian dominions 

of Spain are united in one monarchy 1474 

Establishment of the Inquisition 1480-4 

Persecixtion of the Jews 1492-8 

Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the 
power of the Moors is finally extirpated by Fer- 
dinand " 1492 

Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the West- 
ern Ocean April 17, " 

;Moluimniedans persecuted and expelled 1499-1502 

Death of Columbus May 20,1.500 

Ferdinand conipiers great part of Navarre 1512 

Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of 

Spain ; Charles I. of Sp.iin 1516 

Able administration of Ximcnes ; ungratefully 

used, 1510; his death 11517 

Charles elected Emperor of Germany 1519 

Dreadful insurrection in Castile 1520-21 

Philip of Spain marries Mary of England 15.54 

Charles retires from the world 1.556 

War with France ; victory at St. Quentin, Aug. 10,1557 
Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of the 

Protestants , 1.561 

The Escurial begun building 1502 

Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed 1570 



Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 1.571 

Portugal united to Siiain by conquest 1580 

The Spanish Armada destroyed (see Armada) 15SS 

Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) 1598-1010 

Philip IV. loses Portugal 1040 

Death of Charles II., last of the house of Austria; 
accession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbon . .1700 

War of the Succession 1702-13 

Gibraltar taken by the English 1704 

Siege of Barcelona 1713 

Able government of Cardinal Alberoni ; he re-es- 
tablished the authority of the king, reformed 
many abuses, and raised Spain to the rank of a 
first power, 1715-1720: ordered to quit Spain — 1720 

Charles, sou of Philip V., conquers Naples 1735 

Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to 

the crown of Spain 17.'i9 

War with England 1790 

Battle of Cape St. Vincent Feb. 14,1797 

Spanish treasure-ships, valued at $3,000,000, seized 

by the English Oct. 29,1804 

Battle ofTrafalgar (see Trafalgar) Oct. 21,1805 

Sway of Godoy, prince of Peace 1806 

The French enter Spain ; a Spanish army sent to 

the Baltic 1807 

Conspiracy of the Prince of Asturias against his 

father July 25, " 

Treaty of Fontainebleau Oct. 26, " 

The French take Madrid March, 1808 

The Prince of Peace dismissed March 18, " 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of Ferdinand, 
March 19; and at Bayonue, in favor of his 
"friend and ally" Napoleon, when Ferdinand 

relinquished the crown May 1, " 

Revolution . the French massacred at Madrid, 

May 2, " 

The province Asturias rises en masse May 3, " 

Nai)oleon assembles the notables at Bayonne, 

May 25, " 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as King of Spain, 

July 12 : retires July 29, " 

Battle of Vimiera; French defeated Aug. 21, " 

Supreme Junta installed Sept., " 

Madrid taken by the French, and Joseph restored, 

Dec. 2, " 

Napoleon enters Madrid Dec. 4, " 

The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace 

of Chambery "in Savoy Dec. 5, " 

The French take Ferrol, Jan. 27; Saragossa, Feb. 
21 ; Oporto, Feb. 29; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; 

Gcroua Dec. 12,1809 

Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo July 10,1810 

The Spanish Cortes meet Sept. 24, " 

Wellington defeats Massena at Fitentes d'Onore, 

May 6,1811 

Soult defeated at Albuera May 16, " 

Constitution of the Cortes May 8,1812 

Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. 19 ; storms 
Badajoz, April G ; defeats Marmont at Salaman- 
ca July 22, " 

He occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French 
at Vittoria, June 21 ; defeats Soult in the Pyre- 
nees, July 28 ; takes St. Sebastian, Aug. 31 ; and 

enters France Oct. 8,1813 

Ferdinand VII. (infamously ungrateful) restored, 

May 14,1814 

Slave-trade abolished for a compensation 1817 

Insurrection at Valencia repressed 1819 

Spanish revolution began Jan. ,1820 

Ferdinand swears to the Constitution of the Cor- 
tes March S, " 

The Cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence 

to Cadiz March,lS23 

The French enter Spain April 7, and invest Cadiz 

June 25, " 

Battle of the Trocadero Aug. 81, " 

Despotism resumed; the Cortes dissolved; execu- 
tions of Liberals Oct., " 

Riego put to death Nov. 27, " 

The^French evacuate Cadiz Sept. 21,1828 

Cadiz made a free port Feb. 24,1829 

Salique law abolished March, 1830 

Queen of Spain appointed regent during the king's 

indisposition ; change in the ministry. . .Oct. 25,1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor 

to the king April 29,1833 

Death of Ferdinand VII., and his queen assumes 
the title of governing queen until Isabella II., 
her infant daughter, attains her majority, 

Sept. 29, " 
The Rovalist volunteers disarmed with some 

bloodshed at j\Iadrid Oct. 27, " 

Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Muiloz (after- 
ward Duke of Rianzares) Dec. 28, " 



SPA 




SPA 



""^■or o^hi^ll^T!"''^ ^'^ "-'>* *" '"^^ -^-ifi^ in 



Naivaez and his ministry resij;i , Feb"i-> ^pCV^"^ 
to power March 17; a.^un resign. ii' '^'°™ 
.scape of Don Carlos from Fra.wr^ ^c 



Esc 



They ilcleat the Carlists at St. Sebastian.. . .Oct. l,lS.-56 

i-spartero -aiiis ihe battle of Bilboa Dcc.25 '' 

„, , Irnu Mavir'isqr 

The Carlists tnulcrJIaroto desert Don Carlos and 

' ',1839 



arlos from FranceV.-.-'^sZN'!'''-"' 
r,V;i-A''-.T ■■"« queen to her cousin, DonFr^^ncit' " 



i-spartero ;;ains the battle of Bilboa 

General Evans takes Iruu 

The Carlists under JIaroto desert Dou ^„w„o uuu 

conclude a treatv of peace a,,,, on iqq 

Don Carlos seeks refu-e in France. . . . .'.■.SepT 13 " 

Surrender of .Morcllo.. Mav2S iqj 

Cabrera, the Carlist peueral, unable to" maintain 



the war, enters France 



July 7, 



The British au.xiliaries evacuate sV. Sebastian and 
JrUSSiliTCS An«T 9*i '* 

EeyolutionarymovemenVatMjdridVtheauthbri- 
ties triumphant Sent! " 

Dismissal of the ministry and dissointiotrof the 
Cortes '^ent 9 " 

Espartero makes his triumphal'eutiyYuto Madrid; 

The queen regent appoints a new ministrv^ wlm " 
are nominated by Esjiartero, Oct. 5; she" abdi- 
cates and leaves the kingdom; visits France- 
next Sicily ; but returns to France.. Oct !•> " 

i-spartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal mini 

The Spanish Cortes declare Espartero re"<^enUlur'- 

in- the minority of the young queen . . TApril l-' 1841 
Queen Christina's protest to the nation. .July 10 " 
Insurrection in fawr of Christina is commenced 
at Pampeluna by General O'Donnell and Concha, 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid^'iifs " 
followers are repulsed, and numbers slain bv the 

queen's guards qU^ ., 

Don Diego Leon shot at Madrid Oct 15 " 

Znrbano captures Bilboa ' " ' 'oct "i " 

Rodil, the Constitutional general, enters Vittoria 



[The Montpensier marriage occi«ion«t),„,^-^S'- ^^' " 

S^ftii^^l-ll^fiSlFS?!^?!: 

a wo^ shots hred at the queen by an assa^in ifi 
"ecu,^L!^":"'^°:^^"^'^ythec^ 
Espartero restored. '. '. 



June : 
-.Septs; " 
to quit-Spain i„ ishiH.;4.r:';''" "'iCch''if lai, 

Narvaez dismissed and recalled ^^ ^^W, 

""liot ?<;^it^recf ^"-^"^ betweenVe 'tw.- countries''^' 

The Queen oFspain-deliveredofTltP^il.?f^^^^^ 
which lives but ten minutes. .. "^ » 

rni^wt'ii''')^" expeditions under Lopez" "a^ah'/s't 
Tii^e Intante Don Henri-q„e"p-e"r"m-itte"d"to "retu^nTo ' 



Spain.. 



■ ..Feb. 2, 



Monte 
Gener 



esde Oca shot Oct"«l' 

i-al O'Donnell takes refuge in the French 'ter^ 



Espartero decrees tlie siispe'nsi'ou 'of Qiieen Chri-^- 

tina s pension _ Oct 26 " 

Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished, ' 
T> • Oct "9 " 

Bono and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina 

plot, put to death at Madrid Nov 9 " 

±-spartero enters Madrid Nov 23* " 

General pardon of all persons uo"t ye't" tried conl 

cerned in the events of October Dec. 13 " 

the eflcctive strength of the army fixed at 130,000 

. ™^" ;.••••• June 28,1842 

An insurrection breaks out at Barcelona : the nal 
tioual guard joins the populace, Nov. 13 ; battle 
in the streets between the national guard and 
the troops; the latter lose -WO in killed and 
wounded, and retreat to the citadel. . . . Nov 15 " 
Barcelona blockaded ; the British consul refuses 
refuge to any but British subjects on board Brit- 
ish ships >^Q^. 2(j II 

The regent Espartero arrives hc'roVe "Barcelona 
Nov. 29; Us bombardment and surrender, 

The disturbances at Malaga Jlav ''.5'lS43 

The revolutionary junta is re-established at'lJarl 

celona June 11 " 

[Coruuna, Seville, Burgos," "Santiago", "and" numer- 
ous other towns shortly afterward "pronounce" 
against the regent Espartero.! 
Arrival of Gencrr.1 Narvaez at Madrid, which sur- 
renders -July 1.5 " 

Espartero bombards Seville July 21 ' " 

The siege is raised Julv''7' " 

[The revolution is completely sncce.ssfiii and" Es^ 
partero flies to Cadiz, and e"mbarks on board her 
majesty's ship .Ifatabar.^ 
The new government deprives Espartero of his ti- 
tles and rank Alio- ic '• 

. . . -^ Aug. 10, 

spartero arrives in Londcni An^. 23 " 

Reaction against the new government breaks 'out 

at Madrid j^^„ 23 " 

The young queen, Isabella IL, is'vears old is' del 

clared by the Cortes to be of age; "Narvaez (friend 

of the queen-mnther) lieuten.int general, Nov S " 

The queen-mother returns to Spain March '>■{ 1=^44 

Zurbano's insurrection, Nov. 12, 1844 ; he is shot, ' 

Jan. 21, 1S45 



Madrid-Aranjuez Railway opened.": 1 .' ." " " 'Feb o' " 

^ te°n^;;ru"p^'r^u'br'^^ ''''"^^'^ ^'-"^^ ^^^ '^ . 

Iler majesty pves birtii to a'pi-jncess". '.'.:■ Dec 20 " 
Attempt made on the life of the queen she i^ 

I'fndi'cr""''^' '^ '''' dagger^f Mertno, a 
Gen. Castanos," duke" of" Baylen; •r"enown;d" Tn ''t"hV®^^ 

war against the French, dies in his 96th year, 

Narvaez exiled to Vienna ^*'^'t:,?>^'i «'^9 

Ministerial changes-Lersundi forms 'a 'c'a'bi'net '' 

Resignation of Lersnndi-Sartorius's cabme"^"' 

Birth and death of a princess ,J^nf Vis^a 

General O'Donnell, Concha, and others "banished, 

Disturbances at Saragossa etc "^"f^i.^' '' 

Don Francisco (father of the "kin"g-"c"o'nsort)" marl 

ries an " unfortunate" woman ...... March " 

Military insurrection near Madrid "jtine-^S '^ 

The movement headed by Espartero; Barcelona 

and Madrid pronounce against the government^ 

barricades in Madrid....? f. JuIviIit' .. 

Triumph of the insurrection ; resi-^nation "of the 

ministry; the qiieen sends for Espartero, July 19 " 
Peace restored; the degraded generals reinstated 

etc. : Espartero forms an administration. July 3l' " 
The queen-mother impeached ; she quits Spain, 

3Iinisterial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but resifm^fs " 

omce Nov 21 30 " 

New Constitution of the Cortes proposed, JanrisllSSS 
The Cc.rtes vote that all power proceeds from the 
people : they permit the liberty of beUef, but not 

ofworship ' ppu » 

Don Carlos dies ".".".".".".".".".'.'."Maixh 10,' " 

Insurrection at \ alencia ;\nril 6 I'J'vr. 

Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet" "fomied! ^ 
headed by Marshal O'Donnell : insurrection in 
Madrid, July 14 ; O'Donnell and the govern- 
ment troops subdue the insurgents; the nation- 

al guard suppressed July 1.-5-16 " 

Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled 

by O'Donnell as dictator July 1.5-23 " 

Amnesty granted to political offenders "Oct. 19* " 

O Donnell compelled to resign; Narvaez become^ 

minister. oct. 12 " 

Espartero resigns as senator .Feb i'l«57 

Insurrection in Andalusia; quickly suppressed- " 
cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot ci 

at Seville) June and July, " 

3iiuisterial changes ; Armero becomes minister,' 
T * -. ,_ Oct. 26, " 

Isturitz becomes minister, Jan. 14 ; O'Donnell be- 

comes minister j„iy j js58 

Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, etc.. 



T . _ Sept. 20, " 
Joint French and Spanish expedition against Co- 
chin China announced Dec.l " 

War with Morocco (which .^ce) Nov. and Dec 'lS59 

-A.n association for reforming the tariff, etc., fornil 



SPA 



436 SPA 



O'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; indeci- 
sive conflicts reported; battle at Castcllejos ; a 

Spanish " Baialilava" charge Jan. 1, ISGO 

The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surren- 
ders Feb. 4, " 

An ineifectual truce Feb. lC-23, " 

The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras March 23, " 

Treaty of peace signed : 400,000,000 reals to be 
naid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid, 
^ March 26, " 

General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, 
lands near Tortosa, in Valentin, with 3000 men, 
and proclaims the Comte de Montemolin king 
as Charles VI. ; his troops resist, and he is com- 
pelled to flee, with the comte and others, April 3, " 

He is arrested and shot April 19, " 

The Comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- 
nand are arrested at Tortosa, April 21 ; they re- 
nounce their claim to the throne April 23, " 

An amnesty proclaimed May 2, " 

Their brotherJuan asserts his right, June 5; and 
they, when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, 

June 28, " 
The Emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit Spain 
as a first- class power is opposed by England, 

and given up Aug., " 

The Comte de Montemolin and his wife die at 

Trieste Jan. 14, 18G1 

The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; 

slavery not to be re-established May 19, " 

Insurrection at Loja suppressed Jnly. " 

The queen said to be governed by the nun Patro- 

ciuio Dec, " 

Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) Dec. S, " 

Much Church property in course of sale April, 1S62 

Jose Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, Protestant 
propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment Oct. 14, " 

Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the 

throne Jan. 8, 1SC3 

Kesignation of the premier O'Donnell, Feb. 26; a 

ministry formed by Marq. de Miraflores, March 4, " 
Insurrection at St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- 
mingo) Sept. 1, " 

Empress of France visits the queen Oct., " 

Rupture with Peru {which sec) April, 1864 

General Prim exiled for conspiracy Aug. 13, " 

M. Mou forms a ministry, March 1 ; resigns, Sept. 

13 ; Narvaez forms a cabinet Sept. IG, " 

Queen Christina returns to Spain Sept. 26, " 

English government recognizes the insurrection 
at St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment 
of the contest; the queen refuses; the ministry 

resign, but resume office Dec. 14-18, " 

Peace'with Peru, which has to pay a heavy indem- 
nity Jan. 27, 1865 

The queen orders the sale of crown lands, giving 

up three fourths to the nation Feb. 20, " 

Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed, 

April 10, " 

Decree relinquishing St. Domingo May 5, " 

Dispute with Chili ; M. Tavira's settlement (May 

20) disavowed by the government July 25, " 

Suppression of a conspiracy at Valentia to reunite 

Spain and Portugal June 10, " 

Eesignation of Narvaez, June 19 ; O'Donnell forms 

a Liberal cabinet June 22, " 

Kingdom of Italy recognized by Spain June 26, " 

Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian 
government, Sept. 18, which declares war, Sept. 

25 ; Pareja declares a blockade Oct., " 

The Chilian Capt. Williams captures the Spanish 

vessel Covadonga Nov. 26, " 

Intervention fruitless Dec, " 

New Cortes elected ; the great Progresista party 
still abstain from action in pirblic aflfairs ; queen 

opens Cortes I3ec. 2T, " 

Military insurrection at Araujuez, headed by Gen. 
Prim, Jan. 3; martial law in Madrid, Jan. 4; 
Concha and Zabala march against rebels, Jan. 
4, etc. ; riots at Barcelona ; state of siege in 
New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon, Jan. 6-12; 
insurgents said to be endeavoring to enter Por- 
tugal Jan. IT, 1866 

Prim enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the in- 
surrection ends Jan. 20, " 

KIXGS OF SPAIN. 
KEIGN OF THE GOTHS. 

411. Ataulfo ; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. 

" Valia, or Wallia. 
420. Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he gained, 
against Attila. 



451. Thorismund, orTorrismuud; assassinated by his 

favorite. 

452. Theodoric II. ; assassinated by 

466. Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 
483. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
506. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 

511. Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 
531. Theudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a mad- 
man. 

548. Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner and put to death. 
554. Atanagildo. 

567. Liuva, or Levua I. 

568. Leuvigildo ; associated on the throne with Liuva 

in 568, and sole king in 572. 
586. Recaredo I. 
601. Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
603. Vitericus ; also murdered. 
610. Gundemar. 

612. Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 
621. Recaredo IL 

" Suintila; dethroned. 
631. Siseuando. 
636. Chintella. 
640. Tulga, or Tulca. 
642. Ciudasuinto ; died in C.52. 

649. Recesuinto ; associated on the throne this year, 

and in 653 became sole king. 
672. Vamba, or Wamba; dethroned, and died in a 
monastery. 

650. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 
687. Egica, or Egiza. 

698. Vitiza, or Witiza ; associated on the throne ; in 
701 sole king. 

Til. Rodrigo, or Roderick; slain in battle. 

[Six independent Suevio kings reigned, 409^69 ; and 
two Vandalio kings : Guuderic, 400-425 ; his suc- 
cessor, Genseric, with his whole nation, passed over 
to Africa.] 

MOHAMMEDAN SPAIN. 
COEDOVA- 

I. Emirs. The first, Abdelasis ; the last, Yussuf-el-Teh- 

ri: A.i). 714-755. 

II. Kings. The/rs?, Abderahmanl. ; the ?as?, Abu All : 

755-1238. 

GEANAPA. 

Kings. The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Abdallah: 
1238-1492. 

CHRISTIAN SPAIN. 
KINGS or ASTTJEIAS AND LEON. 

718. Pelagius, or Pelayo ; overthrew the Moors, and 
checked their conquests. 

737. Favila ; killed in hunting. 

739. Alfonso the Catholic. 

T57. Froila ; murdered his brother Samaran, in re- 
venge for which he was murdered by his broth- 
er and successor, 

768. Aurelius, or Aurelio. 

774. Mauregato, the Usurper. 

788. Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 

791. Alfonso IL, the Chaste. 

842. Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword 
in one battle. — Mabbe. 

850. Ordono I. 

866. Alfonso III., surnamed the Great ; relinquished 
his crown to his son. 

910. Garcias. 

914. Ordono IL 

928. Froila II. 

925. Alfonso IV., the Monk ; abdicated. 

930. Ramiro II. ; killed in battle. 

950. Ordono III. 

955. Ordono IV. 

9.56. Sancho I., the Fat ; poisoned with an apple. 

967. Ramiro III. 

983. Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 

999. Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 
1027. Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 

KINGS or NAVAEKE. 

873. Sancho Ifligo, Count. 

885. Garcia I., king. 

905. Sancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. 

924. Garcias IL, surnamed the Trembler. 

970. Sancho IL, surnamed the Great (liing of Castile 

through his wife). 
1035. Garcias III. 
1054. Sancho IIL 

1076. Sancho IV., Ramirez, king of Aragon. 
1094. Peter of Aragon. 
1104. Alfonso I., of Aragon. 
1134. Garcias IV., Ramirez. 
1150. Sancho V., surnamed the Wise. 



SPA 



437 



SPA 



1194. Saucho VI., suniamecl the Infirm. 

1234. Theobalil I., count of Cliampague. 

125:!. Theobald II. 

12711. Henry C'ra.ssus. 

12T4. Joanna; married to Philip the Fair of France, 

12S5. 
1305. Louis Ilutin of France. 
lolO. John ; lived but a few days. 

" Philip v., the Loni;, of France. 
1322. Charles I., the IV.' of France. 
132S. Joanna 11., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 
1343. Joanna alone. 
l.'?49. Charles II., or the Bad. 
1387. Charles III., or the Noble. 
1425. Blanche and her husband John II., afterward 

King of Aragou. 
1479. Eleanor. 
" Francis Phccbns de Foix. 

1453. Catharine and John d'Albret. 

1512. Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, 
and united with Castile. 

KINGS OF I.E0X AND OASTIT-E. 

1035. Ferdinand the Great. 

1065. yaucho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Al- 
fonso in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in 
Galicia. 

1072. Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon. 

1109. Uraca and Alfonso VII. 

112G. Alfonso VII., Raymond. 

1157. Sancho III., surnamed the Beloved. 

115S. Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 

[Leon is separated from Castile under Ferdinand 
II., 1157-llSS.] 

11S3. Alfonso IX., of Leon. 

1214. Henry I. 

1217. Ferdinand III., the Saint and the Holy. By him 
Leon and Castile were permanently united. 

1252. Alfonso X., the Wi^e (the Alphousine Tables 
were drawn up under his direction). 

12S4. Sancho IV., the Great and the Brave. 

1295. Ferdinand IV. 

1312. Alfonso XI. 

1350. Peter the Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by Edward 
the Black Prince of England; slain by his nat- 
ural brother and successor, 

1369. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 

1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile. 

1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 

1406. John II., son of Henry. 

1454. Henry IV., the Impotent. 

1474. Isabella, now Queen of Castile, married Ferdi- 
nand of Aragon. 

1504. Joanna (daughter of Fei-dinand and Isabella) 
and Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's 
death Joanna succeeded, jointly with her hus- 
band Philip; but Philip dying in 1506, and 
Joanna becoming imbecile, her father Ferdi- 
nand continued the reign, and thus perpetua- 
ted the union of Castile with Aragon. 

KIXGI5 OP ARAGOX. 

1035. Ramiro I. 

1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 

1094. Peter of Navarre. 

1104. Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarre. 

11.^4. Ramiro II., the 3Ionk. 

ll.-!7. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. 

116.3. Alfonso II. 

1196. Peter II. 

1213. James I., succeeded by his son. 

1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicibj (which see) in 12S2. 

1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 

1291. James IT., surnamed the Just. 

1327. Alfonso IV. 

1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 

13S7. John I. 

1395. Martin. 

1410. [Interreirnum.] 

1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. 

1416. Alfonso V., the Wise. 

1455. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; 

died 1479. 
1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; in 
consecjuence of his marriage with Isabella of 
Castile (1474), the kingdonis were united. 

SPAIN. 

1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic. This 
prince, having c.<)n(iuered Granada and Na- 
varre, became king of all Spain; succeeded by 
his irrandson, 

1510. Charles I., son of Joanna of Castile and Philip 
of Austria (became Emperor of Germany, as 
Charles V., in 1519) ; resigned both crowns, 
and retired to a monastery. 



1556. Philip II., his sou, king of Naples and Sicily; a 
merciless bigot; married Mary, queen-regnant 
of England; died a most dreadful death, beino- 
covered with ulcers. 
159S. Philip in., his son, drove the Moors from Gra- 
nada and the adjacent provinces. 
1621. Philip IV., his sou: a reign of unfortunate war 
with the Butch and French ; he lost Portugal 
in 1640. ^ 

1665. Charles II., his son; last of the Austrian line ■ he 

nominated, by will, as his successor, 
liOO. Phihp v., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 
of 1< ranee: hence arose the "War of the Suc- 
cession," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht 
in 1713 ; resigned. 
1724. Louis L, son ; reigned only a few months. 

" Philip V. ; again. 
1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise; liberal and beneficent. 
1(59. Charles III., brother-king of the Two Sicilies, 

which he gave to his third son Ferdinand. 
liSS. Charles IV., son of Charles III.; the intlueuce 
of Godoy, prince of Peace, reached to almost 
royal authority in this reign ; Charles abdica- 
ted in favor of his sou and successor, in 1S08, 
and died in 1819. 
1S08. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 
forced to resign. 
" Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon; forced 
to abdicate. 
1S14. Ferdinand VIL, restored; succeeded by 
1833. Isabella IL, daughter (born Oct. 10, 1830); ascend- 
ed the throne, Sept. 29, 1833 ; married her cous- 
in, D(m Francis d'Assisi, Oct. 10, 1846. The pees- 
ENTC^ueen of Spain. 
illcir: Alfonso, prince of Asturias, born Nov. 28, 1857.] 
In Sept., 1868, Isabella was forced to take refuge in 
France, a revolution in Madrid, headed by Prim, Ser- 
rano, and Topete, having successfully overturned the 
monarchy. The Cortes met, and, after many months 
of discussion, a decision in favor of a constitutional 
monarchy was arrived at ; but, as none of the persons 
put in nomination for the crown were acceptable to a 
majority, in June, 1869, a regency was declared the 
government, Serrano being regent, and Prim com- 
mander-in-chief. Isabella, iu Paris, still claims the 
crown. 

SPANISH ARMADA. See Armada. 
SPANISH ERA. See Eras. 

SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher nobility, almost 
equal to the kings of Castile and Aragon, and who 
often set their authority at defiance, were restrained 
on the union of the crowns by the marriage of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella in 1474, who compelled several to 
relinquish the royal fortresses and domains which 
they held. Charles V. reduced the grandees to six- 
teen families (Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, etc.), di- 
viding them into three classes. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castellaua) is a 
dialect of Latin largely intermingled with Arabic, 
which was the legal language till the 14th century. 
Spanish did not become general till the 16th century. 

EMINENT 6PANIS1I AUTIIOES. 

Born Died 

Garcilasso de la Vega 1503 1536 

Boscan 1496 1543 

Las Casas 1474 1566 

Cervantes (author of Don Quixote) 1.^47 1616 

Mariana 1536 1623 

Herrera 1565 1625 

Lope de Vega 1568 1635 

Quevedo 1570 164T 

Calderon 1601 1682 

Soils 1610 1686 

Feyjos 1701 1765 

Yriarte 1T50 1798 

Conde 1765 1820 

SPANISH SUCCESSION AND MARRIAGES. See 
Spain, 1700, and Oct. 10, 1846. 

SPARTA, the capital of Laconia, the most consid- 
erable republic of the Peloponnesus, and the rival of 
Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks 
of its enemies by the valor of its citizens for eight cen- 
turies. Lelex is supposed to have been the first Iving. 
From Laceda^mon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, 
who are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it 
obtained the names by which it is most known. The 
Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They cul- 
tivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agri- 
culture. 

Sparta founded {Pausaniax) B.C. 1490 

Tyndarus marries Leda ; Helen born *** 



SPA 



438 



SPE 



Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- 
covered by her brothers 1213 

The princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage; 

she makes choice of Meuelaus of Mycense 1201 

Paris, sou of Priam, king of Troy, carries ofi'Heleu, 
119S, which leads to 

The Trojan War 1193 

After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage 
of nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen reiuru to 

Sparta 1176 

Keign of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon {Pmi- 

aanias) 1175 

The kingdom is seized by the Heraclid.e (Lenglet) llO-i 
Establishment of two kings, Eurystheues and 

Procles, by their father, Aristodemus 1102 

Eule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, and 

enacts a code of laws {Eusehius) 8S1-SS4 

Charilaus delares war against Polymnestor, king 

of Arcadia 848 

Alcanieues, known by his apophthegms, makes 

war upon the Messenians 813 

Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war with 

the Argives 800 

Theopompus introduces the Ephori into the gov- 
ernment about 757 

War declared against the Messenians, and Amphia 

taken 743 

War with the Argives, and celebrated battle* 735 

The progeny of the Parthenite, the sous of Virgins, 733 

Battle oi Ithome 730 

Ithome taken ; the Messenians become vassals to 
Sparta, and the war ends, which had lasted nine- 
teen years 724 

Conspiiacy of the Partheuii with the Helots to 

take Sparta 707 

The Partheuii colonize Tarentum 706 

The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Ar- 
gos, and Arcadia, against the Lacedsemoniaus. 

[This war lasts fourteen years.] 6S5 

Carnian festivals instituted ■ 675 

The Messenians settle in Sicily 669 

The states of Greece unite against the Persians.. . 482 
Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, withstands 
the Persian arms at the detile of Thermopylre 

(see Thcrmojjylce, Battle of) 4S0 

Persians defeated by Pausanias 479 

He is put to death for treason; the Grecian armies 

choose an Athenian general 472 

An earthquake at Sparta destroys thirty thousand 

persons; rebellion of the Helots 460 

Platoea talieu by the Spartans 428 

The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay 

waste the country 426 

Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Ar- 
gives and the Mantinjeans 418 

The Lacedsemoniau fleet, under Mindarus, defeat- 
ed at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain in the battle, 410 
The Spartans, defeated by laud and at sea, sue for 

' peace, which is denied by the Athenians 409 

Reign of Pausanias 40s 

The Athenians defeated at ^gospotamos'byLy- 

sander 405 

Athens taken by him, which ends the Peiopouiie- 

sian War 404 

Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia '.'.'...'. 396 

The Atheniaus^Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians 
enter into a league against the Spartans, which 

begins the Corinthian War 395 

Agesilaus defeats the Allies at Coronea. ..'.'..'. '. [ ', 394 
The Lacedsemoniau fleet, under Lysander, "defeat- 
ed by Conou, the Athenian commander, near 

Cnidos; Lysander killed in an engagement 395 

The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea 

(LengUt) 37g 

The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; their 

fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus 376 

The Spartans defeated at Leuctra '.'.!!!!] 371 

Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears 

before Sparta 3C9 

Battle of Mautinea : the Thebans obtain the vic- 
tory (see Mantinea) 362 

Pyrrhus invades Sparta ; is defeated before tlie 

walls 294 

Agis endeavors to revive the laws of Lycurgus 244 

Leonidas vacates the throne, and flies from Spar- 

„ta 243 

He IS recalled, and becomes sole sovereign ; Agis 
put to death 241 

* This celebrated battle was fought between 300 select heroes of each 
nation, and all perished except two Argives and one Spartan. The lat- 
ter remained on the held, while the two former repaired to Argos to 
announce their victory. Each party claimed the advantage ; the Ar- 
rives because they ha'd lost the fewest men ; the Lacedaemonians be- 
cause they remained masters of the field. A second battle was fought, 
in which the Argives were beaten. — Pavmniaa. 



Reign of Cleomeues III., the son of Leonidas 236 

He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus. . . 225 
Antigouus meets Cleomeues on the plains of Sel- 
lasia, routs his army, and enters Sparta as con- 
queror 222 

Cleomeues retires to Egypt 222 

The Spartans murder the Ephori 221 

Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the 

Ephori 210 

He is defeated and slain by Philopoemen, praetor 

of the Achseau League 200 

Government of Nabis, execrable for his cruelties.. " 
The Romans besiege Sparta, and the tyrant sues 

for peace 197 

The Jstolians obtain Sparta by treachery ; Nabis 

is assassinated 192 

The laws of Lycurgus abolished 188 

Sparta, under the protection, or rather subjugation' 
of Rome, retains its authority for a short time.. 147 

Taken l)y Mohammed II A.D.1460 

Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta 1403 

Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and is 
part of the kingdom of Greece (1806). 

SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION. He was a noble 
Thracian, who served in an auxiliary corps of the Ro- 
man army. Having deserted and been apprehended, 
he was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. With 
some companions he made his escape, collected a body 
of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C., ravaged Southern It- 
aly, and defeated the Roman forces uiider the consuls 
sent against him. Knowing the impossibility of suc- 
cessfully resisting the republic, he endeavored to con- 
duct his forces iiito Sicily, but on the way was defeat- 
ed and slain by Crassus, 72 B.C. 

SPEAKERS OF THE House of Commons. Peter de 
Montfort, afterward killed at the battle of Evesham, 
was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III., 12G0 ; but Sir Peter 
de la Mare is supposed to have been the first regular 
speaker, 50 Edw. III., 1376. The king refused his as- 
sent to the choice of Sir Edward Seymonr as speak- 
er, March 6, 1G7S, and Sergeant William Gregory was 
chosen in his room. Sir" John Trevor was "expelled 
the chair and the house for taking a gratuity after the 
act for the benefit of orphans had passed, March 20, 
1694. 

EEOENT BPEAKEKS. 

1801. Henry Addingtou (afterw'd Viscount Sidmouth), 

Jan. 22. 
" Sir John Mitford (afterward Baron Redesdale), 
Feb. 11. 

1802. Charles Abbot (afterw. Lord Colchester), Feb. 10. 
1817. Charles Manners Suttou (afterward Viscount 

Canterbury), June 2. 

1885. James Abercromby (afterward Baron Dunferm- 
line), Feb. 19. 

1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterward Viscount Eves- 
ley), May 27. 

1857. John Evelyn Denison, April 30. 

SPEAKERS OF THE House or RErEESENTAxiVES of 
TUE United States. 

Congress. Speaker. State. 

1st. F. A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania. 

2d. Jonathan Tnmitjull, Connecticut. 

3d. F. A. Muhlenberg, Peuu.«ylvania. 

4th. Jonathan Dayton, New Jersej'. 

5th J Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey. 

■ (George Dent, j5ro ton., Maryland. 
Gth. Theollore Sedgwick, Massachusetts. 
7th. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina. 
Sth. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina. 
9th. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina. 

10th. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts. 

11th. Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts. 

12th. Henry Cla}', Kentuck}'. 

13th /Henry Clay, 1st session, Kentuckj-. 

■ (Langdon Cheves, 2d session. South Carolina. 
14th. Henry Clay, Kentucky. 
15th. Henry Clay, Kentucky. 
10th /Henry Clay, 1st session, Kentucky. 

■ (John W. Taylor, 2d session. New York. 
17th. Philip P. Barbour, Virginia. 
ISth. Henry Clay, Kentuckv. 
19th. John W. Taylor, New Yoi^. 
20th. And'w Stevenson, Virginia. 
21st. And'w Stevenson, Virginia. 
22d. And'w Stevenson, Virginia. 

(■ And'w Stevenson, 1st session, Virginia. 
23d. -(John Bell, 2d session, Tennessee. 

(Henry Hubbard, pro tern., New Hampshire. 
24th. James K. Polk, Tennessee. 

25th. James K.Polk, Tennessee. 

26th. E. M. T. Hunter, Virginia, 



SPE 



439 



8ril 



Congress. Speaker. State. 

2Tlli. John M'hile, Kcntuck}'. 

2Sth i<J"'iii W. Jone?, Vii-f,'iiiia. 

• (George W. Hopkins, ^wo tcm., Vii-ginia. 
29th. John VV. Davis, Indiana. 

30th /Kobcrt C. Winthrop, Massaclinsetts. 

• (Aniiistead Tim%2>ro tern., Soutli Carolina. 
31st JH""''" Cobb, Georgia. 

■ (K. C. Winthrop, jwo ^f)»., ]\Iassachnsctts. 
3'2(1. Linn Boyd, Kentucky. 

33d. Linn IJoyd, Kentucky. 

34th. Isatlianiel P. Banks, Massacliusetts. 

35th. James L. Orr, South Carolina. 

30th. William Pennington, New Jersey. 

3Tth. Galusha A. Grow, Peunsylvauia. 

SSth. Schuyler Colfax, 'ndiaua. 

39th. Schuyler Colfax, ludiana. 

4(Hh. Schuyler Colfax, Indiana. 

41st. J. G. Blaine, Maine. 

SPEAKING TRUMPET, used by shiiis at sea. One 
is said to have been used by Alexander, 335 B.C. One 
was constructed from Kirchcr's description by Saland, 
l(ir.'2. Plulosophically explained and brought into no- 
tice by Morclaud, 1671. 

SPECIES. Much controversy among naturalists 
arose in consequence of the publication, iu 1859, of 
Mr. Charles Darwin's " Origin of Species," iu which 
he suggests that all the various sijecies of animals 
were not created at one time, but have been gradually 
developed by what he terms "natural selection," and 
the struggle for life of the strong against the weak. 

SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are gen- 
erally supposed to have been invented by Alexauder 
de Spina, a monk of Florence, iu Italy, about 12S5. 
According to Dr. Plott, they were invented by Roger 
Bacon, about 12S0. INIr. Mauni, in his Treatise, gives 
proof in fiivor of Salviuo being the inventor. 

SPECTATOR. The lirst number of this periodical 
appeared on March 1, ITll ; the last was No. 6ii5, Dec. 
20, 1714. The papers by Addison have one of the letters 
o I, I o at the end. The most of the other papers are 
by Sir Richard Steele, a few by Hughes, Budgell, Eus- 
deu, Jliss Shcphard, and others. The Spectator news- 
paper began iu 1S2S. 

SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of the .sun 
or any other luminous body formed on a wall or screen, 
by a beam of light received through a small hole or 
slit and refracted by a prism. The colors thus pro- 
duced are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet. The discovery was made by Newton, whose 
"Optics" were published in 1704. Several of these 
colors are considered to be compounds of three pri- 
mary ones : by Mayer (177.5), red, yellow, and blue ; by 
Dr. Thos. Young (1801), red, green, and violet ; by Prof. 
Clerk Maxwell (ISGO), red, green, and blue.* As the col- 
or of a flame varies according to the substance produ- 
cing it or introduced into it, so the spectrum varies 
also. This has led to the invention of a method of 
chemical analysis by Professors Bunseu and Kirchhofl' 
(ISGO), by which they have discovered two new metals, 
and have drawn conclusions as to the nature of the at- 
nios))hcre of the sun and stars, aud of the light of the 
nebula>, by comparing the spectrum with that pro- 
duced by "flames into which iron, sodium, and other 
substances have been introduced.! 

SPECULATI\T; society, Edinburg (which had 
included among its members David Ilume), celebrated 
its hundredth anniversary on Oct, 14, 1SG3. 

SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, 
nnd also sun-dials, are said to have been invented by 
Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armilhuy sphere by 
Eratosthenes, about 225 B.C. The planetarium was 
constructed by Archimedes before 212 B.C. Pythago- 
ras maintained that the motion of the twelve spheres 
must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to mortals, 
which he called the music of the spheres. 

SPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to Miner- 
va, the goddess of Wisdom. Areas, king of Arcadia, 
taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. Lucretia, 
with her maids, was found spinning when her husband 
CoUatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife 



• Frainihnftr's tines. In IS02 Dr. WoUnston observed several dark 
les in the solar spectrum; in 1815 Joseph Fraiitihofer not only oh- 
rved them, but constructed a map of them, pivinj; 590 lines or dark 
tiuls. By the researches of Brewster and others the number observed 
now above 2000. 

t Mr. Fox Talbot observed the oranpre line of strontium in the spec- 
um in ISaii ; and Sir David Brewster ohserved other lines, ISli.Vl'.'-S. 
I ISU-.'-.'! Mr. Wm. Ilupirins analyzed the light of the fixed stars and 
the nebulse ; and in 1865, Dr. Bence Jones, bv means of spectrum 
inlyses, detected the presence of minute quantities of metals iu the 
ring body, introduced only a few uinutes previously. 



of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a garment 
made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved 
in the Temple of Fortune. Augustus Cresar usually 
wore no garments but such as were made by his wife, 
sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was invent- 
ed at Brunswick about A.D. 1.530. Till 1707 the spin- 
ning of cotton was performed by the hand spiuninir- 
wheel, when Ilargreaves, an Ingenious mechanic, near 
Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, with eight spin- 
dles. Ilargreaves also erected the first carding ma- 
chine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spin- 
ning by water was an, extension of the principle of 
Ilargreaves ; but he also employed a large and small 
roller to expand the thread, and, for this ingenious 
contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At tirst he 
worked his machinery by horses, but in 1771 he built 
a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 
1774-9, Crompton invented the mule {which sec). 

SPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held many di- 
ets at Spires since 1309, and it was the seat of the Im- 
perial Chamber till 16SS, when the city was burnt by 
the French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Rys- 
wick in 1G97. The diet to condemn the reformers was 
held at Spires, called there by the Emperor Charles 
v., 1529. See Protectants. 

SPIRIT-RAPPING, Etc. Spiritual manifestations 
(so called) began, it is said, in America about 1848, 
and attracted attention iu England about 1851, in the 
shape of table-turning, etc. Many inquisitive or cred- 
ulous persons visited Mr. Home aud Mr. Forster, noted 
"spiritual mediums." 

SPIRITS. See Distillation. In all nations spiritu- 
ous liquors have been considered as a proper subject 
of heavy taxation for the support of the state. Sec 
Alcohol, Brand ii, Methylated S2nrits, etc. 

SPITALFIELDS (East London). Here the French 
Protestant refugees settled and established the silk 
manufacture iu 16S5. In consequence of commercial 
changes, the weavers endured much distress about 1S29. 

SPITZBERGEN.an archipelago iu the Arctic Ocean, 
discovered iu 1553 by Sir Ilugli Willoughby, who called 
it Greenland, supposing it to l)e a part of the western 
continent. In 1595 it was visited by Barentz and Cor- 
nelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the origi- 
nal discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp 
mountains, from the many sharp-pointed and rocky 
mountains with which it abounds. See Philips. 

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The origin of 
the germs of infusorial animalcules developed during 
putrefaction, etc., has been and is still fiercely debated 
by naturalists. Spallauzani (about 1766), and especial- 
ly M. Pasteur and others at the present time (1865), as- 
sert that these germs are really endowed with organic 
life existing iii the atmosphere. Needham (about 
1747), and especially M. Pouchet and his friends in 
our day, pretend that these germs are spontaneously 
formed out of organic molecules, aud may be formed 
artiticially. Pouchet's '^Ileterogcnie" appeared in 1S59. 

SPORTS. The first "Book of Sports," under the 
title of " The King's Majestie's Declaration to his 
Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used" on 
Sundays after eveuing prayers, was published by 
King James I., May 24, 1618. The second "Book of 
Sports," with a ratification by his majesty Charles I., 
is dated Oct. 18, 1633. Ou the publication of the first 
"Book of Sports" thei'c arose a loug and violent con- 
troversy among English divines on certain points. 
See Sabbatarians, ,Siiiiilaii. etc. The book was ordered 
to be burnt by the hangman, and the sports were sup- 
pressed by the Parliament. 

SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was fought 
the desperate battle of Wilson's Creek {which sec). 

SPRINGFIELD (New Jersey), Battle of. In June, 
1780, a British force sent fiom New York invaded New 
Jersey, by way of Statcu Island ; they were 5000 strong, 
commanded by General Mathews. Sir Henry Clinton 
joined him with additional troops, and movements 
were made to draw Washington, from his strong posi- 
tion at ]\Iorristown, into battle in the open country. 
The British made a feigned movement toward the 
Highlands. Leaving Geiieral Greene in command at 
Springfield, a short distance from Elizabcthtown, 
Washington marched with a considerable force to- 
ward the Highlands. The British then, by a quick 
movement, attacked Greene on the 23d of June, hop- 
ing to fall upon the American stores at Morristown. 
The British were repulsed, and fled in confusion to 
Staten Island. They consisted of ,5000 inHmtry, a body 
of cavalry, and 20 pieces of artillery. They set fire to 
Springfield when they left. 



sru 



4-tO 



STA 



SPURS. Aucieutly the difterence between the 
knight and the esquire was, that the knight wore gilt 
spnrs {cqucs auratus) and the esqnire silver ones. Two 
sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the time of 
the Conquest, one called a pryck, having only a single 
point, the other a number of points of considerable 
size. Spurs nearly of the present kind came into use 
about 1400. See Platimj. 

SPURS, Battle op. Henry VIII. of England, the 
Emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, iu 1513, entered 
into an ofleusive alliance against France. Henry 
VIII. landed at Calais in the mouth of July, and soon 
formed an army of 30,000 men, counting his own 
troops. He was joined by the emperor with a good 
corps of horse and some foot. The emperor was so 
mean as to act as a.mercenarij to the King of England, 
who allowed him a hundred ducats a day for his table I 
They invested Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; 
and the Due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was 
signally defeated on the IGth of August at Guinegate. 
This battle was called the battle of Spurs because the 
French used their spurs more than they did their 
sioords. The English king laid siege to Touruay, 
which submitted in a few days.— ffenawJf. See Cour- 
trai for another "battle of spurs." 

STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of Stade, 
in Hanover, certain dues were charged by the Hano- 
verian government on all goods imported into Ham- 
burg. The British government settled these dues in 
1844, and they were resisted by the Americans in 1S55. 
Negotiations on the subject began in 1S60, and the 
dues were abolished iu June, 1S61. Great Britain paid 
X160,000 as her share of the compensation. 

STADTHOLDER. See Holland. 

STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for providing an 
education to qualify military officers for the duties of 
the staff. The foundation stone was laid by the Duke 
of Cambridge on Dec. 14, 1S59. 

STAGE-COACHES. So called from the stages or 
inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh and 
change horses. — Bailen. The Stage-coach Duty Act 
passed in 1TS5. These coaches were made subject to 
salutary provisions for the safety of passengers iu 
1809 ; to mileage duties, 1S14. See Mail-coaches, etc. 

STA3IP DUTIES in England first instituted in 16T1. 
They were re-enacted 1694, when a duty was imposed 
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamj) duty 
on newspapers was qommenced in 1713, and every 
year added to the list' of articles upon which' stamp 
duty was made payable. 

The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, 
one of those imposts levied by the Parliament 
of Great Britain which led to the American War 
and the independence of that country, passed 

March '2'2, 1T65. It was repealed in ITfiG 

Stamp duties in Ireland commenced 1TT4 

Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1TS2 

The stamp duties produced iu England, in ISOO, a 

revenue of X3,l'26,535. 
Many alterations made in 1S53 and 1S57. In June, 
1855, the stamp duty on newspapers as such was 
totally abolished, the stamp on them being hence- 
forth "for postal purposes. 
In July and August, 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper 
stamps were issued ; in the same months, 1855, 
ouly 0,870,000. 

Drafts on bankers to be stamped 1853 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in ISGO (on 
leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts 
from registers of births, etc.) ; in 18G1 (on leases, 
licenses to house agents, etc.). 
Stamp duties reduced in 18G4, 1S65. 
All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 
Dec. 31, 1SG5, are to be collected by stamps, by au 
act passed in June, 18G5. 

AMOUNT OF BTAllP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE UNITED 
KINGDOM. 

1840 i:6,72G,S17ilS55 i;6,805,G05 

1845 7,710,083 1S59 (to Mar. 31). 7,994,636 

1850 6,558,33'2llS64 (ditto) . 9,324,850 

STANDARD. First fixed by the law for gold and 
silver in England, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out 
of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats being 
silver or copper. The standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 
dwts. of fine silver alloyed with IS dwts. of copper, or 
37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three parts copper. 
In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were coined into 20 shil- 
lings; in 1412 thev were coined into 30 shillings; and 
in 1527 into 45 shillings. In 154.5, Henry VIII. coined 
6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings ; and 



the next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of al- 
loy into the same sum. Elizabeth, iu 1560, restored 
the old standard in CO shillings, and iu 1601 iu 62 shil- 
lings. It is uow 6G shillings. The average propor- 
tions of silver to gold at the royal mint are 15X to 1. 
The standard of plate and silver manufactures was 
affirmed, 6 Geo. I., 1719, ct scq. See Gold and Coiiuuje. 
— Battle of tue Standard. See yorthallerton. 

STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign of Edgar 
a law was made to prevent frauds arising from the di- 
versity of measures, and for the establishmeut of a le- 
gal standard measure to be used iu every part of his 
dominions. The standard vessels made by order of 
the king were deposited in the city of Winchester, 
and hence originated the well-knowu term of "Win- 
chester measure." The bushel so made is still pre- 
served in the Guildhall of that city. Henry I. also, to 
prevent frauds iu the measurement of cloth, ordered a 
standard yard of the length of his own arm to be made 
and deposited at Winchester, with the st;tndard meas- 
ures of King Edgar. The Guildhall contains the stand- 
ard measures of succeeding sovereigns. — Camden. The 
standard weights and me;isures were settled by Parlia- 
ment in 1S24. The pouud troy was to be .57G0 grains, 
and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The "stand- 
ard yard of 1760," in the custody of the clerk of the 
House of Commons, was declared to be the imperial 
standard yard and the unit of measures of extension. 
This standard having been destroyed by the fire iu 
1834, a new commission was appointed to reconstruct 
it, and researches for this purpose, iu conformity with 
the act, which directed the comparison of the standard 
with a pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the lati- 
tude of London, were begitu by Francis Baily (died iu 
1844), continued by the Rev. li. Sheepshanks till his 
death in 185.5, and completed by G. B. Airy, astronomer 
royal. In 1855 was passed " au act for legalizing aud 
preserving the lost standards of weights and meas- 
ures." The Parliamentary copies of the standard 
pouud and yard are deposited at the Royal Observa- 
tory, Greenwich. 

STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, etc. The prac- 
tice iu the army of using a cross on standards and 
shields is due to the asserted miraculous appearance 
of a cross to Constau tine, previously to his battle with 
Maxentius; Eusebius says that he received this state- 
ment from the emperor himself, 312. For the celebra- 
ted French standard, see Aurijlamme. — Standard op 
Mohammed: on this ensign no infidel dared look. It 
was carried in procession about 1768, when several 
hundred Christians, who ignorantly looked upon it, 
were massacred by the Turkish populace. — The Brit- 
ish Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower 
of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and dis- 
played by the Foot Guards, ou the uniou of the king- 
doms, Jan. 1, 1801. 

STANFORD BRIDGE (York). In 10G6, Tostig, 
brother of Harold II., rebelled against his brother, 
and joined the inva(,ling army of Harold Hardrada, 
king of Norway. They defeated the northern earls 
and took York, but were defeated at Stanford Bridge 
by Harold, Sept. 25, and were both slain. The loss by 
this victory no doubt led to his own ruiu at the battle 
of Hastings ou Oct. 14 following. 

STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was formed by 
James (afterward Earl) Stanhope and the Earl of 
Sunderland in April, 1717. It included Earl Stan- 
hope, chancellor of the Exchequer; Earl Cowper, lord 
chancellor; Earl of Sunderland and Joseph Addison, 
secretaries of state, etc. In March, 1718, Addison re- 
signed, aud the Earl of Sunderland became premier. 

STANTs^ARY COURTS of Devon and Cornwall for 
the administration of justice among the tin miners, 
whose privileges were confirmed by 33 Edw. I., 1305. 
They were regulated by Parliament in 1641 and 1S55. 

STARCH is a sediment produced at the bottom of 
vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in water : it 
is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, and is 
used to stiffen and clear linen, with blue ; its powder 
is employed to powder the hair. The art of starching 
linen was brought into England by Mrs. Dinghein, a 
Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. — Stow. Patents for ob- 
taining starch from other substances have been taken 
out: from potatoes by Samuel Newton aud others in 
1707; from the horse-chestnut by William Murray iu 
1796; from rice by Thomas Wickham in 1823; from 
various matters by Orlando Joues in 1839^0. For 
many years starch has been made in the United 
States from Indian corn. 

STAR-CHAMBER, Court op. So called haply from 
its roof being garnished with stars Coke. This court 



STA 



441 



STE 



of justice was called Star-Chamber, not from the stars 
on its roof (wliich were obliterated even before the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth), but from the Stnrra, or 
Jewish covenants, deiiositecl there by order of Kichard 
I. No star was allowed to be valid except found in 
thos(! repositories, and here they remained till the 
bani^h^K'Mt of the Jews by Edward I. The court was 
instinite<l ■-' lien. VII., 14S(!, lor trials by a committee 
of the privy council, which was in violation of Magna 
Charta, as it dealt with civil and criminal cases unlet- 
tered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s reign (U"i;i4-:iT) 
it exercised its i)ower u|)ou several Ixild innovators in 
liberty, who only gloriud in tlieir sullVrings, and con- 
tvibuli'd to render u'ovornmcnt odious and contempti- 
ble. It was abolislied in 1641. There were in this 
court from 20 to 42 judges, the lord chancellor having 
the casting voice. 

STAK OP INDIA, a new order of knighthood for 
India, gazetted June 25, 1S61.* 

STAKS, Tine Fixi:n. They were classed into con- 
stellations, it is supposed, about 1200 B.C. Ilicetas, 
of Syracuse, taught tliat the sun and the stars were 
motionless, and that the earth moved round them, 
about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and per- 
haps gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus). 
Job, llesiod, and Homer mention several of the con- 
stellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a 
Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., in 
which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberra- 
tion of the stars was discovered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. 
See Astriiiio)}!!! and S'olnr Siistcm. Maps of the stars 
were published by the Society for the Dift'iision of 
Knowlediie in lSo9, and a set of Celestial Maps, is- 
sued under the superintendence of the Royal Prussian 
Academy, was completed in 1S59. 

STATE PAPER OFFICE was founded in 1.578. In 
1S57 the British government began the publication of 
Calendars of State Papers, which will be invaluable to 
future historians. 

STATES-GENERAL or FRANCE. An ancient as- 
sembly of France, first met, it is said, in 1.S02 to con- 
sider the exactions of the pope. Previously to the 
Revolution, it had not met since 1614. The States con- 
sisted of three orders, the clergy, nobility, and com- 
mons. They were convened by Louis XVl., and as- 
sembled at "Versailles, :May 5, 17S9 (SOS ecclesiastics, 
2S5 nobles, and 621 deputies or tiers etat). A contest 
arose whether the three orders should make three dis- 
tinct houses, or but one assemblj'. The commons in- 
sisted upon the latter, and, assuming the title of the 
National Assembly, declared that they were compe- 
tent to proceed to" business, without the concurrence 
of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
The nobility and clertry found it expedient to concede 
the point, and they all met in one hall. See National 
Asscmhhj. 

STATES OF THE CHURCH. See Pope and Rome. 

STATIONERS. Books and papers were formerly 
sold only at stalls, hence the dealers were called sta- 
tioners. The Company of Stationers of London is of 
great antifpiity, and existed long before printing was 
invented, yet it was not incorporated until ?, Philip & 
Mary, V^ftTy. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster 
Row. — }.Iiir timer. 

STATISTICS, defined as the science of figures ap- 
plied to life, is stated to have been founded by Sir 
Wm. Petty, who died in 1637. The term is said to 
have been invented by Professor Achenwall, of Got- 
tin^en, in 1749. The first statistical society in England 
was formed at Manchester in 1833; the Statistical So- 
ciety <if Loudon, which publishes a quarterly journal, 
was esta1)lished in 1834; similar societies have been 
cstal)lislu'd on the Continent. International Statistic- 
al Conirresses are now held occasionallv. The 1st at 
Brussels, in 1S53 ; 2d at Paris, 1855 ; 3d at Vienna, 1857 ; 
4th at London, under the presidency of the prince con- 
sort, July 16-21, 1S60. 

STATUES. See .S'cMf^if iw, etc. Phidias, whose stat- 
ue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the 
world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 
440 B.C;. He had previously made a statue of Miner- 
va at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the 
Parthenon. It was made of ivory and gold, and nieas- 
nrcd i'.9 feet in height. Acilius raised a colden statue 
to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysip- 
pus invented the art of taking likenesses in "ijlaster 
moulds, from which he afterward cast models in wax, 



* It rnniprises the eoverei}^, the grand master, 25 knights (Europe- 
ans ami niilives), anil extra or honorary knights, such aa the prince 
consort, the Prince of Wales, etc. The queeu invested several kniglits 
onNov. I,l!t61. 



320 B.C. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among 
the moderns. The first equestrian statue erected in 
Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 
& IS Vict., c.lO (July 10, 1S54), public statues are placed 
under the control and protection of the Board of 
Works. The following are the chief public statues iu 
London : 

Achilles, Hyde Park, in honor of the Duke of Wel- 
lington, by the ladies of Great Britain. .June 18,1522 
Albert, prince consort, Horticultural Society Gar- 
dens is(53 

Anne, (nieen, St. Paul's Church-yard.! .......... '. .1711 

Bedford, Duke of, Russell Square ...'.'.' .1809 

Cannincr, George, New Palace Yard .1832 

Cartwright, Major, Burton Crescent '. . .1831 

Charles I., Charing Cross 107S 

Charles II., Soho Square ....'......**** 

Cumberland, Duke of, Cavendish Square.'.'.". .'.'.' .'!l770 

Elizabeth, Queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet Street 1586 

Pox, Charles James, Bloomsbury Square ISlC 

George I.,Grosvenor Square 1726 

George I., Leicester Square " 

George III., Somerset House 17S8 

George III., Cockspur Street 1836 

Havelock, Sir Henry, Trafalgar Square 1861 

Howard, John, first erected in St. Paul's 1790 

Jeuner, Edward, Ti'afalgar Square, 1S5S; removed 

to KensiuLrton Gardens 1802 

James II., Whitehall 16ST 

Myddelton, Sir Hugh, Islington Green 1862 

Napier, Gen. Sir Charles J., Trafalgar Square 1S56 

Nelson, Lord, Trafalgar Square 1843 

Pitt, William, Hanover Square 1831 

Peel, Sir Robert, Cheapside 1855 

Richard Coeur de Lion, near Westminster Abbey. .1860 

Wellington, Duke of, Royal Exchange lS4l 

Wellington, Duke of, arch, Hyde Park Corner. 1846 

William III., St, James's Square 171T 

William IV., King William Street 1S45 

York, Duke of, Waterloo Place 1834 

STATUTES. See Acts of Parliament, aarendon, 
Merton, etc. The Statute Law Revision Act was pass- 
ed in 1S63. 

STEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), invented 
by the Earl of Caithness, was said to be successhil in 
1S60. It travels over rough roads at the rate of 8 miles 
an hour, at a cost of less' than Id. per mile. His lord- 
ship made a journey of 140 miles iu two days. 

STEAM-ENGINE and NAVIGATION. Hero of 
Alexandria, iu his "Pneumatics," describes various 
methods of employing steam as a power, and to him 
is ascribed the .dColipile, which, although a toy, pos- 
sesses the properties of the steam-engine : he flour- 
ished about 284-241 B.C. Roger Bacon appears to 
have foreseen the applicatiou"'of steam-power. See 
liailways. Locomotives, etc. 

Solomon de Cans, a French Protestant, publishes 
a work which Arago considers to have contain- 
ed the germs of the steam-engine 1015 

The Marquess of Worcester alludes to steam iu his 
" Century of Inventions" 1603 

Papiu's digester invented 1081 

Captain Savery's engine constructed for raisiug 
water .1603 

Papiu's engine exhibited to the Royal Society 

about 1699 

Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen...l713 

First idea of steam navigation set forth in a patent 
obtained by Jonathan Hulls. 1736 

Watt's invention of performing condensation in a 
separate vessel from the cylinder 1705 

His first patent 1769 

His engines upon a large scale erected iu manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by act of Par- 
liament 1775 

Thomas Paine proposes the application of steam 
in America 1773 

Engines made to give a rotary motion " 

Watt's expansion engine " 

Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on _ 
Newcomcu's jirinciple 1779 

Watt's double engine, and his first patent for it _ 
gran ted 1731 

The Marquess Jouft'roy constructed an engine on 
the Saone 1781 

Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels 178T 

» This statue is of brass, cast !)}• Le Sueurs in IB.'!3,at the expense 
of the Howard-Arundel family. During the Civil War, the Parliament 
sold it to John River, a brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break 
it to pieces; but he concealed it under grounil till the Restoration, 
when it was erected, in 1G78, on a pedestal executed by lirinlin Gib- 
bons. The first equestrian statue of bronze, founded at one cast, was 
that of Louis XIV. of France, 1699 : it was elevated about 1724. 



STE 



442 



STE 



[He and Mr. Symiugtou are said to have coustnict- 
ed a small steam-boat which traveled at about 5 
miles an hour soon after.] 
W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and 

Clyde Canal ■.•■■■■■■■■■ ■'^'^'^''^ 

First steam-engine erected in Dubhn by Henry 

Jackson : .v ' ''^'^^^ 

First experiment with steam navigation on the 

Thames ISOl 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine 

Woolf s double cylinder expansion engine con- 
structed ". 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam -1806 

Fulton's steam-boat " Clermont" on the Seine, ^^ 

Auo-. 9, 1S03 ; at New York 

Fulton started a steam-boat on the Hudson Kiver.lSOT 
Steam power to convey coals on a railway em- 
ployed by Blenkinsop ISll 

The Comet, built by Henry Bell, plies on the Clyde, 

Jan. ,1812 
Steam applied to printing in the Times office (see 

Printimj Machines) 

There were live steam vessels in Scotland {Pari. 

Returns) 181^ 

First steam vessel on the Thames brought by Mr. 

Dodd from Glasgow 1815 

First steamer built in England {Pari. Returns) — " 
The Savannah uteamer, of 350 tons, came from 

New York to Liverpool in '26 days July 15,1819 

First steamer in Ireland 1820 

Steam gun invented by Perkins ..1S24 

Steam jet applied 1825 

Captain Johnson obtained £10,000 for making the 
first steam voyage to India in the Enterprise, 

which sailed from Falmouth Aug. 10, " 

The locomotive steam carriages on railways, at 

Liverpool Oct.,lS29 

The railway opened (see Liverpool) 1S30 

Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company formed, 1SS6 
The Great Western arrives from Bristol at New 
York, being her tirst voyage, in IS days, June 17,1S3S 

War steamers built in England " 

War steamers built at Birkenhead, named the 
Nemesis and Phler/ethon, carr3'ing each two thir- 
ty-two pounders, sent by government to China, 1840 

The Cunard steamers began to sail July 5, " 

[Sir Sam. Cunard died April 28, 1865, aged 78.] 

The Collins steamers began 1S50 

The Pacifie crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, 

25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead May 20,1851 

Steam packets leave Galway for America 1S68 

The merits of an attacking vessel termed a steam 
ram advocated by Sir G. Sartorius, were dis- 
cussed in 1859-60 

An iron-plated frigate. La Gloire, completed in 

France (see Navy, French) 1860 

The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 

Dec. 20, " 
The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched 
at Millwall Oct. 31,1863 

Steam vessels belonging to the British empire in 
1S14, 6 ; in 1815, 10 ; in 1820, 43 ; in 1825, 108 ; in 
1830, 315 ; in 1835, 545 ; in 1845, 1001 ; in 1850, 
IIST ; in 1864, 2490. 

(See Navy and Shipping.) 

THE LAEGE STEAM VESSELS OP ENGLAMI). 

Lonfj. Broad. 

Great Western 230 feet 35 feet 

Duke of Wellington 240 feet 60 feet 

British (^,ueen 275 feet 61 feet 

Great Britain 322 feet 51 feet 

Himalaya 370 feet 43 feet 

Persia 300 feet 45 feet 

Great Eastern* 692 feet 83 feet 

Horse Power : — Paddles, 1000 ; Screw, 1600 ; Weir/ht 

of ship, etc., 12,000 tons; ordinary light dran"'ht 

12,000 tons. "^ 

* The Greal Eastern — for ft short time only (in 1S57-8) called Levia- 
than— vi&a desifjned by Mr. I. K. Brunei [who died Sept. 16, lSo9], and 
built by Messrs. Seott Russell and Co., at Millwall. Its launchinc 
lasted from Nov. 3, 1S57, to Jan. 31, I86S. The capita! subscribed hav- 
ing been all expended, a new company was formed to fit her for sea. 
On Sept. 7, 1859, she left her mooriujrs at Deptford for Portland Roads. 
On the voyage an explosion took place (off Hastings), through some 
neglect in regard to the casing of one of the chimneys, when ten fire- 
men were killed, and many persons seriously iniure'd. After repairs 
she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there Oct. 10 ; she endured the storm 
of Oct. 25-26 well, and proceeded to Southampton for the winter, Nov. 
4, She was constructed to convey 5000 persons from London to Aus- 
tralia, a distance of 22,500 miles ; with accommodations for 800 1st class 
passengers, 2000 2d class, and 1200 3d class. Her able captain (Harri- 
son) was drowned in the Solent, Jan. 22, 1860, deeply regretted. She 
sailed for New York, June 17, under command of Captain Vine Hall, 
and arrived there June 28. After being exhibited, she left New York 
Aug. 16, and returned to England, Aug. 26. Owing to a lawsuit in 



STEAM HAMMER was invented by Mr. James 
Nasmyth in 1S3S, and patented by him June 18, 1842. 
The main feature in the construction of the steam 
hammer is the absolutely direct manner by which the 
elastic power of steam is employed to lift up and let 
fall the mass of iron which constitutes the hammer, 
which mass or block of iron is attached direct to the 
end of a piston-rod passing through the bottom of an 
inverted steam cylinder placed immediately over the 
anvil. The vast range and perfect control over the 
power of the blows enable the largest or smallest 
forge-work to be executed by the same steam ham- 
mer.* In 1842 Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam ham- 
mer to driving piles, which invention has importantly 
assisted in the execution of every great public work 
in which pile-driving has been required. 

STEAM NAVIGATION. See under Steam. 

STEAM PLOW was invented by John Fowler, who 
died in 1S64. 

STEAM RAM (to be used in naval warfare), was in- 
vented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1S36, and cominiini- 
cated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam rams built by 
Mr. James Laird, of Birkenhead, for the Confederate 
States in North America, were stopped, and eventu- 
ally bought by the British government in 1864. 

STEARINE (from stear, suet), that part of oils and 
fats which is solid at common temperatui-es. The na- 
ture of these substances was tirst made known by 
Chevreul in 1823, who showed that they were com- 
pounds of peculiar acids, with a base termed glycer- 
ine; of these compounds the chief are stearine, mar- 
garine, and elaine. See Candles. 

STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, ex- 
ists in nature, and has been largely fabricated fr(mi 
the earliest times. A manufactory for cast steel is 
said to have been set up by Benjamin Huntsman at 
Handsworth, near Shetheld, in 1740. The manufac- 
ture of shear steel began at Sheffield about 1800. 
German steel was made at Newcastle previously by 
Mr. Crawley. The inventions of Mushat (1800) and 
Lucas (1804) were important steps in this manufac- 
ture. See Engraving. In 1856, Mr. H. Bessemer made 
steel by passing cold air through liquid iron ; in 1859, 
tungsten steel was made in Germany; and in 1861, M. 
Freiny made steel by bringing red hot iron in contact 
with carbonate of ammonia. The subject has been 
much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5. In ISGO, much 
attention was excited by cutlery made from a metallic 
sand, brought from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in 
New Zealand. In consequence of improved modes, 
steel is now made cheaply in large masses, and will 
be employed in the manufacture of cannon, etc. 

STEEL PENS. " Iron pens" are mentioned by 
Chamberlayue in 1685. Steel pens came into use 
about 1820, wlien the first gross of three-slit pens was 
sold wholesale for £1 is. In 1880 the price was 8.S., 
and in 1832, G.s. A better pen ie now sold for Gii a 
gross ; the cheapest sort at 2ff. ; Birmingham in 1858 
produced about 1000 million pens per annum. Women 
and children are principally employed in the manufac- 
ture. Perry, Mitchell, and Gillott are eminent makers. 

STEEL- YARD. An ancient instrument, the same 
that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. The 
Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned 
in 315 B.C.— The Steel- Yard Com" any, London mer- 
chants, who had the steel-yard assigned to them by 
Henry III., A.D. 1232, were Flemings and Germans, 
and the only exporters, for many years after, of the 
staple commodities of England. — Anderson. The 
company lost its privileges in 1551. 

STEENKIRK. See Enghien. 

STENOGRAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the art of 
short-liand, said to have been practiced by the an- 
cients. Its improvement is attributed to the poet 
Ennius, to Tyro, to Cicero's freedman, and still more 



April, the ship came into the hands of sheriff 's officers, but was released 
and sailed for New York on May 1, 1861. On Sept. 12, 1861, she suf- 
fered much loss through a violent gale. In 1862 she performed several 
voyages to and from New York ; but in Aug., 1862, ran on a rock near 
Long Island, and injured her bottom. She was repaired and arrived at 
Liverpool Jan. 17, 1863, and sailed to New Y'ork (May 16-27). The 
ship was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co., in March or April, 1S64, and 
was chartered to convey the Atlantic telegraph cable. It sailed from 
Sheerness July 15, and returned Aug. 19, 1865. See Electric Telegraph, 
p.181. 

* It is now employed in every country where the working of malle- 
able iron is carried on. Owing to the vast range of power possessed by 
the steam hammer, forged iron work can now by its means be executed 
on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, with such ease and perfection 
as could not have been possible by the means previously existing. 
Parts of the most gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and Arm- 
strong guns, as well as the most minute details of machinery, as iu 
Enfield rifles, are now executed by the steam hammer. 



STE 



443 



STO 



to Seneca. The Ars Scrihcndi Charactcris, written 
about 1412, is the oldest system extaut. Peter Bales, 
the famous penman, ])iil)lislu'(l on stcnou'raphy in 15!»U; 
and John \\'illis puljlished his ^'Slni<iiin(ji/ii('" in 1002. 
There are now numerous systems: Jiyrom's (1750), 
Gurney's (1753), Taylor's (iiSG), Pitman's Qjhouo- 
graphiV), (isj7). 

STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, St., 'Westminster. The 
commons of England held their assemblies in this 
chapel, which was built by King Stephen, and dedi- 
cated about 1135. It was rebuilt by Edward III. in 
1347, and by him made a collegiate church, to which 
a dean and twelve secular priests were appointed. 
Soon after its surrender to Edward VI., about 154S, it 
was a]ii)lied to the u^c of Parliament. See I'arUauwnt. 
Il was (U'stroycd by lire, Oct. Iti, 1^34. The Society of 
Antiquaries published memorials of it about 1810 ;"aud 
Mr. Alacken/.ie's work appeared in 1S44. 

STEPHENSON, Fort, at Lower Sandusky, was gar- 
risoned by 150 men under Major George Croghaii, in 
the summer of 1S13. They were attacked on the 2d 
of August by 500 British regulars and between 700 and 
800 Iiidians, under Colonel Proctor. The fort was 
nobly defended, and the enemy withdrew. Tlie Amer- 
icans lost 1 killed and 7 wounded; the assailants lost 
160 men. 

STEREOCIIROMY, a mode of painting in which 
water-glass (an alkaline solution of flint, silex) serves 
as the connecting medium between the color and the 
substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, 
who died at Munich on March 5, 1S5C. Fine speci- 
mens of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in the 
Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 

STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the art of 
taking the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, 
invented about 1350. — Andcrfion. M. Say's" stereome- 
ter, for determining the specitic gravity of liquids, 
porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, was de- 
scribed in 1797. 

STEREOSCOPE (from fitcrcoa, solid, and sko]}nn, to 
sec), an optical instrument for representing in appar- 
ent relief natural objects, etc., by uniting into one im- 
age two plane representations of these objects as seen 
by each eye separately. The first stereoscope by re- 
flection was constructed and e.xliibited by Professor 
Charles AVheatstone iu 1838, who announced its prin- 
ciple in 1833. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been 
greatly improved. 

STEREOTYPE (a cast from a page of movable 
printing- types). It is said that stereotrping was 
known "iu 1711. It was practiced by Wm. Ged, of Ed- 
inbnrg, about 1730. Some of Ged's plates are at the 
Royal Institution, London.* A Mr. James attempted 
to introduce Ged's process in London, but failed, about 
1735.— A(V7(o?.5. Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
land in the last century, and a quarto Bible and a Dutch 
folio Bible were printed there.— Phillips. It was re- 
vived in London by Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the du- 
rability of stereotypes has been greatly increased by 
electrotypiug them with copper or silver. 

STERLING (moneyV Camden derives the word 
from caxU'iiini/ or cstcrlinii, observing that the money 
brought from' the east of Germany, iu the reign of 
Richard I., was the most esteemed on account of its 
purity, being called iu old deeds '■'■nuvimi castcrling." 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816, Laennec, of Paris, by roll- 
ing a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, and apply- 
ing one end to the patient's chest and the other to his 
own ear, perceived the action of the heart in a much 
more distinct manner than by the immediate applica- 
tion of the ear. This led to his inventing the stetho- 
scope, or " breast-explorer :" the principle of which, 
now termed "auscultation," was known by Hippoc- 
rates. 

STEWARD OF England, Lonn High. The first 
grand otticer of the crown. This office was establish- 
ed prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and 
was formerly annexed to the lordship of Hinckley, 
Leicestershire, belonging to the family of Mcmtfort, 
carls of Leicester, who were, iu right thereof, lord high 
stewards of England ; but Simon de Montfort, the last 
earl of this familv, having raised a rebellion against 
his sovereign, Henry III., was attainted, and his estate 
forfeited to the kiiig, who abolished the oflicc, 1265. 

* In the librBry nf this institution is nn cditinn of Snllii'st Cprintcd 
nt Edinlmrn liy WiUinm Gert of Edinburf, coldaniitli, not with iiuiva- 
Me types. «s is rommonly done, hut witli cast tal>!i-ts or pisitcs. witii 
tliis imprint: " Edinhiiriri, Gulielmiis Rod, Ruri faluT EdiTii'iisis, non 
typis mobilihus, ut vulgo fieri solet,8ed tabellis scu laminis l'usis,excu- 
<ieb»t. 1744." 



It IS now revived only ^ro h/ic vice, at a coronation, or 
the trial of a peer. The first afterward appointed was 
Ihomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the 
trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devou, on the ar- 
raignment of the Earl of Huntingdon, iu 1400 The 
last was Lord Denman, at the trhil of the Earl of Car- 
digan, Feb. 16, 1S41. The Duke of Hamilton w:is lord 
high steward at the coronations of William IV and 
Victoria. 

STEWARD OF THE Household, Loki> (an ancient 
oflice), has the sole direction of the king's house below 
stairs: he has no formal grant of his ofiice. but re- 
ceives his charge from the sovereign in person, who, 
delivering to him a white wand, the svmbol of his of- 
fice, says. Seneschal, tenez U baton do notre viaison." 
Ihisofticer has been called lord steward since 1.540- 
previously to the 3 1st of Henrv VIII. he was styled 
grand master of the household. His function as a 
judge was abolished in 1849. 

STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here Olaf IL, aided 
by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavors to re- 
cover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark 
and slam, July 29, 1030. He was afterward sainted 
on account of his zeal for Christianity. 

STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. Grac- 
chus fitted the highways with stones to enable the 
horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections on 
their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups were used 
in the 5th century, but were not common even in the 
12th. 

STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden, was fortified by 
Berger Jarl in 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were 
massacred by Christian II. in 1528. 
Peace of Stockholm, between the King of Great 
Britain and the Queen of Sweden, by which the 
former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- 

deu as Elector of Brunswick Nov. 20,1719 

Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Russia, 

in favor of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Mar.24,1724 
Another between England and Sweden. .March 3,1813 
STOCKINGS of silk were first worn by Henry IL 
ot France, 1547. In 1500 Queen Elizabeth was present- 
ed with a pair of knit black silk stockings by her silk- 
woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore "cloth ones 
any move.— Hoicell. He adds, "Henry VIII. wore or- 
dinary cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by 
great chance, a pair of silk stockings : for Spain very 
early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was present- 
ed with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his mer- 
chant. Sir Thomas Gresham, and the present was then 
much taken notice of. — Idem. Others relate that Wil- 
liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house 
of an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stock- 
ings from Jlantua, made a pair like them, the first 
made in England, which he presented to the Earl of 
Pembroke, 1504. — Stow. The art of weaving stockings 
in a frame was invented in Enghmd by tlie Rev. Jir. 
Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, tweiitj'-flve years after he 
had learned to knit them with wires or needles. Cot- 
ton stockings were first made iu 1730. See Cotton. 

STOCKPORT (iu Cheshire) has become eminent on 
account of the cotton trade. Ileaton Norris, in Lanca- 
shire, is united to it by a bridge over the river. Here 
the Manchester blanketeers were dispersed, Jlarch 11, 
1817 ; and here M-as a serious religious riot, when 
two Roman Catholic chapels were destroyed, and the 
houses of many Roman Catholics vi'ere gutted, and 
their furniture and other contents smashed or burnt, 
June 29,1852. 

STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. The 
last in London was removed from St. Clement's Danes, 
Strand, Aug. 4, 1S26. 

STOCKS. The public funding .system originated in 
Venice about 1173, and was introduced into Florence 
in 1340. The English funding system may be said to 
have had its rise in 1690. 
Act to prevent stock-jobbing, passed March, 1734 ; 

repealed 1S60 

The foundation of the Stock Exchange, iu Capel 
Court, the residence of the lord mayor. Sir Wm. 
Capel, iu 1504, was laid on May IS, 1801. It was 
stated on the first stone that the public debt was 
then £.552,730,924. 
The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which 
Lord Cochrane, the celebrated Admiral John- 
stone, and others were convicted, Feb. 22, 1814. 
Lord Cochrane was iu consequence expelled the 
House of Commons. His innorence was after- 
ward proved, and he was restored to his rank 
by King William IV., and to the honors belong- 
ing to it by Queen Victoria. 



STO 



Ui 



STO 



Stock Exchange Coffee-house destroyed by fire, 

Feb. 11,1S1G 
The number of stockholders iu 1S40 amounted to 
33T,4S1. 

Three percent, annuities created 1726 

Three per cent, consols created 1T31 

Three per cent, reduced 1T46 

Tliree per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea 

House 1751 

Three and a half per cent, annuities created 1758 

Long annuities 1761 

Four per cent, consols 1762 

Five percent, annuities 1797audlS02 

Five per cents, reduced to four. 1822 

Old four per cents, reduced to three and a half iu 1824 
Farther reductions made iu 1825, 1830, 1834, 1S41, 
and 1844, the maximum being now three per 
cent. 
By a return of the average price of the public funds 
by the commissioners for the reduction of the nation- 
al debt, it appears that Comols {i. e., consolidated an- 
nuities, paying 3 per ceut. per annum) averaged iu the 
year 

1749 £100 OjlSlS X5S 13 9 

1T80 63 13 61S20 68 12 

1825 90 8 

1S30 89 15 T 

1840 89 17 

1845 93 2 6 

1848 86 15 

1850 96 10 

1852 99 12 6 



17S5 C8 G 6 

1790 71 2 6 

1795 74 8 6 

1798 59 10 

1800 66 3 3 

1805 53 14 

1810 67 16 3 



The price of £100 stock varied iu 



1853, from £101 to £90?:^ 



1854, " 


96 ' 


S5»i 


ISCl, " 


941^ 


1855, " 


93?i ' 


86i,i 


1862, " 


94% 


1S56, " 


OB's' ' 


871,^ 


1S03, " 


94 


1857, " 


95>3' ' 


soy. 


1864, " 


91J8 


1858, " 


ssys " 


94 







1859, from £97?,-^ to £89 

' 89'^ 

90,^8^ 
90 

875a' 



STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher (about 
290 B.C.) ; obtained the uame because they listened to 
his instructions in a porch or portico at Athens, called 
iu Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's supreme hap- 
piness consisted in living agreeably to nature and rea- 
son, and that God was the soul of the vforld.— Stanley. 

STOKE (near Newark, Nottinghamshire). Near 
here, on June 16, 1487, the adherents of Lambert Sim- 
nel, who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and 
claimed the crown, were defeated by Henry VIL John 
de la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the leaders, 
were slain ; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was 
afterward employed iu the king's household. 

STONE BUILDINGS, Eto. Stone buildings were 
introduced into England, 670. A stone bridge was 
built at Bow iu 10S7,"aud is accounted the first; but a 
bridge exists at Crowland which is said to have been 
built iu 860. See Bridges. The first stone buildiug in 
Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone china- 
ware was made by Wedgwood iu 1762. ' Artificial stone 
for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and in- 
troduced into England, 1776. Stone paper was made 
in 1776. See Uansume's Artificial Stone. 

STONE FERRY, Battle or. The British army, 
under General Prevost, menaced Charleston in May, 
1779. They withdrew, but some lingered a month 
upon John's Island, and at Stone Perry, ten miles be- 
low Charleston, were attacked on the 20th of June by 
a part of Lincoln's army. After a severe eugagement 
the Americans were repulsed. The British lost aljout 
270 ; the Americans, 300. 

STONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire) is 
said to have been erected ou the counsel of Merlin, by 
Aurelius Ambrosius, iu memory of 400 Britons who 
were murdered by Ilengist the Saxon, about 4.M.— 
Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monu- 
ment of Ambrosius, 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient 
temple of the Britons, iu which the Druids officiated. 
~I)r. Stukelry. The Britons had annual meetings at 
Abury and Stouehenge, where laws were made, justice 
administered, and heinous crimes punished. 

STONE OPERATION. Extracting stone from the 
bladder was first performed by Ammonius of Alexan- 
dria about 240. . Cutting for the stone was first per- 
formed on a criminal at Paris, in 1474, with success. 
A remedy discovered by Mrs. Stevens, for which she 
was rewarded by government, 1739. See Lithotomy. 

STONE RIVER (Tennessee), B.vtti.e of, fought De- 
cember 31, 1802-January 2, 1863. The battle was fought 
on the banks of Stone River, a stream which, flowing 
eastward, crosses the pike a mile north of Murfrees- 
borough, where it abruptly changes its course, flowing 



northward parallel with the road. On the 31st of De- 
cember both Rosecraus and Bragg determined to at- 
tack, and each had his left massedagainst the antago- 
nist's right. Bragg completed his preparations first, 
and disarranged Rosecrans's plan. The Uuiou right 
was badly cut up ; but a new line was formed, against 
which Bragg hurled his troops in vain. On January 2 
Rosecrans attacked Bragg with such marked success 
that, on the 3d, the latter retreated to Duck River, and 
the National army occupied Murfreesborough. Each 
commander claimed that he was largely outnumbered. 
The Confederate loss was 10,000; the National, 12,000. 
STONINGTON, Defense op. This borough, on 
Long Island Sound, in the eastern part of Connecti- 
cut, "was assailed by the British, under Commodore 
Hardy, ou the 9th of August, 1813. A cannonade and 
bombardment ensued for two or three days. Less 
than 20 men, with 3 cannon, successfully defended the 
place and prevented the British landing from their 
boats. The Americans had 6 men wounded; the Brit- 
ish lost 21 men killed and 59 wounded. 

STONY CREEK, or Bdklington Heights, at the 
west end of Lake Ontario, in Upper Canada, was the 
scene of a night assault upon 1300 American troops, 
under General Chandler, on the 6th of June, 1S13, by a 
British force of about 800 men, under General Vincent. 
The Americans lost 17 men killed, 38 wounded, and 
5 officers and 93 men made prisoners. Among the lat- 
ter were Generals Chandler and Winder. 

STONY POINT, Cafture of. Stony Point is a rough 
promontory on the west shore of the Hudson, a few 
miles below the lower entrance to the Highlands. The 
British were in possession of works there iu the sum- 
mer of 1779. General W'ayne led a force of light in- 
fantry to storm it ou the night of the 15th of July, 
1779, and at two o'clock that morning he wrote to 
Washington, "The fort aud garrison^ with Colonel 
Johnson, are ours." The British lost, in killed, wound- 
ed, and prisoners, about 600 men ; the Americans lost 
15 killed and 83 wounded. The spoils were a large 
amount of military stores. Thanks aud a gold medal 
were given to Wayne by Congress. 

STORMS. The following are among the best au- 
thenticated and most memorable. In London a storm 
raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 944. One in sev- 
eral parts of England, the sky being very dark, the 
wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were de- 
stroyed; and in London 500 houses fell, Oct. 5, 1091. 
One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais 
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to 
assist King John against the barons, perished, 1215. — 
Holinnhed. See Meteorology. 
It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of 

rain and wind, 1233. 
Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed 
through a chamber where Edward I. and his queen 
were conversing, did them no damage, but killed 
two of their attendants, 1285.— //oocr/e?). 
Violent storm of hai! near Chartres, in France, which 
fell ou the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
The hail was so large that the army and horses suf- 
fered very much, aud Edward was obliged to con- 
clude a peace, 1339.— 71/rt<f. Paris. 
When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on her 
setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her 
ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces 
in the harbor, Jan., 1382. — Holinshed. 
Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her 
to the English coasts, in which the king's baggage 
was lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. — -Idem. 
Hurricane throughout Europe, which did very consid- 
erable damage, on Sept. 3, 1058, the day that Crom- 
well died. — Mortimer. 
Storm on the east coast of England : 200 colliers and 

coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 
The " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever 
raged iu England. The devastation on laud was 
immense ; and in the harbors and on the coasts, the 
loss iu shipping aud iu lives was still greater, Nov. 
26-27, 1703.* 
Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, 
perished upon the mountains, iu their march to at- 
tack Drontheim, 1719. 

* The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at ^2,000,000 
sterling. The number of persons drowned in the floods of the Severn 
and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from 
their anchors and never heard of afterward, is thought to have been 
8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were 
lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 
17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroy- 
ed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons 
who were with him. The Bishop of Bath and Wells' and his lady were 
killed in bed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of cattle 
were also lost : in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 



STO 



445 



STR 



One in India, when many hnnrlrerls of vcsppIr were cast 
nway, a Ik-et of huliann'n greatly damaued, and some 
ships hj!*t, and H(i,(iiMl pcrsiins pcrislicd, Oct. 11, 17^7. 

Dreadl'ul hnrricane at Havana: many pnl)lic cditices 
and 4((4S honses weie destroyed, and lUOO inhabitants 
pcrislied, Oct. '25, 1708. 

Awful storm iu the North of England, in which many 
vessels were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 
foundered, Oct. '.''.», 1775. 

One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of the 
inhabitants, April ii'i, 17S2. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid 
waste iu Prance, 1785. 

One fiencral throujihout Great Britain : several hun- 
dred sail of shipping destroved or damaged, Oct. 6, 
1794. 

One which did vast damage in London, and through- 
out almost the whole of'England, Nov. 8, ISOO. 

A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
many ships wrecked, Dec. 10-17, 1S14. 

An awful gale, by which a great mniiber of vessels 
were lost, and much damage was done to the ship- 
l)ing in general on the English coast, Aug. 31, 1S16. 

Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, from 
the 2(ith to 2'2d Sept., 1819. At the island of St. 
Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 

Great storm along the coast from Durham to Corn- 
wall ; many vessels lost, Nov., 1821. 

In Ireland, particularly iu the vicinity of Dublin, many 
houses were thrown down, and vast numbers un- 
roofed, Dec. 12, 1822. 

Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels 
lost, and 13 driven ashore and wrecked iu Plymouth 
alone, Jan. 12-13, 1S28. 

At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
stroyed, Feb. IS, 1828. 

Dreadful .storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where im- 
mense property was lost, July 16, 1831. 

A hurricane visited London and its neighborhood, 
which did great damage to the buildings, but with- 
out the destruction ofhumau life, though many se- 
rious accidents occurred, Oct. 28, 1838. 

Awful hurricane on west coast of England and iu Ire- 
land. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafl'ord- 
shire, and Warwickshire; 20 persons were killed in 
Liverpool by the falling of buildinirs, and 100 were 
drowned in the ueighborhood ; the coast and har- 
bors were covered with wrecks, the value of two of 
the vessels lost being uearly half a million sterling. 
Iu Limerick, Gahvay, Athlone, and other places, 
more than 200 houses were blown down, and as 
many more were burnt, the winds spreading the 
flres. Dublin suflered dreadfully ; London and its 
neighborhood scarcely sustained any damage, Jau. 
6-7," 1839. 

Fearful storm on the coast of the IT. S., totally demol- 
ishing the Minot's Ledge Light in Boston Harbor, 
Apriri9,lS51. 

[The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was oue of storms, 
many of which were very destructive, particularly to 
shipping.] 

Great storm in the Black Sea, Nov. 13-16, 1854, causing 
much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the 
allied armies in the Crnuea. 

Great storm on N. coast of Europe, etc., Dec. 31, 1S54. 

Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 
lost, Nov. 23, 1857. 

Dreadful storm on the night of Oct. 25-20: the Koyal 
Charter totally lost, and many other vessels; anoth- 
er storm Oct. 31, and Nov. 1, 1859. 

Great stoi-m iu the Channel, causing much loss of life 
and jjroperty, Jan. 1, 18C0. 

Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, Feb. 20, 27, 28 ; 
May 28 ; and June 2, 1800. 

Great storm: part of the Crvstal Palace blown down; 
Chichester Cathedral steeple fell, Feb. 20, 21, 1801. 

Great storm on British coasts. 143 wrecks. May 28, 1801. 

Storm on the northeast ; 50 wrecks, Nov. 13, 14, 1801. 

At Market Lavertou, etc.; hail six and seven feet 
deep; much damage to crops; Sept. 2, 1802. 

Storm on British coasts ; very many wrecks ; Oct. 19, 
20, 1802. 

There were severe gales, doing much damage and loss 
oflife, Jan. 19, etc., 1803 ; and Jan. 14, etc.; 1805. See 
under Wrecks. 

Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, etc. (see Cy- 
cloiif, Calcvtt(t), Oct. 5, 1804. 

Hurricane at Lisbon causes much damage ; worst for 
many years, Dec. 13, 1S04. 

Scvere'galos ; many vessels and lives lost (sec Wrecks), 
Jan. (un, 1800. 
STORTHING, the Norwegian Parliament, said to 

have been lirst held at Bergen by Hacho V. iu 1223. 



STOV ES. The ancients used stoves which conceal- 
ed the hre, as the German stoves yet do. They li"hted 
the lire also iu a large tube in the middle of the Tootn 
the root being open. Apartments were warmed by 
portable braziers. Stoves on this old principle, im- 
proved, continue in use in many houses and public es- 
tablishments in England, and generally ou the Conti- 
nent. See Chimneys and Cottarjer's Stove. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including Malacca Pe- 
nang or Prince of Wales Islaud, and Singaijore were 
made a separate dependency of the British crown iu 
1853, and placed under the governor general of India. 

STRAND (London). Houses were first built upon 
the Strand about 1353, at which period it was the court 
end of the town, or formed the communication be- 
tween the two cities of London and Westminster be- 
ing then open to the Thames and to the tields. Som- 
erset and other palaces were erected 1549-160.5.— ,S7ozt' 
The Strand Bridge was commenced Oct. 11, 1811. See 
Waterloo Brklf/e. The Strand improvements were com- 
menced iu 1829. 

STRASBL'RG, the Roman Arr/cntorntum, the capi- 
tal of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Allemanni, 
357.^ This town, formerly imperial, was takeu bv Louis 
XIV. iu 1681. The citadel and fortilications which he 
constructed have been so much augmented that Stras- 
burg may be considered one of the strongest places in 
Europe. It was confirmed to France by'the peace of 
Ryswick in 1097. Strasburg is remarkable for its 
maguificent cathedral and tower, the latter the loftiest 
iu the world. An attempt at insurrection in the city 
was made Oct. 30, 1830, by Prince Louis Napoleon (aft- 
erward President of the French Republic, and now 
Emperor), aided by tw^o oflicers and some privates. It 
was instantly suppressed by their arrest. The prince 
was then shijiped off to America by the French gov- 
ernment. See France. 

STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the Britons, 
who retired northward after the Saxon Conquest, 
about 500. It extended from the Clyde to Cumberland. 
The Britons iu it submitted to Edward the Elder iu 
924. 

STRATHMORE, Countess of. Miss Bowes, of 
Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe, whose 
fortuue was XI, 040,00(1, with vast additions on her 
mother's death, and immense estates on the demise of 
her uncle, married the Earl of Strathmore, Feb. 25, 
1766. Having, after the earl's death, married ]Mr. 
Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him and other 
armed' men, Nov. 10, 1780. She was brought up to the 
King's Bench by habeas corpus and rele^ised, and he 
committed to prison, Nov. 23. The lady recovered her 
estates, which she had assigned to her husband under 
the influence of terror, in May, 17SS. 

STRATTON HILL, Battle of, in Cornwall, May 
16, 1643, between the royal army under Sir Ralph Hop- 
ton, and the forces of the Parliament under the Earl 
of Stamford. The vict(n-y was gained over the Parlia- 
mentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded. 

STRAWBERRY HILL, the Gothic villa of Horace 
Walpole, erected by him, 1753-76, at Twickenham, near 
London. In April and IMay, 1842, his collection of pic- 
tures, and articles of taste "and virtu, were sold by auc- 
tion fori;29,615Ss. 9d. 

STREET MUSIC. An act was passed in 1S64 for 
the better regulation of street music iu the metropoli- 
tan police districts. 

STREET RAILWAYS, previously established by 
Mr. Traill in New York, were opened by him at Birk- 
enhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, 1860, and at Bayswater, 
London, March 23, 1861. A Street Railway Bill was 
rejected by the House of Commons in April, 1861. Sev- 
eral of these railways existed for a time in various 
parts of the metropolis iu 1861, but were all taken up 
in 1862. 

STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, establish- 
ed by Ivan IV. in 156S. Becoming frequently seditions, 
it was suppressed by Peter the Great ; great numbers 
were put to death, mauy by the czar's owu hand, 1697 
-1704. 

STRIKES. See Preston and London, 1859-1861. The 
tailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 
1834. The strike of the calico-printers of Glasgow 
lasted nine months in 18,';4. The strike of the amal- 
gamated engineers took place iu 1S52 ; and of the Lon- 
don cabmen, Jiilv '-'T-3i), 1S53. A strike among the 
silk-workers at Coventry came to an end, Aug. 30,^1800. 
An unsuccessful attemiif to get up a strike in'the build- 
Lug trade began March 23, ibOl. A strike of the pud- 



STR 



446 



SUG 



dlers in the irou trade occurred in the spring of 1SG5. 
See Iron. 

STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of strontia 
was discovered at Strontian, in Argyleshire, iu 1787. 
Sir Humphry Davy first obtained from it the metal 
strontium in 1S08. 

STRYCHNIA, a poisonous alkaloid, discovered in 
ISIS by Pelletier and Caventou in the seeds of the 
strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also in the 
upas poison. It is so virulent that half a grain blown 
into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
minutes; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. 
Much attention was given to strychnia in 1S5G, during 
the trial of William Palmer, who was executed for the 
mnrdcr of Cook, June 14, 1850. 

STUCCO-WORK was known to the ancients, and 
was much prized by them, particularly by the Romans, 
who excelled in it. — Abbe Lcnglct. It was revived by 
B'Udine about 1550; and in Italj', France, and En- 
gland in the ISth century. 

STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Ctesar's 
ordering leap-year to be once in four years, and the 
month Sextilis to be called Augustas, 8 B.C. See New 

Style. 

STYLE EoYAT.. See Majesty and Title/i. The styles 
of the English sovereigns are given in the later edi- 
tions of Nicolas's "Chronology of History." 

SUABIA, a province in S.Germany; was conquered 
by Clovis, and incorporated into the kingdom of the 
Franks, 496. After various changes of rulers, it was 
made a duchy by the Emperor Conrad I. in 912, for 
Erchanger; according to some, in 91C, for Burckhardt. 
The duchy became hereditary in the house of Hohen- 
staufen iu 1080. Duke Frederick III. became Emperor 
of Germany as Frederick I. (usually styled Barbarossa, 
red beard), in 1 152. Conradin, his descendant, was de- 
feated at the battle of Tagliacozzo {which see) iu 1'2G8, 
and beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the 
duchy gave rise to many of the small German states ; 
part of Suabia is included in Wiirtemberg and Switz- 
erland. Suabia was made a circle of the empire iu 
13ST and 1500. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. See Telegraph (un- 
der Electricity). 

SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of Eu'^-land 
formerly granted in kind, particularly iu wool ; 30,000 
sacks were voted to Edward III on account of the war 
with France, VA-iO.— Anderson. Subsidies were raised 
upon the subjects of England by James L,1624; but 
they were contained in a bill for the redress of griev- 
ances, 1G39. Four subsidies were granted to Charles 
II. in 1G63. England grauted subsidies to foreign pow- 
ers iu several wars, particularly in the war airainst the 
revolutionists of France, and the war against Bona- 
parte. One of the most remarkable of these latter was 
June 20, ISoO, when a treaty of subsidies was ratiiied 
at Vienna between Austria and England, stipulating 
that the war should be vigorously prosecuted ao-ainst 
France, and that neither of the contracting powers 
should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Aus- 
tria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other powers were 
afterward given by England to the amount of manv 
millions sterling.— P/iz7Z?>s. 

SUCCESSION ACTS. See Settlement. 

SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (IG & 17 Vict,, c. 51), after 
much discussion, was passed Aug. 4, 1853. By this act 
the legacy duty was extended to real estate, and was 
made payable on succession to both lauded and ner- 
soual property. 

SUCCESSION, War of (1702-1713), distinguished hv 
the achievements of the Duke of Marlborou"h and the 
Earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable result* 
arose on the question whether an Austrian prince or 
a French prince should succeed to the throne of Spain 
The British court opposed Louis, and JMarlborou^li was 
victorious; but the Allies withdrew one after another" 
and the French prince succeeded. See Spain, Utrecht. 

SUDBLTRY, iu Suffolk, was disfranchised for b'-ib- 
ery in 1S4S. 

SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the Alani 
and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, were over- 
come by the latter, and absorbed into their kin-'dom 
about 584. ° 

SUEZ CANAL. The project is not entirely a mod- 
ern one. According to Herodotus, the E^'yptian Kino- 
Necho, about 650 B.C., built a canal from the Nile to 
Suez, 105 miles lone:, and wide enonah for two galle3's 
When Napoleon was in Egypt inl79S, he requested 



his chief civil engineer, M. Lepure, to survey and re- 
port upon the practicability of a canal between the 
two seas. The only result of this was to give rise to 
a blunder which prevailed for a considerable time—, 
the notion that there was a difterence of 32;t; feet be- 
tween the level of the Mediterranean and theRed Sea. 
M.Ferdinand de Lesseps, son of the French vice-con- 
sul in the time of Mohammed Ali, was intimately ac- 
quainted with Said Pacha, the late Viceroy of Eirypt. 
He suggested to Said Pacha, in 1854, the scheme of the 
maritime canal from sea to sea. The pacha (who had 
not then assumed the title of viceroy) took it uj) with 
alacrity; M. Lesseps came to Paris and London for the 
means. He formed a company, named the " Compagnie 
Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez," which was to 
undertake the works. The canal, with its ports at each 
end, when finished, was to be the property of the com- 
pany for ninety-nine years, after which it would belong 
to the Egyptian government. ^Meantime, that govern- 
ment was to receive annually 15 per cent, of the traflic 
earnings. The tolls charged for passage were always 
to be equal for ships of all nations. The company was 
to take all the land wanted for the constructi<m of the 
canal, and to quarry the stone for building free of cost. 
These conditions of the original agreement are still iu 
force : but some other concTitions, relating to the sup- 
ply of labor by the forced service of 20,000 fellahs, or 
Egyptian peasants, ordinarily bound to work, by way 
of feudal tribute, on the viceroy's estates, have since 
been altered ; the company has also been deprived of 
the right of selling or leasing the lands ceded to it; 
and the Fresh-water Canal, from Suez to Ismailia, 
and thence to Zagazig, which runs parallel with the 
intendgd maritime canal for half its length, has been 
sold by the company to the viceroy. The share capi- 
tal of the company is eight millions sterlius, besides 
which four millions sterling have been raised on de- 
bentures, and nearly four millions paid by the viceroy 
as indemnity for the non-fulfillment of conditions 
above mentioned, and for the resumption of the lauds 
and Fresh-water Canal. The Maritime Canal is to 
extend from the harbor of Port Said, on the Pelusiau 
coast of the Mediterranean, to the port of Suez, at the 
head of the Red Sea. The length of the canal is not 
quite a hundred miles. Its depth throughout is to be 
26 feet ; its general width is to be 24G feet at the base, 
and 328 feet at the top of the banks, except in some 
portions of the line where it has to be cut through 
high ground ; the width is here reduced to 190 feet at 
the upper part. There will be no locks on the Mari- 
time Canal. Vessels will be able to steam through, or 
be towed through, from sea to sea, in about sixteen 
hours. On leaving Port Said the canal enters Lake 
Menzaleh, throuirh which the channel runs for tweutv- 
nine miles. The waters of this lake are shallow, arid 
the bottom composed of mud. The characteristics of 
the first half of the Maritime Canal are, that about 
thirty-four miles of its course lie through lakes; the 
remainder through elevated plateaux. On August 
15, 1SG5, the flood-gates of the smaller Suez Canal 
were opened, the fresh water from the Nile was ad- 
mitted, and a coal vessel passed from the Mediterra- 
nean to the Red Sea. On Oct. 15, 1868, out of 96,938,066 
cubic yards to be excavated and dredged, there re- 
mained 29,775,850 cubic yards to complete the under- 
taking. The present monthly out-turn of the dredg- 
ing-machines insures the completion of the canal by 
the time promised— that is, by October 1, 1S60. Manual 
labor is employed where the working level is above 
the reach of the dredges. The Lake Timsah is now 
transformed into a Mediterranean lake, nine miles in 
circumference. The water required to fill it was about 
95,000,000 cubic yards, March, 18G9. The Maritime Ca- 
nal is actually made and opened from Port Said to Is- 
mailia. The Fresh-water Canal is open from Ismailia 
to Suez. 

SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to appoint them 
was given by Parliament in 1.534 to Henry VIII. as 
head of the Church. See Siqn-emacy. 

SUGAR* {Saechannn offlcinarum) is sujiposed to 
have been known to the ancient Jews. Found iu the 
East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 
B.C.—Strabo. An Oriental nation in alliance with 



Sufrar, lonp; considered a neutral substance, without confeners, has 
of late years become the head of a numerous family, dailv increasing, 
viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar-cane ; boiled witfi dilut* acids 
It yields glaaise); fruit-sugar (from many recent fruits); grape-sugar 
(glucose; from dried fruits and altered starch); sugar of milk ; Meli- 
tose (from Eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1S56) ; sorbin (from 'the berries 
ot the mountain ash, by Pelouze); inosUe (from muscular tissue, 
Scherer) ; dulcnw (by Laurent) ; mannile (from manna, obtained from 
the Fr.axmus Ornus, a kind of ash) ; qumite (from acorns); to these 
have been lately added mi/cose, by M. Jlltscberlich, and me/ezelose and 
trehalose, by M. Berthelot. 



SUG 



447 



SUL 



Ponipey used thejaice of the caue as a cominon bev- 
cvx\i:,c.—Ltu-an. The best siifrar was pi-odiiced in In- 
dia.— YV/ji//. It was prescribed as a lucdicino l)y Ga- 
len. J!ri)Ui,'ht into Europe from Asia, A.D. G25. In 
lar;,'e quantitic?, 1150. It was attempted to be culti- 
vated in Italy; but, not succecdinjr, the Portuguese 
and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510.* Our 
chief importations of sugar arc from the ISritish West 
Indies, the East Indies, Mauritius, and Uracil. Sugar 
was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1GS5. The pre- 
vious customs duties upon sugar were repealed, and 
moderated duties substituted, 1)y the act 9 & 10 Vict., 
C. 6i>, ])assed Aug. IS, 1840, by which act the same du- 
ties were levied upon the .sugar of foreign countries 
as levied upon sugar the produce of British colonies: 
annually reduced until July 5, 1851. The importations 
of sugar have in consequence considerably increased, 
and amounted in lS5.i to npward of 8,000,000 cwts., 
paying a duty exceeding £4,000,000 sterling. Sugar 
imported in iS54, i),ir2,a04 cwts. ; in 1864, 10,767,538 
cwts. In 1855, the duty was increased, but was re- 
duced in lS64.t Sugar was extracted from beet-root 
iu France, by Achard, iu 1790, and has been since 
largely manufactured. 

SUGAR REFINING was made known to Euro- 
peans by a Venetian, 1503, and was first practiced in 
England iu 1059, though some say that they liad the 
art ft few years earlier. Ur. Scofl'ern's improved pro- 
cesses were patented in 1848-50. 

SUICIDE (from mi, self; civdcrc, to kill), the slayer 
of himself. The first instances recorded in Jewish 
history are those of Samson, aboutll'20, and Saul, 1055 
B.C. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed it 
a crime, and burned the oftending hand apart from 
the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman 
history, the only instance recorded occurs in the reign 
of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves 
disgraced by being ordered to make conimon .sewers, 
destroyed themselves, 006 B.C. Instances afterward 
occurred, however, of illustrious men committing sui- 
cide, as Cato, 40 B.C. t In the Roman Catholic Church, 
in the Gth centurj-, it was ordained that no commem- 
oration should be mrfde iu the Eucharist for such as 
committed self-murder. This ecclesiastical law con- 
tinued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into 
the statute law of England by the authority of Parlia- 
ment, with the confiscation of land and goods. Till 
IS'.'o the body of the suicide was directed to be buried 
iu a cross-road, and a stake to be driven through it. 

A FEW OF TUB MOST MKMOKARLF, LATE CASES OF SCICIDE 
IN GKEAT BRITAIN, ETC. 

General Pichegru April 7,1804 

Miss Champante Aug. 15, " 

Sellis, valet of the Duke of Cumberland. . .May 31,1810 

Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant " 

Williams, murderer of the Marr family Dec. 15,1811 

Lord French Dec. 9,1S14 

Marshal Berthier June 1,1815 

Samuel Whitbread, Esq Sept. 6, " 

Sir Samuel Romilly Nov. 2,1818 

Sir Richard Croft Nov. «, " 

Christophp, king of Hayti Oct. 8,1820 

Admiral Sir Georsre Campbell Jan. 23,1821 

Manpicss of Londonderry Aug. 11,1322 

Hon. Col. Stanhope Jan. 26,1825 

Mr. Jlontgomery iu Newgate (see Prussia Acid), 

July4,lS2S 

Jtiss Charlotte Both Jan. 3,1830 

Lord Greaves Feb. 7, " 

Colonel Brereton Jan. 13,1832 

* Ahnut tlie year 11 38 the sucar-cnne was transported from Tripoli 
and Syria to Sicily, thence to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies 
and America. It is not known at what date Bujjar was introduced into 
Kncland, hut it seems to have been prior to the reign of HenrvVIII. 
Mr. Whitlaker, in the History of Whalley, p. lOfl, quotes an earlier in- 
stance in 1497. A manuscript letter from' Sir Edward Wotton to Lord 
Cohliam, dated Calais, Gth March, 1546, advertises him that Sir Edward 
had taken up for his lordship twenty-five sugar-loaves, at 6i.\ shillings 
a loaf, " whiche is eighte pence a pounde." 

+ In 1840, the imports of sujrar into the United Kiujdom were nearly 
5,000,000 cwts., of which nearly four millions were for home consump- 
tion ; null the duty amounted to about five millions and a half sterling. 
In is.'io the imports were H,285,7.'J4 cwts., and the reduced dutv amount- 
ed to £4,138,951 ; in 1S5.3, 7,-272,S3.'? cwts. were retained for dome con- 
sumption : dutv. £4,083,836 ; in 1.H59, 8,641,950 cwts. were retained for 
home consumption; duly, X5,935,909 ; iu 1864,8,937,798 cwts. were 
retained. 

t There have been three instances of self-destruction hy fire; that 
of llie philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into tlie crater of 
M..iiiit Etna; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw him- 
siir. in isen.into the crater of Vesuvius; and of an Ent'lishmnn, wlio 
jumped into the furnace of a force aho\it the year 1811. HlntaiTli re- 
lat»*s tliat an unaccountable passion for suicide seized the Milesian vir- 
(jins. from which they could not be ^irevented hy the tears and prayers 
of their friends ; hut a decree being issued that tlie body of every young 
maifl who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the'streets, 
a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 



Major Thompson jii„e 1.'?,1S32 

Mr. Simpson, the tr;iveler July 24 1840 

Lord James Beresford April "7'l84l 

Gen. Sir Rufane SIkiw Donkin Mav'l' " 

The Earl of Munster March 2o']S42 

Lord Congleton June 8 " 

Laman Blanchard ■.'. .■.■.'.■.■.Feb. 15;i845 

Colonel Garwood Dec 99 " 

Rear Admiral Cilhu'd '..■.■.■.■.■.■. '.March is!lS4G 

Haydon, the eminent paiuter Jnue 22 " 

Count Bresson jr^^ 2'lS4T 

,;"'!!"<^' ^>'"-' i" I»tl'« July i2,'lS50 

« alter \\ atts, lessee ol the Olympic Theatre, 

r. T. T,- Julvl3, " 

fGV.py Rice j.,„. oo,is53 

Lieut. Col. Layard x)ec 27 " 

Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakspeaie's 
Cliff, Dover) Aug. 1G,1S54 

Dr. 1 ranks, late editor of the AUgemdne Zeitunq, 
after killing his son i^ov 3 1S55 

John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the treasury)' 
by prussic acid, on Hampstcad Heath (he was 
fouud to have been guilty of enormous frauds 
upon the Tipperary Bank, etc.) Feb. 1C,1S56 

A. Smart, a w;iU;bmaker, threw himself from the 
Whispering (inllery in St. Paul's March 14, " 

Charles Russell, Esq., late chairman of Great West- 
ern Railway May 15 " 

Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red Sand- 
stone (insane through overwork) Dec. 23, " 

Major Gen. Stalker, C.B., of Indian army (March 
14), and Commodore Ethersey, of the Indian 
navy. (Both through physical and mental de- 
pression while on the ex'peditiou against Per- 
sia ; see nushire) ; .March 1T,1S57 

Major Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother of 
Eliot, lost in the Amazo7i Oct. 23, " 

Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at the 
Goverumeut School of Mines June 19,1858 

Dr. Sadleir, senior fellow of Trinity College, Dub- 
lin Julv, " 

Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exe- 
ter Aug. 27.1SG0 

Lord Forth, son of Earl of Perth Oct. 8,18G1 

Wm. 6. Prescott, banker April 29,1SG5 

Admiral Robert Fitzroy (see 2\'cw Zealand and Me- 
teorolof/y) April DO, " 

INQUESTS ON SDIOIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 

1S5G 919 males 395 females 1314 

1858 909 " 360 " 1275 

1860 961 " 395 " 1357 

1861 961 " 363 " 1324 

1862 938 " 346 " 12S4 
1S63 104S " 337 " 13S5 
1864 978 " 359 " 1337 

SUITORS' FUND (iu the Court of Chancery), in 
1862, amounted to £1,200,000. As this mouey had no 
specific owner, a proposal was made by government 
to apply it to the building of new law-courts, payment 
of all legal claims being guaranteed. The scheme was 
deferred by Parliament. 

SULLIVAN, FORT, Defense of. Fort Sullivan was 
upon Sullivan's Island, iu Charleston Harbor, S. Car- 
olina. It was built of palmetto logs and earth, and 
garrisoned by 500 men, under Colonel William Moul- 
trie, iu the spring of 1776. It was attacked by a fleet, 
under Sir Peter Parker, ou the 2Sth of June, 1776. A 
couflict raged for almost ten hours. The fleet was 
dreadfully 'shattered, and finally reiiulsed. The Brit- 
ish lost, in killed and wounded, 225 ; the garrison lost 
only 2 killed and 22 wounded. Jloultrie was promoted 
for his gallantry, and the name of the fort was called 
Moultrie iu his honor. 

SULPHUR has been known from the earliest times. 
Basil Valentine mentions its jiruduction from green 
vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), produced from the 
burning of sulphur, was introduced into England about 
1720. Sulphur luis been the object of research of many 
eminent chemists during the present century, and 
many discoveries have been made, such as its allc- 
tropic condition, etc. It is the inflammable constitu- 
ent in gunpowder.— The sulphur mines of Sicily have 
been wrought since the 16th century, but the exporta- 
tion was inconsiderable till about 1S20 ; in 1S38 the 
trade increased so much that Great Britain alone im- 
ported 38,654 tons. In that year the Neapolitan gov- 
ernment was induced to grant a monopoly of the trade 
to a French company ; but a firm remonstrance from 
the British government led to a discontinuance of this 
impolitic restriction in 1841, which, however, gave a 
great and lasting impetus to the British sulphur niau- 
ufacture. 



SUL 



448 



SUR 



SULTAN, a Turkish title, from the Arabic, sif^nify- 
ing king of kings, and giveu to the Graud Sigiuor or 
Emperor of Turkey. It was tirst giveu to the Turkish 
priuces Angrolipez and Musgad, about 1055. — Vattier. 
It was first giveu, accordiug to others, to the Emperor 
Mahmoud, iu the 4th ceutm-y of the Hegira. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in dress, fur- 
niture, eating, etc. Those of Zaleucus ordaiued that 
no womau should go attended by more than one maid 
iu the street, unless she were drunk ; and that she 
should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless 
she designed to act uuchastely, 450 B.C. — Diog. Laert. 
The LexOrchia among the Romans (181 B.C.) limited 
the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of 
the dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced 
that during supper, which was the chief meal among 
the Romans, the doors of every house should be left 
open. The Euglish sumptuary laws, chiefly of the 
reigns of Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed 
in 1S56. See Dress. 

SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of 
the twelve spheres about 529 B.C. The relative dis- 
tances of the sun and moon were first calculated geo- 
metrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the 
stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous theo- 
ries were ventured during fifteen centuries, and as- 
tronomy lay neglected until about A.D. 1200, wlien it 
was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary 
and Spain. The Coj)eruican system was made known 
in 1530. See Copcrnican System and Solar Si/stem. 
Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an 
igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed 
by Gasseudi. 

By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot 
which darkened the sun's disk in July and Au- 
gust, 1076, he established the certainly of its mo- 
tion round its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley 1T02 

Solar spots were first observed by Fabricius and 
Harriot iu 1610. A macula three times the size 
of the earth passed the sun's centre April 21, 
1766, and frequently since. 
Herschel measured two spots, whose length to- 
gether exceeded 50,000 miles April 10,1779 

Since 1851 much attention has been given to the 
luminous protuberances observed on the edge 
of the sun's disk during a total eclipse. On July 
IS, 1S60, Mr. Warren de la Rue took two photo- 
graphs at the time of total obscuration. " Solar 
physics" especially studied by Messrs. Warren 

de la Rue, Balfour, Stewart, etc 1S65-6 

SUNCION, Treaty of, between General Urquiza, 
director of the Argentine Confederation, and C. A. 
Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recog- 
nizing the independence of Paraguay, July 15, 1852. 

SUNDAY, or Loeh'b Day. Most nations have count- 
ed one day iu seven holy. Sunday was anciently the 
day on which divine adoration was paid to the'Suu. 
Among Christians it is commonly caUed Dies Domini- 
ca, or Lord's day, on account of our Savior's appear- 
ance on that day after his resurrection. The first civil 
law that was issued for the observance of this day com- 
bined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath aiid oth- 
er festivals (Eiisebius, Life of Constantine), and it was 
followed by several imperial edicts in favor of this day, 
which are extant in the body of Roman law, the earli- 
est being that of Constantine the Great, dated March 
7, 321.— Co)-j;h,8 Juris Civilis. See Sabbath ; Sabbatari- 
am; Sports, Book of, etc. 
The Council of Orleans prohibited country labor, 

which that decree had allowed ' 33s 

The Sabbath day was ordaiued to be kept holy i'li 
England from Saturday at three in the after- 
noon to Monday at break of day, 4th Canon, Ed- 

. gar 900 

Act of Parliament levying one shilling on every 
person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James 

^ J 1666 

James I. and Charles I. authorized certain sports 
after divine service on Sundays. See Sports. 

Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles 1 1625 

Act restraining the performance of servile works, 
and the sale of goods except milk at certain 
hours, and meat in public houses, and works of 

« The estimated diameter is 882,000 miles, and the distance from the 
eartli, till lately Riven as 9.5,000,000 miles, has been recently corrected 
to 94,000,000, by the result of the experiments and calculations of N. 
M. Fizeau and Foucault (1864). The error corrected corresponds to the 
apparent breadth of a human hair at 125 feet, or of a sovereign at 8 
miles oS.— Herschel. The sun is now described as consisting of a solid 
or liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous envelope (photosphere), 
over which is a dense atmosphere, containing the vapors of various 
metala and other elements (lsG6). See Sjiecirum. 



necessity and charity, on forfeiture of five shil- 
lings, 20 Charles II 1677 

The Sunday Act was passed in 17S1. In March, 
1855, Lord Robert Grosvenor (since Lord Ebury) 
inti'oduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. It 
met with much opposition and was withdrawn. 
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS were first established in Ea- 
gland about 1T81, by Robert Raikes, an eminent print- 
er of Gloucester, conjointly with Dr. Stock. See £dii- 
cation and Sabbath-schools. 

SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, formed in 
1718, arose out of a modification of the Stanhope min- 
istry. After various changes, it was broken up in 1721. 
Charles, earl of Sunderland, First Lord of the Treasury. 
Earl Cowper, Lord Chancellor. 
Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, Secretaries. 
Mr. Aislabie, Cliancellor of the Exchequer, etc. 

SUN-DIALS were invented by Anaximander, 550 B. 
C. — Pliny, I., 2. The first put up at Rome was by Pa- 
pirius Cursor, at the temple of Quirinus, when time 
was divided into hours, 293 B.C. Sun-dials were first 
set up in churclies, A.D. 613.— Lenglet. 

SUPERANNUATION ACT for the Civil Service 
was passed in April, 1S59. 

SUPREMACY over the Church was claimed by Pope 
Gelasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. On Jan. 15, 1535, 
Henry VIIL, by virtue of the act 26 Hen. VIII., c. 1, 
formally assumed the style of "on earth Supreme 
Head of the Church of England," whicli has been re- 
tained by all succeeding sovereigns. The Bishop of 
Rochester (Fisher) and the ex -lord chancellor (Sir 
Thomas More), and many others, were beheaded for 
denying the king's supremacy in 1535; and in 1578, 
John Nelson, a priest, and Thomas Sherwood, a young 
layman, were executed at Tyburn for the same offense. 

SURAT (E. Indies). Before the Euglish East India 
Company obtained possession of Bombay, the presi- 
dency of their aft'airs on the coast of Malabar was at 
Surat ; and they had a factory here established under 
Captain Best iu 1611. The Great Mogul had here an 
officer who was styled his admiral. An attack of the 
Mahratta chief Sivajee, on the British factory, was de- 
feated by Sir George Oxen den, 1664. The English 
were again attacked in 1670, and 1702, and often sub- 
sequently. The East India Company, in 17.')9, fitted 
out an armament, which dispossessed the admiral of 
the castle ; and, soon after, the possession of this cas- 
tle was confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Su- 
rat was vested iu the British by treaty in 1800 aucl 1803. 

SURGEONS, Royal College op. The first charter 
was granted by Henry VIIL, 1540. Formerly barbers 
and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that 
"no person using any shaving or barbery in London 
shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other 
matter excepting only the drawing of teeth." The 
surgeons obtained a new charter in 1745, 1800, and 
1844. Since that period, various legislative and other 
important regulations have been adopted to promote 
their utility and respectability ; and no person is le- 
gally entitled to practice as a surgeon in the cities of 
London aud Westminster, or within seven miles of the 
former, who has not been examined at this college. 
The college in Lincoln's lun Fields was remodeled^in 
1836, aud the interior completed in 1837. The premi- 
ses were enlarged in 1852-3. See Medical Council. 

SURGERY. It was not tintil the age of Hippocrates 
that diseases were made a separate study from philos- 
ophy, etc., about 410 B.C. Hippocrates mentions the 
ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced 
dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about A.D. 17; 
Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus ^gineta, in 640. The 
Arabians revived surgery about 900; and iu the 10th 
century a new era in the science began; between these 
periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests and 
barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illus- 
trious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 153S. 
Surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing 
arms or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there 
were only thirteen in London. See Physic. 

SURINAM (Dutch Guiana). The factories estab- 
lished by the English in 1640 were occupied by the 
Portuguese, 1643; by the Dutch, 1654; taken by the 
British, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1814. 

SURNAMES first began in Greece and Egypt, as So- 
ter. Savior; Kicator, conqueror; Euerr/etes, benefactor; 
Philopator,\o\er of his father; Philometor,\ovev ofhia 
mother, etc. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his 
deep study of nature; Aristides was called the .TvM; 
Phocion, the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; Xeno- 



SUR 



449 



SWE 



phon, the A ttic Muse; Aristotle, the Stacfyrite. ; Pythag- 
oras, the Samian ticujc; Meuedcmiis, the Eretrian BuU; 
UeiiKicritus, the Latiflliing I^hihfuijihcr ; Virgil, the 
Maiituan Siran, etc. Suruames were iiitri)du(-cd into 
Englaud by the Normans, and were adopted by the 
nobility about 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, 
which sigiiilies son, as Fitz-hcrbert. The Irish used 
I O for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish 
Iligblandcrs used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. 
The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, 
as\\'illianisipn. ^laiiy of the most common surnames, 
such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, etc., were 
taken by P.rabanters and other Flemings, who were 
iialiiralizcd in the reign of Henry VI., 14;)5. M. A. 
Lower's "Dictionary of English Surnames" was pub- 
lished in ISGO. 

SURPLICES. First worn by the Jewish priests, 
and said to have been first used in churches, 316, and 
encouraged by Pope Adrian, 786. Every minister say- 
ing public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with 
sleeves, Canon'bT. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. 
VL,1547; again, lEliz., 1558; andl3&UChas.II.,lU(;2. 

SUHREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (near London) 
were established in 1831 by Mr. Edward Cross, who 
brought hither the menagerie formerly at Exeter 
Change. Various picture models have been exhibit- 
ed here since 1S37, viz., Vesuvius, Iceland, etc., accom- 
panied by fireworks. In 1856, a company which had 
taken the gardens erected a large yet elegant building 
for concerts, the architect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 
Oct. 19, 1S56, when the hall contained about 0000 per- 
BOns, attending to hear the Rev. C. H. Spurgeou, seven 
were killed and thirty seriously injuredby a false 
alarm of fire. In 18C2 the hall was temporarily taken 
for the reception of the patients of St. Thomas's Hos- 
pital. 

SURVEY. See Ch-dnance. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The oldest in the worid 
is in China, near King-tung; it is formed of chains. 
Rope suspension briclges, from rocks to rocks, are 
also of Chinese origin. The bridge over the Menai 
Strait is a most surprising work. The Hungerford 
(or Charing Cross) Suspension Bridge, opened'lWay 1, 
1S45, was removed to Clifton and opened there, Dec. 8, 
1864. Parliament empowered the Commissioners of 
Woods to erect (among other improvements there) a 
suspension bridge at Battersea, Sept., 1S40; and many 
bridges of similar construction have been erected in 
various parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and West- 
minster Suspension Bridge was opened Nov. 10, 1862. 
Early in 1S69 there was opened to the public the long- 
est suspension bridge in the world, connecting the vil- 
lage of Niagara Palls, U. S., with Clifton, in "Canada. 
The bridge is 1268 feet long, the cables from which it 
is suspended being nearly 1900 feet; the towers are 
respectively ino and 105 feet high. The Cincinnati 
and Covington Bridge was begun in 1856, and finished 
in 1867, at' a cost of $l,7,50,0bo. The total length is 
2252 feet, 1057 of which are from tower to tower, and 
the floor is 100 feet above low-water mark. See Menai 
Strait, Hinujerford, Clifton, Niagara, etc. 

SUSSEX, Kingdom of. See Britain. 

SUTLE.J, a river in N.W. India, on the banks of 
which were fought the desperate battles of Aliwal 
and Sobraon {which sec). 

SUTTEES, the burning of widows. This custom 
began in India from one of the wives of "Bramah, 
the Son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that 
she might attend him in heaven. So many as seven- 
teen widows have burnt themselves on the funeral 
pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus 
perished, until lately, in each year. But the English 
government, after long discouraging suttees, formally 
abolished thera, Dec. 7, 1829. They have since occa- 
sionally taken place. The wife of the son of the Ra- 
jah of Beygoon thus perished, June, 1864. 

SVEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, 3)^ miles 
south of Ilelsingfors : it is situated on seven rocky 
islands; the fortifications were commenced by the 
Swedes in 1748, and were not completed in 1789, when 
Finland was united to Russia, by whose government 
the works were zealously continued. It is termed the 
Gibraltar of the North. On Aug. 6, 1S.'>5, the English 
and a jiart of the French fleet anchored oft" Sveaborg, 
and bombarded it by mortar and gitn-boats from the 
9th to the 11th, causing the destruction of nearly all 
the principal buildings, including tlie dock-yard and 
arsenal. But few casualties and no loss of life ensued 
in the allied squadron. Success could not be pursued 
for want of mortars. 

Ff 



SWEARING ON TUE Gospels, first used about 528, 
and introduced in judicial proceedings about COO.— 
Jiapin. PuoFANE SwEAKiNo made punishable by 
fine; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2.s for 
the first oftense; for the second oflense, 4s.; the third 
ofteuse, 6s. ; 6 Wni. III., 1695. See Oaths. 
SWEATING SICKNESS. See Plaoiie. 
SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabitants 
were the tins, now the modern inhabitants of F'm- 
land, a diminutive race, who retired to their present 
territory on the appearance of the Scandinavians or 
Goths, who have ever since been masters of Sweden. 
Sec ,'>raH>Ju„(via. The internal state of this kingdom 
is little known previously to the 11th century. By the 
union of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a province 
of Denniark, and was not rescued from this subjection 
till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the kingdom 
from the Danish yoke. He became king in 1523, and 
his descendants ruled till 1809. The government of 
Sweden is a limited monarchy. The Diet consists of 
four orders, the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and 
the burghers, and meet every three years (last time 
Oct. 15, 1865). The king is, as in Britain, the head of 
the executive. There are two universities, Upsal and 
Lund; and Sweden can boast, amonfr its great men, 
Linnjeus, Celsus, Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thor- 
waldsen, and Andersen. Population of Sweden (1863). 
4,022,564; of Norway (1855), 1,490,007. 

Odin arrives in the North, and dies B.C. 70 

His son Skiold reigns 40 

The Skioldungs reign til! Olaf the Infant is bapl 
tized, and introduces Christianity among his 

people about A.D.IOOO 

Waldemar I., of Denmark, subdues Rugen, and 

destroys the pagan temples 1168 

Stockholm founded 1260 

Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular form of 

government 1279 

The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, 
is made elective, and Steenchel Magnus, sur- 
named Smeek, or the Foolish, king of Norway, 

is elected 1319 

Waldemar lays Gothland waste 1361 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns 1363 

Treaty or Union of Calmar (which see), by which 
Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, un- 
der Margaret 1397 

University of Upsal founded 1476 

Christian II., " the Nero of the North," massacres 

the Swedish nobility to fix his despotism 1520 

The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by 

the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1521 

Gustavus Vasa is raised to tlie throne 1523 

He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty.. 1527 

Makes the crown hereditary 1544 

Gustavus Adolphus heads the Protestant cause iu 

Germany ; takes Magdeburg and Munich 1630 

He is slain at Lutzen .' Nov. 0,1632 

Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark 1648 

Abdication of Christina 1C54 

Charles X. overruns Poland 1657 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish 1600 

University of Lund founded 1666 

Charles XII., " the Madman of the North," begins 
his reign ; he makes himself absolute, and aool- 

ishes the senate 1699 

Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by 

the Czar of Russia (see Pidtowa) 1709 

He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' 

protection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks..l713 
He is restored ; and, after ruinous wars, and fight- 
ing numerous battles, is killed at the siege of 

Frederickshald Dec. 11,1718 

Queen Ulrica Eleanora abolishes despotic govern- 
ment liiig 

Royal Academy founded by Linne, afterward call- _ 

ed Linnteus 1741 

Conspiracy of Counts Brahe and Home, who are 

beheaded 1^56 

The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 

1738-57 ; put down by Gustavus III 1770 

Despotism re-established 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted " 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by Count Auker- 

strom, at a ball, March 16 ; he expired the 29th..l792 
The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs three successive days; his right hand 
was "cut off, then his head, and his body im- 
paled May 18, " 

Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the government as- 
sumed by his uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, 

March 13,1809 
Representative Constitution established. . .June 7, " 



SWE 



450 



SWI 



Sweden cedes Finland to Russia Sept. 1T,1S09 

Marshal Bernadotte, the Prince of Ponte Corvo 
(one of Bonaparte's greatest generals), is chosen 

the Crown Prince of Sweden Aug. 21,1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London Nov. 12, " 

Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon. . .Jan. 9,1812 

Alliance with England July 12, " 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon, 

March 13, 1813 
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 

Jan. 14 ; carried into eflect Nov. ,1814 

Bernadotte ascends the throne of Sweden as 

Charles John XIV Feb. 5,1818 

Canals and roads constructed 1S22 

Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and 

Sweden May 19,1826 

Death of Bernadotte, whose sou Oscar ascends the 

throne March 8,1844 

Treaty of alliance with England and France, 

^ Nov. 21,1855 

Banishment decreed against Catholic converts 

from Lutherauism Oct.,185T 

Demonstration in favor of Italian independence, 

Dec. 17,1859 
Increased religious toleration toward seceders, 

May,lSGO 

The king visits England and France Aug., 1861 

He is warmly received in Denmark Jnly 17,1862 

Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed. . .June 14, " 
Strong demonstration in favor of Poland... April,lSG3 

Inauguration of free trade Jan. 1,1864 

Sweden protests against the occupation of Schles- 

wig by the Allies Jan. 22, " 

Great excitement throughout the country, March ; 

preparation for war (no result) April, " 

Foundation of a " National Scandinavian Society" 
at Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confed- 
eration of the three kingdoms for military and 
foreign affairs, reserving independent interior 

administration Dec, " 

Eeform of the Constitution proposed, Nov.,; adopt- 
ed by the Legislature ; great rejoicings — Dec, " 
Commercial treaty with France signed. . .Feb. 15, 1865 

KINGS OP SWEDEN {pTevioushj Kiugs of Upsal). 

1001. Olaf Schotkouung, or Olif Schoetkonung the In- 
fant, is styled king, 1015. Christianity intro- 
duced in this reign. 

1026. Edmund Colbrenuer. 

1051. Edmund Slemme. 

1056. Stenkill. 

1076. Ilalstan. 

1090. Ingo I., styled the Good. 

1112. Philip. 

Ills. Ingo II. 

1129. Swerker, or Snercher I. 

1155. St. Eric I. 

1161. Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor, 

11C7. Canute, son of Eric I. 

1199. Swerker, or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 

1210. Eric II. 

1216. John L 

1222. Eric III., the Stammerer. 

1250. Berger Jarl, regent. 

1266. Waldemar I. 

1275. Magnus I. 

1290. Berger II. 

1319. Magnus II. ; dethroned. 

1350. Eric IV. 

1369. Magnus restored. 

1363. Albert of Mecklenburg ; his tyranny causes a re- 
volt of his subjects, who iuvite Margaret of 
Denmark to the throne. 

1389. Margaret, queen of Sv^edeu and Norway, now 
also of Denmark, and Eric XIII. 

1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms 
are united under one sovereign.] 

1412. Eric XIII. governs alone : deposed. 

1440. Christopher IIL 

1448. Charles VIII., surnamed Canuteson. 

1471. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector, 

1483. John II. (I. of Denmark). 

1502. [Interregnum.] 

1503. Swante Sture, Protector. 
1512. Sten Sture, Protector. 

1520. Christiern, or Christian II. of Denmark, styled 
" the Nero of the North ;" deposed for his cru- 

1523. Gustaviis Vasa; by whose valor the Swedes are 

delivered from the Danish yoke. 
1560. Eric XIV., sou of Gustavus ; dethroned and 

slain by 
1568. John III., his brother. 
1592. Sigismuud, king of Poland, son of John III. ; 



disputes for the succession continued the whole 
of this reign. 

1604. Charles IX., brother of John III. 

1611. Gustavus (Adolphus) II., the Great; fell at the 
battle of Lutzeu, Nov. 6, 1632. 

1633. [Interregnum.] 
" Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. Re- 
signed the crown to her cousin ; died at Rome 
in 1689. 

1654. Charles X. (Gustavus), son of John Casimir, 
count palatine of the Rhine. 

1G60. Charles XL, son of the preceding; the arts and 
sciences flourished in this reign. 

1697. Charles XII., styled " the Alexander," and "the 
Madman of the North ;" killed at Fredericks- 
hald, Dec.11,1718. 

1719. Ulrica Bleanora, his sister, and her consort, Fred- 
erick I., landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. Ulrica re- 
linquishes the crown, and 

1741. Frederick reigned alone. 

1751. Adolphus Frederick oi Holstcin-Gottorp, descend- 
ed from the familv of Vasa. 

1771. Gustavus (Adolphus) in. ; assassinated by Count 

Ankerstriim at a masked ball. 

1772. Gustavus (Adolphus) IV. ; dethroned, and the 

government assumed by his uncle, the Duke 
of Sudermania. 
1809. Charles XIIL, duke of Sudermania. 
1814. Treaty of Kiel, by which Norway falls under the 

sovereignty of Sivedcn. 
1818. Charles (John) XIV., Bernadotte, the French 
prince of Ponte Corvo ; succeeded by his sou 
1844. Oscar, March 8. 

1859. Charles XV., July 8 (born May 3, 1826) ; the pkes- 
ENT King of Sweden and Norway. 
Daughter, Princess Louisa, born Oct. 31, 1851. 
Brother, Prince Oscar, born Jan. 21, 1829. 

SWEDENBORGIANS, a sect (calling themselves 
" the New Church," or " the New Jerusalem Church"*) 
which holds the opinions of Baron Emanuel Sweden- 
borg (born at Stockholm, 1688 ; died at London, 1772). 
He stated that he began to receive spiritual manifes- 
tations, etc, in 1745, of which an account is given in 
his numerous works. The sect arose about 1760, and 
began to spread in 1783 in England, where there were 
50 congregations in 1851. 

SWEET BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to En- 
gland from Italy before 1548. Laurus rndica, or Royal 
Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. The Sweet 
Fern bush, Comptonia aHj>lcnifolia, came from Ameri- 
ca, 1714. Laurus aggregata, or the Glaucous Laurel, 
came from China in 1806. 

SWING. Between 1S30 and 1833 many haystacks 
and barns were fired in the rural districts of En- 
gland, and attributed to an imaginary person named 
" Swing." Many persons were caught and punished. 
The probable cause was disputes between the farmers 
and their deluded laborers. 

SWITHIN, St., lived in the 9th centuiy, and, having 
been the preceptor to King Ethehvolf, was by that 
prince made Bishop of Winchester in 852. The tradi- 
tion, that if it rain upon St. Swithin's day, July 15, it 
will rain forty days following, is supposed to have a 
shadow of reason only from the circumstance of some 
constellations, which have the character of portending 
rain, rising cosmically about the time of St. Swithin's 
festival. 

SWITZERLAND, the ancient Helvetia, was con- 
quered by the Romans, 15 B.C., and afterward was 
successively subject to the Burgundiaus and Germans. 
Franks also settled here in the early ages. The can- 
ton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, 
leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, in- 
vaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman Geueral 
Marius, after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 
B.C. This canton has given name to the whole con- 
federacy. — The present national council is elected ev- 
ery third year, at the rate of one member for 2000 per- 
sons. 
The Helvetians, invading Gaul, severely defeated 

by Julius Cajsar B.C. 58 

The Helvetians converted to Christianity by Irish 

missionaries A.D. 612 

Helvetia ravaged by the Huns 909 

Becomes subject to Germany 1032 

Freiburg built by Berthold IV 1179 

Berne built 1191 

* It does not receive the usual doctrine of the Trinity, believing that 
the three persons are one in Christ; it rejects the doctrine of justifica- 
tion by faith alone, and the imputed righteousness of Christ, and holds 
that salvation can not be obtained except by faith and good works. It 
accepts baptism and the Lord's Supper, and" uses a liturgy and hymns. 



SWI 



451 



SYN 



Tyranny of Gcsler, which occasions the memora- 

"blo revolt under tlie patriot William Tell 1306 

Coiiledcratiou airaiiist Austria; declaratioii of 

Swiss iudepcndence 1307 

A malii;naut fever carries off, in the canton of 

Basle, 1 100 souls 1314 

Form of i^ovcruineut made perpetual 1315 

Leopold I., of Austria, defeated at Morgarten, 

Nov. 16, " 

Lucerne joins the confederacy. 1335 

The cautou of Zurich joins and becomes head of 

the lea.i;ue 1.3.50 

Berne, Glaris, and Zug join 1351 

Leopold II., of Austria, defeated and slain at Sem- 

pach July 9,13S6 

The Austriaus defeated at Niifels ; make peace, 

April 9,1389 

The Grisous league (see Caddce) 1400 

Second league of the Grisons 14'24 

The third league of the Grisons 1436 

Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle (1600 
Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the 

enemy losing 10,000 men) Aug. 20,1444 

The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Grauson, 

April 5; and at Morat June 22,1476 

And aid the Duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 

Charles is slain Jan. 5,1477 

Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France 

under Louis XI 14S0 

Union of Freiburg and Soleure 14S1 

Maximilian I., emperor, acknowledges Swiss in- 

dc]K'iidence 1499 

Schaft'hausen joins the union 1501 

The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at 

Novara June 6,1513 

Defeated by them at Marignano Sept. 13, 14,1515 

The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France 

and other powers 1516 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop com- 
pelled to retire 1519 

The Grisou leagues join the Swiss Confederacy as 

allies 1544 

Appenzel joins the other cantons 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by 
surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the 

town, but in the end is defeated 1602 

[This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival 

commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] 

Independence of Switzerland recognized by the 

treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia, Peace o/)..164S 
[From this period uutil the French Revohition the 
cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by 
the changes arising out of their various Consti- 
tutions.] 

Alliance with France May 25,1777 

Strife in Geneva between the aristocratic and dem- 
ocratic parties ; France interferes 17S1 

lOOO fugitive Geuevese seek an asylum in Ireland 

(see Genera) 17S2 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France 1792 

Helvetic Confederation dissolved; its subjugation 

by France 1798 

Helvetian republic formed " 

Switzerland the seat of war 1799-1S02 

The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the fed- 
eral government restored; and a landamman 

appointed by France May 12,1802 

Uri, Schweitz, and Uuderwald separate from the 

republic July 13, " 

Switzerland joins France with 6000 men. .Aug. 24,1811 
The Allies entered Switzerland in the spring of. . .1814 
The number of cantons increased to 22, and the 
independence of Switzerland secured by the 

treaty of Vienna 1815 

Revision of the Constitution of the cantons 1830 

Law to make education independent of the clergy 1839 
It leads to dissensions between the Catholics and 

I'rotestauts 1840^ 

Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844; to 
put education into the hands of the Jesuits, etc. ; 

opposition of the Protestant cantcm.s 1846 

Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, I'uterwalden, Freiburg, 
Zug, and Valais (Roman Catholic cantons), form 
a separate league (Sonderbund) to support edu- 
cation by the Jesuits, etc 1840 

Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching; a 
temporary provisional government established 

Oct. 7, " 

The Diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and di.s- 

solves it, July 20; the seven cantons protest, 

July 22; the Diet orders the expulsion of the 

Jesuits, Sept. 3 ; communal assemblies held to 

resist it, Sept. 26 ; Oct. 3, 10 1847 

The Diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, Nov. 



4; civil war; the Sonderbund defeated; sub- 
mits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the sec- 
ularization of monastic property Nov. 19-29, " 

New federal Constitution Sept. 12,1843 

Dispute about NeulVlu'itcl {irhich see) 1S57 

Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italijin 
War March 14,1859 

Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
troops at Naples; the Confederation forbid for- 
eign enlistment July and Aug., " 

Swiss government protests against the annexation 
of Savoy to France March 15,1?G0 

150 Swiss, attempting to enter Savoy, are stopped 
by the Geuevese government March 30, " 

M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the national 
shooting-match at Wimbledon Jnly, " 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in for- 
eign service without permission July 30, " 

Proposed European Congress to preserve Swiss 
neutrality put off Jnly, " 

Glarus destroyed by tire May 3,1SC1 

French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes, Oct. 28; 
the Swiss announce the violation of their terri- 
tory Nov. 5, " 

Treaty of France settles the question of the Valley 
of Dappes by nnitual cession of territory ; uo 
military works to be constructed on territory 
ceded ; signed Dec. 8,1862 

Serious election riots at Geneva, with blood.shed, 
Aug. 22 ; federal troops arrive Aug. 23,1864 

Federal troops quit Geneva Jan. 11,1805 

Revision of the Constitution ; deliberations bearin, 

Oct723, " 

M. Kniisel elected president Nov. 6, " 

SWISS CONFEDEKATION OF 1815. 



Uri, 1 first Con- 

Schweitz, >- federa- 

Unterwalden,) tion. 

Zurich. 

Berne. 

Lucerne. 

Schaftliausen. 

Appenzel. 

St. Gail. 

Glarus. 

Zug. 



Freiburg 

Solothurn. 

Basle. 

Grisons. 

Aargau. 

Thurgau. 

Tessins. 

Pays de Vaud. 

Valais. 

Neufchiitel. 

Geneva. 



SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a monn- 
tain by the Chinese, 1879 B.C.— L'nfu. Hist. The Ro- 
man swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The 
broadsword and cimiter are of modern adoption. The 
sword of state carried at an English king's coronation 
by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords 
are most prized ; the next the sword of Ferrara steel. 
The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure 
the latter from the celebrated artificer named Andrea 
di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Ferra- 
ras. The broadsword was forbidden to be worn in 
Edinburg in 1724. 

SYBARIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded about 
720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Crotonians about 510 B.C. 
The people were greatly addicted to luxury, hence the 
term Sybarite. 

SYCAMORE-TREE, called the Egyptian fig-tree. 
In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of Female Sovereigns," 
we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over 
from France a little sycamore-tree, which she planted 
in the crardens at Holyrood, and that from this have 
sprunglill the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be 
seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales; founded by 
Governor Phillip, on a cove on Port Jackson, in 1788, 
as a British settlement for the colony of convicts orig- 
inally intended for Botany Bay. It was named after 
Lord Sydney, secretary for the colonies. A legislative 
council was first held July 13, 1829 ; the University 
opened Oct. 11, 1852. Svdney was erected into a bish- 
opric in 1830, afterward "into an archbishopric. It was 
lit v^'ith gas in May, 1841, the first place so lit in Aus- 
tralia. The Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and val- 
uable propertv destroyed, June 29, 1865. See Aiistm- 
lia. New SoiitliWah-K, Convicts, etc. 

SY]MPIESO:\IETER, a species of barometer invent- 
ed by Adie of Edinburg in 1819. 

SYNAGOGUE (usuallv an assembly), a congregation 
of the Jews, the place where such assembly is held for 
religious purposes. When first held is uncertain; 
some refer it to the times after the Babylonish captiv- 
ity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 1851 there 
were in Loudon 10 synagogues; in England and 
Wales, 53. 

SYNOD. The first gener.il synods ■were called by 



SYE 



452 



SYE 



emperors, and afterward by Christian princes • but the 
pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates 
usually presiding (see Councils). The first national 
synod held in England was at Hertford, 673 • the last 
was held by Cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to 
hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Hen. VIII 1533 
See Dort and Thurles. 

SYRACUSE, S.E. Sicily, founded by Archias 734 B 
C. ; 732 B.C., Eiisehms; 749 B.C., Univ. Hist. See Sitibj. 

Gelon beomes supreme B C 435 

Succeeded by Hiero 478 

Republic established '.'.'.'..'.".'. 4C7 

Becomes predominant in Sicily '.".'..'...' 453 

Athenian expedition against Syracuse, uudei-Ni- 

cias 4J5 

Gylippus the Lacedaemonian succors Syracuse- 

defeats Nicias ' 'tis 

Government of Dionysius the elder,' 40C •' he' re- 
ceives Plato well ' 389 

Dionysius the younger succeeds." 367 

Opposed by Dion, 361, who is banished, and Plato' 
who endeavored to reconcile them, is sold for a 

slave 3QQ 

Dion returns with a Greek 'army and h'e'e't, 'and ex- 
pels Dionysius, 356 ; rules Syracuse, 355 ; assas- 
sinated by Callippus 353 

Dionysius recovers his authority, 347,'but' is 'ban- 
ished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343, who governs 

well till his death . . .. 337 

Agathocles usurps power '..'.'."..'. 317 

He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republ'ic re'- 

stored 2S9 

Hiero, praetor of Syracuse, 275';' elected' king "27o'- 
rules m peace till his death, 216 ; Hieronymus' 
his grandson, succeeds, 216; murdered. ' 214 
Syracuse declares against Rome, besieged by Ma'r- 
cellus, 214, and taken ; Archimedes, the illustri- 
ous mathematician, slain 212 

Syracuse taken by the Saracens, A.D.'669"aud"r'e'- 

taken by Count Roger, the Norman. . loss 

Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542 ; Jan., 1693'-' and 

nearly destroyed Aug C 1757 

In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to^he 
Neapolitan troops April 8,1849 

SYRIA. The capital was originally Damascus- but 
after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus founded An tioch. 
Alliance of David with Hiram, king of Syria, B C 1049 

Syria conquered by David 1040 

Liberated by Rezin ggj, 

Beuhadad, king of Syria, makes war on' the' Jews." 898 

Benhadad II. reigns about '5=0 

Sji-ia subjugated by Tiglathpileser, king of Assyria 740 

Syria conquered by Cyrus w 

And by Alexander 333 

Seleucus iVYco.?or enters Babylon 310 

^ra of the Seleucidce (M'/i?c7t sec) "" 

Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigoiius' defeat- 
ed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. . . . 301 

The city of Antioch founded 299 

Autiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love wi'th'h'is 

father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly 

to death; but the secret being discovered, she is 

divorced by the father, and married by the son.. 297 

Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by Seleu- 

Seleucus foully as6assinated'by'ce'raimu's;"A'n't'io' ^^^ 
cnus I. kmsf 



137 



128 



124 



Antiochns I. clefeats the Gaul's, 'and take's't'h; 'name ^^^ 
of the Soter, or Savior 275 

^^-^'"S'i!^^, ."•' surnamed by the Milesians' Theos 

(God !), king oci 

Poisoned by Laodice oap 

Seleucus IL (king, 246) makes a treaty 'of alliance 
with Smyrna and Magnesia 040 

Seleucus III., Ceraunus (or Thunder)',' k'ino^ 226 

Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), c'onqu'ei-s 
Palestine, but is totally defeated at Raphia 217 

Again conquers Palestine, 198, but gives it to Pt'ol'- 

-r,^Py ino 

Enters Greece, 192; defeated by the Roma'ns'at 
Thermopyla;, 191 ; and at Magnesia ion 

Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to tii'e'm 
AsiaMinor o o r loq 

Seleucus Philopator king. ..'.'....'.'. '.'.'.'.'. 187 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes tlie title of Theos'. 
Epiphanes, or the Illustrious God. .. I75 

He sends Apollonius into Judea; Jerusalem'is 
taken; the Temple pillaged; 40,000 inhabitants 
destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves 16S 

Antiochus V Eupator (king, 164), murdered' 'by 
Demetrius Soter, who seizes the throne 16^^ 

Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor " 



Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and 
slain by Demetrius Nicator. . . . 1 jp 

Antiochiis VI., Sidetes (son of Demetrius' 's'ot'er)' 
rules during the captivity of his brother Deme- 
tnus Nicator (after slaying the usurper TrvDho^ 

Autiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates 
the Romans 133; invades Parthia, 129 : and is 
defeated and slain , auu la 

Demetrius Nicator restored ."...". 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders he"r"s'o'n ' s'e'l'e'u'cus 
with her own hand.. 

Her son Autiochus VII., Grypus (king, 'I'e's')', 'whom 
she attempts to poison; but he compels his 
mother to swallow the deadly draught herself 123 

^ nW? nf ^"''"^"^"f y"-.. Cyzicenus, at Dama 'cus', 

and of Grypus at Antioch.. m 

Seleucus king ^^ 

Antiochus Eusebes king. 04 

Dethroned by Philip .. f. ....'.' .'.^ .'."I .W ] ^5 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, acq'ui'r'e's Sy'r'i'a'. 83 

ma"n ^^ Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 'Eo- 

Defeat ofTigr'anes 'by 'Lucii'lius,' 69';' 'lie 'sulimi't's' to "'^ 
ompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- 
ochus Asiaticus nK 

Syria^mad^e a Roman province. ..'.'. '. ". ". .".'.;;; ' .' ." ; ; _' 53 

Syi-ia invaded by the Parthiaus A D* 1 69 

By the Persians •^- Vil 

Violent earthquakes 04? 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 5'o'2', 529' -' 'by the'Pe'r' 

sians •' . ^ -• "'^ 

Conquered by the Saracens ^00 

Conquest of Syria by the Patimite'cal'i'phs.' ! ! ! " " 970 

Revolt of the Emirs of Damascus "inw 

The Emirs of Aleppo revolt iaro 

The Crusades commence (see Crusades). '.'. \im 

Desolated by the Crusades {lohich see) . . ' 'i696ll272 

Noureddin conquers Syria. ... 1 ii^ 

Saladin dethrones the Patimite dynasty 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria. ... jo^q 

The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders! 1201 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane 1400 

Syria and Egypt conquered by the Tiuis. 1517 

Syria continued in possession of the Turks 'til'l't'lip 

invasion of Egypt by the French... .I.JuyTirgg 
Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with o-reat loss 
anf Jak°''''''''''"* ^^^ country, and takes Gaza 

Siege of Acre .'.■.■;.■.' .' .' .' .' .March e't'o May '2'7'l799 

Bonaparte returns to Prance from Effvpt .Au^ 23 '' 
Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French, Sept lo'l801 
Mehemet Ah attacks and captures Acre, and over 

runs the whole of Syria.. ^R^■{ -"} 

Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats 't'h'e'ariny'of 'the 

Grand Signior at Konieh Dec 21 19^-0 

Numerous battles and conflicts follow 'with vari- 
ous success ; the European powers intervene 

and peace is made Mnv fi iqo-! 

The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexan'dri'a','ancW]el 
serts to Mehemet Ali ' j,, 1 14 .< 

at Nezir"'"'''' ^"^' ' ^'"■'''^™ defeats' the Tui ks 

^^^h ";^^Ti^'^"^"'^^'t° ^^"PP°i't Vbe PortSuly ^ 
Death 01 Ladv Hester Stanhope. ..^..... . June 23;iS40 



Treaty of Loudon (not signed byoffe'uded France). 

Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) i^^J 3 " 

Pa of Beyrout (see Beyrout) :::;■• qc ' lo' " 

Fall of Acre (see Acre) ! ; nJ; 3' '■ 

Long negotiations: the sultan grants 'hereditarv 

rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria Jan 1S41 
The Druses said to have clestroyed isi cii'ri.tian 

villages and killed 1000 persons (see Z)rC!s) 

The Mohammedans massacre cStians" a"'La''''" 
el Kacfer ''^'^°"' ^^^'^ ^^"'"^ ' ™''^°^ ^^''^'^ ^^ •^'^^^- 

The Englisii ■a'ndFr'e'u'c'h ■g.o'v'e'r'nm'euts'^iuten'e^ne'-' " 
a convention signed at Paris; 12,000 men to be 
sent by France Auo- 3 «' 

Vigorous conduct of Puad Pacii'a';' "he'pun'ishes''the 
Mohammedans implicated in the massacres at 
Damascus very severely ; 107 of all ranks, includ- 

A(Z^i^ "" goveraor, executed Aug. 20, et seq., « 

4000 French soldiers, under Gen. Hautpo ul, laud 
at Beyrout ^ auV 22 " 

Lord Dufi-erin, the British commi'ssion'er in feVria' 
arrives at Damascus Sent fi " 

The French and Turks advance against Lebalion \ 
14 emirs surrendered oct " 

Pacification of the country efi-ected.'.'. '. ■.'.'.■" Nov'' « 

The French occupation ceases June Vl 961 

Prince of Wales visits Syria '. •.'.'.•.'.•.■.''rpriM862 



TAB 



453 



TAP 



T. 



TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israelites till 
the ereclioii of Solomon's Temple, was constructed by 
Divine direction, 1491 B.C. When the Jews were set- 
tled iu Canaan, the tabernacle was set up at Shiloh 
by Joshua, 1444: B.C. It was replaced by the Temple 
erected by Solomon, 1004 B.C. — The chapel erected for 
George Whitetlcld iu Moortields iu 1741, beiug of a 
temporary nature, received the name of Tabernacle, 
which was afterward given to their chapels by the 
Calvinistic Methodists. Whitefield's Tabernacle in 
Tottenham Court Road was erected iu 1756, and en- 
larged in 1760. His lease expired iu 1SJ8, and the 
ch.apel was opened by the ludepeudeuts iu 1830. A 
large Metropolitan Tabernacle, erected for the minis- 
trations of Mr. C. U. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the El- 
ephant and Castle, Kenuiugtou Koad, Surrey, was 
opened on March 31, 1S61. 

TABOR, iu Bohemia, was founded by Zlska in 1419, 
and became the chief scat of the Hussites, or Tabor- 
ites. Casimir of Poland, invited to be their king, was 
defeated here by Albert of Austria iu 1438. Tabor it- 
self was taken by the emperor iu 1544. 

TADMOR. See Palmyra. 

TAEPINGS. See Cldna, 1S51, note. 

TAFFETA, an early species of silken manufacture, 
more prized formerly than now, woven very smootii 
and glossy. It was worn by our elder queens, and was 
first made in England by .John Tyce, of Shoreditch, 
Loudon, 41 Eliz., 1508. — fitow's Cliron. 

TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi Mountains, S.Italy, 
where, on Au^. 23, 1268, Charles of Anjou, the usurp- 
ing King of Naples, defeated and made prisoner the 
rightful monarch, young Conradin (the last of the Ho- 
lieustaufens, and grandson of the Emperor Frederick 
II.), who had been invited into Italy by the Ghibelline 
or Imperial party ; their opponents, the Guelfs, or pa- 
pal party, supporting Charles. Conradin was behead- 
ed Oct. 29 following. 

TAHITL The French abbreviated name for Ota- 
heite. See Otaheite. 

TALAVERA t)E la Reyna, Central Spain, was taken 
from the Mohammedans by Ordoi'io, king of Leon, 913. 
Here a Inittlc was fought July 27, 28, 1809, between the 
united British and Spanish armies, under Sir Arthur 
Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and 
the French army (47,000) commanded by Marshals Vic- 
tor and Sebastiani. After a battle on the 27th, both 
armies remained on the field during the night, and the 
French at break of day renewed the attack, but were 
again repulsed by the British with great slaughter. 
At noon Victor charged the whole British line, but 
was repulsed at all points, and Sir Arthur Wellesley 
secured the victory, the enemy retreating with a loss 
of 10,000 men and 20 pieces of cannon. The British 
lost 800 killed and 4000 wounded or missing. Soult, 
Key, and Mortier, being iu the rear, obliged the Brit- 
ish to retire after the battle. 

TALBOTYPE. See Photography. 

TALLADEGA, Battle at, near the Coosa River, in 
Alabama, between more than 2000 Americans, under 
General Jackson, and loOO Creek Indians, on the 9th 
of Nov., 1S13. The Indians left 290 dead on the field, 
and it was supposed they had as many more wound- 
ed. The Americans lost 15 killed and 86 wounded. 

TALLASEIIATCIIE, Battle at, near the Coosa 
River, between the Creek Indians and 900 mounted 
men, under General Cofl'ee, on the 3d of November, 
1S13. The Indians lost 200 killed and S4 prisoners. 
The Americans lost 5 killed and 41 wounded. 

TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its name 
from the French word taiUcr, to cut. A tally is a piece 
of wood written upon both sides, containing an ac- 
quittance for money received ; which, being cloven 
asunder by an officer of the Exchequer, one part, called 
the stock, was delivered to the person who paid or 
lent money to the government, and tlie other part, 
called the counter-stock, or counter-foil, remained in 
the office, to be kept till called for, and joined with the 
stock. This manner of striking tallies is very ancient. 
— Bcatson. The practice was ordered to be discontin- 
ned in 1782. On Oct. 16, 1834, the houses of Parliament 
were burnt dowu by too many of these tallies being 



used In heating the stoves in the House of Lords. See 
Exchequer. 

TALMUDS, two books concerning the religion and 
morality of the Jews— the Talmud of Jerusalem and 
the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the 
Rabbi Juda Ilakkadosh, about the close of the 2d cen- 
tury ; tlie second contains commentaries, etc., by suc- 
ceeding rabbis, collected by Ben Eliezer, about the 6lh 
century ; abridged by Maimonides in the 12th century. 

TAMMANY SOCIETY. There was a great chief 
of the Delaware Indiaus in Pennsylvania named Tam- 
many; who was buried not far from Doylestown in that 
state. He is represented as the possessor of many vir- 
tues, and politicians, at about the close of the Revolu- 
tion, called him St. Tammany, and chose him as the 
patron saint of the new republic. Tammany Societies 
were formed and Tammany halls were erected by Re- 
publicans, and on the 1st of May, the instituted festi- 
val of the saint, meetings of the societies were held. 
"On that day," says Heckewelder, the Indian mission- 
ary, "numerous societies of his votaries walked to- 
gether in procession through the streets of Philadel- 
phia, their hats decorated with bucks' tails, and pro- 
ceeded to a handsome rural place out of town which 
they called the toifiwam, where, after a long talk or 
Indian speech had been delivered, and the calumet of 
peace and friendship had been duly smoked, they spent 
the day in festivity and mirth." The Tammany Soci- 
ety of New Y'ork is yet iu existence. Its meetings are 
held regularly at Tammany Hall, Fourteenth Street, 
between Third and Fourth Avenues. 

TANAGRA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans defeated 
the Athenians 457 B.C., but were defeated by them in 
426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans, and Nicias the 
Athenians. 

TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy proposed 
his plan of reform in 1791. In the French expedition 
against Ireland he acted as general of brigade, Aug., 
1798. He failed, and fled to Hamburg, and was there 
delivered up to the English, Nov. 24, for which Bona- 
parte declared war upon Hamburg, Oct. 15, 1799. Tan- 
dy was liberated after the peace of Amiens iu 1802. 

TANGIER (Morocco, N.W. Africa). Besieged by 
Prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beateu and 
taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by Alfonso V. 
of Portugal in 1471, and given as a dower to Princess 
Catharine on her marriage with Charles II. of En- 
gland, 1062 ; but he did not think it worth keeping, 
and in 1683 caused the works to be blown up and the 
place abandoned. Tangiers afterward became a pi- 
ratical station ; but the discontinuance of piracy has 
greatly diminished its importance. 

TANISTRY (in Ireland), the equal division of lands, 
after the decease of the owner, among his sons, legiti- 
mate. If one of the sons died, his son did not inherit, 
but a new division was made by the tanist or chief. 
Abolished 1004. — Davies. 

TANNING leather with the bark of trees was early 
practiced. Tan-bark was introduced into Great Brit- 
ain from Holland by William III. for raising orange- 
trees abont 1689. It was discontinued until about 1719, 
when ananas were first brought into England. Great 
improvements have been made iu tanning by means 
of chemical knowledge. 

TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an Amer- 
ican mineral by Hatchett in 1801, and named by him 
Columbium; and iu a Swedish mineral by Ekeberg, 
who gave it its present name. Wollaston pointed out 
the identity of the two metals in 1S09 ; and Berzelius 
prepared intre metallic tantalum in 1824. In 1846 Rose 
discovered that tantalum was really a mixture of three 
metals, which he named tantalum, uiobium, and pelo- 
pium. — Gmclin. 

TAPESTRY". An art of weaving borrowed from the 
Saracens, and hence its original workers in France 
were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry 
hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the 
Netherlands.— r,'«Kf7rml(»?. Manufactured in France 
under Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. 
'rhe art was brought into England by William Shel- 
don ; and the first manufactory of it was established 
at Mortlake by Sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619.— 
Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was 
much improved iu France. See Gobelin Tapestry. 



TAR 



454 



TED 



Very early instances of making tapestry are mention- 
ed by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that 
the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see £a- 
ijeux Tapestry. 

TAR. The chemist Becher first proposed to make 
tar from pit-coal— the Earl of Dnndonald's patent, 
1T81. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook- 
dale, Shropshire, 1TT9; and in Scotland, Oct., 1792. 
Tar-water was first recommended for its medicinal 
virtues by the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, 
about 1744. From coal-tar brilliant dyes are now pro- 
duced. See Aniline. 

TARA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where it is said a 
conference was held between the English and Irish in 
1173. Near here, on May 26, 1798, the Royalist troops, 
400 strong, defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 
killed. On Aug. 15, 1843, Daniel O'Counell held a mon- 
ster meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been 
assembled). 

TARANTISM. See Dancing. 

TARBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees). The 
French, under Soult, were forced from their position 
at Tarbes, with considerable loss, by the British army 
commanded by Wellington, March 20, 1814. See Tou- 
louse. 

TARENTUM (now Tar ante, S. Italy) was founded 
by the Greek Phalautus, B.C. 70S. The people of Ta- 
rentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, support- 
ed a war against the Romans, which had been under- 
taken B.C. 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults 
the Tarentines had oflered to their ships when near 
their harbors; it was terminated after ten years; 
300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tareutum became 
subject to Rome. Tarentum has shared in all the 
revolutions of Southern Italy. 

TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a naval 
station by the British before their capture of Gibral- 
tar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by the French 
under Suchet, Jan. 28, 1811, and the inhabitants put to 
the sword. 

TARTAN, or Higuland Plaid. This dress of the 
Scottish Highlanders is said to have been derived 
from the ancient Gauls, or Celtre, the Galli non bmc- 
cati. 

TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the first dis- 
covery of the eminent chemist Scheele, who procured 
it in a separate state by boiling tar with lime, and in 
decomposing the tartrate of lime thus formed by 
means of .sulphuric acid, about 1770. In 1859 Baron 
Liebig formed tartaric acid from other sources. 

TARTARY (Asia). The Tartars, Mongols, or Mo- 
guls were known in antiquity as Scythians. During 
the decline of the Roman Empire, tliese tribes began 
to seekmore fertile regions; and the first who reached 
the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of 
the modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sov- 
ereign of this vast country was the fiimous Genghis 
Khan. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, 
and all Central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most 
formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts 
m a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered 
Persia, broke the power of the Turks'in Asia Minor 
(137(»-1400), and founded the Mogul dvnasty in India, 
which began with Baber in 1525, and formed the most 
splendid court in Asia till the close of the ISth cen- 
tury. See Golden Horde. The Calmnck Tartars, ex- 
pelled from China, settled on the banks of the Voln-a 
in 1672, but returned in 1T71, sufi"ering much on the 
journey. 

TASMANIA, the name now given to the British 
settlement in Van Diemen's Land {which see). 

TAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. "In 
the raigne of King Edward the Third, only three tav- 
erns were allowed in Loudon: one in Chepe, one in 
Walbrok, and the other in Lombard Street.'"— .s;;;??- 
man. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the 
reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of Prince 
Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare 
mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quicklv, and the 

scene of Falstaft''s merriment Shaks-peare, Henry IV 

The White Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was 
rebuilt in 1829 . Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

* Taverns were restricted by an act of Edward VI., 15S2, to 40 in 
London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwicli, 3 in Westminster, 6 in Bristol 3 in 
T'"'"-ln,4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in 
-*" ■ in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Sout'hamp- 
terhury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in 



TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian 
legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of citizens paid an 
Attic talent of silver, about £55 of our money. Darius, 
the sou of Hystaspes, levied a land-tax by assessment! 
which was deemed so odious that his subjects styled 
him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B.C.— 
I)' Eon. Taxes in specie were first introduced into En- 
gland by William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitra- 
rily; yet subsidies in kind, as in wool, leather, and 
other products of the country, continued till the ac- 
cession of Richard IL, 1377.— Camden. See Revenue 
and Income Tax. 



Land Tax. 

1800 £3,468,131 1800 £1,307,941 

"1805 1,596'481 



1805 4,508,752 

1810.... 6,233,161 

1815 6,524,766 

1820 6,311,346 

1825 5,176,722 

1830 5,013,405 

1S35 3,73.3,997 

1840 3,866,467 

Assessed Taxes. 



1810 1,418,337 

1S15 1,084,251 

1820 1,192,257 

1825 1,288,393 

1830 1,189,214 

1835 1,203,579 

18*0 1,298,622 

Gross Amount. 



Gloucester 

ton, 4 ,,,.„. ,„ ..^...^o^t. 

Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Kewcastle-upon-Tyne, 



1851 (to Jan. 5) £4,365,033 

1855 (year ending March 31), 3,160,641 

I860 " " 3,232,000 

ISt'S " 3,292,000 

TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On Auc. 16, 
1855, the lines of the allied army at this place were at- 
tacked by 50,000 Russians under Prince Gortschakoff 
without success, being repulsed with the loss of 3329 
slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of 
the attack was borne by two French regiments under 
General D'Herbillon. The loss of the allies was about 
1200; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, 
which behaved with great gallantry under the com- 
mand of General La Marmora. The Russian General 
Read, and the Sardinian General Montevecchio, were 
killed. The object of the attack was the relief of Se- 
bastopol, then closely besieged by the English and 
French. 

_ TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. It 
IS mentioned as having been used in Eugland on very 
rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for £6 and even 
£10 the pound. 

Samuel Pepys records his "first cup of tea," 

A 1 * ro7 u . Sept.25,16C0 
A duty of 8d. was charged upon every gallon of tea 
made for sale (12 Ch.IL,c.l3),16G0; the East In- 
dia Company first import it 1069 

It was brought into England in 1666 by Lord Os- 
sory and Lord Arlington, from Holland; and be- 
ing admired by persons of rank, it was imported 
from thence, and generally sold for 60 shilliucs 
per pound, till our East India Company took I'lp 
the trade. — Anderson. 

Green tea began to be used 1715 

Price of black tea per lb., 13.s. to 20s. ; of green Us 

to30.s 'vi2Bi 

The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767:' this 
tax occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at 
New York, and 340 at Boston, Nov., 1773, and 
ultimately led to the American War (see Boston). 

The tea-plant brought to England about 176S 

Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, 

announcing their-&ale of tea Auf.,1779 

Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea 
from 50 to 12^ per cent., and taxing windows 

, '"''■'^"•••- •••••■.• Juue,17S4 

"Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, and 
ash-tree leaves are every year mixed with Chi- 
nese teas in England" (Report of the House of 

Commons) 2SI8 

" The consumption of the whole civilizecl worid, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30,000,000" {Evidence in House of Com- 

inons) ; 1S30 

The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of 
the exclusive privileges of the East India Com- 
pany took place in Mincing Lane Aug. 19,1834 

New duties were charged, 1T96; the duty was 96 

and 100 per cent., made 2,s. Id. per pound 1836 

The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
amounted to £5,471,461 ; and the amount was 

£5,902,4,33 ja 1552 

Various changes made in 18.54, 1S55 and 1S56 

Duty of 1.9. 5d per pound begun April,1857 

The duty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. 
2i^d.to Is. per pound ; reduced to 6d.per pound, 

Junel,lS65 
TE DEUM. A song of thanksgiving used in the 



TEE 4; 

Romish and English churche?, beginning " Te Dcmti 
laudamuf: — We praise thee, O God," supi)oscd to be the 
composition of Augustine and Ainijrose, about 3'JO. 

TEETOTALLER. Rictiard Tumor, an artisan of 
Preston, Lancashire, in addressing temperance meet- 
ings, acknowledged that he had been a hard drinker, 
and being an illiterate man, and in want of a word to 
express how much he then abstained from malt and 
spirits, exclaimed "I am now a Teetotaller;" about 
iSol. Sec Encratites, Temperance, and United King- 
dom. 

TELEGRAPHS. Polybins calls the different instru- 
ments used by the ancients for communicating inform- 
ation pijr!<ia', because the signals were always made 
by Are. In KiG.'i, a plan was suggested by the Mar- 
quess of Worcester, and a modern telegraph was sug- 
gested by Dr. Ilooke, 10S4. M. Amoiitons is also said 
to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this pe- 
riod. M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first 
used by the French in 1T93, and two were erected over 
the Admiralty Oflice, London, 1790. The Semaphore 
was erected there 1S16. The naval signals by tele- 

fraph enabled 400 previously concerted sentences to 
e transmitted ft-om ship to ship by varyini? the com- 
binations of two revolving crosses. See Electric Tcle- 
graph, under Electricity. 

TELESCOPES were noticed by Leonard Digges 
about 1571. Roger Bacon, about 1250, described tele- 
scopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were 
made till one Melius, at Alkmaer, and Jauseu, of Mid- 
dleburg, constructed them about 1590-1009. Galileo 
imitated their invention by its description, and made 
three in succession, one of which magnified a thousand 
times, 1030. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons 
and the phases of Venus. Telescopes were improved 
by Zucchi, Huyghens, Gregory, and Newton, and aft- 
erward by Martin, Hall, Dolloiid, and Herschel. 

The reflecting telescope invented by Newton 1C6S 

Achromatic telescopes made by IVIore Hall about.. 17'23 
A telescope made in London for the Observatory 
of Madrid, which cost Xll.OOO, in 1802; but the 
Herschel telescope, made 17S9-1795, was superi- 
or; it had the great speculum 48 inches diame- 
ter, 3}4 inches thick, weighed 2118 lbs., and raag- 
nitied 0400 times. See Jlemchel. 
The Earl of Rosse erected on his estate at Par- 
sonstown, in Ireland, the largest telescope ever 
constructed, at a cost exceeding £20,000. This 
wonderful instrument is 7 feet in diameter, ami 
52 feet in length ; the machinery is supported on 
massive walls, and notwithstanding its great 
weight and size, is moved with the utmost "ease, 
and can be lowered to any angle, while it sweeps 
the horizon by means of wheels running on a 

graduated circle 1S2S-1S45 

One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very imper- 
fect), completed at Wandsworth by the Rev. 

John Craig 1852 

Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the na- 
tional observatories at Greenwich and Paris. ...1860 
M. Foucanlt exhibits at Paris a reflecting tele- 
scope, the mirror 31^ inches in diameter, the 
focal length \l)i feet 1862 

TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural state con- 
taining small quantities of iron and gold, was discov- 
ered by :Miiller at Reichenstein in 1782. 

TE:SIESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Bauat, oftea 
besieged by the Turks. On Aug. 10, 1849, Haynau to- 
tally defeated the Hungarians besieging this to^vu, and 
virtually ended the war. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated with Mr. 
Calhoun, who, while he was Secretary of War in 
America, in order to counteract the habitual use of ar- 
dent spirits among the people, prohibited them alto- 
gether in the Ignited States army, ISIS. The first pub- 
lic Temperance Society in America was projected in 
1S25, and formed Feb. 13, 1S2G. Temperance societies 
immediately afterward were formed in England and 
Scotland. In Ireland, the Rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, 

Sublished upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and Father 
lathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman, aftirmed that 
in 1839, 1840, and 1S41, he had made more than a mil- 
lion of converts to temperance.* In England, the Na- 
tional Temperance Society was formed in 1842 ; the 
London Temperance League in 1851 ; and the United 
Kingdom Alliance for the legislative suppression of 
the sale of intoxicating liquors, June 1, 1853. See Tee- 
totaller. 



i probably owinp to the peneral poverty, as the 
_ erts are state*! to have relapsed on the return of 

prosperity. Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1S49, but was 
not so successful there. He died Dec. 8, 1S56, aged 66, 



* This success 
majority of tl 



5 TER 

TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights 
Templars was founded in Ills, by Baldwin II., king 
of Jerusalem. The Templars were numerous in sev- 
eral countries, and came to England in 1185. Their 
wealth having excited the cupidity of the French 
kings, the order was suppressed by the Council of Vi- 
enne, and part of its revenues was bestowed upon oth- 
er orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burned 
alive and hanged in 1310, and it snflered great perse- 
cutions througliout Kurojje. The Grand-master Molay 
was burnt alive at Paris in 1314. 

TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the Knights 
Templars, at the suppression of the order, was pur- 
chased by the professors of the common law, and con- 
verted into inns, 1340. They are called the Inner and 
iSliddle Tem])le, in relation to Essex House, which was 
also a part of the house of the Templars, built in 1185, 
and called the Outer Temple, because it was situated 
without Temple Bar.— St. Mary's, or the Temple 
Church, situated in the Inner Temple, is an ancient 
Gothic stone building, erected by the Templars in 1240, 
and is remarkable for its circular vestibule, and for the 
tombs of the Crusaders, who were buried here. The 
church was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in 1828. 
—The Tcvi]>le Hall was built in 1572, and Temple Bar 
in 1072. The new IMiddle Temple library was opened 
by the Prince of Wales, Oct. 31, ISOl. 

TEMPLES originated in the sepulchres built for the 
dead. — Eusebiu.t. The Egyptians were the first who 
erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. The first 
erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — Apolloni- 
■us. 

The Temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012 B.C. ; 
consecrated, 1004 ; pillaged by Sheshak, 971 ; repair- 
ed by Joash, 8.50 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; restored 
by Hezekiah, 726; pillaged and fired by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 5SS,5S7; rebuilt,"530 ; pillaged by Antiochus, 
170 ; rebuilt by Herod, IS ; destroyed by Titus, A.D. 
70. 
The Temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about"l200 B. 
C; "burnt by the Pisistratidfe, 548; a new temple 
raised by the family of the Alcmseonidie, about 513. 
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times; plan- 
ned by Ctesiphou, 544 B.C. ; fired by Herostratus, to 
perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. ; to rebuild it employ- 
ed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths, A.D. 200. 
The Temjjle of Piety was built by Acilius on the spot 
where once a woman had fed with her milk her aged 
father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and ex- 
cluded from all aliments. — VaL ^[ax. 
Temple of Theseus, built 4S0 B.C., is at this day the 

most perfect ancient edifice in the world. 
Most of the heathen temples were destroyed through- 
out the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great, 
3.51. See separate articles. 
The Temple at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, 
was made the site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt 
in 1804. 

TENANT. See Bc7it. "Tenant-right" in Ireland 
has caused much discussion in that country. 

TENASSERIM (N.E. India), ceded by Burmah to 
the British, Feb., 1S20. 

TENERIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). The 
celebrated Peak of Tenerifte is 15,390 feet above the 
level of the sea. It was ascended in 1850 by Professor 
C. Piazzi Smyth for astronomical observations. An 
earthquake in this island destroyed several towns and 
many thousands of people in 1704. In an unsuccessful 
attack made at Santa Cruz, Admiral (afterward Lord) 
Nelson lost his right arm, and 141 oflicers and men 
were killed, July 24, 1797. For the particulars of this 
heroic afl"air, see Santo Cruz. 

TENNESSEE, a southern state of North America, 
was settled in 1765, and admitted into the Union June 
1, 1796. An ordinance of secession from the Union 
was passed, it is asserted illegally, on May 6, 1S61. On 
February 23, 1862, the Federal General Nelson entered 
Nashville, and in ISIarch, Andrew Johnson (the late 
President of the United States) was made military 
trovernor over a larire part of Tennessee. In Sept., 
1863, Rosecrans exi)ellcd the Confederate government. 
TENTHS. See Tithes. 

TENURES, the mode in which land is held. Mili- 
tary tenures were abolished in 1660. Lyttelton's book 
on Tenures is dated 1481. 

TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with yttrium 
(which sec). 

TER:\rS OF Law and V.\catio>-s. They were in- 
stituted in England from the Norman usage, the long 



TER 



456 



THE 



vacation beins: suited to the time of the vintage in 
France, 14 William I., 'l019.—GlanvUle, de Leg. Anglic. 
They were gradually formed.— .S;^)etoia»i. The terms 
were fixed % statute 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV., July 
22,1830: Hilarii Term to begin Jan. 11 and end Jan. 
31 ; EaHter, April 15, to end May 8 ; Trinity, May 2-2, to 
end June 12 ; Michaelmnn, Nov. 2, to end Nov. 25. This 
act was amended 1 Will. IV., Nov. 15, 1830. 

TERRA DEL FUEGO. See Missions, note. 

TERROR. See Reign of. 

TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and military, 
under government, to receive the sacrament according 
to the forms of the Church of England, and to take 
the oaths against transubstantiation, etc. ; enacted 
March, 1673. The Test and Corporation Acts -were re- 
pealed by statute in 1S2S. 

TESTER. Tcstone. A silver coin struck in France 
by Louis XII., 1513 ; and also in Scotland in the time 
of Francis II., and of Mary queen of Scots, 1.5.59. It 
was so called from the head of the king stamped upon 
it. In England the tester was of 12f/. value in the 
reign of Henry VIIL, and afterward of Gd. (still called 
a tester). 

TETUAN (Morocco), was entered by the Spaniards 
Feb. 6, 1860, after gaining a decisive victory on Feb. 4. 
The general, O'Donuell, was made a grandee of the 
first class. 

TEUTONES (hence Deutsche, German), a people of 
Germany, who, with the Cimbri, made incursions upon 
Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 
B.C. They were at last defeated by the Consul Marius 
at Aix, and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. 
See Cimbri, with whom authors commonly join the 
Teutones. The appellation came to be applied to the 
German nation in general. 

TEUTONIC ORDER, military knights established 
in the Holy Land about 1191, through the humanity of 
the Germans (Teutones) to the sick and wounded of 
the Christian army in the Holy Land, under the cel- 
ebrated Guy of Lusignan, when before Acre. The or- 
der was confirmed by a bull of Pope Coelestiue III. On 
their return to Germany they were invited to subdue 
and Christianize tne country now called Prussia and 
its neighborhood, which they gradually accomplished. 
A large part of their possessions was incorporated into 
Poland in 14C0, and into Brandeuberg about 1521. In 
1525, the grand master was made a prince of the em- 
pire. The order was dissolved, and its remaining pos- 
sessions seized by Napoleon I. in 1809. See Prussia, 
etc. 

TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Edward 
IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians, 
May 4, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry 
VI., and her son, were taken prisoners. The queen 
was conveyed to the Tower of London, where King 
Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement, 
being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the Duke 
of Gloucester, afterward Richard III. The queen was 
ransomed in 1475 by the French king, Louis XI., for 
50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the 
houses of York and Lancaster. See Roses. 

TEXAS (jST. America). Separated from Mexico in 
1836. Its independence was acknowledged in 1840. 
Its proposed annexation led to war between Mexico 
and the United States. It was admitted into the Union 
by the latter in 1846 ; seceded from it in 1861 ; submit- 
ted in 1865. 

TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Holland). 
Its vicinity has been the scene of memorable naval en- 
gagements. An engagement of three days' continu- 
ance, between the English under Blake, Dean, and 
Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruy- 
ter, in which the latter were worsted, and Admiral Von 
Tromp was killed, 1653. Again, in the mouth of the 
Texel, when D'Estrees and Ruyter were signally de- 
feated, Aug. 11, 1673. The Dutch fleet vanquished by 
Lord Duncan on Oct. 11, 1797. See Campcrdnmi. The 
Dutch fleet of twelve ships of war, and thirteen India- 
men, surrendered to Admiral Mitchell, who, entering 
the Texel, possessed himself of them without firing a 
shot, Aug. 28, 1799. 

THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphuric acid 
manufacture, discovered by Mr. William Crookes, by 
means of the spectrum analysis, in March, 1861. 

THAMES (London). The richest riverin the world. 
It has been erroneously said that its name is Isis till it 
arrives at Dorchester, when, being.joined by the Thame 
or Tame, it assumes the name of Thames. What was 
the origin of this vulgar error can not now be traced ; 



poetical Action, however, had perpetuated the error, 

and invested it with a kind of classical sanctity. It 

was called Thames or Tems before it came near the 

Thames. — Camden. 

The river rose so high at Westminster that the law- 
yers were brou2;tit out of the hall in boats 1235 

It rose to a great'height 1736, 1747, 1762, 1791 

The conserv'ation of the Thames was given to the 
mayors of London 14S9 

The Thames was made navigable to Oxford 1624 

It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours in 1658 ; 
again, three times in four hours, March 22, 1682 ; 
again, twice in three hours Nov. 24,1777 

An act of Parliament gave the conservation of the 
Thames to the Corporation of London : twelve 
conservators were to be appointed — three by the 
government 1857 

Thames Tunnel. — Projected by Mr. I. K. Brunei, 
to form a communication between Rotherhithe 
and Wapping. The bill received the royal as- 
sent June 24, 1824. The shaft was begun in 1S25 ; 
the first brick was laid by Mr. Smith, March 2 ; 
the excavation commenced April 1 ; and the first 
horizontal excavation in Dec. ,1825 

At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first ir- 
ruption took place May 18,1827 

The second irruption, by which six workmen per- 
ished Jan. 12,1828 

The tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- 
gers, March 25, 1843. The'length of the tunnel 
IS 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; 
clear width of each archway,including foot-path, 
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth between the 
crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, 
about 15 feet. 

In consequence of the great contamination of the 
Thames by the influx of the sewage of London, 
and the bad odors emanating fromit in the sum- 
mer of 1858, an act was passed empowering the 
Metropolitan Board of Works {which see) to un- 
dertake its purification by constructing new 
drainage. The works are still in progi-ess 1806 

Thames Embankment. — Sir Christopher Wren rec- 
ommended it in 1666. The Corporation embank- 
ed a mile in 1767. It was fartlier recommended 
by Sir Fred. Trench in 1824 ; by the Duke of 
Newcastle in 1844 ; and by John Martiu, the 
painter, in 1850. In ISOO, the Metropolitan Board 
of Works recommended that the north bank of 
the Thames should be embanked, whereby the 
bed of the river would be improved ; a low-level 
sewer could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
roadway ; docks to be constructed within the em- 
bankment wall ; the expense to be defrayed by 
the city duties on coal, and by means provided 
by government. The principle of this recom- 
mendation was approved by Parliament, and a 
committee was appointed, which sat for the first 
time April 30,1861 

An act for " embanking the north side of the 
Thames, from Westminster Bridge to Black- 
friars Bridge, and for making new streets in and 
near thereto," passed Aug. 7 ; the work be2;un 
in Nov., 1802 

Mr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a plan 
for embanking the S. side of the Thames, Nov. 
6, 1862 ; act for carrying it out passed. . .July 28,1803 

The Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- 

' lished about 1838) hs revived in " 

The first stone of the embankment laid by Mr. 
Thwaites near Whitehall stairs July 20,1804 

Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, reported 
that "the river is dreadfully mismanaged from 
its source to its mouth" July 23, " 

THAMES, Battle of, in ITpper Canada. This was 
between 2500 Americans, under General Harrison, and 
800 British regulars and 1200 Indians, under General 
Proctor. It occurred on the 5th of October, 1813. The 
Indians wei'e led by the celebrated Tecumseh or Te- 
cumthe. The Americans were victorious. The Amer- 
icans lost in killed and wounded only 29; the British 
lost in killed and wounded, including Indians (Tecum- 
seh was .slain), 57; and 560 men made prisoners, with 
5000 small-arms and 6 pieces of cannon. 

THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in En- 
gland at the Conquest, upon the introduction of the 
feudal system, and in Scotland by King Malcolm III., 
when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THANET, Kent, was the first permanent settlement 
of the Saxons, 428. The Danes held a part of it, 853- 
865, and ravaged it 980. 

THEATINES. An order of religion, the first who 



THE 



457 



THE 



assnmecl the title of regular clerks, fonndeil by Caraf- I 
fa, bishop ot'Theate, in Naples (al'lerward l'(;|)e Paul 
IV.), l.')24, to repress heresy. They tirst estaljlished 
themselves in France, according to the historian IIo- 
nault, in Paris, 1644. The Theatincs endeavored, but 
vainly, to revive among the clergy the poverty of the 
apostles. — Ashe. 

TIIEATKES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by 
Philos, 420 B.C., was the flrst erected. Marcelhis's the- 
atre at Rome was built about 80 B.C. Theatres were 
afterward numerous, and were erected in most cities 
of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii, where most 
of the Inhabitants of the town were assembled on the 
night of Aug. 24, A.D. 70, when an eruption of Vesu- 
vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into 
theatres, painted by Balthazar Sieuua, A.D. 1S33. See 
Drama, Plaijx, etc. 

THEATRES in England. The fir.st royal license 
for a theatre in England was in 1574, to Master Bur- 
bage and four others, servants of the Earl of Leices- 
ter, to act plays at the Globe, Baukside. See Globe. 
But, long before that time, miracle plays were repre- 
seuted iu the flelds. The prices of admission in the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth were — gallery, 2d. ; lords' 
rooms. Is. The tirst play-bill was ilated April S, 1G63, 
and issued from Drury Lane; it runs thus: "By his 
Majestie his company of Comedians at the New The- 
atre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the 
Huvwvrons Lievtenant." After detailing the charac- 
ters, it concludes thus: "The play will hegin at three 
o'clock exactly." Lincoln's Inn Theatre was opened 
in 1()'.»5. The liceusing act (10 Geo. II., c. 23, 1735) was 
passed in consequence of the performance of Field- 
ing's Pasquiii at the Ilaymarket, satirizing Walpole's 
administration. Marionettes or Puppets were pro- 
duced at the Adelaide Gallery in 1S52. See Covent Gar- 
den, Drnri/ Lane, Opera Houae, Drama, etc. In Jan., 
1S60, several of the theatres were flrst opened on Sun- 
day evenings for religious worship, and were filled. 

DRUKY LANE. 

Killigrew's patent April 25,1062 

Opened April 8,1603 

Nell Gvvynu performed 1600 

Theatre burnt down 1671 

Rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, and opened 

March 26,1674 

Gibber, Wilkes, Booth 1712 

Garrick's debut here 1742 

GarrickaudLacy's tenure (revival of Shakspeare), 1747 

Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened Sept. 23,1775 

Garrick's farewell June 10,1770 

Sheridan's management ; " 

Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick 1777 

Mrs. Siddons's debut as a star Oct. 10,1782 

Mr. Kemble's debut as Hamlet Sept. 30,1783 

The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and reopened 

March 12,1794 
Charles Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm iu 

Macbeth) April 21, " 

Dowton's first appearance (as Sheva in the Jew), 

Oct. 11,1796 

Hatfield fired at George III May 11,1800 

The theatre burnt Feb. 24,1809 

Rebuilt bv Wyatt, and reopened with a prologue 

by Lord" Byron Oct. 10,1812 

Edmund Kean's appearance {us Sky lock) . .Jan. 26,1814 

Mr. Elliston lessee Oct. 3,1819 

Mad. Vestris's flrst appearance (as Lilla).. .Feb.19,1820 
Real water introduced iu the Cataract of the Gan- 

gcH Oct. 27, 1823 

Mr. Price lessee JuIy,lSii6 

Miss Ellen Tree's appearance (as l7o?a?i<p),Sept. 23, " 

Charles Kean's appearance (as Sorval) Oct. 1,1827 

Mrs. Nisbett's first appearance (as thelfidow Cheer- 

1>I) Oct. 9,1829 

Mr. Alexander Lee's and Captain PolhiU's man- 

nsrement 1S.S0 

Mr." Alfred Bunn lessee 1S31 

Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as SjjartociM), Oct.17,1836 

Mr. Hammond's management 1839 

German operas commenced at this theatre,Mar.l5,lS41 

Mr. Macready's management " 

Mr. Bunn again lessee 1S43 

Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, Dec. 14 ; 

and died Dec. 16,1844 

Mr. Anderson's management 1849 

Mr. Macready's farewell Feb. 26,1851 

Mr. Bunn lessee and manager 1852 

Mr. E. T. Smith 185.3-9 

English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyue) 1S.58 

Italian ojiera 1859 

Opened bv Mr. E. T. Smith Oct. 1.5,1860 

Suddenly "closed April 20,1861 



Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) Oct. 27,1861 

[Drowned in the London. See Wrecks. .Jan.ll,lsuo.] 

Mr. Falconer Dec.,1802-ls05 

Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton managers. .Jan., 1S6C 

COVENT GARDEN. 

(The Duke's Theatre) Sir William Davenant's pat- 
ent April 25,1662 

The theatre opened by Rich Dec. 7, 1732 

Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and Lambert,1735 

Theatrical fund instituted 1765 

Mr. Harris's tenure 176T 

Lewis's first appearance iu the character of Cel- 

cour Sept. 15,1773 

Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hackmau, coming from 

the house April 7,1779 

Jack Johnstone's first appearance in Irish charac- 
ters Oct. 3,1783 

Munden's appearance Dec. 2,1790 

Fawcett's first appearance (as Caleb) Sept. 21,1791 

G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), Oct. 31,1800 

Braham's appearance Dec. 9,1801 

Mr. Kemble's management 1802 

Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Rosciux, 

Dec. 1,1803 
Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper Captain), 

May 28,1808 

Theatre burnt down Sept. 20, " 

Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and reopened with 

Macbeth Sept. 18,1809 

The O. P. Riot {lohich see) Sept. IS to Dec. 10, " 

Horses flrst introduced; in Bluebeard Feb. 18,1811 

The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddous (immense 

house) June 29,1812 

[J»Irs. Siddous, however, performed once after- 
ward, in June, 1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kem- 
ble's benefit] 
Miss Stephens's first appearance (as Mundane), 

Sept. 7,1813 
Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanthis), 

May 20,1814 
Miss O'Neill's appearance here (as .Juliet) . .Oct. 6, " 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, iu the house, 

Feb. 7,1816 
Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), 

Sept. 16, " 
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolamis), Jane 23,1817 

Henry Harris's management 1818 

Charles Kemble's maiiagement 1823 

Miss Fauuy Kemble's appearance (as Juliet),Oct 5,1829 

Mr. Fawcett's farewell May 21,1830 

Charles Young's farewell May 30,1832 

Mr. Macready's management 1837 

Madame Vestris's management 1839 

Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Norma), 

Nov. 2,1841 

Charles Kemble again Sept. 10,1842 

Mr. Laurent's management Dec. 20,1844 

Opened for Italian opera April 6,1847 

Destroyed by fire (during a bal masque, conducted 

bv Anderson the Wizard) March 5,1856 

New theatre (by Barry), opened by Mr.F. Gye (Les 

Huguenots) May 15,1858 

English opera (Miss Pyue and Mr. Harrison), Oct., 1859 
All principal actors perform parts of plays for the 

benefit of the Dramatic College March 29,1800 

Balfe's Bianea brought out Dec. 6, " 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) Apnl,lS01 

Last appearance of Grisl Aug. 3, " 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) Oct. 21, ' 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) Apnl,lSG2 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) Aug. 25, ' 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) April 7,1863 

Gounod's Faust J"ly, ' 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) Oct. 12, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gve) Apn^lse-t 

English opera, etc. (Opera Company, Limited), ^^ 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) April' 28,1865 

Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye man- ^^ 

ager -^"g-i 

ITALIAN OPEUA-nOrSE, OK QUEEN'S THEATUE. 

Opera-house opened {Pennant) (see O;j(;m-7io««se)..1705 

The theatre was enlarged • 1 v}i?9 

Burnt down c'Tii'Uo? 

Rebuilt and reopened Sept. 22,1.91 

Exterior improved by Mr. Nash 1818 

The rilicvo by Mr. Bubb ••■••• • ■ J^^l 

Madame Rachel's appearance May l'».i84i 

Mr. Lumlev's management - ■ • • • --^f*^ 

Jennv Lind's first appearance .May 4,lb4T 

Association formed for conducting financial aflairs 



of the house, 



.18.52 



JuUieu's concerts Oct.,1857 



THE 



458 



THE 



Festive performances on the marriage of the prin- 
cess royal Jan.,lS59 

Macfarreii's Rob-in Hood brought out Oct. 11,1S60 

[Not opened in 1S61.] 

Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson). .April 26, lSC2-April,1805 

UAYMAEKET. 
Built 1T02 

Opened by French comedians Dec. 29,1120 

Fielding's Mogul company 1734-5 

A French company prohibited from acting by the 

audience 173S 

Mr. Poote's patent 17-17 

The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle Conjuror), 

Jau.l6,174S 

The theatre rebuilt 1767 

Mr. Colniau's tenure Jan. 1,1777 

Miss Farreu's appearance here (afterward Count- 
ess of Derby) " 

Eoyal visit— great crowd — 16 persons killed and 

many wounded Feb. 3,1794 

Mr. Ellison's deb2it here June 24,1796 

First appearance ofMr.Mathews (as Z/iHi/o), May 16,1803 

Mr. Morris's management 1S05 

Appearance of Mr.' Listen (as Shecpfcwe) . . .June S, " 

The tailors' riot Aug. 15, " 

Appearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) June 22,1807 

Of Miss P. Kelly (as Florctta) June 12,1810 

Theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened July 4,1821 

Miss Patou's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susmi- 

nah) Aug. 3,1822 

Mr. Webster's management June 12,1837 

Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here 1839 

Mr. Webster's management (16 years) terminated 

with his farewell appearance March 14,1853 

First appearance of Our American Cousin (said to 
be by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 
times in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Dundrean/, 

Nov. 11,1801 
Mr. Buckstone's management 1853-66 

ENGLISH OPEEA-UOUSE, OR LYCEUM. 

Built by Dr. Arnold 1794-5 

Winsor experiments with gas-lighting 1803^ 

Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 

Appearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcour) Oct. 7, " 

Reopened with an address spoken by Miss Kelly, 

June 15,1816 

House destro3-ed by fire Feb. 16,1830 

Rebuilt and reopened July 14,1834 

Equestrian performances Jan. 16,1844 

Mrs. Keeley's management April 8, " 

Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews's manage- 
ment Oct.,iS47-56 

Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews March, 1855 

Appearance of Madame Ristori June,1856 

Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty nights, 

April 14,1857 
Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne and 

Mr. Harrison Sept. 21, " 

Balfe's opera. Rose of Castile, produced Oct., " 

Mr. G.Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; closed 

April,lS59 
Opened by Madame Celeste, Nov., 1859, and. . Oct.,lS60 
The "Savage Club" perform before the queen and 

prince March 7, " 

Italian opera June 8,1861 

Mr. Falconer manager (English comedy) . .Aug. 19, " 

Peep o' Day brought out Nov. 9, " 

Mr. Fechter Jan. 10, 1863- June,lS65 

THE AT)ELrUI THEATEE. 

Formerly called the Saiis Pareil, opened under the 

management of Mr. and Miss Scott Nov. 27,1806 

Under Kodwell and Jones, who gave it the present 

name 1820-1 

Terry and Yates 1825 

Messrs. Mathews and Yates's management join 

{Mathews at Home) 1828 

New front 1840 

Madame Celeste's management Sept. 30,1844 

Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, 

Deo. 27,1858 
Colleen Baivn represented Sept. 10,1860 

[Immense run ; above 360 nights.] 
Miss Batemau appears as Leah, Oct. 1, 1803, to 

June 11,1864 
Mr. B.Webster present lessee 1844-06 

PEINOE's, LATE ST. JAMES'S. 

This theatre was built by, and opened under the 
management of Mr. Braham Dec. 14,1835 

German operas performed here under the man- 
agement of Mr. Bunn 1840 

Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance of French 
plays Jan. 22,1844 



German plays 1S52 

Mrs. Seymour's tenure Oct. 22,1854-5 

French plays lt,57 

Neapolitan Buffo-opera Nov., " 

Italian plays 1858 

French opera Jan. ,1859 

French plays May, " 

English comedy, under Mr. P. Chatterton, mana- 
ger Oct., " 

French plays May 28,1800 

English plays Aug. 12, " 

Mr. Wigan manager 1860-2 

French plays May 20,1861 

princess's tueatke, oxfoed street. 

First opened 1S40 

Sold for £16,400 Sept. 9,1841 

Mr. Bartley's farewell here Dec. 18,1852 

Mr. Charles Kean's management, 1850; closed 

Aug. 29,1859 

Mr. A. Harris's management ; opened Sept. 29, " 

Zouave Crimean company July 23,1860 

Mr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) March 20,1861 

Mr. Harris lessee 1860-1 

Mr. Lindus manager Oct. 20,1862 

Mr. G.Vining lessee and manager May,1863-66 

OLYiMPIC. 

Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with 

horsemanship Sept. 18,1806 

Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and afterward 
Madame Vestris, had managements ; the latter 

until 1839 

Mr. George Wild's tenure 1840 

Miss Davenport's tenure Nov. 11,1844 

Mr. Watts's management 1S4S 

The theatre destroyed by tire March 29,1849 

Rebuilt and opened — Mr. Watts resumes his man- 
agement Dec. 26, " 

Mr. William Farren's management 1850 

Lessee and manager, Mr. A'. Wigan Oct. 17,1853-7 

Messrs. Robson and Embden's management, 

Aug., 1857-62 
Mr. Horace Wigan manager Nov., 1804-Juue,lS05 

STEAND THEATEE. 

First opened— Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett 1881 

Mr. William Farren's management 1849 

Lessee, Mr. P. Allcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne. . .1855 

Lessee, Miss Swauborongh 1858-61 

Mr. Swanborough, sen Dec, 1862 

Mrs. Swanborough June, 1865-Jan.,186B 

ASTLEy'S AMPniTUEATKE. 

Built by Philip Astley, and opened 1773 

Destroyed by lire, with numerous adjacent houses, 

Sept. 17,1794 

Rebuilt 1795 

Burnt again, with forty houses Sept. 1, 1803 

Ducrow's management 1825 

Again destroyed by lire June 8,1841 

Rebuilt and reopened by Mr. Batty April 17,1843 

Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke 1855-60 

Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit Jan. 30,1860 

A man killed by a lion Jan. 7,1861 

Opened by Mr. Batty Dec. 0, " 

Opened by Mr. Boucicault as the Tueatke Royal, 

Westminstee Dec. 26,1862 

Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. Smith) 

exhibiting in June,lS65 

OIEOOS, NOW 8UEEEY THEATEE. 

[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises under 

Mr. Hughes] Nov. 4,1782 

Opened for performances Nov. 4,1783 

Destroyed by fire Aug. 12,1805 

Mr. Elliston's management 1809 

Mr. Elliston again June 4,1827 

Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 

Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson managers, 

^Sept. 12,1863-5 
Destroyed by fire, Jan. 31 ; rebuilt and opened, 

Dec. 26,1865 

OOBUEG, NOW VICTOEIA. 

[The erection was commenced under the patron- 
age of the late Princess Charlotte and the Prince 

Leopold of Saxe-Coburg 1816 

The house was opened 1818 

Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the management 

in 1833 

Mr. Osbaldiston's tenure 1840 

Alarm of fire, sixteen persons killed Dec. 27,1858 

Sadler's wells. 

Opened as an orchestra 16S3 

Present house opened 1TG5 



THE 



450 



THE 



Eijrlitceu persons trampled to death on a false 

alarm of tire Oct. 15,1S07 

Mauayement of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, 

May '20, 1S44-59 

Management of Mr. Joseph March 2.'),lStJl 

Reopened by Mr. Phelps Sept. 7, " 

Lessee, Miss C. Lucettc Sept. 27,1802 

Jliss Mariott manager Sept. 5, lS63-May 20,1804 

Miss C. Lucette, for ojiera May 22,1865 

Miss Mariott, legitimate drama Oct., " 

OTUEK TIIEATKES. . 

Queen's Theatre, Tottenham Court Road 1828 

Oarrick Theatre, Goodman's Fields 1850 

liowerv Theatre, Lambeth **** 

City Theatre, Nortou-Folgate 18:!7 

Miss Kelly's Theatre .' 1840 

Marylebone opened 1-^42 

Pavilion Theatre burnt Feb. 23,1850 

New Royalty (Soho) Aug. 31,1863 

DUBLIN TUEATKES. 

Werburg Street, commenced 1035 

Orange Street, now Smock Alley 1602 

Anngier Street {Virtor) 1728 

Ditto, inanagonient of Mr. Hitchcock 1733 

Crow Street 3Insir Hall 1731 

Rainsforil Street Theatre 1T32 

Smock Alley Theatre rebuilt 1735 

Fishamble Street I»Iusic Hall 1741 

Capel Street Theatre 17-15 

Crow Street, Theatre Royal 1758 

Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent 1786 

Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. J'ones's patent 1703 

Peter Street, Theatre Roval 1789 

Hawkins Street, Theatre Royal 1821 

Ditto, Mr. Abbott lessee 1824 

Ditto, Mr. Bunn lessee 1827 

Ditto, Mr. Calcraft lessee 18.30 

Queen's Theatre, Brunswick Street 1844 

EDINBUKG THEATRES. 

Theatre of Music 1672 

Allan Ramsay's 1736 

Theatre, Shakspeare Square 1709 

Tlie Caledonian Theatre 1822 

Adel])!>ii Theatre burnt down May 24,1853 

Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), 

Jan. 13,1SG5 



FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 

Quin's first appearance 1716 

ilacklin at Lincoln's Inu Fields 1725 

Garrick's at Goodman's Fields, as Richard III., 

Oct. 19,1741 
Miss Farren (afterward Countess of Derby) first 

appears at Liverpool 1773 

Garnck's last appearance June 10,1776 

Mrs. Robinson, Pcrdita: last appearance. .Dec. 24,1779 
Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, April 20,1787 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in London, 

Nov. 24,1789 

Incledon's first appearance 1790 

Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia Lan- 
guish Jan. 31,1795 

Liston's first appearance In London June 1,1805 

Romeo Coates appears as Lnthario April 10,1811 

Mrs. Jordan's last appearance as Lady Teazle, 

Juno 1,1814 
Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath as Romeo, 

Dec. 19, " 

Booth's first appearance Feb. 22,1817 

W. Farren's first appearance 1818 

Munden's last appearance May 31,1824 

Fanny Kemble's first appearance Oct. 5,1820 

Edmund Kean's farewell 1S33 

Liston's lust appearance May 31,1838 

Adelaide Kemble's first appearance Nov. 2,1841 

Jenny Lind's first appearance Jlay 4,1847 

IMrs. Glover's farewell July 12,18.50 

Mr. Bartley's farewell Dec. 18,1852 

Mr. W. Farren's farewell 18,55 

Clara Novello's farewell Nov. 21,1800 

Miss Bateman appears as Leah Oct. 1,1803 

Her farewell at H. M.'s Theatre Dec. 22,1805 

MEMORANDA. 

David Garrick died 1770 

Charles Macklin died 1707 

Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, Aug. 2,1798 

Bannister retired from the stage 1815 

John P. Kemble died 1823 

Talma died in Paris 1826 

AVeber came to London Feb., " 

The Brunswick Theatre fell, owing to the weight 



of a newly-constnictcd roof, and numbers of per- 
sons were wounded and some killed Feb. 29,1828 

Sarah Siddons died 1831 

Edmund Keau died 1833 

Madame Malibrau died at Manchester... .Sept. 23,1830 

PagauHii died May 29,1840 

Power lost in the President steamer about Mar. 13,1841 

Elton lost in the Pegasus July 19,1843 

Theatres' Registry Act passed Aug. 22, " 

Mdlle. Mars died at Paris March 23,1847 

Madame Catalaui died at Paris June 13,1849 

Alexander Lee died Oct. 9,1851 

Mrs. Warner died Sept. 5,1854 

C. Kemble died Nov. 5, " 

John Braham died Feb. 17,1850 

Madame Vcstris died Aug. 8, " 

Mdlle. Rachel died Jan. 4,1858 

Mrs.Nisbett (Lady Boothby) died Jan. 10, " 

Louis Lablache (buftb singer) died Jan 2.3, " 

John Pritt Harley died Aug. 22, " 

Flexmore, celebrated clown, died Aug. 20,1800 

Mrs. Bates died Oct. 30, " 

Alfred Bunn died Dec. 20, " 

William Farren died Sept. 25,1801 

Mr. V'andeuhoff" died Oct. 4, " 

M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died Feb., 1802 

Subscription testimonial (value i;2000) presented 
to-C. J. Keaii: Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 

March 22, " 

Sheridan Knowles died Nov. 30, " 

Mrs. Wood (once Miss Patou) died July 21, " 

Mr. F. Robson died Aug. 11,1804 

Madame Pasta died, aged 00 April 1,1865 

THEATRES in the United States. The first reg- 
ular theatrical company seen in America came from 
England in 1752, landed at York, in Virginia, and, by 
permission of Governor Dinwiddle, opened a play- 
house at Williamsburg, the capital of the province. 
The first play performed in America by a regular com- 
pany was at that rude theatre, ou the 5th of Septem- 
ber, 17.52. The company next opened a theatre at An- 
napolis, in Maryland, the same year, and there the first 
regular theatre in America was erected. Ou the 17ih 
of September, 1753, the same company opened a thea- 
tre in New York, where Sir Richard Steele's play of 
"The Conscious Lovers" was performed. Hallam, 
who was the manager, was solicited to open a theatre 
in Philadelphia. Thither he went in April, 1754, and 
began in a store-house with "The Fair Penitent." 
Such was the beginning of theatricals in the United 
States, a kind of amusement which has a strong hold 
upon the popular feeling, and is presented in nearly 
all of the large towns in the Union. 

THEBES, or Lrxon, in Egypt, called also Hecatom- 
pylos on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, 
as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splen- 
dor it extended above thirty-three miles, and upon 
any emergency could send into the field, by each of its 
hundred gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. 
Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king of Persia, 521 
B.C., and few traces of it were seen in the age of Ju- 
venal. — Plutarch. Tiiekes (the capital of the country 
successively called Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hyautis, 
and Boeotia) was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, its 
founder, 1493 B.C. It became a republic about 1120 B. 
C, and flourished under Epaminondas, 378-362 B.C. 
It was taken by the Romans, 198 A.D. See Boeotia 
and Greece. 

THEFT. This off'ense was punished by heavy fines 
among the Jews. By death at Athens, by the laws of 
Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally 
punished theft with death if above lid. value ; but the 
criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 
9th of Henry T. this power of redemption was taken 
away, 1108. The punishment of theft was very severe 
in England till mitiirated by Peel's acts, 9 & 10 Geo. 
v., 1829. The laws respecting theft were consolidated 
in 1802. 

THEISTS {Theo.% God). A kind of deists about 1000. 
— Dean Martin. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God), the sci- 
ence which treats of the nature and attributes of God, 
of his relations to man, and of the manner in which 
they mav be discovered. It is generally divided into 
two heads. 1. Itispircd (including the Holy Scrip- 
tures, tlicir interpretation, etc.). 2. yatiiral ; which 
Lord Bacon calls the first part of Philosophy.— But- 
ler's Analoffv of Religion (1730) and Paley's Natural 
Theology (1802) are eminent books on the latter sub- 
ject file "Summa Totius Tlieologiiip" by Thomas 

Aquinas (born about 1224), a standard Roman Catho- 
lic work, was printed Avith commentaries, etc., in 1596. 



THE 



460 



THR 



THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (lovers of God and 
mail), a sect funned iu France iu 1796; was headed by 
oue of the live directors, Lepaux, iu 179T, and broke up 
iu 1S02. 

THERMIDOR REVOLUTION. On the 9th Ther- 
midor of the 2d year (July 27, 1794), the Convention 
deposed Robespierre, and on the next day he and 
twenty-two of his partisans were executed. 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY. See under Electricity 
and Heat. 

THERMOMETER. The invention of this instru- 
ment is ascribed to several scientific persons, all about 
the same time. To Galileo, before 1597. — Libri. In- 
vented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, \&Q<i.—Boerhaam. In- 
vented by Paulo Sarpi, l(>m.—Fvlgentio. Invented by 
Sanctorio in WIQ.—Borclli. Fahrenheit's thermome- 
ter was invented about 1726 ; Reaumur's and Celsius's 
(the latter now termed Centigrade) soon after. Fah- 
renheit's scale is usually employed in England, and 
Reaumur's and the Centigrade on the Continent. 
Freezing point: Fah.m°; Ii.O°; C.0°. Boiling point: 
Fall. 212° ■ Ii.SO° ; 0.100°. The mode of construction 
by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented 
some years subsequently. Halley proposed it in 1697. 
Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in 
Sept., 1S61. It registers degrees of cold by means of 
mercury, hitherto'deemed impossible. 

THERMOPYL^, in Doris, N. Greece. Leouidas, at 
the head of 800 Spartans and 700 Thespians, at the de- 
file of ThermopyUe, withstood the whole force of the 
Persians during three days, Aug. 7, 8, 9, 480 B.C., when 
Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the ene- 
my by a secret path up the mountains, brought them 
to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two 
assailants, perished gloriously on heaps of their slaugh- 
tered foes. Oue Greek only returned home, and he 
was received with reproaches for having fled. Here 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated by 
the Romans, 101 B.C. 

THESSALONICA (now Salouica), a city iu Macedo- 
nia. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the Church here 
he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence of se- 
ditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took 
place in 390, by order of the Emperor Theodosius. 
Thessalonica partook of the changes of the Eastern 
Empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the Empe- 
ror Andronicus iu 1425; taken by the Turks iul430; 
burnt July 11, 1856. 

THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of the ad- 
ventures described by the poets. The first king of 
whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son 
of Deucalion, from whom his subjects were called Hel- 
lenists, a name afterward extended to all Greeks. From 
Thessaly came the Achosans, the .lEtolians, the Do- 
rians, the Hellenists, etc. The two most remarkable 
events in the early history of this country are the del- 
uge of Deucalion, 1.548 B.C., and the expedition of 
the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. Sec them severally. Thessaly 
was conquered by the great Philip, 352 B.C., and par- 
took of the fortunes ofMacedon. It is now part of 
the kingdom of Greece. 

THETFORD (Norfolk), the Roman Sitomagus, was 
a bishopric from 1070 to 1091, when the see was re- 
moved to Norwich. 

THIMBLES are said to have been found at Hercu- 
laneum. — The art of making them was brought to En- 
gland by John Lofting, a mechanic, from Holland, who 
set up a workshop at Islington, near London, and prac- 
ticed the manufacture in various metals with profit and 
success, about 1695. — Amlerfion. 

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. See Articles. 

THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the govern- 
ors of Athens in 404 B.C. , who were expelled by Thra- 
sybulus ; and also to the aspirants to the imperial 
throne of Rome during the reigns of Gallienus and 
Aurelian, A.D. 259-274. 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, between the 
Catholics and Protestants. It began with the latter 
in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of West- 
phalia in 1C4S. It is renowned for the victories of Wal- 
lenstein and Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden. 

THISTLE,* Order op the, Sooti.anp, founded by 

* * SoniR Scottish historians make the origin of this order very an- 
cient. The ahhot Justinian says it was instituted by Achaius I. of 
Scotland, 8fi!), when that monarch made an alliance with Charlemncno, 
and then took for his device the thistle. It is stated that King Hun- 
frus, the Pict, had a dream, in which St. Andrew made a midnight vis- 
it, and promised him a sure victory over his foes, the Northumbrians ; 
and that the next day :. t. Andrew's cross appeared in the air, and the 



James V., 1540. It consisted originally of himself, as 
sovereign, and twelve knights, iu imitation of Christ 
and his twelve apostles. In 1542 James died, and the 
order was discontinued about the time of the Reforma- 
tion. The order was renewed by James VII. of Scot- 
land and II. of England, by making eight knights. May 
29, 1687; increased to twelve by Queen Anne in 1703 ; 
to sixteen by George IV. iu 1827. 

TUE OKIGINAI, KNIGUTS OF 16S7. 

George, duke of Gordon. 
John, marquess of Athol. 
James, earl of Arran, afterward Duke of Hamilton ; 

killed in a duel, 1712. 
Alexander, earl of Moray. 
James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 
Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
George, earl of Dumbarton. 
John, earl of Melford ; attainted. 

THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY. See Cato-Street 
Consjiiraei/. 

THOMITES (or Tomites), a body of enthusiasts who 
assembled at Broughton, near Canterbury. A Cornish 
publican named Thom, or Tom (religiously insane), 
assumed the name of Sir W. Courtenay, knight of Mal- 
ta andKing of Jerusalem, andincited the rabble against 
the Poor Law Act. On May 31, 1838, a farmer of the 
neighborhood, whose servant had joined the crowd 
which attended Thom, sent a constable to fetch him 
back ; but on his arrival on the ground he was shot 
dead by Thom. The military were then called out, 
and Lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the murderer 
into custody; but Thom advanced, and, firing a pistol, 
killed the lieutenant on the spot. Oue of the soldiers 
fired at Thom, and laid him dead by the side of Lieut. 
Bennett. The people then attacked the military, who 
were compelled to fire, and several persons were kill- 
ed before the mob dispersed. Many considered Thom 
a saint. 

THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a horse by 
Eustachius, about 1.563 ; in the human body, by 01. Rud- 
bec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas Bartholine, of Co- 
penhagen, and Dr. Jolifle, of England, also discovered 
it about 1654. See Lacteals. 

TIIORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray pow- 
der), discovered by Berzelius in 1S2S. 

THORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded by 
the Teutonic Knights in 1231. Many Protestants were 
slain here (after a religious riot) at the instigation of 
the Jesuits in 1724. 

THRACE (now lioumelia, iu Turkey) derived its 
name from Thrax, the son of Mars. — Asjjin. Thraces, 
the people, were descendants ofTiras, son of Japhet, 
and hence their name. They were a warlike people, 
and therefore Mars was said to have been born and to 
have his residence among them. — Ein-ipides. Thrace 
was conquered by Philip and Alexander, and annexed 
to the Macedonian Empire about 335 B.C. ; and it so 
remained till the conquest of Macedonia hy the Ro- 
mans, 168 B.C. On the ruins of Byzantium, the capi- 
tal of Thrace, Constantinople was built. The Turks 
under Mohammed II. took the country A.D. 1453.— 
Priestley. 

THRASHING MACHINES. The flail was the only 
instrument formerly in use for thrashing corn. The 
Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge 
loaded with stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves 
by horses. The first machine attempted in modern 
times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburg, 
about 1732 ; Andrew Meikle invented a machine in 
1770. Many improvements have been since made. 

THRASYMENE (N. Italy). A most bloody engage- 
ment took place here between the Carthaginians un- 
der Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 
B.C. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on 
the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or, ac- 
cording to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
Hanniiial was about 1500 men. About 10,000 Romans 
made their escape, all covered with wounds.— ini?/; 
Pdljihius. On the same day an earthquake occurred 
which desolated several cities in Italy. 

THREATENING LETTERS. Sending letters, 
whether anonymously written, or with a fictitious 
name, demanding money, or threatening to kill a per- 
son or fire his house, was made punishable as a fel- 
ony, without benefit of clergy, iu 1723, 1730. Persons 
extorting money by threatening to accuse others of 
such offenses as are subjected to death, or other infa- 



Northumbrians were defeated. On this story, it is said, Achaius framed 
the order more than 700 years before James V, revived it. 



TIIU 



4G1 



TIM 



mons punishments!, were to be adjudged imprison- 
ment, wliii)piiiL', oi- transportation, by oO George II., 
1T5G; and oiher acts, the latest 10 & 11 Vict., c. GO, IS-IT. 

Tin MB-SCKEW, an inhuman instrument, common- 
ly used in the tirst stages of torture by the Spanish In- 
quisition. It was in use in England also. The Kev. 
\Vm. C'arstairs was the last who suftered by it before 
the I'rivy Council, to make him divulge secrets intrust- 
ed to hiin, which be tirmly resisted. After the Kevo- 
lution in 1088, the thumb-screw was presented to him 
by the council. King William expressed a desire to 
see it, and tried it on, bidding the doctor to turn the 
screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, "Hold ! hold 
doctor ; another turn would make vie confess any 
thing." 

TIIUNDERIISG LEGION. During a contest with 
the invading ISIarcomanni, the prayers of some Chris- 
tians in a Koman legion are said to have been follow- 
ed by a storm of thunder, lightning, and ram, which 
tended greatly to discomfit tiie enemy. Hence the le- 
gion received the name above, A.D. 1T4. 

TIIURINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in Central 
Germany, was overrun by Attila and the Huns, 451 ; 
the last king, Ilcrmanfricd, was defeated and slain by 
Thierry, Icing of the Franks, who annexed it to his do- 
minions. It was made an independent duchy, 6T-1; a 
landgraviate, 880 ; given to Otho of Saxony, 009, when 
the Landgrave Bnrchardt was slain; it was separated 
from Saxony, 1180, but reunited to it iu 1548. 

TIIURLES (S. Ireland). Here was held a synod 
of the Koman Catholic archbishops, bishops, inferior 
clergy, and religious orders, under the direction of 
Archbishop Cullen, the Roman Catholic primate, Aug. 
22, 1850. It condemned the Queen's Colleges, and rec- 
ommended the foundation of a Roman Catholic Uni- 
versity, Sept. 10 following. The acts were forwarded 
to Rome for approval of the pope, Pius IX. 

TIIUROT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish commo- 
dore in the French service, by his courage and daring 
became a terror to all the merchant ships of this king- 
dom. He had the command of a small armament, and 
landed lODO men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- 
dered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and was 
overtaken by Captain Elliot, with three frigates, who 
engaged his little squadron, which was taken, and the 
coiumodore killed, Feb. 28, 1700. Thurot's true name 
was O'Farrell ; his grandfather had followed the for- 
tunes of James II. ; but his mother being of a family 
of some dignity in France, he assumed'her name. — 
Btirns. 

THURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, derived from 
Thor, a deified hero worshiped by the northern na- 
tions, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. 
His authority was said to extend over the winds, sea- 
sons, thunder and lightning, etc. lie is said to have 
been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day 
still retains his name iu the Danish, Swedish, and 
Low-Dntch languages, as well as in the English. 
Thursday is iu Latin dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 

TIARA, the triple crown of the pope, indicative of 
his civil rank, as the keys are of his ecclesiastical ju- 
risdiction. The ancient tiara was a high round cap. 
Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be crowned 
■with a tiara, 1048. John XX. encompassed the tiara 
with a crown, 1'276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 
1295 ; and Benedict XII. formed the tiara about 1334. 

TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal defeat- 
ed the Romans, 21T B.C. 

TICKETS OF Leave. See Transportation and Crime. 

TICONDEROGA (N. America). The French for- 
tress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Abercrom- 
by in July, 1758 ; taken July 20, 1759. The Americans 
took it in 1775, l)ut retired from it in July, 1777. The 
British retired from it shortly after. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who 
speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apamea account- 
ed for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 
79 B.C. ; and Cresar spe.aks of them in his fourth book 
of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides was first 
satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 1598 ; but the hon- 
or of a complete explanation of them was reserved for 
Sir Isaac Newton, about 1083. 

TIEN-TSIN. See China, 1858. 

TIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary of 
Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded on its 
banks— Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad. It 
was explored by an English steamer in 1S38. 

TILBURY (Essex). The camp formed here iu 15SS 



to resist the Spanish invasion was visited by Queen 
Elizabeth. 

TILES were originally flat and square, and after- 
ward parallelogramic, etc. First made iu England 
a))out 1240. They were taxed in 1784. The number 
of tiles taxed in England iu 1820 was 81,924,020, and 
in 1830, 97,31s,-204. The tax was discontinued as dis- 
couraging house -building and interfering with the 
comfort of the people, in 1833. 

TILSIT (on the River Niemen), where a treaty was 
concluded between France and Russia. Napoleon re- 
stored to the Prussian monarch one half of his terri- 
tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of 
the Rhine and the elevation of Napoleon's three broth- 
ers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Na- 
ples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, 
and ratified July 19 following. 

TILTS. See Tournaments. 

TIMBER BENDING. Apparatus was invented for 
this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, of Boston, U. S., for 
which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhibition 
of 1S55. A company was formed for its app-licatiou in 
England iu 1S5G. 

TIME. Our ideas in regard to time have been of 
late greatly extended. The distant planet Neptune, 
discovered by Le Verrier and Adams in 1840, requires 
above 900 of our years for a single revolution , and the 
coal measures in Wales, a thickness of strata of more 
than twelve miles, would require for its deposition 
hundreds of thousands of years ; while other forma- 
tions could only be estimated in millions of years.— 
Phillips. See Cloclc, Sun-dials, Watches, etc. 

TIMES NEWSPAPER. On Jan. 13, 17S5, Mr. John 
Walter published the first number of the Dailij Univer- 
sal Register, price 2}iUl., printed on the logographic 
system (invented by Henry Johnson, a compositor), iu 
which types containing syllables and words were em- 
ployed instead of single letters. 
On Jan. 1, 1788, the paper was named the Times. 
In 1803, when Mr. Walter gave up the paper to his son, 
the circulation was about 1000; that of the Morning 
Post being 450O. 
Dr. Stoddart (satirized as Dr. Slop by Moore the poet) 
became editor in 1812, but five years after retired and 
set up in opposition the Seiv Times, an unprofitable 
speculation. Thomas Barnes became next editor. 
He died May 7, 1841. The succeeding editors were 
William F. A. Delane, who died in 1S58, and John 
Thaddeus Delane (his son). 
On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed by steam 
power (the invention of F. Kimig), 1200 per hour, 
afterward increased to 2000 and 4000. 
The powerful articles contributed by Edward Stirling 

gained the paper the name of the Thunderer. 
On Jan. 19, 1829, the first double number appeared. 
In July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O'Connell iu the House 
of Commons on the correctness of the reports of the 
debates iu the Times was signally defeated. 
Shortly after began the convenient summary of the 
debates, written iu the first instance by Mr. Horace 
Twiss. 
In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and 
exposing a scheme organized by a company to de- 
fraud by forgery all the influential bankers of Eu- 
rope. This brought on the proprietors an action for 
libel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury found 
the charge to be true, giving a verdict of one farthing 
damages, but the iudges refused costs. Subscriptions 
were set on foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse 
the proprietors for the immense outlay in defend- 
ing the action. This they firmly declined ; and the 
money was expended in establishing Times Scholar- 
ships at Oxford and Clambridge, and at Christ s Hos- 
pital, and other schools ; marble tablets also, com- 
memorating the event, were set up in the Royal Ex- 
change and in other places. These were the great- 
est honors ever conceded to a newspaper. 
In Oct., 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut. 
Waghorn. , . . ,, ,., ,,, 

Of the number of the Times containing the life ot the 
Duke of Wellington for Nov. 19, 1S52, 70,000 were 
sold— the ordinary number being then 30,000; the 
present circulation is stated to vary from 50,000 to 

60,000 (1806). „ ^. 

In 18,54, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their 
special correspondent to the seat of war in the Cri- 
mea ; in 1S57, to India ; and iu ISOl, to the Southern 
States of North America. .„r. c- -o i ^ 

Times Fund.— On the 12th of October, 1854, Sir Robert 
Peel originated by a letter in the Times a subscrip- 



TIN 



462 



TOB 



tion for' the sick and woimded in tlie Crimean War, 
and in less tliau a fortnight £15,000 were sent to the 
Times' office to he thus appropriated. ]\Ir. Macdou- 
ald (the present manager) was sent out by the pro- 
prietors as special commissioner to administer the 
fund, from which large quantities of food and cloth- 
ing were supplied to" the sufferers, with inestimable 
advantage. See Scutari and Nightingale. 

In Dec, 1858, the Times drew attention to the state of 
the houseless poor of Loudon, and in a few days 
£8000 were subscribed for their relief. 

In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold; in 1857,16,100,000 ; 
in 1S59, 10,900,000 ; in 1860, 16,670,000. 

In ISOO, 16,400 copies per hour were printed. 

On June 21, 1861, the Times consisted of 2-1 pages, con- 
taining 4076 advertisements (about 1810 it contained 
150 advertisements). 

TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this 
article for more than 1100 years before the Christian 
era. It is said that this trade lirst gave them commer- 
cial importance in the ancient world. Under the Sax- 
ons, the tin mines appear to have been neglected ; but 
after the coming iu of the Normans, they proditced 
considerable revenues to the Earls of Cornwall, par- 
ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. A charter 
and various immunities were granted by Edmnud, 
Earl Richard's brother, who also framed the Stannary 
laws {whieh see), laying a duty on the tin, payable to 
the Earls of Cornwall. Edward III. contirmedthe 
tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into 
a dukedom, with which he invested his sou, Edward 
the Black Prince, 1337. Since that time, the heirs-ap- 
parent to the crown of England, if eldest sons, have 
eujoyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered 
in Germany, which lessened the value of those in En- 
gland, till then the only tin mines in Europe, 1240. — An- 
(lerson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640 ; iu India, 1740 ; in 
New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an 
average, 1500 tons of uuwrought tin, besides manufac- 
tured'tin and tin plates of the value of about .£400,000, 
Iu 1857, 97S3 tons ; in 1800, 10,462 tons ; in 1864, 10,108 
tons of metallic tin were procured from British mines. 
Of tiu plates and tin and pewter ware, there was ex- 
ported in value, in 1S47, £484,184; iu 1854, £1,075,531 ; 
iu 1S60, £1,500,812 ; iu 1861, £907,590 ; 1804, £1,264,100. 

TINCIIEBRAY (N.W. France), where a battle was 
fought between Henry I. of England and Robert, duke 
of Normandy. Eugland and Normandy were reunited 
under Henry on the decease of William Rufus, who 
had already possessed himself of Normandy, though 
he had no other right to that province than by a mort- 
gage from his brother Robert, at his setting out for 
Palestine. Robert, on his return, recovered Norman- 
dy by an accommodation with Henry ; but the two 
brothers having afterward quarreled, the former was 
defeated by the latter iu the battle of Tinchebray, 
Sept. 28, 1106, and Normandy was annexed to the 
crown of England.— //e'«c««Zt. 

TIPPECANOE, Battle of. In the spring of 1811, 
Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, attempted to confederate 
the Western and Southern Indians in a war against 
the United States. The movement became so alarrn- 
ing that General Harrison, then 'joveruor of the Indi- 
ana Territory, marched toward Tippecanoe, the head- 
quarters of the chief, near the present village of La- 
fayette, Indiana, with about 650 men. There, on the 
7tli of Nov., he fought over 600 Indians, under Tecum- 
seh's brother, and defeated them. Harrison lost 62 
killed and 126 wounded ; the Indians lost 150 killed. 

TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor in 
menakite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, and iu 1794 by 
Klaproth. 

TITHES, or Tenths, were commanded to be given 
to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C.— icy. xxvii., 30. Abra- 
ham, returning from his victory over the kings {Gen. 
xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to Melchizedek, king of 
Salem, priest of the most high God (1913 B.C.). For 
the first 800 years of the Christian Church they were 
given purely as alms, and were volujitary.— TiVci-r/^c. 
"I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upou 
any divine richt, though such a right certainly com- 
menced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the 
Jewish theocracj'." — Blackstone. They were estab- 
lished in France by Charlemagne about 800. — Henanlt. 
Tenths were confirmed iu the'Lateran councils, 1215. — 
JRainailda.—The payment of tithes appears to have 
been claimed by Augustine, the first archbishop of 
Canterbury, and to have beeu allowed by Ethelbert, 
king of Kent, under the term " God's fee," about 600. 

tithes in ENGLAND. 

The first mention of them iu any English written law 



is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly 

enjoining tithes, 786. 
Ofta, king of Mercia, gave unto the Church the tithes 

of all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethel- 
bert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused 

to be basely murdered, 794. 
Tithes were first grauted to the English clergy in a 

general assembly held by Ethelwold, A.I). 844. 

Henry. 
Iu 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. 9d. iu the 

pound on rent; since then, many acts have been 

passed respecting them. 
The Tithe Commutation Act, passed Aug. 13, 1836. It 

was amended in 1837, 1840, and 1846. 
A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small 

part only, frequently to none. 

TITUE8 IN IRELAND. 

Several acts relating to tithes have been passed in 
1832, 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, altering and improv- 
ing the tithe system. 

TITHING. The number or company of ten men, 
with their families knit together in a society, all of 
them being bound to the king for the peaceable and 
good behavior of each of their society ; of these com- 
panies there was one chief person, who, from his oftice, 
was called (toothingmau) tithingman ; but now he is 
nothing but a constable, formerly called the headbor- 
ough. — C'owel. 

TITLES, ROYAL. Heury IV.had the title of "Grace" 
and "My liege," 1399. Henry VI., "Excellent Grace," 
1422. Edward IV., "Most High and Mighty Prince," 
1461. Heury VIL," Highness," 1485; Heury VIII. the 
same title, and sometimes "Grace," 1509 et scq. But 
these two last were absorbed in the title of " Alajesty," 
being that with which Francis I. of France addressed 
Heury at their memorable interview in 1520. See Field 
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last 
king who was styled "Dread Sovereign." James I. 
coupled to "Majesty" the present "Sacred," or "Most 
Excellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the style of the 
Emperors of Germany ; the first kiug to whom it was 
given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. 

TOBACCO, Nicotiana tahacuvt, received its name 
from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, New Spain ; 
some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Car- 
ibbees; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf of Florida. 
It is said to have been first observed at St. Domingo, 
1492, and to have been used freely by the Spaniards 
in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first brought to Eu- 
gland iu 1565 by Sir John Hawkins ; but Sir Walter 
Raleigh and Sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as 
having first iutroduced it there, 1586. It was manufac- 
tured only for exportation for some years. Tobacco was 
a legal tender in the colony of Virginia for some time. 
In 1620, ninety young women, "pure and uncorrupt," 
were sent from England to Virginia as wives for the 
planters, for which they paid from 120 to 150 lbs. of 
tobacco apiece, equivalent from $90 to $122 each. — 
Stow's Chron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is said 
to have been the first house in England where tobacco 
was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was issued 
agaiust it. The Star Chamber ordered the duties to 
be 6s. lOd. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was pro- 
hibited in Eugland by Charles II., 1684. Act laying a 
duty on the importation was passed 1684. The culti- 
vation was allowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was in- 
creased and put under the excise, 1789. — Anderson; 
Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobac- 
co. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
tobacco in Ireland, passed 2 Will. IV., Aug., 1831. Act 
directing that tobacco grown iu Ireland be purchased 
in order to its being destroyed, March 24, 1832. The 
quantity consumed iu England in 1791 was nine mil- 
lions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
millions of pounds. There were imported in 1850, 
35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufactured (cigars 
and suuft") ; in 1855, 30,820,846 lbs., and 8,946,766 lbs. 
manufactured ; in 1860, 48,936,471 lbs., and 12,475,000 
lbs. manufactured; and iu 1864, 60,092,768 lbs., and 
6,522,408 lbs. manufactured. The tobacco duties were 
modified in 1863. 

TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Columbus in 
1492; settled by the Dutch, 1042. Taken by the Eu- 
lish, 1672; retaken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a 
neutral island; but in 1703 it was ceded to the En- 
glish. Tobago was taken by the French under De 
Grasse in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again 
taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but restored at 
the peace of Amicus, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was 
once more taken by the British uuder General Grin- 
field, Julv 1, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the 
peace of Paris iu 1814. Population in ISOl, 15,410. 



Tor 

TOISON D'OR. See Golden Fleece. 



403 



TOU 



TOKKNS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the Bank 
of Eiit;I;m(l, of the value of 5s., Jan. 1, 1T98. The 
Spanish dollar had a small proiile of George III. 
stamped ou the neck of the Spanish kiuj,'. They 
were raised to the value of S.s. ad., Nov. 14, ISll. 
Bank tokens were also current in Ireland, where 
those issued by the bank passed for C.s. and lesser 
snnis until 1S17. They were called iu on the revision 
of the coinage. 

TOLBIAC (now Zrr.ncn), near the Rhine, where 
Clovis totally defeated the Alleniauni, 490. 

TOLEDO (Central Spain), capital of the Vislgothic 
kingdom, 554, subdued by the Saracens, 711. Toledo 
was taken by Alfonso VI. of Castile, 10S4. The Uni- 
versity was founded in 14!i9. Toledo sword-blades 
have been famed since the 15th century. 

TOLENTINO (in the Papal States), where a treaty 
■was made between the pope and the French, Feb. 10, 
171)7. Here Joachim Murat, having resumed arms 
against the Allies, was defeated by the Austrians, 
May 3, 1815. 

TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1CS9* to relieve Prot- 
estant dissenters from the Church of England. Their 
liberties were, however, greatly endangered in the lat- 
ter days of Queen Anne, who died ou the day that the 
Schism Bill was to become a law, Aug. 1, 1714. 

TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the Stade 
on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded by the 
Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. See Stade 
and Soiiiid. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, 
on the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed 
through a certain manor; and the first regular toll 
was collected a few years after for mending" the road 
in London between St. Giles's and Temple Bar. Gath- 
ered for repairing the highways of Ilolborn Inn Lane 
and jVIartin's Lane (Aldersgate Street), 1340. Toll-gates 
or tunipikes were set np in 1063. In 1827, 27 turnpikes 
near London were removed by Parliament ; 81 turn- 
pikes and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on 
Julv 1, 1864; and 61 on the south side ceased ou Oct. 
31, 1805. 

TONNAGE. See Tunnage. 

TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus for tuning mu- 
sical instruments, by marking the number of vibra- 
tions, was invented by H. Schcibler, of Crefeld, about 
1S.';4. It received little notice till M. Ka?uig removed 
some of the ditficulties opposed to its successful use, 
find exhibited it at the International Exhibition of 
1802. 

TONQnN, South Asia, part of the kingdom of 
Anam. Here a French missionary l)ishop, Melchior, 
was murdered with great barbarity, July 27, 1858 ; the 
Abbo Neron was also murdered, Nov. 3, ISOO. See 
A nam. 

TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with ben- 
efit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, a Ne- 
ajjolitan. They were first set ou foot at Paris to recon- 
cile the people to Cardinal Mazarin's government, by 
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly 
rich, 1053. — Voltaire. Tonti died in the Bastile after 
seven years' imprisonment. A Mr. Jennings was an 
original subscriber for a £\i)0 share in a toiitine com- 
])auy, and being the last survivor of the shareholders, 
his share produced him XMOOO ])er annum. He died, 
aged 103 years, June 19, 1798, worth £2,115,244. 

TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gillespie, of Tor- 
banchill. granted a lease of all the coal in the estate to 
Messrs. Tiussell. In the course of working, the lessees 
extracted a combustible mineral of considerable value 
as a source of coal-gas, and realized a large profit in 
the sale of it as gas-coal. The lessor then denied that 
the mineral was coal, and disputed the right of the les- 
sees to work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great 
array of scientific men and ])ractical gas engineers. 
The evidence was most conflicting. One side main- 
tained the mineral to be coal, the other that it was bi- 
tuminous schist. The judge set aside the scientific ev- 
idence, and the jury proninniced it to be coal. The 
authorities in Prussia have since pronounced it not to 
i)e coal. — Pcrcii. Albert coal is found in Hillsborough 
County, New Brunswick. It resembles, chemically, 

» The tcilemtion prantal wna sompwhnt liinitwl. It exiMnptcd ppr- 
sons who took the new nnth of nllefriaiiro and Bnpremary an.l nia.le 



a declaration ajrainst rorery, from the jienaltu 
seiilinK themselves from rhnrrh and holilinc unlawful 



.d l,y ah- 



nnrt it allowed the Quakers to suhstilntc an affirmation for an oath, 
but did not relax the provisions of the Test Act (wliie/i see). The party 
spirit of the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 



geologically, and in its uses, the Torbanehill mineral. 
Ihe same controversy as to whether it is a coal or 
not has been determined iu courts, as that was, viz., 
that It IS a coal. 

TORQAU (N. Germany), the site ofa battle between 
h redcnck II. ol Prussia and the Austrians, in which 
the former obtained a signal victory; the Austrian gen- 
eral. Count Daun, a renowned warrior, beino- wounded 
Nov. 3, 1700. He had, in 1757, obtained a great victo- 
ry over the Prussian king. Torgau was taken by the 
Allies in 1814. "^ 

■iJ^P^l^^' ^ *^™ S'"^^" ^° ^ political party about 
1678. Sec H /«;/. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory as one 
who adheres to the ancient Constitution of the state, 
and the apostolical hierarchy of the Church of En- 
gland. The Tories long maintained the doctrines of 
"divine hereditary indefeasible right, lineal succes- 
sion, passive -obedience, prerogative," etc.— Ii<diiuj- 
hroke. See Conservatives. For the chief Tory admin- 
istrations, see Pitt, Perceval, Liverpool, Wellinofon, 
Peel, and Lerhij. Whig and Tory were the distinctive 
titles adopted for the Republicans and Loyali.-ts re- 
spectively during the American Revolution. 

TORONTO, the capital of Canada West, founded in 
1794 as York ; it received its present name iu 1834. 

TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to explosives 
placed under ships, an invention ascribed to David 
Bushnell in 1777. Torpedo shells ignited by electrici- 
ty were employed in the war in the United States, 
1801-5. On Oct. 4, 1805, Messrs. M'Kay and Beardslee 
tried them at Chatham before the Duke of Somerset 
and others. An old vessel, the Terpsichore, was speed- 
ily sunk. The preliminary arrangements are consid- 
ered rather complicated. Magneto-electricity was em- 
ployed. 

TORRES VEDRAS (a city of Portugal). Near here, 
Wellington, retreating from the French, took up a 
strong position, called the Lines of Torres Vcdras, Oct. 
10, 1810. 

TORTURE was only permitted by the Romans in 
the examination of slaves. It was used early in the 
Roman Catholic Church against heretics, and was used 
in England so late as 1558, and in Scotland until 1690. 
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; 
iu France, by Louis XVI., iu 17S9; aud in Sweden, by 
Gustavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of 
applying the torture to Louisa Calderon, iu Trinidad, 
at his trials, Feb. 21, 1800, aud June 11, 1808. 

TOULON (S. France), an important military and na- 
val port. It was taken by Charles V. iu 1.536. In 170T 
it was bombarded by the Allies both by land and sea, 
by which almost the whole town was reduced to a 
heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but the Al- 
lies were at last obliged to raise the siege. It -surren- 
dered Aug. 27, 1793, to the British admiral, Lord Hood, 
who took possession both of the town and shipping, 
in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to as- 
sist iu restoring the French Constitution of 1789. A 
conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. 
Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, Dec. 19, when great 
cruelties were exercised toward such of the inliabit- 
auts as were supposed to bo favorable to the British. 
—A naval battle off this port was fought Feb. 10, 1744, 
between the English under Mathews and Lestock, 
against the fleets of France and Spain ; in this engage- 
ment the brave Captain Corncwall fell. The victory 
was lost by a misunderstanding between the English 
admirals. Mathews was afterward dismissed for mis- 
conduct by the sentence of a court-martial. 

TOULOUSE (S. France), founded about 615 B.C., was 
the capital oftheVisigothic kings iu A.D. 419, and was 
taken by Clovis in 507. A dreadful tribunal was estab- 
lished here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The T;-ouba- 
dours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their origin 
about S50, aud consisted ofa fraternity of poets, whose 
art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to 
the Italian and French poctiy. See Troubadours. The 
allied British and Si)anish army entered this city ou 
April 12, 1814, inimedialcly after the Battle or Tor- 
T.ousK, fought between the British Peninsular army un- 
der Lord Wellington and the French, April 10, 1814. 
The French were led by Marshal Soult, whom the vic- 
torious British here forced to retreat, after twelve 
hours' fighting, from seven o'clock in the morning un- 
til seven at niuht, the British forcing the French in- 
trenched position before Toulouse." At the battle, 
neither of the commanders knew that Napoleon had 
abdicated the throne of France. 

TOULOUSE: the county was created out of the 



TOU 



464 



TRA 



kiutjdom of Aquitaiue by Charlemasrue in 778. It en- 
joyed great jjrospei'ity till the dreadful war of the Al- 
bigenses {which sec), when the Count Raymond VI. was 
expelled, and Simon de Montfort became count. At 
his death in 1218, Kaymoud VII. obtained his inherit- 
ance. His daughter Jane and her husband, Alphouse 
(brother of Louis IX. of France), dyii^g without issue, 
the county of Toulouse was united to tlie French mon- 
archy in 1271. 

TOURNAMENTS, or Jousts, were martial .sports of 
the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is derived from 
the French word tuurncr, " to turn round." Tourna- 
ments were frequent about S9() ; and were regulated by 
the Emperor Henry I. about 919. The Lateran Coun- 
cil published an article agaiust their continuance in 
lloO. One was held in Smithtield so late as the 12th 
century, when the taste for them declined in England. 
Henryll. of France, in a tilt with the Count of >Iont- 
gomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which 
caused the king's death in a few days, June 20, 1559. 
Tournaments were then abolished inFrauce. — A mag- 
nificent feast and tournament, under the auspices of 
Archibald, earl of Egliutoun, took place at Eglintoun 
Castle, Aug. 20, 1S39, and the following week. Jlany 
of the visitors (among whom was the present Emper- 
or of the French) assumed the characters of ancient 
knights. Lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty." 

TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing till it 
was ravaged by the barbarians in the 5th century. It 
has sustained many sieges. Taken by the Allies in 
1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty 
of Utrecht; but the Dutch were allowed to place a 
garrison in it as one of the barrier towns. It was taken 
by the French under General Labourdouuaye, Nov. 11, 
lt02. Battle near Touruay, between the Austriaus and 
British on one side, and the French on the other; the 
former victorious, May S, 1793. 

TOURNIQUET (from fovrner, to turn), an instru- 
ment for stopping the flow of blood into a limb by 
tightening the bandage, employed in amputations, is 
said to have been invented bj; Morelli at the siege of 
Besancon, 1GT4. J. L. Petit, in France, invented the 
screw tourniquet iu 1718. 

TOURS, an ancient city, Central France, near which 
Charles Martel gained a great victory over the Sara- 
cens, Oct. 10, 732, and from which he acquired the name 
of Martel, signifying hammer. This victory saved Eu- 
rope. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, 
built in the plains of Shinar {Gen. xi.), 2247 B.C. See 
liabcl. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 
B.C. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 B.C. 
The rouud towers in Ireland v,'ere the only structures 
of stone found at the arrival of the English, 1169, ex- 
cept some buildings in the maritime towns founded 
by the Danes. These towers are tall hollow pillars, 
nearly cylindrical, but narrowing toward the top, 
pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, and cov- 
ered with conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still re- 
main, from 50 to 130 feet high. See Pisa. 

TOWER OF LoNnoN. The tradition that Julius Cre- 
sar founded a citadel here is very doubtful. A royal 
palace, consisting of no more than what is now called 
the White Tower, which appears to have been first 
marked out by William the Conqueror, 1076, was com- 
menced in 1078, and completed by his son, William Ru- 
fus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and abroad 
deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- 
tions to it, and King Edward IIL built the church. In 
163S the White Tower was rebuilt ; and since the res- 
toration of King Charles II. it has been thoroughlv re- 
paired, and a great number of additional buildings 
made to it. Here are the Armory, Jewel-oftice, and 
various other divisions and buildings of peculiar in- 
terest; and here took place many executions of illus- 
trious persons, and many murders (King Henry IV., 
1471; King Edward V. and his brother, 1485; Sir 
Thomas Overbury, 1613). See Enf/larKl. The Armory 
and 280,000 stand of arms, etc., were destroyed by fire 
Oct. 30, 1841. The " New Buildings" in the Tower were 
completed in 1850. 

TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British Museum, 
were purchased iu 1S12. 

TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary battle 
was fought, March 29, 1461, between the housesof York 
(Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 
of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 
37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, 
and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was 
made prisoner, and confined iu the Tower ; iiis queen, 
Margaret, fled to Flanders. 



TOXOPHILITES (from tnxon, a bow, and philns, a 
lover), a society established by Sir Aston Lever in 
1781. In 1834 they took ground's iu the inner circle of 
Regent's Park, and built the archery lodge. "They 
possess a very curious piece of plate, given "by Catha- 
rine, queen of Charles II., to be shot for by the Fins- 
bury archers, of whom the Toxophilites are the rep- 
resentatives. 

TRACTARIANISM, a term applied to certain opin- 
ions on Church matters propounded iu the "Tracts 
for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub- 
lished, 183,3-41. The principal writers were the Eev-s. 
Dr. E. Pusey, J. II. Newman, J. Keble, J. Fronde, and I. 
Williams— all of the University of Oxford. See Puseu- 
ism. 

TRACTION ENGINES were used on common roads 
in London in 1860, but afterward restricted. In Aug., 
1862, one of Bray's traction engines conveyed through 
the city a mass of iron which would have required '29 
horses. 

TRADE AKi> PLANTATIONS, Boaki> of. Crom- 
well seems to have given the first notions of a board 
of trade: in 1055 he appointed his son Richard, with 
many lords of his council, .judges, and gentlemen, and 
about twenty merchants of Loudon, York, Newcastle, 
Yarmouth, Dover, etc., to meet and consider by what 
means the trade and navigation of the republic might 
be best promoted. — 1'homns's Xotcs of the Ixolls. King 
Charles II., on bis restoration, established a council 
of trade for kceiiiug a control over the whole com- 
merce of the nation", 1660 ; he afterward instituted a 
board of trade and plantations, which was remodeled 
by William III. This board was abolished in 1782, 
and a new council for the aflairs of trade on its pres- 
ent plan was appointed Sept. 2, 17S6. 

TRAFALGAR (Cape, S. Spain), olT which a great na- 
val victory was gained by the British, under Nelson, 
against the combined fleets of France and Spain, com- 
manded by Admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish ad- 
mirals, Oct. 21, 1805. The enemy's force was eighteen 
French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ; 
that of the British, twenty-seven ships. After a pro- 
tracted fight, Villeneuve and the other admirals were 
taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or 
destroyed. Nelson was killed, and Admiral Colling- 
wood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was 
the Victorii ; and his last signal was, "England ex- 
pects every man to do his duty." See Xelson. 

TRAGEDY. See Dravta. 

TRAJAN'S PILLAR (in Rome), erected 114, by his 
directions, to commemorate his victories, and exe- 
cuted by Apollodorus, still exists. It was built in the 
square called the Forum liomanmn; it is 140 feet high, 
of the Tuscan order. 

TRAM-ROADS, an abbreviation of Outram-roads, 
derive the name from Mr. Benjamin Outram, who in 
1800 made improvements in the system of railways for 
common vehicles, then in use in the north of England. 
The iron tram-road from Croydon to Wandsworth was 
completed on July 24, 1801. Mr. Outram was father of 
the late Sir James Outram, the Indian general Cham- 
bers. 

TRANQUEBAR (East Indies), the Danish settle- 
ment here, founded in 1618, was purchased by the En- 
glish in 1845. 

TRANSFIGURATION. The change of Christ's ap- 
pearance on Mount Tabor, in the presence of Peter, 
James, and John, A.D. 32 {Mcdt. xvii.). The feast of 
the Transfiguration, kept on Aug. 6, was instituted by 
Pope Calixtus II. in 1455. 

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD. See Blood. 

TRANSIT. See Vemis. 

TRANSLATION to Heaven. The translation of 
Enoch to heaven for his faith at the age of 305 years, 
took place 3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was trans- 
lated to heaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.C.— The pos- 
sibility of translation to the abode of eternal life has 
been maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. 
The Irish House of Commons expelled Mr. Asgill from 
his seat for his book asserting the possibility of trans- 
lation to the other world without death, 1703. 

TRANSPORTATION. See Banishment. Judges 
were given the power of sentencing offenders to trans- 
portation "into any of his maiesty's dominions in 
North America" by"lS Charles it., c. 3 (1666), and by 4 
Geo. I., c. 11 (1 718). Transportation ceased in 1775, but 
was revived in 1784. The reception of convicts has 
been successfully refused by the Cape of Good Hope 



TEA 



4G.- 



TRE 



(in 1549), and by the Australian colonies {1S04). Trans- 
portiitiou, even to West Australia, where labor is want- 
ed, is to cease in a few years, throii'^h the tierce oppo- 
sition of the eastern colonies. In conse(juence of ihe 
recent difticulty experienced in transporlin<,' felons, 10 
& 17 Vict., c. Dt>, was passed to provide other punish- 
ment, namely, penal servitude, empowerinij her maj- 
esty to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
tions, and licenses to others to be at lar^jc ; such li- 
censes bein<j liable to be revoked if necessary ; and 
many have been. These licenses are termed " tickets 
of leave." The system was much assailed in Oct. and 
Nov., 1S6'2, on account of many violent crimes being 
traced to ticket-of-leavera. See Crime. 
John Eyre, a man of fortune, was sentenced to 
transportation for stealing a few quires of paper 

{I'liillips) Nov. 1,17T1 

The Ucv. Dr. O'llalloran, tutor to the Earl of Ches- 
tertield, was transported for forging a frank (lOd. 

postage) Sept. 9,1S18 

The lirst transportation of felons to Botany Bay 
was iu May, 17ST, where Governor Phillip arrived 
with aboiit SOO on Jan. 20, 17SS; convicts were 
afterward sent to Van Diemeu's Laud, Norfolk 
Island, etc. 
Returning from transportation was pnni.shable 
with death until 5 William IV., c. 07, Aug., 1S:54, 
when an act was passed making the offense pun- 
ishable by transportation for life. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine that the 
bread and wine in the Eucharist are changed into the 
Tery flesh and blood of Christ by the consecration 
was broached in the days of Gregory III. (731), and ac- 
cepted by Amalarius and Radburtus (about 840), but 
rejected by Kabanus Muurfts, Johannes Scotns Erige- 
na, Berengarius, and others. In the Lateran Council 
held at Rome by Innocent III., the word "transub- 
stantiation" was used to express this doctrine, which 
was decreed to be incontrovertible, and all who op- 
posed it were condemned as heretics. This was con- 
firmed by the Council of Trent, Jan. 18, 1562. John 
IIuss, Jerome of Prague, and other martyrs of the Ref- 
ormation, suffered for denying this dogma, which is 
renounced by the Church of England (2Sth Article), 
and by all Protestant dissenters. 

TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, was part 
of the ancient Dacia {which see). In 1.520, John Zapoly 
rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdi- 
nand I. by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled 
with much difficulty till 1C99, when the Emperor Leo- 
pold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus- 
trian dominions. The Transylvaiiian deputies did not 
take their seats iu the Austrian Parliament till Oct. 20, 
1S63. 

PEINCES OF TEAN8VLVANIA. 



152G-40. John Zapoly. 
1571. John Sigismund. 
" Stephen Zapoly I., 
Bathori. 
1581. Christopher Bathori. 
1002. Sigismund Bathori. 
IGOG. Stephen II., Bottskai. 



1613. Gabriel L, Bathori. 
1629. Gabriel IL, Bethlem 

(Bethlem Gabor). 
1048. George L,Ra[rotzski. 
1001. George ILjRagotzski. 
1090. Michael I., Abafli. 
1099. Michael II., Abaffl. 



TRAPPLSTS. The first abbey of La Trappe, in Nor- 
mandy, was founded in 1140 by Retrou, count de 
Perche. The present order of Trappists owes its ori- 
gin to the learned Bouthillier de la Rancu (editor of 
Anacreoii when aged 14), who, from some cause not 
certainly known, renounced the world, and sold all 
his property, giving the proceeds to the abbey of La 
Trappe, to which he retired in 1002, to live there in 
great austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in 
reforming the monks, and in establishing a new rule, 
which commands silence, prayer, reading, and manual 
labor, and which forbids study, wine, fish, etc. Ranee 
was born in 1620, and died in 1700.* 

TRAVELING in England. In 1707, it took in sum- 
mer one day, in winter nearly two days, to travel from 
London to Oxford (40 miles). In 1817, the journey was 
accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great 
Western Railway express (63 miles) it is done in 1^ 
hour. In 1S28, a gentleman traveled from Newcastle 
to London (273 miles) inside the best coach in 35 hours, 
at an expense of £6 15s. 3d., or 6rf. per mile (including 



• A number of these monks, driven from France in the revolution 
of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, of Lulworth, Dorsetshire, who 
^ve them some land to cultivate and a habitation, where they re- 
mained till 1815. This order was charjfed with rebellion and conspir- 
acy in France, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists were shipped 
by the French government at Vaitnbfeuf, Nov. 19, and were landed 
from the Ilthi, French fripatc, at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831 . Tliey have es- 
tablished themselves at Mount Mellerav, county of Waterford, but do 
not maintain there the extreme rigor ol' their order. 

Go 



dinner, etc.). In 1857, the charge of the Great North- 
ern Railway (276>^ miles) first-class express (6 hours) 
was 50*. 9rf. 

TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese to raise 
water for the irrigation of the fields. The complicated 
tread-mill introduced into the prisons of Great Britain 
is the invention of Mr. (afterward Sir William) Cubitt. 
of Ipswich. It was erected at Brixton jail, 1S17, and 
soon afterward in other large prisons. 

TREASON. HeeHiijh Treason.. Petty Treason (a 
term abolished in 1S2S) was a wife's murder of her hus- 
band; a servant's murder of his master; and an eccle- 
siastical person's murder of his prelate or other supe- 
rior—so declared by statute, 1362. 

TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and Govern- 
ment Security Act, 11 Vic, c. 12 (184^), certain treasons 
heretofore punishable with death were mitigated to 
felonies, and subjected to transportation or imprison- 
ment. The Fenians iu Ireland were tried under this 
act. See Trials, 1805. 

TREASURER op E.ngi-and, Loed High, the third 
great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue of his of- 
fice, having the custody of the king's treasure, govern- 
ing the upper court of Exchequer, and formerly sitting 
judicially among the barons. The first lord high treas- 
urer in England was Odo, earl of Kent, in the reign of 
William I. This great trust is now confided to a com- 
mission, and is vested in five persons, called Lords 
Commissioners for executing the ofiice of Lord High 
Treasurer, and of these the chancellor of the Excheq- 
uer is usually one, the first lord being usually the pre- 
mier. See Administrations for a succession of these 
officers. The first of this rank in Ireland was John 
de St. John, Henry III., 1217; the last, William, duke 
of Devonshire, 1700; vice-treasurers were appointed 
till 1789; then commissioners till 1816, when the rev- 
enues of Great Britain and Ireland were united. The 
first lord high treasurer of Scotland was Sir Walter 
Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, when commissioners 
were appointed. 

TREASURER of the CnA-vnEK, formerly an officer 
of great consideration, and always a member of the 
privy council. He discharged the "bills of all the king's 
tradesmen, ancl had his office in Cleveland Row, in the 
vicinity of the royal palace. His duties were trans- 
ferred and the office suppressed at the same time with 
the offices of master of the great wardrobe and cofferer 
of the household, in 1782. — Beatson. 

TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty 
made in England with any foreign nation was entered 
into between Henry IlL and the Dauphin of France 
(then in England and leagued with the barons), Sept. 
11, 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the 
Flemings, 1 Edw., 1272 ; the second with Portugal and 
Spain, 1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the prin- 
cipal civilized nations of Europe will be found de- 
scribed in their respective places: the following forms 
an index. See Conventions, Coalitions, Leagues, etc. 

Abo, peace of 1743 

Adrianople Sept. 14,1829 

Aix-la-Chapelle 1668 

Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 1748 

Akermann, peace of. Oct. 7,1826 

Alt Radstadt Sept. 14,1706 

Allahabad (Bahar, etc., ceded to East India Co.).. 1765 

America, peace with 1783 

Amiens, peace of 1802 

Antwerp, truce 1609 

Armed Neutrality 1800 

Arras, treaty of 1435 

Arras, ditto 1482 

Au;^sburg, league of. 1686 

Baden, peace of 1714 

Bagnalo (Venice, NapleS, etc.) 1484 

Balta Liman 1838 andl849 

Barcelona (France and Spain) 1493 

Barrier treaty 1T15 

Barwalde (France and Sweden) 1631 

Basel, peace of 1T95 

Bassein (Great Britain and Mahrattas) 1802 

Bayonne, treaty of. 1808 

Beckascog (Russia and Prussia) 1807 

Belgium, treaty of London 1839 

Belgrade, peace of. 1739 

Berlin, peace of 1T42 

Berlin decree 1S06 

Berlin convention 1808 

Beyara Aug. 31,1839 

Breda, peace of. 1067 

Bretigny, peace oL 1360 



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406 



TRE 



Bucharest, treaty of 1812 

Cambray, league of. 150S 

Cambray, peace of. 1529 

Canipo Formio, treaty of 1T97 

Carlowitz, peace of. 1699 

Carlsbad, Congress of 1819 

Chateau-Cambresis, peace of 1559 

Chaumout, treaty of. 1814 

Chuuar, India 1T31 

Clntra, convention of 1808 

Closterseven, convention of 1757 

Coalition, first, against France 1792 

Coalition, second, ditto 1799 

Coalition, third ditto 1805 

Coalition, fourth ditto 1806 

Coalition, fifth ditto 1809 

Coalition, sixth ditto 1813 

Commerce (Great Britain and Turkey). . .Nov. 16,1839 
Commerce (G. Britain and Two Sicilies. . .June 25,1845 

Commerce (Great Britain and France) 1801 

Concordat {which see) 1801 

Conflaus, treaty of 1465 

Constantinople, peace of 1712 

Constantinople, treaty of 1833 

Constantinople, treaty of May 8,1854 

Copenhagen, peace of 1660 

Copenhagen (composition for Sound dues), Mar.14,1857 

Crecy 1544 

Dresden 1745 

Eliot convention April, 1835 

Evora Monte May 26,1834 

Family Compact 1T61 

Fontaiucbleau, peace of. 1C79 

Fontainebleau, treaty of 1785 

Fontainebleau, concordat at 1813 

French commercial treaty Jan. 23,1860 

Priedwald, treaty of 1551 

Fuessen, peace of 1746 

Gastein convention Aug. 14,1865 

Ghent, pacification of 1576 

Ghent, peace of (America) 1814 

Golden Bull 1356 

Grand Alliance 1689 

Greece, treaty of (London) ,. ..1832 

Hague, treaty of the 1659 

Hague, treaty of the 1669 

Halle, treaty of 1610 

Hamburg, peace of 1762 

Hanover treaty 1725 

Hanover and England July 22,1834 

Holland, peace with 1784 

Holy Alliance 1815 

Hubertsburg, peace of. 1763 

Interim treaty 1.548 

Jay's treaty Nov. 19,1794 

Japan and Great Britain Aug. 26,1858 

Kaynardji, or Koutschouc-Kaynardji (Turks aud 

Russians) July 21,1774 

Kiel, treaty of 1814 

Laybach, Congress of. 1821 

League 1576 

Leipsic, alliance of 1031 

Leoben, peace of 1797 

Lisbon, pe.ace of 1668 

London, treaty of (Greece) 1832 

London, convention of (Turkey) 1840 

London, treaty bet. France and England, April 15,1854 

Lubeck, peace of 1629 

Luneville, peace of 1801 

Madrid, treaty of 1526 

Methueu treaty 1703 

Milan decree 1807 

Milan (Austria and Sardinia) Aug. 6,1849 

Munster, peace of 1648 

Nankin (see China) 1842 

Nantes, edict of 1598 

Naumberg, treaty of. 1554 

Nice, treaty of 1518 

Nimeguen, peace of 1678 

Noyoh, treaty of. 1516 

Nuremberg, treaty of. 1532 

Oliva, peace of 1660 

Paris, peace of (see Paris) 1763 

Paris, treaty of. 1796 

Paris, peace of (Sweden) 1810 

Paris, capitulation of. 1814 

Paris, treaty of 1814 

Paris, peace of. 1815 

Paris, treaty of. 1817 

Paris, treaty of (ends Russian War) April,1856 

Paris (settlement of Neufchatel affair) . . . .May 26,1857 

Partition, first treaty 169S 

Partition, second treaty 1700 

Passarowitz, peace of 1718 



Passau, treaty of 1552 

Pekin (peace with G. Britain aud France), Aug. 24,1860 

Persia, treaty with 1857 

Petersburg, St., peace of. ....1762 

Petersburg, St., treaty of 1772 

Petersburg, St., treaty of 1805 

Petersburg, St., treaty of 1810 

Peterswald, convention of. 1813 

Piluitz, convention of 1791 

Poland, partition of 1795 

Pragmatic Sanction 1439 

Pragmatic Sanction 1713 

Prague, peace of. 1653 

Presburg, peace of. 1805 

Public good, league for the 1464 

Pyrenees, treaty of the 1659 

Quadruple Alliance 171S 

Radstadt, peace of 1714 

Radstadt, Congress of 1797 

Ratisbon, peace of 1630 

Ratisbon, treaty of 180G 

Reicheubach treaties Juue,18l3 

Religion, peace of 1555 

Rhine, Confederation of the ISi 6 

Ryswick, peace of. 1697 

St. Germain's, peace of 1570 

St. Germain-en-Laye 1079 

St. Ildefonzo, alliance of Spain with France 1796 

Seville, peace of. 1792 

SiorUd, peace of 1613 

Sistowa Aug. 4,1791 

Smalcald, league of. 1529 

Spain, pacification of (London) 1834 

Stettin, peace of. 1570 

Stockholm 1630 

Stockholm, peace of. 1719 

Stockholm, treaty of 1724 

Stockholm, treaty of 1813 

Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden and allies). .Nov. 21,1856 

Suncion, treaty of. July 15,1852 

Tenieswar, truce of 1664 

Teschen, peace of 1779 

Teusin, peace of. 1595 

Tien-Tsin, China. June 26,1858 

Tilsit, peace of 1807 

Tolentino, treaty of. 1793 

Toplitz, treatv of. 1813 

Triple Alliance of the Hague 1663 

Triple Alliance 1717 

Troppau, Congress of. 1820 

Troyes, treaty of 1420 

Turin (cession of Savoy aud Nice) March 24,1860 

Turkmauchay, peace of 1828 

Ulm, peace of 1620 

Unkiarskelessi July 8,1833 

Utrecht, uuiou of. 1.579 

Utrecht, peace of 1713 

Valent.ay, treaty of 1813 

Verona, Congress of. 1822 

Versailles, peace of. 1783 

Vienna, treaty of 1725 

Vienna, treaty of alliance 1781 

Vienna, definitive peace 1733 

Vienna, peace of. 1809 

Vienna, treaty of. March 25,1815 

Vieuna, treaty of. May 31, " 

Vienna, treaty of June 9, " 

Vienna (Austria and Prussia), commercial, Feb. 19,1853 

Vienna, treaty of Oct. 30,1864 

Vienna (Austria aud Great Britain, commercial), 

Dec. 10,1865 

Villa Franca (jpreliminary) July 12,1859 

Vossem, peace of. 1073 

Wareaw, alliance of 1683 

Warsaw, treaty of 176S 

Washington, reciprocity treaty between GreatBrit- 
ain aud the United States, respecting Newfound- 
land fishery, commerce, etc July 2,1854 

Westminster, peace of. 1674 

Westminster (with Holland) 1716 

Westphalia, peace of 1648 

Wilna, treaty of 1561 

Wurnis, edict of 1521 

Wurtzburg league 1610 

Zurich (Austria, Frauce, and Sardinia) Nov. 10,1859 

TREATIES OP the Umitep States : 



Of alliance, amity, etc., 
with France.. Feb. 6,1778 

With the Netherlands, 

Oct. 8,1782 

Of peace •with Great 
Britain Sept. 3,1753 

With Sweden.. April 3, " 



Prussia Sept., 1785 

Morocco Jan. 1,1787 

Great Britain (Jay's), 

Nov. 19,1794 

Algiers Sept. 5,1795 

Spain Oct. 27, " 

Tunis March 26,1799 



TKE 



4G7 



TRI 



Prussia (ren'l), Julyll,lT09 NetherlinulR...Aut'.2G,lS52 

^.'^'ice April 30,1803, Gi-eat Biitain. . .Fib. S,lS53 

1 ripoh. ........ June 4, 1S05 Fraucc (consular), 

Great Britain.. Dec. 24,18141 Fel) 23 " 

Algiers. .... .June 30,18151 Argentine Confedera- 

GreatBntaiu...July.S, " tion July 10, " 

bwcden . . . .Sept. 4,181G Bavaria (extradition), 
Algiers (reu'l), Dec. 22, " Sept Vi " 

Great Britain . .Oct. 20,1818 Japan March 3',1854 



Spain Feb. 22, 

Great Britain.. June 12,1822 

France June 24, " 

Tunis. Feb. 24,1824 

Russia AprillT, 

North Columbia, South 

America Oct. 3, 

Cent'l America, Dec. 5,1825 

Denmark April, 1826 

Sweden July 4,1827 

Great Britain. ..Aug. 6, 
Great Britain, Sept. 20, 
Hanseatic Republic, 
Dec. 26, 

Mexico Jan. 12,1828 

Prussia. Mayl, " 

Brazil Dec. 12, " 

Austria Aug. 27,1829 

Denmark — Marcli 28,1830 
Ottoman Porte, May 7, " 

Mexico April 5,1831 

France July4, " 

Chili May 16,1832 

Sicily Oct. 14, " 

Chili Sept.1, " 

Russia Dec. IS, " 

Siam March 30,1833 

Muscat Sept. 21, " 

Spain Feb. 17,1834 

Mexico April 3, 18.35 

Venezuela Jan. 20,1830 

Morocco Sept. 16, " 

Peru and Bolivia, 

Nov. 13, " 

Greece Dec. 22,1837 

Texas April 11,1838 

Texas April 25, " 

Sardinia Nov. 26, " 

Netherlands. . .Jan. Is'lSSQ 

Mexico Aprilll, 

Ecuador June 13, 

Portugal Aug. 26,1840 

Peru March 17,1841 

Great Britain . .Aug. 9,184-' 

Mexico Jan. 30,1843 

France Nov. 9, " 

New Granada. .Mar. 6,1844 
Hesse-Cassel. . Mar. 26, 

China July3, 

Bavaria Jan. 21,1845 

Saxony May 14, " 

Belgium Nov. 10, " 

Two Sicilies Dec. 1, " 

Nassau May 27,1846 

New Granada, Dec. 12, " 
Swiss Confederation, 

May 18,1847 
Mecklenburg-Schweriu, 
Dec. 19, " 

Mexico Feb. 2,184.8 

Austria May 8, 

Great Britain (postal), 
Dec. 15, 

Brazil Jan. 27, 1849 

Guatemala . . .March 8, " 
San Salvador. . . Jau. 2,1850 
New Granada.. Mar. 4, " 
Great Britain, April 19, " 

Portugal Feb. 26,18.51 

Costa Kica July 10, " 

Peru July 26,1851 

Hanseatic Republic, 



Mexico June, 

G. Britain (reciprocity), 

June 5, " 

Loo Chew Julyll, " 

Russia July 22, " 

Brunswick and Lunen- 
burg Aug. 21, " 

Hanover (extradition), 

Jan. 18,1855 
Netherlands. . .Jan. 22, " 

Two Sicilies Oct. 1, " 

Swiss Confederation, 

Nov. 8, " 
Austria (extradition), 

July 3,1856 

Peru July 22, " 

Persia Dec. 13, " 

Denmark April 11,1857 

Japan June 17, " 

Peru July 4, " 

New Granada, Sept.lO, " 

France Feb. 10,1858 

Bolivia May 13, " 

China June 18, " 

Belgium July 17, " 

Japan July 29, " 

China Nov. 8, " 

Chili Nov. 10, " 

Republic of Paraguay, 

Feb. 4,1859 

Belgium Dec. 21, " 

Sweden and Norway 
(extradition),Mar.31,lS60 

Costa Rica July 2, " 

Venezuela (extrad'n), 

Aug. 27, " 

Denmark April 11,1861 

Ottoman Emp., Feb. 25, 1862 
Great Britain.. June 7, " I 

Hanover. June 17, " 

Mexico (extradition), 

June 20, " 

Liberia Oct. 21, " 

Ecuador Nov. 25, " 

Peru May 19,1863 

Belgium May 20, " 

Great Britain. . .July 1, " 

Belgium July 20, " 

Japan Jan. 28,1864 

U. States of Colombia, 

Feb. 10, " 

Honduras July 4, " 

Japan Oct. 22, " 

Hayti Nov. 3, " 

United States, Austria, 
Belgium, Spain, Gt. 
Britain, Prance, It- 
aly, the Netherlands, 
Portugal, and Swe- 
den, with the Sultan 
of Morocco. .May 31,1865 

Venezuela April 25,1866 

Dominican Republic, 

Feb. 8,1867 

Russia March 30, " 

N. German Confedera- 
tion (naturalization), 

Prussia Feb. 22,1868 

Bavaria May 26, " 

China July 16, " 

Wiirtemberg...July 27, 
Baden Aug. 1, 



which endured till 1461, when it was conquered by the 
lurks under Mohammed L 

EilPEBOES OP TKEHIZOND. 

J204. Alexis I., Comnenus. 1332. Basil I. 

1222. Andronicus I. 

1235. John L 

1238. Manuel I. 

1263. Andrew. 

1266. George I. 

1280. John II. 

1298. Alexis II. 

1330. Andronicus II. 

1332. Manuel II. 



. ^pril 30,1852 Hesse-Darmstadt, 

Prussia June 16, " Aug. 1, " 

TREBIA, now TrchWa, a river in N. Italy, where 
Haunib^il defeated the Roman consul Sempronius, 
B.C. 218 ; and Suwarrow defeated the French Marshal 
1799 "' compelled him to retreat, June 17-19, 

TREBIZOND, aport of A.siaMinor in the Black Sea 
was coloiii/ed by the Greeks, and became subject to 
\ fL'"7f "'^ I untus. It enjoyed self-Mverument un- 
der the Roman empire, and wheu the Latins took Con- 
stantinople in 1204, it became the seat of an empire 



1340. Irene. 

1341. Anna. 
1341-50. Michae.. 
1344. John III. 
1350. Alexis in. 
1390. Manuel IIL 
1412. Alexis IV. 
1447. John IV. 
1468-61. David. 

TRECENTO. See Italy, note. 

TRENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyi-ol, be- 
longs to Austria. The council held here is reckoned 
in the Roman Catholic Church as the 18th or last gen- 
eral council. Its decisions are implicitly received as 
the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that 
Church. It hrst sat Dec. 13, 1545, and continued (with 
mterniptions) under Pope Paul III., Julius III. and 
Puis IV., to Dec. 4, 1563,* its last sitting (the 25th) A 
jubilee in relation to this council was celebrated in 
June, 1863. 

TRENTON, Battle or. Washington and his army 
had been driven from the Hudson to the Delaware aud 
beyond before Cornwallis and a pursuing army. At 
Trenton a Hessian force 1.500 strong, under Colonel 
Rail, and a troop of 500 light-horsemen, were station- 
ed. Count Donop, another German commander, was 
a few miles below with a considerable force. On the 
evening of Christmas, 1776, Washington marched back 
to the Delaware, a few miles above Trenton, with 2400 
men and artillery, and before sunrise the next morn- 
ing had crossed and was on his way toward Trenton. 
The enemy were surprised. A severe engagement en- 
sued. The British light-horse fled ; forty or fifty Hes- 
sians were killed or fatally wounded (Rail among the 
latter), aud a thousand made prisoners. This was an 
nspiring victory at a dark moment. 

TREVES, the Roman Treviri, in Rhenish Prussia, 
was a prosperous city of the Gauls 12 B.C. The Em- 
peror Gallieuus held his court here A.D. 255. Treves 
was made an electorate in the 14th century, aud be- 
came subject to the archbishop in 1585. The archbish- 
opric is said to have been founded before the 7th cen- 
tury, aud to be the oldest in Germany. After various 
changes, Treves was acquired by Prussia in 1815. In 
1844 much ejccitement was occasioned by miracles said 
to have been wrought by a " Holy Coat." 

TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials were 
made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, about 673 
to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have begun trial by 
jury ; but there is good evidence of such' trials long 
before his time. In a cause tried at Hawardeu, near- 
ly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have 
a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact 
that the descendants of one of them, of the name of 
Corbyn of the Gate, still preserve their name aud res- 
idence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate.— 
Phillips. 

KEMAKKABLE TRIALS. 

King Charles L : Jan. 20; convicted Jan. 29,1649 

Oates's Popish Plot: Edward Coleman convicted, 

Nov. 27; Wni. Ireland aud other priests, Dec. 17,1678 
Robt. Green and others, Feb. 10 ; Thos. Whit- 
bread aud other Jesuits, June 13 ; Rich'd Lang- 

horne, counselor, June 14 ; convicted 1679 

Sir George Wakemau, the queen's physician ; ac- 
quitted July 13, " 

Viscount Stafford : convicted Nov. 30-Dec. 7,1CS1 

Rye-House Plot : convicted. Lord M'illiam Russell, 

July 13 ; Algernon Sidney Nov. 21,1683 

The Seven Bishops ; acquitted June 29,1688 

Colonel Charteris for the rape of Ann Bond,Feb.25,1730 
Captain Porteous formurder (see Port('.ovs),J\\\y 6,1736 

Jenny Diver for felony ; executed March 18,1740 

William Duell, executed formurder at Tyburn, but 
who came to life when about undergoing dissec- 
tion at Surgeons' Hall Nov. 24, " 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high trea- 
son July 28,1746 

Mary Hamilton for marrying with her own sex, 
14 wives Oct. 7, " 



_ * At this council wns decreed, with nnathemns, the canon of Scripture 
(including the Apocrypha), and the Church its sole, interpreter ; the 
traditions to be equal with Scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, 
confirmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, orders, and 
matrimony) ; transubstantiation ; purgatory ; indulgences j celibacy of 
the clergy ; auricular confession, etc. 



TEI 



4G8 



TBI 



Lord Lovat, SO years of age, for high treason ; be- 
headed March 9,174T 

Frenej', the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- 
dered himself. July 9,1T49 

Amy Hutchinson burnt at Ely for the murder of 
her husband Nov. 5,1750 

Miss Blandy for the murder of her father; hang- 
ed March 3, 1752 

Ann Wiiliams for the murder of her husband ; 
burnt alive April 11,1753 

Eugene Aram for murder at York; executed 

Aug. 13,1759 

Earl Ferrers for the murder of his steward ; exe- 
cuted April 1C,,1760 

Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder of 
Miss Knox Dec. 8,1761 

Ann Bedingfield for the murder of her husband ; 
burnt alive April 6,1763 

Mr. Wilkes, alderman of Loudon, for an obscene 
poem ("Essay on Woman") Feb. 21,1764 

Murderers of Capt. Glas, his wife, daughter, mate, 
and passengers, on board the ship Earl of Sand- 
wich, at sea March 3,1760 

Elizabeth Brownrigg for the murder of one of her 
female apprentices ; hanged Sept. 12,1767 

Lord Baltimore, the lihertine, and his female ac- 
complices, for rape March 28,1768 

Great cause between the families of Hamilton and 
Douglas Feb. 27,1769 

Great Valencia cause in the House of Peers, in Ire- 
land March 18,1772 

Cause of Somerset, the slave (see Slavery) . .June 22, " 

Elizabeth Herring for the murder of her hus- 
band ; hanged, and afterward burnt at Tyburn, 

Sept. 13,1773 

Messrs. Perreau Brothers, bankers, forgery ; hang- 
ed Jan. 17,177G 

Duchess of Kingston for marrying two husbands ; 
guilty (see Kingston) April 15, " 

Dr. Dodd for forging a bond of £4200 in the name 
of the Earl of Chesterfield, Feb. 22 (see Forgery) ; 
executed June 27,1777 

Admiral Keppel, by court-martial ; honorably ac- 
quitted Feb. 11,1779 

Mr. Hackman for the murder of Miss Reay when 
coming out of the Theatre Eoyal, Coven t Gar- 
den April 16, " 

Lord George Gordon on a charge of high treason ; 
acquitted Feb. 5,1781 

Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on 
Lord Loughborough, afterward lord chancellor, 

Nov. 10,1786 

Lord George Gordon for a libel on the <Jueen of 
France ; guilty Jan. 28,1788 

Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted seven 
years and three months (see Hastings, Trial of) ; 
commenced Feb. 13, " 

The Times newspaper for a libel on the Prince of 
Wales; guilty Feb.3,1790 

Eenwick Williams, called the Monster, for stabbing 
women in the streets of London (see Monster), 

July 8, " 

Ban-ington, the pickpocket, most extraordinary 
adept; transported Sept. 22, " 

Thomas Paine, political writer and Deist, for libels 
in the Bights of Man; guilty Dec. 18,1792 

Louis XVI. of France (see France) 1792, 1793 

Archibald Hamilton Rowan for libel ; imprisoned 
and fined Jan. 29,1794 

Mr. Purefoy for the murder of Colonel Roper in a 
duel ; acquitted Aug. 14, " 

Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Ediuburg, for 
treason Sept. 3, " 

Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, 
for high treason ; acquitted Oct. 29, " 

Earl of Abingdon for his libel on Mr. Serman ; 
guilty Dec. 6, " 

Maior Semple, alias Lisle, for felony Feb. 18,1795 

Redhead Yorke, at York, libel Nov. 27, " 

Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- 
ages £10,000 March 4,1796 

Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery ; dam- 
ages £2000 June 10, " 

Daniel Isaac Eaton for libels on kingly govern- 
ment; guilty Julyfi, " 

Sir Godfrey Webster v. Lord Holland, for adultery ; 
damages £6000 Feb. 27,1797 

Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called Admiral 
Parker (see Mvtinies) June 27, " 

Boddington v. Boddingtou, for crim. con. ; dam- 
ages £10,000 Sept. 5, " 

William Orr, at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; 
executed Oct. 12, " 

Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess Dec. 9, " 



The murderers of Colonel St.George and Mr. Uni- 
acke, at Cork April 15,1798 

Arthur O'Connor and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, for 
treason ; latter hanged May 21, " 

Sir Edward Crosbie and others for high treason ; 
hanged June 1, " 

Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for high 
treason June 21, " 

Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason ; 
executed July 12, " 

Theobald Wolfe Tone, by court-martial (he died 
on the 18th) Nov. 10, " 

Sir Harry Bro-\vn Hayes for carrying off Miss Pike, 
of Cork April 13,1300 

Hatfield for shooting at George III. (see Hatfield), 

June 26, " 

Mr. Tighe, of Westmeath, v. Jones, for crim. con. ; 
damages £10,000 Dec. 2, " 

Mutineers at Bantry Bay; hanged (see Bantry 
Bay) Jan. 8,1802 

Charles Hayes for an obscene libel Jan. 9, " 

Governor Wall for cruelty and murder twenty 
years before (see Oorec) Jan. 20, " 

Crawley for the murder of two females in Peter's 
Row, Dublin March 6, " 

Colonel Despard and his associates for high trea- 
son ; hanged on the top of Horsemonger Lane 
jail (see Despard) Feb. 7,1803 

M. Peltier for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of ■ 
France, in VAmbigue ; guilty Feb. 21, " 

Robert Aslett, cashier at the Bank of England, for 
embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the Bank 
£320,000 ; found not guilty on account of the in- 
validity of the bills July 18, " 

Robert Emmet, at Dublin, for high treason ; exe- 
cuted next day Sept. 19, " 

Kecnan, one of the murderers of Lord Kilwarden ; 
hanged Oct. 2, " 

Mr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Ham- 
mersmith Ghost Jan. 13,1804 

Lockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. 
Lee .March C, " 

Rev. C. Massy v. Mai-quess of Headfort, for crim. 
con. ; damages £10,000 July 27, " 

William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offenses 
against females April 17,1805 

General Picton for applying the torture to Louisa 
Calderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad ; tried 
in the Court of King's Bench ; guilty [new trial, 
same verdict, June'll, 1808] Feb. 24,1806 

Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin ; pleaded the king's 
pardon July 1, " 

Judge Johnson for a libel on the Earl of Hardwicke ; 
guilty Nov. 23, " 

Mr. Patch for the murder of his partner, Mr. Bligh, 

April 6, " 

Lord Melville impeached by the House of Com- 
mons ; acquitted June 12, " 

The Warrington gang for unnatural offenses ; ex- 
ecuted Aug. 23, " 

Palm, the bookseller, by a French military com- 
mission at Brennau Aug. 26, " 

Lord Cloncurry v. Sir John B. Piers, for crim. con. ; 
damages £20,000 Feb. 19,1807 

Holloway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at 
their execution at the Old Bailey Feb. 20, " 

Sir Home Popham, by court-martial ; reprimand- 
ed March 7, " 

Knight V. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. 
con June 27, " 

Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard, for an unnatural 
offense Oct. 2, " 

Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; damages 
£10,000 Dec. 22, " 

Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at 
Hoddesdon March 4, " 

Sir Arthur Paget for crim. con. with Lady Bor- 
rington July 14, " 

Major Campbell for killing Captain Boyd in a duel ; 
hanged Aug. 4, " 

Peter Finnerty and others for a libel on the Duke 
of York Nov. 9, " 

The Duke of York by inquiry in the House of 
Commons on charges preferred against him by 
Colonel Wardle, from Jan. 26 to March 20,1809 

Wellesley v. Lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages 
£20,000 May 12, " 

The king v. Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as 
commissary general May 26, " 

The Earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a li- 
bel ; damages £1000 June 29, " 

Wright V. Colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
Clarke's furniture June 1, " 



TRI 



469 



TRI 



William Cobbctt for a libel ou the German Le- 
gion ; coiiviclod July 9,1809 

Hon. Captain Lake for putting Kobcrt Jeffery, a 
Britisli seaman, on sliore at Sombrero ; dis- 
missed the service (see Sambrero) Feb. 10,1810 

Mr. Perry for libels in the Morninj Chronicle; ac- 
quitted Feb. 24, " 

The Vere Street gaug for imuatm-al offenses ; 
guilty Sept. 20, " 

PcttT Finnerty for a libel ou Lord Castlereagh ; 
judgment Jan. 31,1811 

The king v, Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for li- 
bels; guilty Feb. 22, " 

Ensign Ilepliurn and White, the drummer; both 
wore executed March 7, " 

Waller Cox, in Dublin, for libels; he stood in the 
pillory March 12, " 

The king v. AV. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted 

June 15, " 

Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
ment and tine for oppressive conduct as a mag- 
istrate June 19, " 

The Berkeley cause before the House of Peers, 
concluded June 28, " 

Dr. Sheridan, physician, ou a charge of sedition ; 
acquitted ^ Nov. 21, " 

Gale Jones for seditious and lilasphemous libels ; 
convicted Nov. 26, " 

William Cundell and John Smith for high trea- 
son (see Hioh Treason) 'TFeb. G, 1812 

Daniel Isaac Eaton ou a charge of blasphemy ; 
convicted March 6, " 

Belliugham for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime 
minister May 15, " 

The king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for libel ; 
guilty Nov. 19, " 

Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt for libels in the Ex- 
aminer ; convicted Dec. 9, " 

Marquess of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter, 

Dec. 16,1812 

The murderers of Mr. Horsfall, at York ; executed 

Jan. 7,1813 

Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick for publishing Scully's His- 
tory of the Penal Laws '. Feb. 6, " 

The divorce cause against the Duke of Hamilton 
for adultery April 11, " 

Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- 
ing Post ; guilty July 26, " 

Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
hanged Aug. 21, " 

Tuite, mtirdcr of Mr. Goulding ; executed.. Oct. 7, " 

The celebrated Mary Anu Chuke for a libel on the 
Right Hon. William Vesey Fitzgerald, afterward 
Lord Fitzgerald .^ Feb. 7,1814 

Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship 
letters Aug. IS, " 

Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Bereuger, 
Butt, and others, for frauds in the public funds ; 
convicted (see Stocks) Feb. 22, " 

Colonel (^ueutin, of the 10th Hussars, by court- 
martial Nov. 10, " 

Sir John Henry Mildmay, Bart., for criyn.con. with 
the Countess of Roseberry; damages £15,000, 

Dec. 5, " 

George Barnett for shooting at Miss Kelly, of Co- 
vent Garden Theatre April 8,1810 

Captain Hutchinson, Sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. 
Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of Count 
Lavalette (see Lavalettc) April 24, " 

"Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber, at Ma- 
ryborough Aug. 16, " 

Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, 
for conspiracy to induce men to commit felonies 
to obtain the reward ; convicted Aug. 21, " 

Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, 
in France Sept. 23, " 

Cashman, the intrepid seaman, for the Spatields 
riots, and outrages ou Snow Hill ; convicted and 
hanged (see Sjmfields) Jan. 20,1817 

Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the Queen 
of Westphalia May 2, " 

Mr. K. G. Butt for a libel on Lord Chief Justice 
Ellenborough May 2.3, " 

Mr. Wooler for libels on the government and min- 
isters June 0, " 

Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for 
treason June 9, " 

The murderers of the Lynch family at Wild-goose 
Lodge, Ireland July 19, " 

Mr. Roger O'Connor on a charge of robbing the 
mail; acquitted Aug. 5, " 

Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high 
treason Oct. 15, " 

Iloue, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials be- 



fore Lord Enouborough : extemporaneous and 
successful defense Dec. IS, 19, 20,1817 

Mr. Dick for the abduction and rape of Miss Crock- 
att March 21,1813 

Appeal of murder case, Ashford, the brother of 
]Mary Ashford, against her murderer, Abraham 
Thornton (see Battle) April 16, " 

Rev. Dr. O'Hallorau for forging a frank (see Trans- 
portation) Sept. 9, " 

Robert Johnston at Edinburg ; his dreadful exe- 
cution Dec. 30, " 

Sir Mauassch Lopez for bribery at Grampound 
(see Briber ij) March 18,1819 

Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspir- 
acy and fraud April 20, " 

Carlile for the publication of Paiue's Age of Rea- 
son, etc Oct. 15, " 

John Scanlan, at Limerick, for the murder of El- 
len Hanly March 14,1820 

Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious li- 
bel March 23, " 

Henry Hunt and others, for their conduct at the 
Manchester meeting ; convicted (see Manchester 
Reform Meeting) March 27, " 

Sir Charles Wolseley and Rev. Mr. Harrison for 
sedition ; guilty April 10, " 

Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for 
conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; com- 
menced (see Cato Street) April 17, " 

Louvel, in France, for the murder of the Duke de 
Berri June 7, " 

Lord Glerawley v. John Burn for ci-im. con., 

June IS, " 

Major Cartwright and others, at Warwick, for se- 
dition Aug. 3, " 

" Little Waddington" for a seditious libel ; acquit- 
ted Sept. 19, " 

Lieutenaut Colonel French, 6th Dragoon Guards, 
by court-martial Sept. 19, " 

Caroline, queen of England, before the House of 
Lords, for adultery, commenced Aug. 16 ; it ter- 
minated (see Qiwen Caroline's Trial) Nov. 10, " 

The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in Dub- 
lin ; hanged May 1,1821 

David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a 
man of singularly eventful life, at Edinburg, for 
the murder of a turnkey Jime 9, " 

Samuel D. Hayward, the favorite man of fashion, 
for burglary Oct. 8, " 

The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland ; con- 
victed and hanged Dec. 17, " 

Cussen, Leahy, aiid others, for the abduction of 
Miss Gould July 29,1822 

Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth 
Florence Sept. 23, " 

Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit, 

Jan. 28,1823 

The famous "Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, by 
ex-officio Feb. 2.3, " 

The extraordinary "Earl of Portsmouth's case" 
commenced March 18, " 

Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murdei-ers of Mr. 
Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; after- 
ward hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions), 

Jan. 5,1824 

Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker, of London, for for- 
gery; hanged Oct. 30, " 

Foote V. Hayne for breach of promise of marriage ; 
damages X3000 Dec. 22, " 

Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's son at Bristol, for 
forgery April 4,1825 

O'Keeke and Bourke, the murderers of the Franks 
family Aug. IS, " 

John Grosset Muirhead, Esq., for indecent prac- 
tices <^ct. 21, " 

The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole and the Misses 
Long commenced Nov. 9, 

Captain Bligh v. the Hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole for 
adultery Nov. 25, " 

Fisher v. Stockdale for a libel in Uarriette Wdson, 

March 20, 1S2G 

Edward Gibbon W.akefleld and others for abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner March 24,1827 

Rcv. Robert Taylor for blasphemy; found guilty 

■^ Oct. 24, " 

Richmond Seymour, Esq., and Macklin, for an un- 
natural crime March 12,1828 

Richard Gillain for the murder of Maria Bagster, 
at Taunton .April 8, 

Mr. Montgomery for forgery : he committed sui- 
cide in prison on the morning appointed for his 
execution J"'/ ■*' 

Brinklctt for the death of Lord Mount Sandford 
by a kick July 16, 



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William Corder for the murder of Maria Marten ; 

executed Aug. C,1S2S 

Joseph Huntou, a Quaker merchant, for forgery ; 

hanged Oct. 28, " 

Burke, at Ediuburg, for the Burking murders; 

Hare, his accomplice, became approver (see 

Burking) Dec. ii, " 

The King v. Buxton and others, for a fraudulent 

marriage March 21,1329 

Jonathan Martin for setting fire to York Minster, 

March 31, " 
Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Glas- 
gow ; hanged July 14, " 

Keinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for his murders of 

women Aug. 4, " 

Captaiu Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
mouth ; acquitted Aug. 26, " 

Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for 

libels on the Duke of Wellington ; convicted 

Feb. 10,1830 
Clune, etc., at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues 

of the Doyles March 4, " 

Mr. Comyn for burning his house in the county of 

Clare ; hauged March 6, " 

Mr. Lambrecht for the murder of Mr. Clayton in a 

duel April 2, " 

Captain Moir for the murder of William Malcolm ; 

hauged July 30, " 

Captams Smith and Markbam for killing Mr. 

O'Grady in a duel Aug. 24, " 

Captain Helsham for the murder of Lieut. Crow- 

ther in a duel Oct. 8, " 

Mr. St. John Long for the manslaughter of Miss 

Cashin (see Quacks) Oct. 30, " 

Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 

France (see France) Dec. 21, " 

Carlile for a seditious libel inciting to a riot; 

guilty Jan. 10,1831 

Mr. Daniel O'Conuell for breach of proclamation ; 

pleaded guilty Feb. 12, " 

St. John Long for manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd (see 

Qiiacks) Feb. 19, " 

Mr. Luke Dillon for the violation of Miss Frizell ; 

convicted April 14, " 

Major Duudas for the seduction of Miss Adams ; 

damages £3000 May 26, " 

Mr. Cobbett for a seditious libel ; the jury could 

not agree Jifly 7, " 

Kev. Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 

distinction of " the DcviVn Chaplain") for revil- 
ing the- Redeemer ; convicted July 6, " 

Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M.P., 

July 14, " 
Bii-d, a boy of 14 years of age, for the murder of a 

child ; hanged Aug. 1, " 

The great cause, Earl of Kingston v. Lord Lorton, 

commenced Nov. 9, " 

Bishop aud Williams for murder of the Italian boy 

(see Burking) Dec. 3, " 

Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. Old- 
ham Dec. 17, " 

Elizabeth Cooke for the murder of Mrs. Walsh by 

" Burkiug" Jan. 6,1832 

Colonel Brereton by court-martial at Bristol (see 

Bristol) Jan. 9, " 

The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, county 

of Clare Feb. 28, " 

William Duggan, at Cork, for the murder of his 

wife and others March 20, " 

Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Aston) v. 

Greene July 26, " 

Mayor of Bristol for neglect of duty in the Bristol 

riots Oct. 26, " 

Rev. Mr. Irving, by his own (the Scots) Church, for 

heresy March 13,1533 

Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; 

guilty May lo, " 

Mr. Baring Wall, M.P. ; most honorably acquitted. 

May 11, " 
Attorney General v. Shore (Lady Hewley's chari- 
ty, which is taken from the Unitarians), Dec. 23, " 
Captaiu Wathen, 15th Hussars, by court-martial, 

at Cork ; honorably acquitted ; his colonel. Lord 

Brudeuell, cashiered Jan. — ,1834 

Proprietors of the 2V«e Sun for libels ; guiltv, 

Feb. 6, " 
Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, at 

Bristol April 10,1835 

Sir John de Beauyoir for perjury ; acquitted. 

May 29, " 
Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 

king, Louis Phili])pe, by exploding an infernal 

machine (see Fieschi) Jan. 30,1836 

Hon. G. C. Norton v. Lord Melbourne, in Court of 



Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the Hon. Mrs. 
Norton ; \'€rdict for defendant June 22,1830 

Lord de Roos v. Cummiug, for defamation, charg- 
ing Lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; ver- 
dict in favor of Mr. Cumming Feb. 10,1837 

James Greenacre and Sarah Gale for the murder 
of Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted and 
hanged ; Gale transported April 10, " 

Francis Hastings Medhurst, Esq., for killing Mr. 
Joseph Alsop ; guilty April 13,1839 

Bolam for the murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- 
slaughter July 30, " 

Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflammatory 
language Aug. 15, " 

John'Prost, an ex-magistrate, aud others, for high 
treason ; guilty ; sentence commuted to trans- 
portation (see Neivport) Dec. 31, " 

Courvoisier for the murder of Lord William Rus- 
sell ; hanged June 18,20,1840 

Gould for the murder of Mr. Templeman ; trans- 
ported June 22, " 

Edward Oxford attempted the life of the queen ; 
adjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem (see 
Oxfor'il) July 9, 10, " 

Madame Lafarije, in France, for the murder of her 
husband ; gitilty Sept. 2, " 

Prince Lotiis Napoleon fOr his descent upon France 
(see France) Oct. 6, " 

Captain R. A. Reynolds, 11th Hussars, by court- - 
martial; gtiilty; the sentence excited great pop- 
ular displeasure against his colonel. Lord Cardi- 
gan Oct. 20, " 

Lord Cardigan, before the House of Peers, capital- 
ly chargecl for wounding Captain Harvey Tucket 
in a duel ; acquitted Feb. 16,1841 

The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having 
willfully caused the destruction of the ship Dry- 
ad at sea, to defraud the underwriters ; trans- 
ported March 4, " 

Josiah Mister for attempting the life of Mr. Mac- 
kreth ; guilty March 23, " 

Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder 
of Mrs. Cook April 5, " 

Earl of Waldegrave and Captaiu Duff for an ag- 
gravated assault on a police constable ; guilty ; 
judgment, six months' imprisonment, aud fines 
of £200 and £20 May 3, " 

Madame Lafarge again, for robbery of diamonds, 

Aug. 7, " 

The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, pub- 
lisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged li- 
bel, in stating the plaintiff to be connected with 
numerous bank forgers throughout Europe in 
their schemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn and Com- 
pany, bankers, of London, by means of fictitious 
letters of credit ; damages, one farthing. This 
exposure, so honorable "to the Times, led to the 
Times Testimonial Aug. 16, " 

Mr. MacLeod, at Utica, New York, for taking part 
in the destruction of the Caroline, commenced ; 
acquitted after a trial that lasted eight daj's, 

Oct. 4, " 

Robert Blakesley for the murder of Mr. Burdon, 
ofEastcheap; hanged Oct. 28, " 

Mr. Beaumont Smith for the forgery of Exchequer 
bills to an immense amount; he pleaded guilty, 
and was sentenced to transportation for life, 

Dec. 4, " 

Sophia Darbon r. Rosser; breach of promise of 
marriage; damages £1600 Dec. 8, " 

Dr. Websler for bribery at an election of St. Al- 
ban's ; acquitted March 3,1842 

Mr. John Lovick aud Antonio Mattel, principal 
and second in the duel in which Lieut. Adams 
was killed at Malta; both acquitted. .March 10, " 

Vivier, courier of the Morning Herald, at Boulogne, 
for conveying the Indian 'mail through France 
for that journal contrary to the French regula- 
tions April 13, " 

Daniel Good for the murder of Jane Jones ; the 
memorable Roehampton murder; found guiltj', 
and sentenced to be hanged May 13, " 

John Francis for attempting to assassinate the 
queen (see Francis) June 17, " 

Thomas Cooper for the murder of Daly, the police- 
man ; hanged July 4, " 

Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late Marquess of Hert- 
ford, at the prosecution of that nobleman's ex- 
ecutors, charged with enormous frauds; acquit- 
ted July 6, " 

M'Gill and others for the abduction of Miss Crel- 
lin; guilty Aug.8, " 

Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges; again 
acquitted Aug. 24, " 



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Bean for pointing a pistol at the queen ; eicrhteen 
months' imprisonment Anj?. '25,1S42 

The rioters in the provinces, under a special coni- 
misj^ion, at Staftbrd Oct. 1, " 

The C'hesliire rioters, under a special commission, 
liefore Lord Abinger Oct. G, " 

The Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- 
mii^sion Oct. 10, " 

Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of Lord Frankfort ; 
ac(iuitted Oct. 31, " 

Mr. Howard, attorney, v. Sir William Gosset, ser- 
geant-at-arms Dec. 5, " 

Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank par- 
cel ; acquitted Jan. 17,iai3 

Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery ; guilty ; trans- 
portation for life Feb. 1, " 

MacNaughten for the murder of Mr. Drummond, 
secretary to Sir Robert Peel ; acquitted on the 
ground of insanity March 4, " 

The Rcbcccaites, at Cardiff, under a special com- 
mission Oct. 27, " 

Samuel Sidney Smith for forgery; sentenced to 
trausportation for life Nov. 20, " 

Edward Dwyer for the murder of his child at 
Southwark ; guilty Dec. 1, " 

Mr. Holt, of the Age, libel on the Duke of Bruns- 
wick : guilty Jan. 29,1844 

JLieut. Grant, second to Lieut. Munro in his duel 
with Col. Fawcett ; acquitted Feb. 14, " 

Fraser v. Bagley for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- 
fendant. . .^ Feb. lt>, " 

Lord William Paget v. Earl of Cardigan for crim. 
con. ; verdict for the defendant Feb. 26, " 

Mary Parley for the murder of her child in an ago- 
ny of despair April 16, " 

The will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since de- 
clared innocent*), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana 
Dorey, William Sanders, and Susannah his wife, 
all found guilty, April 15 ; sentenced. . .April 22, " 

Crouch for the murder of his wife ; found guilty. 
May S ; hanged May 27, " 

Messrs. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 
Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duff}', and Rev. Thos. Tier- 
ney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy ) the tri- 
al commenced Jan. 15, and lasted twenty-four 
days : all the traversers were found guilty, Feb. 
12. Proceedings on motions for a new trial, etc., 
extended the case into Easter term ; and sen- 
tence was pronounced upon all but the clergy- 
man, on whom judgment was remitted. .May 30, " 

Augustus Dalmas for tlie murder of Sarah Macfar- 
laue ; guilty June 14, " 

Wm. Burton Newenham for the abduction of Miss 
Wortham ; guilty June 17, " 

Bellamy for the murder of his wife by prussic acid ; 
acquitted Aug. 21, " 

Jolin Tav.ell for the murder of Sarah Hart ; hang- 
ed March 13, 14,1845 

Thomas Henry Hocker for the murder of James 
Delarue April 11, " 

Joseph Connor for the murder of Mary Brothers, 

May 16, " 

The Spanish pirates for the murder of ten Enj^lish- 
men at sea July 26, " 

Rev. Mr. Wetherell for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, 
his own daughter Aug. 10, " 

Capt. Johnson, of the ship Tonj, for the murder of 
several of his crew Feb. 5,1846 

Miss M. A. Smith v. Earl Ferrers ; breach of prom- 
ise of marriage Feb. IS, " 

Lieut. Hawkey for the murder of Mr. Seton in a 
duel ; actiuitted July 16, " 

Richard Dunn for perjury and attempted fraud on 
Miss A. Burdett Coutts Feb. 27,1847 

Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 
years (see Ireland) May 26,1848 

Wni. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other confeder- 
ates ; sentenced to death; the sentence after- 
ward commuted to transportation (pardoned in 
1S5G) Oct. 9, " 

Bloomfleld Rush for the murder of Messrs. Jermy, 
at Norwich ; hanged March 2!i,lS49 

Gorham v. the Bishop of Exeter; ecclesiastical 
case ; judgment given iu the Court of Arches 
against the j)laintifft Aug. 2, " 

* In l'<4'* Mr. Barber returned to Enf^Iand with a free pardon, and an 
acknowK'd^nicnt of his tnnorence by his prosecutors: he was readmit- 
ted to practice as an attorney ; and on the .Sd of Auf^ust, 1859, in con- 
fornuty with the recommendntinn of a select committee of the House 
of Commons, the sum of iSOOO was voted him " as a national acknowl- 
edgment of tlie wronp he had suffered from an erroneous prosecution." 

t This lonp-con tested case created much sensation at the time. Tlie 
bishop had refused to institute the Rev. Mr. Gorham in the livin^j of 
Brampton-Speke, in Devonshire, to which he had been presented. The 
cause of the bishop's refusal was alleged want of orthodoxy in the 
plaintitf, who denied that spiritual regeneration was conferretl by bap- 



Manning and hi."? wife for the murder of O'Con- 
nor ; guilty ; deatli Oct. 27,1849 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic Theatre, for 
forgery, etc ■ May 10,1850 

Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault 
on the queen July 11, " 

The Sloaues, man and wife, for starving their serv- 
ant, Jane Wilbred Feb. 5,1851 

The Board of Customs v. the London Dock Com- 
pany on a charge of defrauding the revenue of 
duties ; a trial of 11 days ended in a virtual ac- 
quittal Feb. 18, " 

Sarah Chesham for the murder of her husband by 
poison : she had murdered several of her chil- 
dren and others by the same means ; hanged, 

March C, " 

Thomas Drory for the murder of Jael Dennv ; 
hanged March "7, " 

Doyle V. Wright concerning the personal custody 
of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman Catholic ward 
of Chancery, before the lord chancellor; pro- 
tracted case March 22, " 

The murderers of the Rev. George Edward Hol- 
iest, of Firmley, Essex ; guilty March 31, " 

Achilli V. Newman for libel ; tried before Lord 
Chief Justice Campbell iu the Queen's Bench ; 
verdict for the plaintiff. Jan. 31,1852 

Miller v. Aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a mem- 
ber without having taken the required oath ; ver- 
dict against the defendant April 19, " 

The case " Bishop of London v. the Rev. Mr. Glad- 
stone ;" judgment of the Arches Court against 
the defendant June 10, " 

Lord Frankfort for scandalous and defamatory li- 
bels ; guilty Dec. 3, 

Richard Bourke Kirwau for the murder of his 
wife ; guilty Dec. 10, " 

Eliot Bower for the murder of Mr. Saville Morton 
at Paris; acquitted... Dec. 28, " 

Heury Horler for the murder of his wife ; hanged 
at the Old Bailey Jan. 15,1853 

Jas. Barbour for tlie murder of Robinson ; hanged 
at York Jan. 15, " 

George Sparkes and James Hitchcock for the mur- 
der of William Blackmore at Exeter ; guilty, 

March 19, " 

Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the 
murder of a sixth Frenchman iu a duel at Eg- 
ham ; verdict manslaughter March 21, " 

Moore and Walsh for the murder of John Black- 
burn at Stafford ; hanged March 21, " 

Saunders for the murder of Mr. Toler; hanged at 
Chelmsford March 30, " 

The Stackpole family, four in number; two of them 
females, and wives to the others, for the murder 
of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at Eu- 
nis April 2S, " 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided 
against Rev. Earl of Guildford Aug. 1, " 

Smyth V. Smyth ended in the plaintiff being com- 
mitted on a charge of forging the will on which 
he grounded his claim Aug. 8, 9, 10, " 

The Braintree case respecting liability to Church- 
rates ; decided by the House of Lords against 
the rate Aug. 12, " 

Case of Lumley i'. Gye respecting Mdlle. Wagner ; 
decided Feb. 22,1854 

Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of 
perjury March 2, " 

Duchess of Manchester's will case April, " 

Mr. Garden for the abduction of Miss E. Arbuth- 
not, and assault upon John Smith wick ; convict- 
ed July 28, 29, " 

Mary Anne Brough for murdering her six chil- 
dren ; not guilty (insanity) Aug. 9, " 

Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. Viscount Mount- 
garret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into 
a peerage, the defendant being proved illeiriti- 
mate Aug., " 

Courts-martial on Lieutenants Perry and Greer ; 
sentences reversed by Lord Hardinge, 

July 29-Aug., " 



tism ; the court held that the charpe against the jilaintiff of holdmg 
false doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was justified in his refu- 
sal. Mr. Gorham appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
Council, which pronounced its opinion (March 8, 1850) that " the doc- 
trine held by Mr. Gorham was not contrary or repugnant to the de- 
clared doctrine of the Church of England, and that Mr. Gorham ought 
not, by re.ison of the doctrine lield by him, to have been refused admis- 
sion to the vicarage of Brampton-Speke." This decision led to subse- 
quent proceedings in the three courts of law, successively, for a rule to 
sliow cause why a prohibition should not issue directed to the judge of 
the Arches Court, and to the Archbishop of Canterbury, against giving 
effect to the judgment of her majesty in council. The rule was refused 
in each court, nud in the end Mr. Gorham was instituted into the vicar- 
age in question, Aug. 1, 1S50. 



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Courts-martial on Sir E. Belcher, Capt. M'Clure, 
etc., for abandouing their ships in the Arctic re- 
gions; acquitted Oct.,lS54 

Emanuel Barth616my for murder of Charles Col- 
lard and Mr. Moore ; executed Jan. 4,1S55 

Handcoclc v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh (cruel- 
ty of Mrs. Handcock, and charges against Lord 
Clanricavde) ; compromised " 

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside), 

April 3-10, " 

Luigi Baranelli for murder of Joseph Latham (or 
Lambert); (executed April 30) April 12, " 

Charles King, a great thief-trainer ; transported, 

April 13, " 

David M. Davidson and Cosmo W. Gordon for 
frauds and forgeries of securities, etc. ; convict- 
ed May 24, " 

Wm. Austin (governor) for cruelties in Birming- 
ham jail ; acquitted Aug. 3, " 

Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and Robert 
M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their custom- 
ers' securities (to the amount of £113,625) ; con- 
victed Oct. 2T, " 

Joseph Wooler on charge of poisoning his wife ; 
acquitted Nov. T, " 

Westerton v. Liddell* (on decorations, etc., in 
church in Kuightsbridge ; decision against 
them) Dec. 5, " 

Celestiua Sommers for murder of her children; 
convicted (but reprieved) March 6,1S56 

Wm. Palmert for murder of J. P. Cook by poison ; 
executed May 14-27, " 

Wm. Dove for murder of his wife (executed Aug. 
9) July 19, " 

Ditcher v. Archdeacon Deuison respecting the doc- 
trine of the Eucharist ; defendant deprived, and 
appeal disallowed Oct. 22, " 

W. S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell, convicted of for- 
gery Oct. 31, " 

Wm. Robson for frauds of Crystal Palace Compa- 
ny (to the amount of about £28,000) ; transport- 
ed for twenty years Nov. 1, " 

Earl of Lucan v. Daily News for libel ; verdict for 
defendant Dec. 3, " 

Pearce, Burgess, and Tester (see Gold Robbery), 

Jan. 14,1857 

Leopold Redpath for forgeries (to the amount of 
£150,000) upon Great Northern Railway Compa- 
ny ; transported for life Jan. IG, " 

Miss Madeline Smith on charge of poisoning Emile 
L'Angelier at Glasgow; not proven, 

June 30-July 9, " 

Thomas Fuller Bacont for poisoning his mother ; 
convicted July 25, " 

James Spollen on charge of murder of Mr. Little, 
near Dublin; acquitted Aug. 7-11, " 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), Wm. 
Anderson, and others, convicted of extensive for- 
gery of bankers' checks March 5, " 

W. Attwell and others convicted of stealing the 
Countess of Ellcsmere's jewels (value £15,000) 
from the top of a cab Dec. 15, " 

Strevens v. Campion for slander, in charging the 
plaintiff with complicity in the murder of his 
aunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages M Dec. 31, " 

The directors of the British Bank, Humphry 
Brown, Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, Alderman 
R. H. Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, 
and Hugh Inues Cameron, for fraud (see Banks, 
p. 08) ; convicted Feb. 13-27,1858 

Kev. 8. Smith and his wife for murderous assault 
on John Leech ; convicted April 6, 7, " 

Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M. P., for false declaration 
of qualification of M.P April 9, etc., " 

Simon Bernard as accessory to the conspiracy 
against the life of the Emperor Napoleon ; ac- 
quitted April 12-17, " 

The Earldom of Shrewsbury case ; Earl Talbot's 
claim allowed June 1, " 

James Seal for the murder of Sarah Guppy ; con- 
victed (and executed) July 23, " 

The Berkeley peerage case July 23, " 

Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen ;§ a will case ; 
the w ill afl irmed July 27, " 

* Decided again by privy council, partly for both parties ; each to 
pay his own costs ; March 21, 1657. 

t He was executed at Stafford on June 14, in the presence of 50,000 
persons. If he had been acquitted he would have been tried for the 
murder of his wife and brother. The trial in every respect was the 
most remarkable one for many years. 

% He was acquitted on a charpe of murderinf^ two children in May 
13, U, same year. His ivife confessed the murder, but appeared to be 
insane. 

§ The plaintiffwas Patience Swynfen, widow ofHenry John Swynfen, 
eon of tlie testator, Samuel Swynfen. Her husband died June 15, 1.^54, 
and his father on July 16 following, having made a will nintteea days 



Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- 
sive frauds Nov. 10,1858 

Marchmont v. Marchmont; a disgraceful divorce 
case, began Nov. 30, " 

W. n. Guernsey for stealing Ionian dispatches 
from the Colonial Ofiice ; acquitted Dec. 15, " 

Evans o. Evans and Rose ; divorce case Dec, " 

Lieut. Col. Dickson v. Earl of Wilton for libel ; 
verdict for the plaintiff Feb. 14,1859 

Black V. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
wash sold by defendant; damages £1400, Feb. 23, " 

Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
forgers; convicted May 13, " 

Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott and others ; the 
earl gains the Shrewsbury estates June 3, " 

Thellussou will case decided (see Thclhtsson), 

June 9, " 

T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. Eicke, 
convicted of illegal sale of army commissions, 

June 29, " 

Thomas Smethurst,* a surgeon, for the murder by 
poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had mar- 
ried during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 

Aug. 15-19, " 

Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, " ambassador of 
the King of Oude." Verdict for the defendant, 
who seems to have fallen among bill-sharpers, 

Dec. 17, " 

David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
frauds upon his clients Jan. ,1860 

Eugenia Plummer, aged 11 years, convicted of per- 
jury against Rev. Mr. Hatch May 14, " 

Nottidge V. Prince (see Agapemone) July 25, " 

Thomas Hoi)ley, a "schoolmaster, convicted of man- 
slaughter of Reginald Canceller by flogging, 

July 23, " 

Mr. Edward Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery 
at Wakefield July 19, " 

Rev. J. Bouwell, of Stepney, degraded for immo- 
rality Aug. 29, " 

James "Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
Elmsley ; by endeavoring to inculpate one Ems, 
he led to his own conviction Oct. 25, " 

Miss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably plead- 
ed her own cause when the case was ojiened ; her 
object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, was 
not attained) Nov. 9, et seq., " 

Hooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a mag- 
istrate ; verdict for plaintiff. Dec. 19, 20, " 

Brook V. Brook (see Marriage loith Wife's Sister). 
The House of Lords, on appeal, decide against 
the validity of such marriages, even when cel- 
ebrated in a foreign country March 18,1801 

Thelwall v. Hon. Major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
sued for expenses incurred by defendant's wife; 
the major denied the validity of his marriage 
with Miss Longworth, having since married the 
widow of Professor Edward Forbes, the eminent 
naturalist. The court in Dublin supported the 
first marriage,t Feb. 21 to March 4, " 

Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatizing a novel restrain- 
ed April 17, " 

Beamish v. Beamish ; the Lords, on appeal, decide 
that a clergyman can not perform the ceremony 
of marriage for himself April 22, " 

Emperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant had printed 100 millions florin 
notes on the Bank of Hungary for Louis Kos- 
suth. The notes were orde^red to be destroyed 
within one month. May 6th ; judgment affirm- 
ed June 12, " 

W. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of Protestant Al- 
liance; libel; verdict for defendant.. .July 8-10, " 

J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
the Wakefield election July 20, " 

Baron De Vidil , convicted of woundin g his son; 

before his death, devising the Swynfen estate (worth above £60,000) to 
his son's wife, but leaving a large amount of personal estate undisposed 
of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son of the testator's eldest half- 
brother, claimed the estate as heir-at-law on the ground of the testa- 
tor's insanity. The issue was brought to trial iu March, 1856, but 
proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swynfen 's counsel, Sir F. R. Thesi- 
ger, entering into an agreement with the opposite counsel, Sir Alexan- 
der Cockburn, without her consent, and in defiance of her instructions. 
After various proceedings, the Court of Chancery ordered a new trial. 
She gained her cause, mainly through the energy of her counsel, Mr. 
Charles R. Kennedy, to whom she had promised to pay i!i30,000 for his 
extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, married ft Mr. Broun 
and repudiated ]Mr, Kennedy's claim. The latter, in an action against 
her, obtained a verdict in his favor on March 29, 1862, which was, on 
appeal, finally reversed in Feb., 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was nonsuited iu 
an action brought against her counsel (afterward Lord Chelmsford and 
lord chancellor), in July, lS59,and June,1860. 

* He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evidence, but was 
tried and found guilty of bigamy, Nov. 16, 1859. On Nov. 11, 1862, ho 
proved Miss Bankes's will and obtained her property. 

+ On appeal, the Scotch court annulled this mnrria'ge, July, 18C2, and 
this judgment was affirmed by the House of Lords, J uly 28, iSC4. 



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473 



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the latter refused to give evidence against his 
father Aug. 23,1SG1 

Vincent Collucci, convicted of obtaining money on 
false pretenses from Miss F. Johnstone.. Oct. 23, " 

John Currau, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically de- 
fended herself Oct. 25-30, " 

Patrick M'Caffery; shot Col. Crofton and Capt. 
llanliani at Preston ; convicted Dec. 13, " 

Imiuiry into the sanity of \Vm. Fred. Wyudham 
(on behalf of his relatives), with a view of annul- 
ling an injudicious marriage ; trial lasted 34 
days; 140 witnesses examined; verdict, sane 
mind (see Lunacij) Dec. 16, IsCl-Jau. 30, " 

[Each party adjudged to pay its own costs), March, 
ISO-.'. ] 

Capt. Kobertson, by court-martial ; convicted of 
submitting to uugentlemanly conduct from his 
brother officers; 30 days' inquiry ; ended Mar. 24,1862 

[The court was much blamed by the public, and 
the sentence was annulled.] 

Mrs. A. C. Vyse for poisoning her two children, ac- 
quitted as insane July !>, " 

Roupell !'. Waite ; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of forg- 
ing a will, and other frauds Aug. IS, 19, " 

Jessie M'Lachlan ; convicted for the murder of Jes- 
sie Macpherson, at Glasgow; she confessed to 
being accessory after the murder, which she im- 
puted to Mr. Fleming, a gentleman SO or 90 vears 

old Sept. 17-20, " 

[She was respited, Oct. 27, 1S62.] 

Wni. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on his 
own confession Sept. 24, " 

Catharine Wilson ; convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1S56 Sept. 25-27, " 

27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage per- 
sonal outrages in the streets of the metropolis 
during the month Nov., " 

Wm. Digby Seymour, M.P., v. Butterworth ; libel ; 
verdict for plaintiff, damages 40.s> Dec. 3, " 

Hall V. Semple ; verdict for plaintiff, who had been 
consigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife's 
getting the defendant to sign a certificate of lu- 
nacy with culpable negligence ; damages £150, 

Dec. 10, " 

Geo. Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Richard Brewer, and 
Jas. Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed on 
paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laverstoke ; 
convicted Jan. 7-12,1863 

Clare i'. the Queen ; petition of right for infringc- 
mentofa patent; verdict for defendant, Feb.2-6, " 

Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer 
of a libel in Saturday Review) ; verdict for plain- 
tiff Feb. 27, " 

The Queen on appeal of Earl of Cardigan v. Col. 
CaUhorpc for libel, charging the earl with de- 
serting his men at Balaclava, Oct. 25, 1S55; ver- 
dict for defendant (who, however, admitted his 
error). June 9, 10, " 

Attorney General v. Sillim and others, for having 
built the Alexandra for the Confederates against 
theEnlistmentAct; verdict for defend'ts, June 25, " 

[Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the House 
of Lords, April G, 1S64.] 

Colonel Lothian Dickson ?;. Viscount Combermere, 
Earl of Wilton, and General Peel, for conspira- 
cy to expel him from the army; verdict for de- 
fendants June 27 et acq., " 

Morrison (Zadkiel) v. Sir Edward Belcher; libel; 
verdict, 20.s. dama''es June 29, " 

Richard Roupell v. Haws; arising out of Roupell 
forgeries ; no verdict July 16-24, " 

Wooiley V. Pole for Sun Fire Office ; verdict for 

Elaiutiff, awarding him his claim for £29,000 for 
is insurance of Campden House, burnt March 
23, 1862 Aug. 29, " 

George Victor Townley for murder of Miss Good- 
man through jealousy ; convicted Dec. 12, " 

[He escaped execution through a certificate of in- 
sanity too hastily signed, and committed suicide 
in prison, Feb. 12,1865.] 

Lieut. Col. Crawley, by court-martial at Aldershot, 
for alleged oppression and cruelty to Sergeant 
Major John Lilley, in consequence of a court- 
martial at Mhow, in India; honorably acquit- 
teti Nov. 17-Dec. 23, " 

Franz Midler for murder of Mr. Briggs in a rail- 
way carriage, July 9 ; convicted. . . . ; .Oct. 27-29,1864 

Gedney v. Smith; a supposititious child detected 
and deprived of much property Nov. 10, " 

E. K. Kohl for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop; con- 
victed Jan. 11, 12,1805 

The Queeu v. William Rumble for infringement of 



Foreign Enlistment Act in equipping the liappa- 
hauHuch for the Confederate government • ac- 
quitted.... Feb. 4,1865 

Woodgate v. Riduut (lor Morning Punt) for libel re- 
spectmg the great will case of the Earl of E"rc- 
mout V. Darell ; verdict for plaiuliff £1000, 

Feb. 19 " 

Bishop Colenso's appeal to the Privy Council 
against the decision of the Bishop of Capetown, 
deposing him, which is annulled March 21, «' 

Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- 
beries m London; convicted April 13, " 

J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch for misdemeanor in 
connection with the Unity Bank; acquitted 

T,, xTT ^ . April, " 

Edw. Win. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his wife 
and her mother by poisoning ; guilty. . . Julv 3-7, " 

Trials of Fenians for treason-felony: Thos. Clarke 
Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 vears' penal 
servitude, Nov. 28-Dec. 1 ; O'Leary'and others 
convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (previously con- 
victed) sentenced to imprisonment for life, Dec. 
13 ; others convicted at Cork Dec, " 

Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey) f.ir murder 

of his wife and children; guilty Dec. 20-21, " 

(See Executions.) 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin Jau.,186G 

TRIALS IN THE United Statics : 
Anne Hutchinson ; sedition and heresy ; Mass. ; 

imprisoned 163T 

Quakers, Mass. ; condemned 1666-1661 

\\'itchcraft; Salem, Mass. ; condemned 1692 

Thomas Maule ; slanderous publications and blas- 
phemy ; Mass 1696 

Jacob Leisler; treason; New York; convicted and 

executed 1691 

Nicholas Bayard ; treason 1702 

John Peter Zenger, New York ; libels on govern- 
ment ; not guilty 1735 

Certain negroes in New York for conspiracy to 

burn the city 1741 

Michael Corbett, Mass. ; murder on the high seas ; 

discharged 1767 

Certain British soldiers in Boston, Mass., for the 

murder ofCrispusAttucks and others; convicted 1770 
Bathsheba Spooner and others for the murder of 

Joshua Spooner, Mass. ; convicted 1778 

Colonel David Henle.v, Mass., for improper con- 
duct as an officer of the American army; dis- 
charged " 

JIajor John Andre for being a spy; shot; New 

York 1T80 

John Hett Smith for assisting Benedict Arnold, 

New York ; not guilty " 

Gideon Henfrield for illegal privateering, Peun. ; 

guilty 1793 

John E. Guiuett for illegal privateering, Penu. ; 

guilty 1795 

Stewart, Wright, Porter, Vigol, and Mitchell, the 

Western insurgents ; guilty " 

Francis Villato ; illegal privateering; discharged.. 1797 

William Corbett for libel ; Penn " 

William Blount, United States Senate, for misde- 
meanor ; impeached " 

Robert Worrell for bribery ; imprisoned 1798 

John Haner and others for the murder of Francis 

Shitz, Penn. ; condemned and executed " 

Matthew Lyon for libel ; Vermont " 

Duane, Reynolds, Moore, and Gumming, for sedi- 
tious riot; Penn.; not guilty 1799 

David Frothingham for libel on General Hamil- 
ton ; New York " 

Isaac Williams for Illegal privateering ; Conn. ; 

guilty " 

Thomas Cooper for libel ; Penn.; guilty ISOO 

Daniel Thomas for opening the letters of a foreign 

minister " 

Anthony Hasewell for libel ; Vermont; guilty.... " 

James S. Callender for libel " 

Aaron Burr for treason ; Virginia ; acquitted 1807 

Alexander Drew for drunkenness 1828 

Samuel R. Wood for perjury 1840 

Forrest divorce case 1850 

Parish will case 1856 

Charles B. Huntingdon for forgery ; guilty " 

Dred Scott as a fugitive slave " 

Anthony Burns as a fugitive slave " 

John Brown for raising insurrections in Virginia; 

guilty and executed 1859 

Officers and crew of the privateer Savannah on the 

charge of piracv ; jury disagreed 1861 

Capt, Wirz for cruelty to Union prisoners ; guilty 
and hanged 1S65 



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474 



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Assassins of Abraham Lincoln ; guilty and hanged,lS65 
John H. Suratt for complicity in the murder of 

Abraham Lincoln ; jury disagreed 1SC7 

TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE (Trihuni Plebis), 
magistrates of Rome, lirst chosen from among the 
commons to represent the people, 493 B.C., at the time 
the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had re- 
tired to Mous Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius 
and L. Albinus; but their number was soon after 
raised to live, and 37 years after to ten, which number 
remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the 
first had been created on the 4th of the ides of Decem- 
ber, that day was chosen for the election. In A.D. 
1347, Nicolo di Rienzi assumed absolute power in 
Rome as tribune of the people, and reformed many 
abuses ; but, committing many extravagances, he lost 
his popularity and was compelled to abdicate. He re- 
turned to Rome and was assassinated, Sept. S, 1354. 

TRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given to a num- 
ber of French Republican females, who zealously at- 
tended executions in 1792, knitting at intervals. 

TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. On Feb. l.-j, 1641, 
an act was passed providing for the meeting of a Par- 
liament at least once in three years. It was repealed 
in 1604. Another triennial bill, passed in 1694, was re- 
pealed by the Septennial Act, 1716. See Parliaments 
and Seiytetmial Parliaments. 

TRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, de- 
clared a free port in 1750. It was held by the French 
in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of the 
overland mail to India, it has risen to great commer- 
cial importance. 

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. See Ordnance. 

TRIMMER; a term applied to Charles Montague, 
earl of Halifax, and others who held similar political 
opinions, midway between those of the extremeWhigs 
and Tories, about the latter part of the 17th century. 
He assimied the title as an honor, asserting that "it 
could be rightly given to the British Constitution and 
Church. Mucaulay says that Halifax was a Trimmer 
on principle, and not a renegade. He died in 1715. 

TRINCOMALEE. Reckoned the finest harbor in 
the East Indies. Trincomalee was taken from the 
Dutch by the English in 17S2 ; it was retaken by the 
French the same year, but was restored to the Dutch 
by the peace of 17S3. It surrendered to the British, 
under Colonel Stewart, Aug. 20, 179.5, and was con- 
firmed to England by the peace of Amiens in 1S02. 
See Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Trincomalee 
between Sir Edward Hughes and the French Admiral 
Suffrein, one was fought Feb. 18, 17S2, the enemy hav- 
ing eleven ships to nine ; on April 12 following, they 
had eighteen ships to eleven ; and on July 0, same 
year, they had fifteen ships to tweh'e. In all these 
conflicts the French were defeated. 

TRINIDAD, an island in the West Indies, was dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the 
Spaniards by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the 
French took it from the English in 1670. Taken by 
the British, with four ships of the line, and a military 
force under command of Sir Ralph Abercromby, to 
whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they cap- 
tured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in 
the harbor. This possession was confirmed to En- 
gland by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrec- 
tion of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1S33. Population 
in 1861, 84,438. 

TRINITY AND Tkinttaeians. The doctrine of the 
Trinity is received by nearly all Christians. Theojjhi- 
lus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2d cen- 
tury, was the first who used the term Trinity to ex- 
press the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His 
De,fcnse of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zu- 
rich, in 1540 Watkins. An order of the Trinity was 

founded in 1198 by John de Matha and Felix de V'alois. 
The Trinity Fraternitj', originally of fifteen persons, 
M'as instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri in 1548. 
The act to exempt from penalties persons denying 
the doctrine of the Trinity (such as Unitarians and 
Swedenborgians) passed in 1813. 

TRINITY COLLEGES. See Cambridge and Oxford. 
Trinity College, Dublin, called the University: grant 
of the Augustine monastery of All Saints within the 
suburbs for erecting this college, conferred by Queen 
Elizabeth, 1.591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, 
mayor of Dublin, Jan. 1, 1593. New charter, 1637. 
Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. — Burns. The prin- 
cipal, or west front, erected 1759. Library erected, 1732. 

TKLNITY HOUSE, London, founded by Sir Thomas 



Spert, 1512, as an "association for piloting ships," was 
incorporated in 1514, and reincorporated in 1647 and 
1685. The present Trinity House was erected in 1795. 
Trinity Houses were founded at Deptford, at Hull, and ■ 
at Newcastle: these three societies were instituted and 
incorporated by Henry VIII., the first in 1512, the other 
two in 1537. By their charter they have the power of 
examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and of 
erecting beacons and light -houses, and of placing 
buoys in the channels and rivers; and their powers 
and privileges have been greatly augmented by suc- 
ceeding kings. Recent masters : the Prince Consort, 
died Dec. 14, 1801 ; Lord Palmerston, appointed June 
16, 1862, died Oct. 18, 1805 ; succeeded bv the Prince of 
Wales. 

TRINITY SUNDAY. The festival of the Holy Trin- 
ity was instituted by Pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his 
ascending the papal chair, and is observed l)y the Lat- 
in and Protestant Churches on the Sunday next fol- 
lowing Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, originally, 
it was merely an octave. The observance of the fes- 
tival was first enjoined in the Council of Aries, 12C0. 
It was appointed to be held on the present dav by 
Pope John XX. in 1334. Trinity Sunday, in 1SC6, May 
27 ; in 1S07, June 10 ; in 1S6S, June 7. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between England 
and the States-General against France, for the protec- 
tion of the Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterward 
joining the league, it was known as the Triple Alli- 
ance, Jan. 28, 1668. Another Triple Alliance was that 
between England, Holland, and France against Spain, 
1717. 

TRIPOLITZA, Greece, was stormed by the Greeks, 
who committed dreadful cruelties, Oct. 5, 1S21 ; retaken 
by the Egyptians, 1825; given up to the Greeks, 1S28. 

TRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, are 
said to have been invented by the Corinthians, 784 B.C. 

TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate to 
generals of armies after they had won great victories. 
They were received into the city with great magnifi- 
cence and public acclamations. There w-ere the great, 
called the Triumph ; and the less, the Ovation." See 
Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. The first, 60 B.C., con- 
sisted of Julius CsBsar, Pompey, and Crassus, \yho 
formed a coalition to rule the state. Their union 
lasted ten years, and the civil war ensued. The sec- 
ond triumvirate, 43 B.C., was formed by Octavius Cie- 
sar, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through whom the 
Romans totally lost their liberty. Octavius disagreed 
with his colleagues: Lepidus was expelled in 36; An- 
tony was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself 
absolute in Rome. This triumvirate continued for 
about twelve years. See Rome. On March 29, 1849, a 
triumvirate was appointed at Rome, consisting of Jo- 
seph Mazziui, Armellini, and Safli, which resigned on 
July 1, 1849, when the city was taken by the French. 

TROPPAU, Congress of, in Austrian Silesia. The 
emperors Francis of Austria and Alexander of Russia 
met at Troppau, Oct. 20, 1820. The conference between 
them and tlie King of Prussia, against Naples, took 
place Nov. 10 ; antf the Congress was transferred to 
Laybach, as nearer to Italy, Dec. 17, 1820. See Lay- 
bach. 

TROUBADOURS and Trocvekes (from trmihar, 
trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the Middle 
Ages (from the 11th to the 15th century). The former 
flourished in the south of France and north of Spain, 
and used the Langue d'oc (that is, oc for oui, yes ; the 
latter flourished in the north of France, and used the 
Langue d'oil (that is, oil for oui). The Troubadours 
produced romances, yet excelled chiefly in lyric poet- 
ry ; the Trouveres excelled in romances, several of 
which are extant; as, the Brut d' Anglctcrrc, and the 
Roil,, by Wace ; the romance of the "Rose," by Guil- 
laume de Lorris and Jean de Meung. The Trouba- 
dours were usually accompanied by Jongleurs, who 
sang their masters' verses, with the accompaniment 
of ttie guitar. Histories of these French poets, and 
specimens of their works, have been published in 
France. These poets, although frequently very licen- 
tious, undoubtedly tended to promote civilization dur- 
ing those warlike times. 

TROY (Asia Minor). Its obscure and traditional 
history is immortalized by Homer. 
Arrival of Scamander in PhrygiaMinor {Blair) B.C. 1546 

Teucer succeeds his father 1502 

Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds the city of 

Dardania 1480 

Reign of Erichthonius 1449 



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475 



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Reign of Tros, from whom the people arc called 

Trojaus, and the city Troy 13U 

IIus, sou of Troas, reigus, aud the city is called 

Ilium 23U 

Reigu of Laoraedou I'iCO 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered 

from the sea-monster (Ulair; Usher) 1225 

War of Hercules aud Laomedon 122-i 

Eeign of Priam or Podarces " 

Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 
20 years before the sacking of Troy {Ho)ncr''s 

Iliad, book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit.) 1204 

Comnieiicemeiit of the invasion of the Greeks to 

recover Helen 1193 

Troy taken and burnt in the night of the llth of 
June, i. c. 2:kl of the month Thargelion.— /"armji 
Marbles. 403 years before the first Olympiad.— 
Apollodoru.% Hales, aud Clinton, 11S3; others... 11S4 

uEueas arrives iu Italy (Lenglet) 11S3 

[Some time after the destruction of Troy, a new 
city was built with the same name, about thirty 
stadia distant from the old site. It was favored 
by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, 
but never rose to much importance, aud in the 
age of Strabo was nearly iu ruins.— Pne.sHey.] 
TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, 
row our avoirdupois ouuce, in Britain. The present 
ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo 
into Europe about the time of the Crusades, 1095. It 
was tirst adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence 
the name ; and is used to weigh gold, silver, and pre- 
cious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was established 
by James VI. (our James I.) in 161S. See Standard. 

TROYES, Central France, where a treaty was con- 
cluded between England, France, and Burgundy, 
whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should mar- 
ry Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed 
regent of France, and after the death of Charles should 
inherit the crown. May 21, 1420. Troyes was taken by 
the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 
23 ; and again taken by the Allies, March 4, 1S14. 

TRUCE OF GOD {Treuga Dei), a term given to a 
cessation of the private feuds and conflicts so general 
during the Middle Ages all over Europe. The clergy 
strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. 
A synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that uoue should 
attack his enemy between Saturday evening ^at nones) 
and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar 
regulatious were adopted iu England, 1042 (sometimes 
Friday and Wednesday being chosen for the time). 
The Truce of God was confirmed by many councils of 
the Church, especially the Lateran Council, iu 1179. 

TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe 
the invention of the trumpet to the Tyrrhenians, and 
others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of 
Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan War. First 
torches, then shells offish sounded like trumpets, were 
the signals iu primitive wars.— Po^fr. The speaking- 
trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
Great iu 335 B.C. Trumpets were first sounded be- 
fore the king in the time of Ofi"a, king of Mercia, A.D. 
700. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher iu 
1C5'2, by Salland, 1054, aud philosophically explained 
by Morelaud, 1071. 

TRUMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia radicans, was 
brought to England from North America about 1640. 
The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sevipervirens, 
came from North America iu 1050. The Bigixonia ca- 
2)ensis was brought to England from the Cape iu 1S23. 
The Large-flowered Trumpet-flower, or Bignonia gran- 
dijlora, was brought from China iu ISOO. 

TRUSS. A transverse spring truss for ruptures was 
patented by Robert Brand in 1771, and by many other 
persons since. The National Truss Societv, to assist 
indigent persons, was established iu 17S6, "and many 
similar societies since. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Sus- 
pension Bridge, then the most wonderful enterprise iu 
engineering iu the world, was constructed about a mile 
southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* At 



* The Britannia tulmlnr bridge was intended to supply the place of 
—we may also say supersede— one of the finest bridRes in the Iting- 
dom ; and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a part, is in 
lilie manner a substitute for one of the finest mail-coach roads ever 
constructed. The road from London to Holyhead has been long re- 
garded as the hivfhway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the 
late Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to perfect this route 
by the London and Holyhead mail-coach road, which he did by erect- 
ing a beautiful suspension bridge over the River Conway and over the 
Menai Strait; commenced in July, 1818, and finished in July, 1825. 
When Chester became a centre of railway communication a few years 
since, it was considered that a throush 'route to Holyhead would be 
more conveniently established from that point than from Shrewsbury, 



this spot IS a rock called the Britannia Rock, near the 
centre of the Menai Strait, the surface of which is about 
ten leet above low-water level, on which is built a tower 
two hundred feet above high water (commenced build- 
lUf^ May, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes or 
Hollow girders strong enough to bear their weight and 
iaileu trains lu addition, the ends resting on the abut- 
ments on each shore; cacli tube being more than a 
quarterof a mile iu length. The height of the tube 
within IS thirty feet at the Britannia tower, diminish- 
ing to twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lift- 
ing ot these tubes to their places was regarded as the 
most gigantic operation ever successfulTy performed, 
June 27, 1S49. The first locomotive passed throutrh, 
March, 1850. The Conway Tubular Bridge (1S46-4S? is 
a raiuiature copy of the Britannia, and therefore re- 
quires no description. The principal engineers were 
Mr. Kobert Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn At Cheij- 
stow is a railway tubular bridtre, erected iu 1852 A 
bridge or viaduct on the tubulm- principle (called the 
Albert Viaduct) over the River Tamar, at Plymouth 
was opened by the priuce consort May 2, IS59. The 
most stupeudous tubular bridge iu the world is that 
over the St. Lawrence, Canada. See Victoria Bridge. 

TUDELA ON THE EiiKO (N. Spain). Near here Mar- 
shal Lanues totally defeated the Spaniards, Nov. 2.3, 

TUESDAY, iu Latin Dies Martis, the day of Mars, 
the third day of the week, so called from TuMo Tiiv, 
or Tucsco, a Saxon deity, worshiped on this day. 
Tuisto is meutioued by Tacitus. See Week Days. 

TUILERIES (Paris), the imperial palace of France, 
commenced by Catharine de Medicis, after the plans 
of Philibert de I'Orme, 1564; continued by Henry IV. ; 
and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was stormed 
by the mob, Aug. 10, 1792, aud ransacked iu the revo- 
lutions of 1S30 aud 1S4S. 

TULIPS came to England from Vienna, 1578. It is 
recorded iu the register of Alkmaer, in Holland, that 
in 1639, 120 tulips, with the oflfsets, sold for 90,000 flor- 
ins; and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 
guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traflic. 
The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was brought 
to England from America about 1603. 

TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs were 
discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, lord North, who, 
iu the last stage of consumption, was restored to 
health by the use of its waters, 1606. The wells were 
visited by the queens of Charles I. aud II. The place 
soon became fashionable. 

TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and scheelium), a 
hard, whitish brittle metal. From tungstate of lead, 
Schecle in 1781 obtained tuugstic acid, whence the 
brothers De Luyart in 1786 obtained the metal. In 
1859 it was employed iu making a new kind of steel. 

TUNIS AND TmroLi (N. Africa). The former stands 
uear where Carthage was built. The territories of 
both formed part of the Carthaginian state, and were 
entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Pu- 
uic War, 148 B.C. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX. 
of France, 1270. It remained under African kings till 
taken by Barbarossa for Solymau the Magnificent. 
Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the coun- 
try was recovered by the Turks under Selim II. Ta- 
ken with great slaughter by the Emperor Charles V., 
when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. 
The Bey of Tunis was first appointed iu 1570. Tunis 
was reduced by Admiral Blake on the bey refusing to 
deliver up the "British captives, 1055. In July, 1856,''the 
bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. 
The bey died Sept. 22, 1S59 ; and his successor, Sidi 
Sadok, took the oath of fidelity to the Constitution. 
An insurrection broke out April IS, 1864, aud the Eu- 
ropean powers sent ships of war to protect their sub- 
jects in May. 

TUNNAGE AND Poundage were ancient duties lev- 
ied ou every tun of wine and pound of other goods im- 
ported or exported, aud were the origin of our "cus- 
toms." They commenced in England about 21 Edw. 
III., 1346. They were granted to the kings of England 
for life, beginning with Edward IV. At the beginning 
of his reign Charles I. gave great offense by "levying 
them on his own authority. They ceased in 1689. 

TUNNELS. The earliest tunnel for internal navi- 
gation was executed by M. Rigiiet, in the reign of 
Louis XIV., at Bezicres, in France. The first in En- 



which lies in the route of Telford's road. Accordinsly, the Chester 
and Holyhead Railway was constructed ; and in its course, both the 
Conway "and the Menai had to be crossed, and hence were formed tUo 
preseut tubular bridges. 



TUR 



476 



TUR 



gland was by Mr. Brindley, on the Duke of Bridge- 
water's navigatiou, near Manchester, about 1760. Pro- 
ject of the Graveseud Tunnel, ISOO — the report upon 
it, ISOl. The Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. 
Brunei in 1823, and opened for foot passengers March 
25, 1S43. See Thames Tunnel. In 1S5T, M.^Thome de 
Gamond proposed the making a submarine tunnel 
from France to England ! Innumerable tunnels have 
been made for railways. Ttie railway tunnel at Liv- 
erpool was completed "in the middle of 1829, lit up with 
gas, and exhibited once a week. On the London and 
Birmingham railway there are eight tunnels (the Prim- 
rose Hill, Watford, Kllsby, etc.), their total length be- 
ing 7336 yards. — Smiles. It was computed by Mr. 
Fowler that there were SO miles of tunnels in the 
United Kingdom in lS(i5, which cost about £6,500,000, 
at the average of £45 a yard. 

TURIN, an ancient Roman city in Piedmont, capi- 
tal of the Sardinian States, and of the kingdom of It- 
aly till 1864, when it was superseded by Florence. Its 
importance dates from the permanent union of Savoy 
and Piedmont in 1416. The French besieged this city 
in 1T06 ; but Prince Eugene defeated their army, and 
compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French 
Republican army took possession of Turin, seized all 
the strong places and arsenals ofPiedmont, and obliged 
the king and his family to remove to the island of Sar- 
dinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Aus- 
trians and Russians, but shortly afterward the city and 
all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814 it 
was delivered up to the Allies, who restored it to the 
King of Sardinia. See Italij, 1SG4. 

TURKESTAN, Independent Tartary. The original 
country of the Turks, in Central Asia, was reached by 
Alexander, 331 B.C. The Russians are gradually en- 
croaching on this country; and on Feb. 14, 1865, a new 
province, named Turkestan, was created by decree. 

TURKEY. The Turks were originally a tribe of 
Tartars; but by incorporation with the peoples they 
have conquered, they must be regarded as a mixed 
race. About 760 they obtained possession of a part 
of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. They aft- 
erward gradually extended their power; but in the 
13th century, being harassed in their new possessions 
by other Tartar tribes, they returned to Asia Minor. 
Their dominions, divided for some time into petty 
states, were united under Othman, M'ho assumed the 
title of Sultan, and established his empire at Prusa, in 
Bithynia, in 1298. The Turkish Empire comprehends 
the almost independent principalities of Moldavia 
and Wallachia, Servia, and Montenegro, and the he- 
reditary viceroyalty of Egypt. The population of the 
empire in 1860 was estimated at 37,430,000. 
The Oghnsian Tartars, the ancestors of the pres- 
ent Turks, settle in Asia Minor 1231 

The Turkish Empire first formed under Othman 

at Bithynia (hence called Ottoman) 1298 

The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take Adri- 

anople 1361 

Amurath I. institutes the Janissaries, a guard 
composed of young Christian slaves, trained as 

Mohammedans 1362 

Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the Eastern 

Empire 1,^.89 et seq. 

He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis, 

Sept. 28,1396 
He besieges Constantinople, but is interrupted by 
the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by 
whom he is defeated and made prisoner, July 28,1402 
Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna 

by Amurath Nov. 10,1444 

Amurath defeats John Hunniades at Kossova 144S 

The Turks, invading Hungary, are repelled by 

Hunniades 1450 

Constantinople taken by the Turks, under Mo- 
hammed II., which ends the Eastern Roman 

Empire 1453 

Greece made subject to the Mohammedans (see 

Qrceee) 1458 

The Turks penetrate into Italj', and take Otranto, 

which diffuses terror throughout Europe 1480 

Selim I. raised to the throne" by the Janissaries : 

he murders his father, brothers, etc 1512 

He takes the islands of the Archipelago from the 

Christians 1514 

He overruns Syria 1515 

Adds Egypt to his empire 1516 

Solyman II. takes Belgrade 1521 

Rhodes taken from tlie Knights of St. John, who 

go to Malta 1522 

Battle of Mohatz {which see) 1526 

Solyman II., with 250,000 men, is repulsed before 
Vienna 1 529 



Cyprus taken from the Venetians 1571 

Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to the 
fears of Europe from Turkish power (see Lepan- 
to) Oct. 7, " 

Amurath II. ascends the throne ; strangles his five 

brothers 1574 

[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during 
this reign.] 

Treaty of commerce with England 1570 

The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous Shah 

Abbas 1585 

Bloody reign of Mohammed III 1595 

Reicrn of Achmet 1 1603 

Great fire in Constantinople 1606 

Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles his father 

and four brothers 1624 

War with the Cossacks, who take Azof 163T 

The Turks defeat the Persians and take the city 

of Bagdad 1639 

The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 25 

years' siege 1669 

Vienna besieced by Mohammed IV., but relieved 

by John of Poland 1683 

Mohammed IV. deposed by Solyman 1687 

Peace of Carlovitz 1699 

Mustapha III. deposed 1703 

The Morea retaken by the Turks 1715 

The Turks defeated at Peterwaradein 1716 

They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines 1717 

Peace of Erivan (with Persia) 1732 

Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Russia relin- 
quishes Azof. 1739 

The Turks defeated at Kars 1745 

Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the English 

and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish 1770 

The Crimea falls to Russia Jan., 1784 

Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks 

lose more than 200,000 men 1787-91 

Cession of Oczacow 1791 

Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo 1803 

War against Russia and England 180T 

Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles eft'ected 
by the British fleet, but with great loss (see Dar- 

danelles) Feb. 19, " 

Murder of Hali Aga May 25, " 

The Sultan Selim is deposed, and Mustapha IV. 

called to the throne May 29, " 

The Janissaries massacre the newly-disciplined 

troops 180S 

The Russians defeated at Silistria 1809 

Treaty of Bucharest {luhich see) May 28,1812 

A caravan, consisting of 2000 souls, returning from 
Mecca, destroj'ed by a pestilential wind m the 

deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved Aug. 9, " 

Subjugation of the Wahabees {which see) 1818-19 

All Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 

independent 1820 

Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia.. March 6,1821 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantino- 
ple April 23, " 

[For the events in connection with the independ- 
ence of Greece, see Greece.'] 
Horrible massacre at Scio; the most dreadful in 

modern historv (see note to Greece) April 23,1822 

Sea-flfirht near Mitylene Oct. 6,1824 

New Mohammedan army organized May 29,1826 

Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 
June 14 : they are suppressed and massacred, 

June 16, " 
Fire at Constantinople ; 6000 houses reduced to 

ashes Aug. 30, " 

Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see 

Kavari7w) Oct. 20,1S2T 

Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 

Russian settlers from the empire Jan. 5,1828 

War with Russia April 20, " 

The Czar Nicholas takes the field May 20, « 

Capitulation of Brahilow June 19, " 

Surrender of Anapa June 23, " 

The eminences of Shumla taken by the Russians, 

July 20, " 

The czar arrives before Varna Aug. 5, " 

Battle of Akhalzic Aug. 24, " 

Fortress of Bajazet taken Sept. 9, " 

The sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred 

standard Sept. 26, " 

Dardanelles blockaded '. Oct. 1, " 

Surrender of Varna Oct. 15, " 

Russians retreat from Shumla Oct. 16, " 

Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, 

Oct. 30, " 
The siege of Silistria raised by the Russians, 

Nov. 10, " 



TUR 



477 



TUR 



Victory of the Russians at Kulertschn, near Shum- 

„ HV, o J""e 11,1S29 

Battle near Erzeroum July 2 " 

Adiianople is entered by the Russians, Aug. 20; 

armistice agreed on Auc. 29 " 

Treaty of peace .'.■.■.■; .'sepT. 14' " 

Fire at Constantinople ; extin<,'iiished l)y the sea- 

men and marines of II. M. srislunde Jan. 22,1830 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece April 25, " 

Treaty with America May 7, " 

St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 

Mchemet All July 2,1S32 

lie delcats the army of the sultan at Konieh with 

great loss Dec. 21, " 

Ibrahim Pacha marches Mithiu eighty leagues of 
Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse to 

the aid of Ru.ssia Jan. ,18.83 

The Russians enter Constantinople April 3, " 

Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, July 8, " 

Office of grand vizier abolished March 30,1838 

Treaty of commerce with England concluded by 

Lord Ponsonby, ratified Au" 10 " 

[For the events of 1S39 and 1840 in relatioli to 
Syria, see Si/ria.} 

Christians admitted to office in Turkey June,lS49 

The Turkish government refuses to surrender the 
nuuMnau and Polish refugees on the joint de- 
mand ot Russia and Austria Sept 16 " 

[The Porte (countenanced by England) flrmlv re- 
sists this demand.] 
Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte, 

Nov 1" " 
The British fleet, under Sir W. Parker, anchors in 

Besica Bay ..... Nov. 13, " 

Diplomatic relations between Russia and the Porte 
resumed, the latter sending the refugees to Ko- 
nieh Jan.,lS50 

Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion. . . Jan 1851 
Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 

(which see) Pglj jg -^ggg 

Prince Mentschikoff repairs to Constantinople as 
Russian negotiator, Feb. 28; his peremptory de- 
mauds rejected April 19 1853 

Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister • the ull 
timatum being rejected, Mentschikoff quits Con- 
stantinople May ''1 " 

ILotti-sheriff issued, confirming the "rights of the 

Greek Christians June 6 " 

Russian manil'esto against Turkey. .' .' ." '. '. June 2g' " 

Russian army crosses the Pruth July 2' " 

Grand national council— war to be declared if the 

principalities are not evacuated Sept ''6 " 

War declared against Russia Oct 5 " 

[See Russo-Turkixh War.j ' 

Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favored by 
the Greek government at Athens— Hellenic em- 
pire proclaimed. Jan.2T,1854 

\oluuteers from Athens join insurgents, March 14 " 
Rupture between Greece and Turkey. . .March 28' " 
[Several conflicts ensue with varied success ] ' 
Osmau Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the 

insurrection T.. April 25 " 

English and French governmentsVafteV many re- 
monstrances, send troops, which arrive at the 
Pirjeus ; the King of Greece submits, and prom- 
ises strict neutrality; the Greek volunteers are 

recalled May 25 ''0 " 

Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effeudi take the intrenched 
camp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection short- 
ly after ce.oses June 18, " 

Reschid Pacha, having retired (June 3), resumes 

his office Jnlv 1 " 

Convention between Turkey and AustVi.V.. June 14! " 
The Russians retire from the principalities, which 
are thereupon occupied by the Anstrians, 

Ti,. 1 . T Sept., 1854, till March,lS57 
Misunderstanding among the allied powers re- 
specting Moldavian elections, which are annul- 
led jy] t, 

Death of Reschid Pacha ".".'.'.".*.'.'.".'.' ' ' Jan 7*1858 

Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years En"-]i'sh 
ambassador to Constantinople, returned to'^En- 
gland, Jan. ; he is succeeded by Sir H. Lytton 

Bulwer; accredited July 12 " 

Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 

natives and the Turks July 

Massacre of Christians at Jedda (tehic'h see), ' ' 

m , . , „ . , July 25, 

Turkish financial reforms begun Au<^ 

The first Turkish railway opened (from Aden To 

Smyrna) Sept. 19, 

Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coin- 
age begun at Birmingham, and suppressed,Oct., 



The allied powers determine the Montene^in 



.^"l^i^'l-yl^'^-V-,; : Nov.8,1853 

if both 

[The P(jrte at first objects) but' afterward "accedes 



^\^'S^^!^^'""^'^'' *^'°"'^'^-^'^'^^'^'^''^"^i^"ci<^'' of b^o 



Mold 



I and Wallachia Feb. 5 ; 



to the double election.] 
Electric telegraph completed between Aden and 

^'lez Mav " 

Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 house'sde'stroy- 

r, : : Sept. 10-14, " 

Great conspiracy against the sultan detected. Sept! 
17; his brother implicated; several persons con- 

demned to die are reprieved Sept. and Oct " 

Great agitation for financial reform Oct " 

Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey' 
proposed intervention of the great powers. May 
5; tlie lurkish government promise investio-a- 
tion and redress ; all the powers satisfied ex- 
cept Russia ]yj.^y 3(1 ^QQQ 

War between the Druses and MarouiVes in Leba- 
non ; massacres (see Dmsea) June " 

Massacre of Christians at Damascus (see Damas- 
cus and Sijr-ia) juue 9-11 " 

Convention on behalf of the great powers at Paris' 
armed intervention of the French agreed to, ' 

Inundations at Galatz; loss abt. .£175,000, Feb?24'l861 
Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by the 

Montenegrins March " 

Great need of financial reform ; the British ambas- 
sador. Sir H. Lytton, proposes a scheme... April, " 
Discussion respecting the French occupation of 

Syria ; it ceases j„„e 5, " 

Death of the Sultan Abdul-Medjid ; accession of 

Abdul-Aziz, his brother June 25,1861 

Economical reforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made 

president of the council July, " 

The late sultan's jewels sold in London '.Aug.,' " 

New order of knighthood (Nishan Osmauieh), to 
include civil as well as military persons. .Sept., " 

Imperial guard reorganized Oct., " 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier Nov. 22, " 

He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce with 

Sweden Spain, etc March,1862 

A Turkish loan (£8,000,000) taken up in Loudon, 

May *' 
Secularization of the property of the mosques (val- 
ue about £3,000,000) said to be determined on, 

Oct " 
Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit; peace 

made with Montenegro Sept 23 " 

Dispute with Servia(io/MWi sc(?) settled'.'.!. Oct 7' » 
Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt at 
reaction ; Fuad Pacha and others resign, but re- 
sume office Jan.7,lSG3 

A new bank established Jan. 28 " 

Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier Feb. 12' " 

The sultan visits Egypt April 7-17* " 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier '. . . .June l! " 

Exhibition of the produce of the empire opened 

in March; closed July 26 " 

Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes, April!lS64 
Financial reforms; conversion and verification of 

the Turkish debt Aug. 1865 

Cholera rages at Constantinople; nearly '50,006 
deaths, Aug. and Sept. ; great fire there, about 
2500 buifdings (mosques,dweIlings,etc.) destroy- 
ed, and cholera subsides Sept. 6, " 

TUEKISU EMrEROES. 

1299. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, who assumed the 

title of Grand Seignior. 
1326. Orchan, son of Othman. 
1360. Amurath or Murad I. ; stabbed by a soldier, of 

which wound he died. 
1389. Bajazet I., his son ; defeated by Tamerlane, and 

died imprisoned. 
1402. Solyman I., son of Bajazet; dethroned by his 

brother and successor, 
1410. Musa-Chelebi; strangled. 
1413. Mohammed I., also son of Bajazet. 
1421. Amurath II., succeeded by his son, 
1451. Mohammed IL, by whom Constantinople was 

taken in 1453. 
1481. Bajazet IL, deposed by his son, 
1512. Selim I., who succeeded him. 
1.520. Solyman IL the Magnificent, son of preceding. 
1566. Selim IL, son of the last. 
1574. Amurath III., his SOU; on his accession he caused 

his five brothers to be murdered, and their 

mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
1595. Mohammed IIL, son of Amurath : commenced 

his reign by strangling all his brothers, and 

drowning all his father's wives. 



TUB 



478 



TYB 



1603. Ahmed or Aclimet, his sou ; succeeded by his 
brother, 

1617. Mustapha I. ; deposed by the Janissaries, and 
imprisoned ; succeeded by his nephew, 

leiS. Osman II.; strangled by the Janissaries, and his 
uncle restored. 

1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 
Seven Towers, and strangled. 

1C23. Amurath IV. ; succeeded by his brother, 

1040. Ibrahim ; strangled by the Janissaries. 

1G4S. Mohammed IV., sou of Ibrahim; deposed and 
died in prison. 

1687. Solymau III., his brother. 

1691. Ahmed or Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew, 

1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mohammed IV. ; de- 
posed ; succeeded by his brother, 

1703. Ahmed or Achmet III. ; deposed, and died in 
prison iu 1736. 

1730. Mahmud I., or Mohammed V., succeeded his un- 
cle, the preceding sultan. 

1754. Osmau III., brother of Mahmud. 

1757. Mustapha III., brother of Osman. 

1774. Abdul-Ahmed. 

17S9. Selim III. ; deposed by the Janissaries, and his 
nephew raised to the throne. 

1807. Mustapha IV. ; deposed, and, with the late Sul- 
tan Selim, murdered. 

ISOS. Mahmud II., or Mohammed VI. ; succeeded by 
his son, 

1839. Abdul-Medjid, July 2 (born April 23, 1S23), died 
June 25, ISOl. 

1861. Abdul- Aziz, June 25 (born Feb. 9, 1830), the pres- 
ent Sultan of Turkey. 

TURKEY TRADE, most lucrative at the time and 
long afterward, commenced in the year 1550. The Tur- 
key or Levant Company of London was instituted by 
charter of Elizabeth in 1579. 

TURKEYS AND Guinea-fowls. First brought to 
England iu 1523, and to France in 1570. Turkeys are 
natives of America, and were consequently unknown 
to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact 
by various particulars in the history of these birds, 
evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, 
nor Africa, a circumstance since placed beyond contro- 
versy by the researches of Mr. Beckmaun. 

TURKOMANS. See White Shcei). 

TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. Turner, one 
of the greatest of landscape painters, was born iu April, 

1775, and died Dec. 19, 1851. He bequeathed to the na- 
tion all the pictures and drawings collected by him and 
deposited at his residence, 47 Queen Aune Street, Lon- 
don, on condition that a suitable gallery be erected for 
them within ten years ; and directed his funded prop- 
erty to be expended in founding an asylum at Twick- 
enham for decayed artists. The will was disputed by 
his relatives, but a compromise was made. The oil 
paintings (lUO in number) and the drawings (1400) were 
obtained by the nation, and the engravings and some 
other property were transferred to the next of kin. 
The drawings were cleaned and mounted under the 
careful superiuteudence of Mr. Ruskin, and the pic- 
tures were sent to Marlborough House for exhibition. 
In 1861 the pictures were removed from the South Ken- 
sington Museum to the National Gallery. 

TURNING. See Lathe. In our dock-yards, blocks 
and other materials for our ships of war are now pro- 
duced by an almost instantaneous process, from rough 
pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. (afterward Sir 
Mark Isambard) Brunei (who died in 1S40). 

TURNPIKES. See 7'olls. 

TURPENTINE - TREE, Pistachia Terehinthinus, 
came from Barbary before 1656. Spirits of turpentine 
was first applied with success to the rot in sheep— one 
third of the spirit diluted with two thirds of water— 
1772. — Annual Register. 

TUSCAN ORDER of Akouitf.otuke, a debased Do- 
ric, invented in Tuscany, and used in the erection of 
coarse and rude buildings, iu which strength is prin- 
cipally intended, without regard to ornament or beau- 
ty.— iVottftn. 

TUSCANY, formerly a grand-dnchy in Central Ita- 
ly, the uorthern part of the ancient Etruria (which see). 
It formed part of the Lombard kingdom ; at the con- 
quest of which by Charlemagne, it was made a mar- 
quisate for Boniface about 812 or 828. His descend- 
ant, the gre.at Countess Matilda, bequeathed the south- 
ern part of her domains to the pope. In the northern 
part (then called Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Si- 
enna, Lucca, etc., gradually became flourishing repub- 
lics. Florence became the chief under the govern- 



ment of the Medici family (see Florence). The duchy 
iu that family began in 1531, and the grand-duchy in 
1509. After the extinction of theMedicis in 1737, Tus- 
cany was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) to Fran- ■ 
cis, duke of Lorraine (husband of Maria Theresa of 
Austria in 1736), who had ceded his hereditary states 
to France. Population iu ISOO, 1,820,830. 

The French enter Florence March 28,1799 

The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions 
given to Louis, duke of Parma (of the royal house 

of Spain), with the title of King of Etruria 1801 

Tuscany incorporated with the French empire 1807 

The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napo- 
leon 1S08 

Ferdinand III. restored 1814 

Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 

Leopold II. grants a free Constitution Feb., 1848 

Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the 

duke flies Feb. 11,1849 

He is restored by the Austriaus July,1850 

Persecution of the Madiai* May,1852 

The Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- 
dinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to 
Bologna ; the King of Sardinia is proclaimed 
dictator, and a provisional government formed, 
April 27 ; the king assumes the commaud of the 

army, but declines the dictatorship April 30,1859 

The Sardinian commissary Buoucompagni invest- 
ed with the powers of government May 11, " 

Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the 

Tuscans, and erects his standard May 23, " 

The Grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favor of 

his son Ferdinand July 21, " 

The Tuscan Constituent Assembly meets. .Aug. 11, " 
It declares against recalling the house of Lorraiue, 

and votes for annexation to Sardinia Sept., " 

Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected govern- 
or general of Central Italj'; he declines, but rec- 
ommends Buoucompagni, Nov. ; who is accept- 
ed by the Tuscans Dec. 8, " 

Annexation to Sardinia voted Tby universal suf- 
frage, March 11, 12 ; decreed March 22,1860 

Prince Eugene, of Savoy-Carignan, appointed gov- 
ernor March 20, " 

Florence made the capital of Italy by decree pub- 
lished Dec. 11,1864 

(See Italy.) 

SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 
GRAND-DUKES. 

1509. Cosmo I., Medici. 

1574. Francis I. 

15S7. Ferdinand I. 

1609. Cosmo II. 

1021. Ferdinand IL 

1070. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an ac- 
count of his travels). 

1723. John Gaston (last of the Medici). 

1737. Francis II. (Duke of Lorraine) became Emperor 
of Germany in 1745. 

1705. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 

17if0. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.) ; ex- 
pelled by the French in 1800. 

KINGS OF ETRURIA. 

ISOl. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
1803. Louis II. 

GRAND-DUOHERS. 

lSOS-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made 
Prince of Lucca). 

GEAND-DUKES. 

1814. Ferdinand III., restored. 

1824. Leopold IL, June IS (born Oct. 3, 1797 ; abdicated 

July 21, 18.59). 
1859. Ferdinand IV., July 21 (born June 10, 1835). 

TWELFTH-DAY, the Church festival called the 
Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 
January 6. See EpiiJhany. 

TYBURN (W. London), at the west end of Oxford 
Road (n<iw street), the place in London for the execu- 
tion of malefactors till 1783. Pennant (who died 1798) 
remembered Oxford Street as "a deep, hollow road, 

* Much interest and Bympathy were excited in EnRland and other 
Protestant countries of Europe hy the imprisonment at Florence of the 
.\!adiai (husband and wife), who" had embraced the Enprlish Reformed 
religion, and read the Bible in due conformity with the teaching of 
their new faith. For this " crime" they were separately incarcerated 
in loathsome dungeons, and subjected to all the rigors of the Romish 
ecclesiastical law, May, 1852. A Protestant deputation from England, 
headed by the Earls of Shaftesbury and Roden, proceeded to Florence 
in October, 1852, with the view to "their release from confinement ; but 
the grand-duke refused to receive them. The Madiai were set at liber- 
ty by the interposition of the British government in March, 1853. An 
annuity of jElOO was provided for them by subscription. 



TYL 



479 



UNI 



and full of sloughs, with here and there a ragged hoiise, 
the hirking-pUice of cut-throuts." 

TYLEK'S INSURRECTION arose in opposition to 
the poll-tax levied in 1371). One of tlie collectors act- 
ing with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, 
the father struck him dead. His neighbors took arms 
to defLMid him, and in a short time almost the whole 
of the population of the southern and eastern coun- 
ties were in a stale of insurrcciion, extorting freedom 
from tiicir lords, and plundering. On June 12, liiSl, 
they gathered upon Bhuklu'atli to the number of 
100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to 
a parley, which took place on the 15th at Smiihlield, 
where "the latter addressed the king in a somewhat 
menacing manner, now and again liftin-'up his sword. 
On this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a 
blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights dis- 
patched him. Richard temporized with the multitude 
by promising a charter, and thus led them out of the 
city, wlien .Sir R. Knollys and a band of knights at- 
tacked and dispersed them with much slaughter. The 
insurrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by 
the Bishop of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were 
executed. 

TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINE. The best known 
and most perfect type-composing and distributing ma- 
chine is that invented by Timothy Alden, of Yarmouth, 
Mass. Born 1S19, died 1858. It was first patented in 
1S5G. Tills machine was imperfect, and was afterward 
much improved by Henry W. Aldeu, cousin of the in- 
ventor. He was assisted in this work by William 
Mackay. The machine, thus improved, was worked 
in the Tribune office during the years 1845-6. The ne- 
cessity of a ''distributor" that would not require the 
type to be classitied had been long felt, and during the 
trial at the Tribune office, John T. Slinger, a practical 
scientific machinist, discovered a method by which it 
could be effected. He also remedied several minor 
defects, which rendered the machine practical and 
useful. 

TY'RANT. In early Greek history, the terra was 
applied to any man who governed with irresponsible 
power. Solou objected to the term, and chose the 



name archon (ruler), 59-1 B.C. The earliest tyrants 
were those at Sicyou, beginning with Clisthenes, in 
the 7th century B.C. Tyranny declined in Greece 
about 400 B.C., and revived after the close of the Pel- 
opouuesian War, 404 B.C. See Thirttj Tyrants. 

T\''RE (Phoenicia). This great city was first built 
by Agonor. Another city was built r25T (about 2267, 
7/a(tw) B.C. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B. 
C, and they retired from before it, afier a siege of up- 
ward of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 572 B.C., and the city demolished, when the Tyr- 
ians removed to an opposite island, and built a new 
and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander 
with much difficulty, after a siege of seven months, 
Aug. 20, 332 B.C. He joined the island to the conti- 
nent by a mole.— St rabo. It was taken by the allied 
fleet in 1841 A.D. 

TYRE, Er.v of, began on Oct. 19, 125 B.C., with the 
month oi Hyperberetieus. The mouths were the same 
as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is sim- 
ilar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, 
subtract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, 
deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year 
before Christ. 

TY'ROL, the eastern part of ancient Ehjetia, now a 
province of the Austrian Empire, was ceded to the 
house of Hapsburg in 1359 by Margaret, the heiress of 
the last Count Tyrol. The province became an ap- 
panage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the impe- 
rial house, which came to the throne in the person of 
Maximilian II. in 1618. The French conquered the 
Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in ISOO au 
insurrection broke out, headed by Andrew Hofer, au 
innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, 
thoroughly defeated some French detachments, but 
laid down his arms at the treaty of Vienna. He was 
subsequently accused of corresponding with the Aus- 
trians, captured and sent to Mantua, and there shot 
by order of the French government (to its great dis- 
grace), Feb. 20, ISIO. The Austrian emperor ennobled 
his family in 1819, and erected his statue in Innspruck 
in 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effective in 
the Italian War iu 1859. 



u. 



FBIQUITARIANS, a small German sect, originated 
by Breutius about 1560, who asserted that the body of 
Christ was present every where {ubique). 

UKRAINE (a frontier), a vast fertile plain iu Rus- 
sia, ceded to the Cossacks by Poland in 1672, and ob- 
tained by Russia In 1682. The country was divided, 
Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Rus- 
sia the east. The whole country was assigned to Rus- 
sia by the treaty of partition iu 1795. 

ULM, iu Wurtemberg, S. Germany, where a peace 
was signed, July 3, 1620, by which Frederick V. Inst 
Bohemia (having been driven from it previously). 
Ulm was taken by the French in 1796. After a battle 
between the French and Austrian.^, in which the lat- 
ter, under General Mack, were defeated with dreadful 
loss by Marshal Ney, Ulm surrendered with 28,000 
men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17-20, 1805. 

ULPHILAS'S BIBLE. See Bible. 

UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries as "a 
portable pent-house to carry iu a person's hand to 
screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are 
very ancient, as they appear in the carvings at Perse- 
polis. Niebuhr, who visited the southern part of Ara- 
bia, informs us that he saw a great prince of that 
country returning from a mosque, preceded by some 
hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the 
princes of his uumerous family caused a large umbrel- 
la to be carried by his side. The old chiuaware in our 
pantries and cupboards shows the Chinese shaded by 
an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used 
an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevo- 
lent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* 



* For n long wliile it waa not u«ur1 for men to CRrrv them without 
beinp branded as ctfeminnte. At tiret, a sint^Ie umbrella seems to have 
been kept at a coffee-house for extraonlinary occasions — lent as a coach 
or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. 
Tlio Female TatUr advertises: *' The youne pentieman belontfing to 
the Custom-house who, in fear of rain, borrowed t/ie umhrftla from 
Wilka'a Cnfftf-houtf, shall the next lime lie welcome to the maid's j.al- 
trm." As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote 
bis own life, informs us that he had '* a line silk umbrella, which he 



UNCTION, ExTBE.ME. See Anointing. 

UNIFORMITY, Aot of (2 & 3 Edward VI.), Jan. 15, 
1549, ordained that the order of divine worship, drawn 
up by Craumer and others, "with the aid of the Holy 
Ghost," should be the only one used after May 20. 
The penalties for refusing to use it were fine and im- 
prisonment. This act was re-enacted by Elizabeth iu 
1559. The statute known as the Act of Uniformity, 
14 Charles II., c. 4, was passed in 1662. It enjoined 
uniformity iu matters of religion, and obliged all cler- 
gy to subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles, and use 
the same form of worship, and same book of Common 
Prayer. Its enforcement on August 24, 1662, termed 
Black Bartholomew's day, caused'upward of 2000 min- 
isters to quit the Church of England, and laid the 
foundation of the dissenting interest. The day was 
commemorated by Dissenters in 1862. 

UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in 
France, "in a regular manner," by Louis XIV., 1668. 
In England the uniform was soon afterward adopted 
in the military service, but with little analogy to the 
modern dress. — Afihe. See under 3'afj/. 

UNION OF Calmar, 1397; of Utrecht, 1579. 

UNION of the crowns and kingdoms of England 
and Scotland by the accession of James VI. of Scot- 
land as James I. of England, March 24, 1608. The leg- 
islative union of the two kingdoms was attempted, 
but failed iu 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign of Anne, com- 
missioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, 

broni;lit from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort to himself use 
it, the people calling out ' Frenchman, why don't you get a coach V " 
The hackney-coachmen and chairmen, with true esprit de corps, were 
clamorous a^^ainst their portentous rival. The footman, in 1778, pives 
us some farther information : " At this time there were no umbrellas 
worn in London, except in noblemen's and pentlemen's houses, where 
there was a large one nung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, 
between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled 
to quit his arm one day from the abuse he drew down upon himself and 
his umbrella. But he adds that " he persisted for three months, till 
thev took no farther notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use 
theirs, and then the English. Now it ia become a great trade in Lon- 
don." — New Monthly Magazine. 



UNI 



480 



UNI 



notwithstauding a great opposition made by the To- 
ries, every article in tiie uuiou was approved by a great 
majority, first in tlie House of Commons, and after- 
ward by tlie Peers, July 2'2, 1T06 ; was ratified by tlie 
Scottisli Parliament Jan. 16, 170T, and became a law 
May 1, same year. 

UNION of Great Beitain and Ieeland, proposed 
in tlie Irish Parliament Jan. 22, 1799. Kejecied by the 
Commons of Ireland Jan. 24, the votes being ]05 for 
to 106 against the union. The English House of Com- 
mons on the same question divided, 140, 141, and 149 
for the union ; against it, 15, 25, and 2S respectively. 
Lord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the uuiou in the 
Irish House of Lords, founded on the resolutions of 
the British Parliament thereon, Feb. 5, ISOO. Votes 
of the Commons agreeing to it, 161 against 115, Feb. 
17; and again, 152 against 108, Feb. 21. The houses 
of Lords and Commons wait on the lord lieutenant 
with the Articles of Uniou, March 27. The act passed 
in the British Parliament July 2, ISOO. The imperial 
united standard was first displayed at the Tower of 
London, and upon Bedford Tower, Dublin Castle, in 
consequence of the act of legislative union becoming 
an operative law, Jan. 1, 18U1. For attempts to dis- 
solve the union, see Repeal. 

UNION JACK. The original flag of England was 
the banner of St. George, ?'. c, white with a red cross, 
which, April 12, 1600 (ihree years after James I. as- 
cended the throne), was incorporated with the banner 
of Scotlaud, i. c, blue with a white diagonal cross. 
This combination obtained the name of" IJnion Jack," 
in allusion to the uniou with Scotland, and the word 
Jack may be considered a corruption of the word 
"Jacques," or James. This arrangement continued 
until the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when the 
banner of St. Patrick, i. e., white, with a diagonal red 
cross, was thus amalgamated with it, and forms the 
present Union Hag. 

UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, providing for the 
better distribution of the charge for relieving the poor 
in unions, was passed in June, 1865. One object of the 
act is the improvement of the dwellings of agricultu- 
ral laborers. 

UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ireland, See 
Repeal of the Union. 

UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s., issued by James I. in 
1G04. 

UNITARIANS,* began with Servetus, a learned 
man, who printed a tract in disparagement of the doc- 
trine of the Trinity. In 1553, proceeding to Naples 
through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to 
arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy. Ser- 
vetus, refusing to retract his opinions, was condemned 
to the flames, which sentence was carried into execu- 
tion. May 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those 
anatomists who made the nearest approach to the 
doctrine of the circulation of the blood before Harvey 
established that doctrine. The Unitarians were nu- 
merous in Transylvania in the 17th century; they 
came to England about 1700, and many of the original 
English Presbyterian Churches became Unitarians 
about 1730. They were not included in the Toleration 
Act till 1813. There were 229 congregations in En- 
gland in 1S51. The Unitarian Marriage Bill was pass- 
ed June, 1S27. In Dec, 1833, by a decision of the vice- 
chancellors, the Unitarians (as such) lost the posses- 
sion of Lady Ilewley's charity ; the decision was af- 
firmed on appeal in iS42. 

UNITED IRISHMEN, apolitical society which met 
secretly, was formed in 1795 to counteract the effect 
of the Orange clubs. 

UNITED KINGDOM. England and "Wales were 
united in 1283; Scotland to both in 1707; and the 
British realm was named the United Kingdom on the 
union with Ireland, January 1, 1801. See Umon. The 
United Kinodom Allianok, for the total suppression 
of liquor tralSc, was founded June 1, 1853. 

UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
Priesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland), 
the deputies of which met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579, 
and signed a treaty for their mutual defense. See 
Hollaiul. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA were so styled by 
the Congress of the revolted British provinces, Sept. 
9, 1776. Their flag was declared to be thirteen stripes. 



* Their tenets are different, but somewliat eimilar to tliose of the 
Arians and Socinians, u>hteh see. The Unitarians believe in and wor- 
ship one only self-existent God, in opposition to those who worship the 
Trinity in tinity. They consider Christ to have been a mere man , and 
do not admit the need of an atonement, or the complete inspiration of 
the Scriptures. 



alternately red and white, and thirteen stars in a blue 
field, corresponding with the then number of states 
of the Union,* June 20, 1777. The government of the 
United States is a pure democracy. Each of the states 
has a separate and independent Legislature for the 
administration of its local affairs, but all are ruled in 
matters of imperial policy by two houses of Legisla- 
ture, the Senate and the House of Representatives, to 
which delegates are sent from the diflerent members 
of the Confederacy. The President of the United 
States is elected every fourth year by the free voice 
of the people. The election of Abraham Lincoln as 
President on Nov. 4, 1860, was followed by the seces- 
sion of eleven slaveholding states, and led to the great 
Civil War, 1861-5. See Confederates. 
Act of the British Parliament, imposing new and 
heavy duties on imported merchandise, March 11,1764 

Obnoxious Stamp Act passed March 22,1765 

First American Congress held at New York, June ; 

the Stamp Act resisted Nov. 1, " 

Stamp Act repealed 1706 

British act, levying duties on tea, paper, painted 

glass, etc June 14, 1707 

Gen. Gates sent to Boston 1708 

840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at Bos- 
ton, and 17 chests at New York Nov., 1773 

Boston Port Bill March 25,1774 

Deputies from the States meet at Philadelphia, 

Sept. 5; Declaration of Rights issued. ...Nov. 4, " 
First action between the British and Americans, 

at Lexington April 19,1775 

Act of perpetual union between the States, May 20, " 
George Washington appointed commander-in- 
chief, May ; battle of Bimker's Hill June 16, 1775 

America declared " free, sovereign, and indepen- 
dent" July 4,177^ 

General Howe takes Long Island, Aug. 27 ; New 
York, Sept. 15 ; victor at White Plains, Oct. 29 ; 
at Rhode Island Dec. 8, " 



* The following thirteen states formed the Union at the declaration 
of independence in 1776; the italics indicate the then slaveholdint; 
states ; those with a * prefixed seceded from the federal government iu 
1860 and 1861, and rejoined it in 1865 : 
New Hampshire. New Jersey'. * Virginia. 

Massachusetts. Pennsylvania, * North Carolina. 

Rhode Island. Ddaware. « South Carolina. 

Connecticut. Maryland. * Georgia. 

New York. 

The following have been added : 
Vermont (from New York) . . 1791 

* renwessee (from N.Carolina) 1796 

Kenlucky (from Virginia) 1792 

Columbia District (under the 

immediate government of 
Congress) contains Wash- 
ington, the seat of govern- 
ment 1790-1 

Ohio (created) 1802 

''^ Louisiana (bought from 
France in 1803) 1812 

Indiana (created) 1816 

* Mississippi (from Georgia). 1817 

Illinois (created) 1818 

*^/a6ama (from Georgia). .. 1819 
Maine (from Massachusetts). 1820 
Missouri (from Louisiana). . . 1821 
Michigan 1837 

* Arkansas 1836 

* Florida (ceded by Spain, 
1820); made a state 1845 

Iowa 1846 

* Seceded from the Union in 1861, submitted 
POPULATION. See Slavery in America. 



Wisconsin 1848 

* Teia^ 1845 

California 1850 

Minnesota (Territory, 1849) ; 

state 1857 

Oregon (Territory, 1850); 

state 1859 

Kansas (Territorj-, 1854); 

state 1861 

New Mexico (Territory) 1860 

Utah (Territory) " 

Washington (territory) 1853 

Nebraska (Territory, 1854) ; 

state 1867 

Nevada (Territory, 1861); 

state 1864 

Colorado (Territory) ** 

Dakota (Territory) " 

Arizona (Territory) 1863 

Id.iho (Territory) 1863 

West Virginia (from Virginia) 1863 

tana (Territory) 1865 

1805. 



Slaves. Total, 

1776 2,614,300 

1800 896,849 6,309,756 

1810 1,191,364 7,239,903 



Slaves. Total. 

1830 2,009,050 1 2,868,670 

1850 3,204,313 23,191 ,918 

1860 3,952,801 31,429,891 



The Senate is composed of 2 members for each state, elected for 6 
years. The representatives in Congress are elected in the ratio of 1 in 
93,423 persons (5 slaves were formerly counted as three persons). 

Total receipts, 
Itevenve, 

July 1, 1854, to June 30,1855 $ 65,003,930 

July 1,1858, to June 30, 1859 63,405,071 

July 1, 1862, to June 30, 1863 888,082,123 

Expenditure. 

July 1,1854, to June 30, 1855 $ 66,365,393 

July 1, 1858, to June 30, 1859 66,346,226 

July 1 , 1862, to June 30, 1863 714,709,996 

Army. — That which achieved independence was disbanded at the 
end of the war. In 1789, a War Department was established, and in 
1790 the army consisted of 1216 men. In 1808 the militia was newly 
equipped. When war with Great Britain was declared on June 18, 
1812, 35,000 men were voted; and this army was disbanded at the 
peace in 1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 1835, after- 
ward disbanded. 

In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,658. Fleet, 72 vessels (2290 
guns). 

In 1860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. The fleet consist- 
ed of 92 vessels (of all kinds); in Oct., 1862, of 266 vessels of war. 

Federal Armv, July 29, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In Dec, 1862, 
nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, about 1,500,000, at the end of 
the war, when the reduction began at once. In 1869 it was reduced to 
about 50,000. 



UNI 



4S1 



UNI 



The Hessians surrender toW'ashin^ton. . .Dec. S.'S.ITTO 
La Fayette and other French officers join the 

Americans 1TT7 

Was^hiugton defeated at Urandywine Sept. 11, " 

Lord OoVuwallis tal^cs rhiladclpliia Sept., " 

Burgoync victor at Germantown, Oct. 3 ; is sur- 
rounded, and capitulates at Saratoga. .. .Oct. 17, " 
A federal goverumeut adopted by Congress, 

Nov. 15, " 

The States recognized by Franco Feb. 6,1778 

The king's trooiis (luit I'liiladclpliia June, " 

Cornwailis defeats Gates at t'aniden Aug. 1G,17S0 

IMaJor Andre hanged as a spy* Oct. 2, " 

American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Bos- 
ton founded " 

The federal government accepted by all tlie states, 

]\larcli 1 ; Congress assembles March '_',17S1 

Ct)rn\vallis defeats Green at Guildford, March 10; 

Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw, Sept. 8, " 
Surrender of Lord Cornwailis and his whole army 
of 7000 men to Generals Washington and Ro- 

chambeau, at Yorktown Oct. 29, " 

Arrival of Sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace. May 
5 ; provisional articles signed at Paris by com- 
missioners Nov. 30,1752 

Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, Sept. 3, 

17s:{; ratitied by Congress Jan. 4,1784 

Samuel Seabury consecrated Bishop of the Epis- 
copal Church in America " 

John Adams, lirst American ambassador's first in- 
terview with the King of England June 2,1785 

The cotton plant introduced into Georgia (see Cut- 

ton) 17SG 

New Constitution signed by a convention of states, 

Sept. 17,1787 

The same ratified May 23,1788 

The Q,uakers of Philadelphia emancipate their 

slaves Jan. 1, " 

New <jovernment orOTuized March 4,1789 

Washington declared the first president. .April 6, " 
Preseutdepartments of state established.. July 27, " 

Death of Benjamin Franklin April 17,1790 

Bank instituted ; capital, $10,000,000 June 7, 1791 

City of Washington chosen the capital of the 

States July 8,1792 

Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives an 
immense impetus to the growth of American 

cotton .' 1793 

Ee-election of General Washington as President, 

March 4, 1793 ; resigns Sept. 17,1796 

Washington dies amid universal sorrow.. Dec. 14,1799 
The seat of government removed to Washington.. 1800 
Discussion bl;tweeu England and America respect- 
ing the rights of neutrals 1807 

American ports closed to the British, July ; trade 

suspended Dec. 9, " 

Slave-trade abolished ISOS 

War with Great Britain (New England states op- 
posed to it ; threatened to secede) June 18,1812 

Action between the American ship Constitution 
and the British frigate Guerriire; an unequal 

contest Aug. 19, " 

Fort Detroit taken Aug. 21, " 

The British sloop Frolic taken by the American 

sloop Wasp Oct. 18, " 

The ship United States, of 54 guns, great calibre 
(Commodore Decatur), captures the British frig- 
ate Macedonian Oct. 25, " 

Battle of Frenchtown Jan. 22,1813 

The Hornet captures the British sloop of war Pea- 
cock Feb. 25, " 

Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the Brit- 
ish May 27, " 

The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the 

Shannon frigate. Captain Broke June 1, " 

At Burlington Ileights Americans defeated, June 6, " 
H.M.slooj) Pelican takes the sloop ylrfyw.?, Aug. 14, " 

Bufl'alo town burnt by the British Dec. 9, " 

American frigate Jissex taken by the Phwhe and 

Cherub ]\Iarch 29,1814 

The British defeat the Americans in a severe con- 
flict July 2, " 

[Several engagements, with various success, fol- 
lowed.] 
The British defeat the Americans at Bladensburg, 

Aug. 14, " 
Alexandria capitulates to the British Aug. 17, " 



• Andr6 (born 1751) was an adjutant eencral in the British nrniy, 
and was tal%i'n in disguise on his return from a secret expedition to the 
traitorous Anieriran General Arnold, Sept. 28, 1780. He w.is sentenced 
to execution as a spy by a court of General Wasliinuton's officers at 
Tappan, New York, and suffered death Oct. 2 foUowinp. His remains 
were removed to England in a sarcophaKus, Aup. In, 1821, and inter- 
red in Westminster Abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of 
this punishmeut. 

nu 



The City of Washington is taken by the British, 
and the i)ublic edifices burnt Aug. 24,1814 

The Briiisli sloop of war Avun sunk by the Amer- 
ican sloop Wasp Sept. 8, " 

The British squadron on Lake Champlain cap- 
tured Sept. 11, " 

Attack on Baltimore by the British; General Koss 
killed Sept. 12, " 

Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at 
Ghent Dec. 24, " 

The British ship Endijmion captures the President, 

Jan. 15,1815 

The Ghent treaty ratified Feb. 17, " 

Centre foundation of the Capitol of Washington 
laid Aug. 24,1818 

The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, re- 
garding slavery, passed Feb., 1820 

Spain cedes Florida to the United States. .Oct. 24, " 

The States acknowledge the independence of South 
America March 8,18-22 

Treaty with Colombia Oct. 3,1824 

Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jeffer- 
son, on the 50th anniversary of the independence 
of the American States July 4,1820 

Convention with Great Britain concerning indem- 
nities Nov. 13, " 

American TaritT Bill, imposing heavy duties on 
British goods May 13,1828 

General Jackson president March 4,1829 

Treaty between the United States and the Otto- 
man Porte May 7,1830 

Ports reopened to British commerce Oct. 5, " 

New Tariff laws July 14,1832 

Commercial panic " 

Great fire atNewYork; 647 houses andmanypub- 
lic edifices burnt; loss estimated at $20,000,000 
(see Xeiv York) Nov. 15,1835 

National debt paid off 183G 

In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 
assist the insurgents Oct. to Dec. ,1837 

The American steam-boat Caroliiie is attacked and 
burnt by the British near Schlosser, to the east 
of the Niagara, on the territory of the United 
States Dec. 29, " 

Proclamation of the President against American 
citizens aiding the Canadians Jan. 5,1838 

The Great Western steam-ship first arrives at New 
York June 17, " 

American banks suspend cash payments.. Oct. 14,1839 

Affair of Mr. MacLeod, charged with aiding in the 
destruction of the Caroline; true bill found 
against him for murder and arson Feb. 6,1841 

The U. S. Bank again suspends payment. . .Feb. 7, " 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of 
Mr. MacLeod March 12, " 

The case of MacLeod is removed to the Supreme 
Court at New York May 6, " 

A party of British volunteers from Canada carry 
off" Colonel Grogan Sept. 9, " 

Resignation of all the United States ministers, 
with the exception of Mr. Webster Sept. 11, " 

President's proclamation against lawless attempts 
of American citizens to invade British posses- 
sions, and to suppress secret lodges, clubs, and 
associations Sept. 25, " 

Grogan is given up to the Americans Oct. 4, " 

Trial of MacLeod commences at Utica, Oct. 4 ; ac- 
quitted Oct. 12, " 

Colossal statue of Washington placed in the Cap- 
itol at Washington Dec. 1, " 

Affair of the Creole, which leads to a dispute with 
England Dec, " 

[This' vessel, an American, was on her voyage to 
New Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they mu- 
tinied, murdered the owner, wounded the cap- 
tain, and compelled the crew to take the ship 
to Nassau, New Providence, where the governor, 
considering them as passengers, allowed them, 
against the protest of the American consul, to 
go at libertv.] 

Announcement of Lord Ashburton's mission to 
the United States Jan. 1,1842 

Arrest of Hogan, implicated iu the Caroline af- 
fair Feb. 2, " 

Lord Ashburton arrives at New York April 1, " 

Washington treaty, defining the boundaries be- 
tween the United States and the British Amer- 
ican possessions, and for euppressinr; the slave- 
trade, and giving up fugitive criminals, signed at 
Washington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. Web- 
ster Aug. 9, " 

The Tariff Bill is passed Aug. 10, " 

Lord Ashburton leaves the United States, Sept. 5; 
arrives iu England Sept. 23, " 



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Death of Dr. Chanuing Oct. 2,1842 

War declared against the United States by Mex- 
ico oil account of the proposed annexation of 
Texas June 4,1845 

[Several actions are fought between the belliger- 
ents, adverse to Mexico.] 

Kesolutiou of the Senate and House of Represent- 
atives for terminating the joint occupancy of 
Oregon April 20,1840 

Annexation of New Mexico to the United States 
after a j)rotracted war Aug. 23, " 

Treaty fixing the northwest boundary of the Uni- 
ted States at the 49th parallel of latitude, and 
giviug the British possession of Vancouver's 
Island the free navigation of the Columbia Riv- 
er, etc., signed June 12, " 

The Mexicans defeated by General Taylor at Bue- 
na Vista Feb. 22, 23,1S47 

Vera Cruz taken by storm, March 29 ; the Mexicans 
every where worsted. Great battle of Cerro Gor- 
do ; the Mexicans signally defeated by General 
Scott April 18, " 

Treaty between Mexico and the United States rat- 
ified May 19,1848 

Riot at the Theatre, New York, caused by the dis- 
pute between Forrest and Macready May 10,1849 

Proclamation of the President against the ma- 
rauding expedition to Cuba* Aug. 11, " 

The French ambassador dismissed from Washing- 
ton Sept. 14, " 

Treaty with England for a transit way across Pan- 
ama r. 1S50 

Death of Mr. Calhoun March 31, " 

Destructive fire in Philadelphia July 9, " 

California admitted into the Union Aug. 15, " 

Fugitive Slave Bill passed " 

President Fillmore issues a second proclamation 
against the promoters of a second expedition to 
Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted with mil- 
itary stores destined for that island, is seized, 

April 25,1851 

Census of the United States taken; the population 
ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in the whole 
Union June 16, " 

Death of Henry Clay, the American statesman, 
aged 75 June 29, " 

Failure of the second expedition against Cuba by 
Lopez and his followers ; they are all defeated 
and taken ; 51 are shot by the Cuban authori- 
ties ; Lopez is garroted, and the rest are sent 
prisoners to Spain, where, after some negotia- 
tion, they are mercifully set at liberty (see Cuba), 

Aug.-Sept., " 

Death of J. F. Cooper, the American novelist, 

Sept. 17, . " 

The President issues a proclamation against the 
sympathizers with the revolutionary movement 
in Mexico Oct. 22, " 

Part of the Capitol at Washington, and the whole 
of the library of the United States Congress, de- 
stroyed by fire Dec. 24, " 

M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at Wash- 
ington, on the invitation of the United States 
Congress Dec. 30, " 

Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 
Stowe :March 20,1852 

The dispute with England relating to the Fish- 
eries occurs about this time; Mr. Webster's note 
upon the subject July 14, " 

Lone Star Society (see Lone Star) Aug., " 

The United States ship Crescent City boarded at 
Havana, and not allowed to laud her mails or 
passengers Oct. 3, " 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster, 
in his 70th year Oct. 24, " 

Expedition to Japan " 

Address to the women of America on slavery, 
adopted by the Duchess of Sutherland and oth- 
er ladies (signed afterward by 576,000 English- 
women Nov. 26, " 

Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta). .June 21,1853 

Crystal Palace opens at New York July 14, " 

Duel between Mr. Soulo (American minister at 
Madrid) and M. Turgot Dec. IS, " 

Great fire at NewYork— Great Republic clipper de- 
stroyed Dec. 20, " 

AstorLibrary,N.York,o pened to the public, Jan. 9,1854 

* This expedition, notwithstnndin);, under a Spanish adventurer 
named Lopez, landed 600 men at Cuba. After a short but obstinate 
struggle, they took the town of Cardenas, and shortly afterward had a 
land engagement with some Spanish soldiers, in which many of them 
were killed or taken prisoners ; the others then embarked with Lopez 
in the Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish war steamer, 
the Pharro, May, 1850. The second expedition of Lopez, in Aug., 1851, 
was, however, fatal to him and his followers, as above related. 



William Walker proclaims the republic of Sonora 
divided into two states — Sonora and Lower Cal- 
ifornia Jan. 18,lS&i 

American steamer Bla<:k Warrior seized at Cuba, 

Feb. 28, " 

The Spanish government remitted the fine, but 
considered the seizure legal April, " 

Commercial treaty concluded between Japan and 
United States by Commodore Perry (sent there 
for the purpose) March 23, " 

Captain Hollins, in American sloop Cyane, bom- 
bards San Juan de Nicaragua July 13, " 

Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 
United States (respecting Newfoundland fish- 
ery, international trade, etc.) ratified Aug. 2, " 

Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 
Islands Oct., " 

Dreadful election riots in Kansas, March and April,lS55 

Indian War ; they are defeated April 25, 29, " 

Dispute with British government on enlistment 
(see Foreign Legion) July, " 

General Harney gains a victory over the Sioux 
Indians Sept. 3, " 

Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
Representative Preston Brooks in the senate- 
house for speaking against slavery May 2,1S5G 

Mr. Cramptou, British envoy, dismissed.. .May 28, " 

John C. Fremont nominated the "Republican" 
candidate for the presidency June 17, " 

Battle in Kansas ; the pro-slavery men (under 
Capt. Rcid) defeat Brown and the Abolitionists, 

Aug. 30, " 

James Buchanan elected President Nov. 4, " 

The liefiulute presented to Queen Victpria (see 
Franklin) Dec. 12, " 

Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
States (Jan. 10) ; warmly received March 18,1857 

Central American question settled JIarch, " 

Judgment given in the "Dred Scott" case in the 
Siipreme Court. He was claimed as a slave in 
a free state: 2 judges declared for his freedom, 
5 against it, which caused great dissatisfaction 
throughout the free states March, " 

Disorganized state of Utah; troops march to sup- 
port new governor May and June, " 

Riots in Washington against Irish electors, June 1, " 

And in New York on accoimt of changes in the po- 
lice arrangements June, " 

Insurrection in Kansas quelled Ji^lyi " 

Commercial panic in New York Aug., " 

Outrage at Staten Island Quarantine house burnt, 

Sept. 7, " 

Dispute respecting right of search settled May,1858 

Tranquillity restored in Utah June, " 

Great rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 
Telegraph (see Submarine Telegraph) Aug., " 

Lieut. Maffltt seizes the American slave-ship Echo 
and takes her to Charleston Sept., " 

Death of W. H. Prescott, the historian Jan. 28,1859 

Daniel E. Sickles, a government ofticial, killing 
Philip Barton Key for adultery with his wife, is 
acquitted of murder amid much applause, 

Feb. 20, " 

The American Commodore Tattnall assists the 
English at the Chinese engagement on the Riv- 
er Peiho, saying, "Blood is thicker than water," 

June 25, " 

General Ward, the LTnited States envoy, goes to 
Pekin, but does not see the emperor July, " 

General Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, 
near Vancouver's Island, "to protect tne Amer- 
ican settlers;" moderation of the British, who 
have a naval force at hand ; Governor Douglas 
also sends troops July 27, " 

Insurrection at Harper's Ferry* Oct. 16, " 

General Harney superseded by General Scott at 
San Juan, who makes conciliatory overtures; 
accepted by Governor Douglas Nov., " 

Death of Washington Irving. Nov. 26, " 



* John Brown, called Captain Brown and old Brown, was a promi- 
nent leader in the violent conflicts in Kansas during the agitation re- 
specting the question of its becoming a slave state. He was a mono- 
maniac on the slavery question, and contended that all means for an- 
nihilating slavery were justitiable. He gathered together a band of 
desperate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri and other slave 
states that a reward was offered for his head. He had arranged for 
the successful issue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far as to 
devise a provisional government and a new Constitution. On Oct. 16, 
he and his band, aided by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 
a town on the borders of Virginia and Maryland, stopped the railway 
trains, and cut the telegraph wires ; a conflict with the military en- 
sued, when many of the insurgents were killed. Brown was captured, 
tried, and executed on Dec. 2 ; and several of his companions were ex- 
ecuted in March, 1860. These events caused a temporary panic in the 
Southern States, and much excitement in Boston and other Northern 
towns. 



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Great agitation in the Congress, Nov., 1859; no 
ppeaker elected till Feb.l.lSGO 

President Uuclianau protests against a propos^ed 
inquiry into his acts March 28, " 

The National Hepublican Convention meet at Chi- 
cago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate for 
the presidency May 16, " 

Jai)anese embassy received by the President at 
Washington May 17, " 

Fresh disputes at San Juan, through General Har- 
ney, who is recalled May, " 

Samuel G. Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies May, " 

The National Democratic Convention meet at Bal- 
timore; a large number of delegates secede; the 
remainder nominate Stephen A.'Douglas as Pres- 
ident ; the seceders nominate JohnC. Breckin- 
ridge June 18, " 

The (ircat Eastern arrives at New York. .June 23, " 

The Prince of Wales arrives at Detroit, in the 
United States Sept. 20; visits Washington, Oct. 
3 ; Philadeli)hia, Cct, 9 ; New York, Oct. 11 ; Bos- 
ton, Oct. IT ; embarks at Portland Oct. 20, " 

Abraham Lincoln, the Kepublicau candidate, elect- 
ed President* (see Sovllicni Confederacy) Nov. 6, " 

Intense excitement at Charleston, S. C, and in 
other Southern States Nov., " 

Smith Carolina nececlen from the L^nion Dec. 20, " 

Major Anderson, of United States Army, occupies 
Fort Sumter, in South Carolina Dec. 26, " 

Delegates from South Carolina not received by 
the President Dec. 30, " 

Vacillating policy of President Buchanan ; the sec- 
retaries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson re- 
sign Dec, 18G0-Jan.,lSGl 

New York and other Northern States protest 
against the secession ; a general fast proclaim- 
ed; observed on Jan. 4, " 

Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified Jan. 12, " 

Kansas admitted a stcite Jan. 21, " 

Secession (by Convention) of Mississippi, Jan. S; 
Alabama and Florida, Jan. 11 ; Georgia, Jan. 19 ; 
Louisiana, Jan. 26; Texas (by Legislntnre) Feb.l, " 

Jeflferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, 
is inaugurated President of the " Southern Con- 
federacy" at Montgomery, Alabama Feb. 18, " 

New (Morrill) Tariff Bill passed (nearly prohibits 
commerce with England) March 2, " 

President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men to 
be raised) March, " 

Lincoln, inaugurated President at Washington, 
says "the central idea of secession is the essence 
of anarchy" March 4, " 

Southern commissioners not received by the Pres- 
ident at Washington March 12, " 

General Wintield Scott, in a letter to President 
Lincoln, sets before him four courses : either, 
I., to surrender to slavery half the territory ac- 
quired or to be acquired; IL, to blockade all 
revolted ports ; IIL, to say to seceding states, 
"Wayward sisters, go in peace !" or, IV., to con- 
quer the South, which would require 300,000, and 
afterward a resident army [the letter became 
pnblic in Oct., 1862] March, " 

Great excitement at the operation of the new Mor- 
rill Tariff, which begins April 1, " 

TJie ivar be'jhis: Major Anderson refuses to siirreu- 
der Fort Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, 
April 11 ; it is taken by the Secessionists after a 
bloodless conflict April 13, " 

President Lincoln summons the Congress to meet 
on July 4 ; issues a proclamation calling on the 
states to furnish a contingent of 75,000 men, 
etc April 15, " 

Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and oth- 
er states zealously respond, with vigorous prep- 
arations for war; Kentucky, North Carolina, 
Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, decidedly 
refuse, asserting the proposed coercion to be 
wicked, ilU"_':iI, and unconstitutional April, " 

The mob in liallinioie, Maryland, attack some Mas- 
sachusetts regiments on their way to Wasliing- 
tou, severnlijcrsons killed in thecontlict,Apr.l9, " 

President Davis issues letters of marque, April 17 ; 
President Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the 
ports of seceding states April 19, " 

United States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, 
fired by command, and 4.'i,000 stand of arms de- 
stroyed, April IS; nine sliips of war and naval 
stores in the navy yard, Norfolk, Va., burnt, to 
prevent them falling into theliands of the South- 
ern Confederates, who occupy the place, Apr. 21, " 



* 303 oloctnrs nre appoinle'l to vote for a President ; 1.^*2 to be n ma- 
jorily. The numhcrs were, for Aliraliain Lincoln, ISO ; John C. Breck- 
inridge, 72; John 13ell,3U; Stijjhen A. Dougla-s, 12. 



Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes bv ordi- 

nance (the 8th state) April 25,1801 

Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three years. 
May 3, and informs foreign powers of his inten- 
tion to inaintain the Union by war May 4, " 

The Confederates under Beauregard and John- 
ston, in Virginia, threaten Washington, defend- 
ed by the Federals under Generals Winfield 

Scott and George B. M'Clellan May, " 

The British queen commands her subjects to be 

neutral in the ensuing war May 13, " 

The Federals enter Virginia; Beauregard calls on 

the Virginians to rise and expel them. . .June 1, " 
Formal secession of Arkansas, May 6 ; N. Carolina 

May 20; Tenne.ssee (9th, 10th, and 11th), June S, " 
Several British vessels seized while endeavoring 
to break the blockade ; the Southern privateer 

Savannah captm-ed June " 

Neutrality announced by French emperor, June lo' " 

Past-day in Confederate States June 13, " 

Missouri.* — Geuevid Lyon raises a Federal army 
and defeats the state troops, June 17; the Fed- 
erals successful at Carthage, July 5 ; Fremont 
takes command in West Missouri, July 26 ; Fed- 
erals victorious at Athens, Aug. 5; at Wilson's 
Creek (General Lyon killed), Aug. 10; Fremont 
proclaims martial law, and freedom to slaves or 
rebels, Aug. 31 ; Lexington surrenders to Con- 
federates, Sept. 20; Fremont, blamed, retires; 

succeeded by Hunter Nov. 2, " 

rfiv/nn'a.*— Federals defeated at Big Bethel, June 
10; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated by the 
Confederates, June 16; Colonel Pegram and 600 

Confederates surrender at Beverley July 13, " 

M'Clellan defeats Confederates at Rich Mountain, 
July 11 ; Paterson permits the junction of the 
Confederates under Johnston and Beauregard 
near Manassas, July 15, who are repulsed at 

Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville July IS, " 

Battle of Bull Run (tvhichsee) or Manassas, Virgin- 
ia; the Federals, seized with panic, fiee in utter 

disorder July 21, " 

Meeting of United States Congress, July 4; a loan 

of 250 million dollars authorized July 17, " 

Meeting of Confederate Congress at Richmond, 

Virginia July 20, " 

Passport system introduced into the Northern 
States, and the liberty of the press greatly re- 
stricted Aug., " 

The charges in the Morrill Tariff greatly raised ; 
the Confederates prohibit exportation of cotton 

except by Southern ports Aug., •' 

Federal Gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. Caro- 
lina (700 prisoners, 1000 stand of arms), Aug. 29, " 

Fast-day in Federal States Sept. 26, " 

Garibaldi declines command in the Federal army, 

Sept., " 
Battle of Ball's Bluff; Federals defeated and Gen. 
Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia; hundreds 

drowned Oct. 21, " 

The Federals and Confederates enter Kentucky; 
the governor protests ; many skirmishes, 

Sept.-Dec, •' 
Resignation of Lieut. Gen. Scott, Oct. 31 ; George 
B. M'Clellan made commander-in-chief of the 

Federal army Nov. 1, " 

The Federal General Sherman takes Port Royal 

forts, South Carolina Nov. 7, 8, " 

Capt. Wilkes, of Federal war steamer San Jaeiutn, 
boards the Royal British mail-packet Trent, and 
carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, Confed- 
erate commissioners, and their secretaries, Nov. 

8, and conveys them to Boston Nov. 19, " 

Great rejoicings in the Northern States at the cap- 
ture of Mason and Slidell Nov., " 

M'Clellan reviews 70,000 men Nov. 20, " 

Capt. Pegram, of Confederate steamer XashviUe, 
burns the Federal ship Harvey Birch, Nov. 19, 
and brings the crew on to Southampton, Nov.21, " 
A secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- 
souri, Nov. 2 ; the same in Kentucky.. . Nov. 30, " 
Dissensions increase between the Republicans 
(Abolitionists) and the Democrats in New York, 

etc Nov., " 

Jefferson Davis elected President of Confederate 

States for six years Nov. 30, " 

President Lincoln states that the Federal armies 

comprise 660,971 men Dec. 2, " 

Meeting of Congress, which votes thanks to Capt. 
Wilkes, Dec. 2; the foreign envoys at Washing- 
ton protest against his act Dec. S, " 

The Federals commence sinking hulks filled with 



Very many skirmishes took place, with 



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stones to block up Charleston Harbor, South 
Carolina [it created much indignation in Eu- 
Sland] Dec. 21,1S62 

Banks at New York, etc., suspend cash payments, 

Dec. 30, " 

A firm dispatch from the British government ar- 
rives, Dec. IS, ISOl ; Mason, etc., surrendered, 
sail lor Europe Jan. 1,1S62 

Phelps's fruitless expedition to Ship Island, Mis- 
sissippi Sound Dec. 3, ISGl-Jan., " 

Confederate Gen. Zollicoffer defeated and slain at 
Mill Springs, or Somerset, Ky Jan. 19, " 

Tennessee. — The Federals take Fort Henry, Feb. 6; 
Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, Feb. 16; 
and Nashville Feb. 23, " 

Confederates defeated at Pea Kidge, Ark. .Mar. 6,7, " 

Confederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys 
the Federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in 
Hampton Roads, March 8 ; is repulsed by Fed- 
eral iron-clad floating battery Monitor.. Murch 9, " 

M'Clellan and his army (100,000) cross the Poto- 
mac and find the Confederate camp at Rull Kuu 
evacuated March 10, " 

M'Clellan resigns general command, and assumes 
that of the Army of the Potomac only; Fremont 
that of the Mountain Department ; and Halleck 
that of the Mississippi March 11, " 

Burnside's expedition sails, Jan. 11 ; takes Roan- 
oke, N. Carolina, Feb. t, 8 ; Newbern.. March 14, " 

Captain Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 
Emily St.Pierre, a merchantman,* from the Fed- 
erals March 21, " 

Confederates defeated at Winchester. . .March 23, " 

General Buruside occupies Beaufort and Fort 
Macon April 1, " 

Slavery abolished in District of Columbia.. April 4, " 

M'Clellan advances into Virginia with the view of 
taking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, held 
by 20,'000 Confederates April 5, " 

Correspondents of English newspapers excluded 
from the Federal army April 5, " 

Great battles ofShiloh or Pittsburg Landing, near 
Corinth, Tennessee ; a drawn battle ; the Con- 
federates lose their able general, Albert Sidney 
Johnston April 6, T, " 

Treaty between Great Britain and the U.States for 
the suppression of the slave-trade April 7, " 

Federals take Fort Pulaski, on the Savannah, Apr, 
11 ; and New Orleans April 26-2S, " 

Yorktown evacuated by the Confederates. .May 5, " 

The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States for the suppression of the 
slave-trade, signed April 7 ; ratified May 20, " 

Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, May 5; 
their naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, surren- 
ders. May 10 ; they burn the Merrimac ...May 11 , " 

Commodore Farragut, with a flotilla, ascends the 
Mississippi May, " 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by Federals May, " 

M'Clellan takes Hanover Court-house May 27, " 

Skirmishes in Virginia ; success varving !May " 

Severe battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond (in- 
decisive) May 31, June 1, " 

Beauregard and the Confederates retreat from 
Corinth, Tennessee, May 30; pursued by Hal- 
leck and the Federals June " 

Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken June o' " 

Federals defeated near Charleston June le' " 

Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and M 'Dow- 
ell, placed under Pope; Fremont resigns, June 27 " 

Federals sufler in several severe engagements iii 
Virginia June 25-30, " 

General Butler excites great indignation by his 
military rigor at New Orleans. . .May and June " 

U. States debt estimated at i;i00,000,000 June^ " 

Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy, before 
Richmond ; the Confederate Gen. Lee compels 
M'Clellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 
miles, taking up a position at"^Harrison's Land- 
ing, on James River June 2G-July 1, " 

The tariff" still farther raised July, " 

Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and Ten- 
nessee with Confederate guerrilla parties, 

June a nd July, " 

* She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, and wliiltTat- 
tempting to inquire whether a blockade existed, was captured off 
Charleston Bar by a Federal ship of war. Her captain, William Wil- 
son, and his cook and steward, were permitted to remain on board on 
her voyage to Philadelphia. On March 1, 1862, Wilson, with his two 
associates, succeeded, by stratagem and coiirage, in recovering the 
command of the vessel, "overcoming two United States officers and 13 
sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. The owners of the ship gave 
him 2000 guineas, and the Liverpool merchants presented him with a 
magnificent testimonial of their admir,ition of his gallantrv. The 
British government refused to restore the vessel when claimei by the 
Americans. 



Lincoln visits and encourages the army of M'Clel- 
lan, and calls for 300,000 volunteers July,lS62 

Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the property 
and emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms 
after 60 days July 17, " 

Halleck supersedes M'Clellan as commander-in- 
chief. July 26, " 

Slow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
and Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the 
President ordains a draft if the volunteers are 
not ready by Aug. 15 July, " 

Public debt of the United States estimated at 
$1,222,000,000 July 1, " 

Pope takes command of army in Virginia, July 14, " 

Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of property 
of rebels July 26, " 

Battle of Baton Rouge, Louisiana Aug. 5, " 

Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his subor- 
dinate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by General 
Thos. Jonathan (" Stonewall"*) Jackson, Aug. 9, " 

M'Clellan retreats from Harrison's Landing, 

Aug.16, " 

The Federals surprised, and Pope loses his dis- 
patch-book Aug. 25, " 

Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and at- 
tacks him at Groveton, Aug. 29 ; and when re- 
enforced by Lee, defeats him and M'Dowell at 
Bull Run, Aug. 30 ; Pope retreats to Centreville, 

Sept. 1, " 

The remains of Pope's army flee behind the lines 
of Washington, Sept. 2 ; he is removed to the 
Northwest^to act against the Indian insurrec- 
tion Sept. 3, " 

M'Dowell superseded ; charged with treachery, he 
claims a trial Sept., " 

M'Clellan, appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
Washington, and marches against the Confeder- 
ates under Lee, who have crossed the Potomac 
and entered Maryland Sept. 5, 6, " 

Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap, Sejit. 14- 
16 ; Confederates, after a great fight near Antie- 
tam Creek andSharpsburg Road, retreat, Sept.l7, " 

Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, Sept. 15 ; 
he crosses the Potomac and joins Lee's army, 

Sept. 17, " 

Thanksgiving-day in Southern States Sept. IS, " 

Rosecrans defeats Confederates at luka. .Sept. 19, " 

Confederates re-enter Virginia Sept. 22, " 

Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the 
Confederate States on Jan. 1, 1863, if the states 
have not returned to the Union Sept. 22, " 

Secret convention of 16 governors of states at Al- 
tooua, Penn., approve "Lincoln's policy, Sept. 24, " 

Draft of 40,000 men ordered in New York State by 
Oct. 15 Sept., " 

Lincoln suspends the habeas corpus writ, and au- 
thorizes severe measures against disloyal per- 
sons Sept. 25-27, " 

Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 
Mississippi, Oct. 3-5; and at Perryville, Ken- 
tucky Oct. 8, " 

Confederate Gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 
and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambersburg 
and other places, carrying oft" horses, ammuni- 
tion, etc. ; rides round the Federal army, and re- 
turns to his camp Oct. 10, 13, " 

Gold at 29 premium at New York Oct., " 

Great Democratic meeting at New York, condemn- 
ing the President's policy Oct. 12, " 

At New Orleans Butler compels all persons who 
refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send in 
their names to the provost-marshal and register 
their propert.y Oct. 12, " 

M'Clellan's headquarters at Harper's Ferry,Oct.l7, " 

Raid of Confederate Gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; 
he carries ofl" SO Federal wagons of ammunition, 
etc Oct. IS, " 

Ten Confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot l)y or- 
der of Gen. M'Neil in consequence of the disap- 
pearance of Abraham Allsman Oct. IS, " 

M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French gov- 
ernment, proposes joint mediation in the Amer- 
ican conflict to Great Britain and Russia, Oct. 
30; declined by Gortschakoff, Nov. 8; bv Earl 
Russell Nov. 13, " 

The Confederate steamer Alabama, Captain Sem- 
mes, captures many U. S. vessels, and excites 
much alarm at New York Oct.-Dec., " 

Elections for next Congress ; great majority for 
the Democratic (opposition) candidates in New 
York and several other states Nov. 4, " 

M'C lellan, while advancing toward Richmond, is 

* He obtained the name by commanding his troops, at the battle of 
Bull Run, to stand like a " stone wall.',' 



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pnpersecled by General Burnside, who continues 
the advance Nov. 7,1SG'2 

President Davis threatens reprisals if Gen. M'Neil 
is not surrendered (.see Oct. IS) Nov. 17, " 

Bnrnside summons Fredericksburg to surrender; 
(.'(ni federate Gen. Lee, with about 8(),noo men, 
near Nov. '2'2, " 

1011,(1(11) Federal soldiers on the sick-list Nov., " 

Great honor sliown to M'Clellan ; he is proposed 
as the next president Nov., " 

The Federal u'liverninent orders the release of dis- 
aft'ected persons in prisons Nov. '25, " 

Annual session of U. S. Congress ; the President 
recommends compensated emancipation of all 
Blaves in the loyal states before the year 1900, 

Dec. 1, " 

Battle of Fredericksburg {ivhich ace) ; Burnside 
crosses the Rappahannock, Dec. 10 ; bombards 
Fredericksburg, Dec. 11 ; a series of desperate 
attacks on the Confederates ; he is totally de- 
feated, Dec. 13, and recrosses the river. .Dec. 15, " 

Engagements in Tennessee with varying results, 

Dec, " 

Discovery of frauds in the TJ. S. army financial ac- 
counts; public dissatislaction with the govern- 
ment ; Secretaries Chase and Seward resign, but 
resume ollice Dec, " 

Battles near Murfreesborough, or Stone River, be- 
tween Rosecraus and the Federals and Braxton 
Bragg and the Confederates: begin Dec. 29 ; se- 
vere but indecisive, Dec. 31 ; battle continued, 
Jan. 1 ; Bragg defeated, retreats Jan. 2,1863 

["There have been about 2000 battles and skir- 
mishes since the commencement of the war." — 
Americaii Almanac.^ 

President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves 
in the rebel states, except in parts held by the 
U. S. army Jan. 2, 

Gen. Burnside superseded by Gen. Joseph Hook- 
«er in command of Army of the Potomac, Jan. 26, 

The French government's offer of mediation, Jan. 
9, declined Feb. 6, ' 

The George Gritnvold, a vessel containing provis- 
ions and other relief for the distressed cotton- 
workers in Lancashire, arrives Feb. 9, ' 

A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
passed Feb. 25, ' 

Congress authorizes the suspension of the Habeas 
Corpus Act, March 3 ; and establishes a Nation- 
al Academy of Sciences at Washington, March 4, ' 

Confederate loan for £3,000,000 well taken up in 
Europe March, ' 

Charleston, S. Carolina, attacked by monitors and 
gun-boats ; the Keokuk, a monitor, sunk, Ai)ril T, ' 

Battle of Chancellorsville {which sec) ; the Feder- 
als, under Hooker, cross the Rappahannock, 
April 2S ; defeated (Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson 
is mortally wounded). May 2-4 ; Hooker recross- 
es the Raijpahaunock May 5, ' 

"Stonewall" Jackson dies May 9, ' 

Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee : he de- 
feats the Confederates, under Joseph Johnston, 
at Jackson, May 14; and under Pemberton, at 
Champion Hills, May 16 ; and invests Vicksburg, 
Mississippi, which is strongly fortified. May IS; 
a dreadful assault on it repelled May 22, " 

Great peace meeting at Norfolk June 5, " 

Confederate invasiiin under Lee : invade Mary- 
land and Pennsylvania, and take various towns, 

June 14, ct seq. 

The Federal Gen. Hooker stiperseded by George 
H. Meade June 27, " 

Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of Get- 
tysburg, indecisive; but the Confederates evac- 
uate Pennsylvania and Maryland July 1-3, " 

Vicksburg bombarded, July 3 ; surrendered by 
Pemberton to Grant and Porter July 4, " 

Port Hudson, a Confederate fortress on the Mis- 
sissippi, surrenders July 8, " 

Fierce riots at New York against the conscription ; 
many negroes murdered, and mucli property de- 
stroyed July 13-f (i, " 

The Sioux defeated, Aug. 7 ; Gen. Pope reports 
that the Indian war is ended Aug., " 

New York rioters tried and convicted, Aug. 12; 
conscrijition going on peaceably Aiig. 21, " 

Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard — 
attacks with variecl success, July ; Fort Sumter 
bombarded and destroyed (and so-called Greek 
flre employed) ; attacks on the ruins repulsed, 

Aug. 21, 22, " 

Knoxville occupied by Burnside Sept. in, " 

A Russian squadron warmly received at New 
York Sept. and Oct., " 



5 UNI 

Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee; Rosecrans de- 
feated by Bragg. Sept. 20,1SC3 

jMason, tlie Coiilederate commissioner in England 
pnncsts against the mode of his reception, and 
H^Ms ggpj 22 << 

Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers Oct' 17* " 

Rosecrans's command of the Federal army in Ten- ' 
nessee superseded by Grant and Thomas, and 
Sherman q'Jj ^g .i 

The steam rams El Torismn and kfiumn'ssir built 
by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and suspected' to be 
lor the Confederates, are placed under charo-e of 
a government vessel in the Mersey Oct 31 " 

British consuls diijmissedfromSoutli'u State" Oct ' " 

Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the north 
side of the Rappahannock Nov 7 " 

Chief Justices Lowrie, Woodward, aiid Thomp- 
son declare that the Conscription Act is uncon- 
stitutional j;fpy ^2 " 

Longstr(2et defeats Burnside,' and comp(3ls him t(3 




Nov. 29 and Dec. 1, 

The Confederate Gen. Bragg superseded by Har- 
dee Dec. 2 " 

Lincoln's message to Congress warlike ; he prof- 
fers amnesty to all except heads of governments, 
etc., Dec. 4; Davis's message: firm, but acknowl- 
edging reverses Dec. 7, " 

Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the Con- 
federate army in Georgia Dec. 27, " 

President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men for 
three years Feb. 1,1SC4 

Federal expedition into Florida ; defeated at Olus- 
tee Feb. 20, " 

Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren ou 
Richmond Feb. 27-March 1, " 

Ulysses S. Grant made commander-in-chief, suc- 
ceeding Halleck March 2, " 

Confederate raids into the Western States, March, " 

James E. B. Stuart, the celebrated Confederate 
cavalry officer, killed May 11, " 

Campaign in Virginia ; the Army of the Potomac 
crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee (now sup- 
ported by Longstreet), May 2; severe battle in 
the "Wilderness" (near Chancellorsville) ; inde- 
cisive. May 5, 0; battle of Spottsylvauia ; the 
Federals remain on the field ; much carnage, 

May 11, 12, " 

Sherman (in Georgia) beats the Confederates at 
Resaca, May 14, and at Dallas May 2S, " 

Fugitive Slave Act repealed by the House of Rep- 
resentatives June 13, " 

After a succession of attacks on both sides, Grant 
compels Lee to retire gradually, and by a flank 
movement marches to the other side of Rich- 
mond, and faces Petersburg, June 15, where, 
having taken the first iutrenchments after des- 
perate assaults, he is repulsed with considerable 
loss June 18, " 

The Confederate steamer^Ja&ama (Capt Semme.s) 
attacked and sunk by the United States corvette 
Kearsarge (Captain Wiuslow) near Cherbourg, 
France June 19, " 

Lee invades Maryland, July 1 ; defeats Wallace 
near Mouocacy River, July 9; threatens Balti- 
more and Washington, and retreats . .July 12,13, " 

Sherman's three batlles at Atlanta (Georgia), July 
20,22; victory remains with the Federals, July 28, " 

Confederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, and destroy Chambersburg July .-10, " 

Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Peters- 
burg, whereby 250 Confederates are killed ; but 
the'assault following is repulsed with great 
slaughter July 30, " 

Mr. Chase, Secretary to the United States Treas- 
ury, resirrus; succeededby Mr. Fessenden..Jul.v, " 

The Tallahassee, Confederate steamer (built in 
Loudon), destroys manyUnitedStates merchant- 
men .Tuly, Aug., " 

Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah Valley; the 
Federals victors Au"-., " 

The Confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by 
Farragut, Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken Aug. 8, " 

M'Clellan nominated for the Presidency by the 
"Democratic" Chicago Convention Sept. 1, " 

Sherman occupies Atlanta; the Confederate Gen. 
Hood retires Sept. 1, " 

Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, 

Sept. 7, " 

M'Clellan declares for maintaining the Union ; 
the Democratic party divided Sept. 13, " 



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486 



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Sheridan (Federal) defeats Early at Wiuchester, 
in Shenandoah Valley, with great loss. .Sept. 19,1864 

Longstreet replaces Early in the command of the 
Confederates Oct., " 

Longstreet defeats the Federals at Cedar Creek ; 
Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats 
the Confederates Oct. 19, " 

St.Alban's Raid. — Between 20 and 30 armed men 
enter St. Alban's, Vermont; rob the bank, and 
carry offhorses and stores; fire on and kill sev- 
eral persons, and flee to Canada, Oct. 19, where 
13 of them are arrested Oct. 21, " 

Lincoln re-elected President; M'Clellan resigns 
his command in United States army Nov. 8, " 

Sherman destroys Atlanta, and begins his march 
through Georgia to Savannah Nov. 10, " 

Lincoln's message to Congress considered "bold," 

Dec. 6, " 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge Cour- 
sol ; General Dix issues an order for reprisals 
(annulled by the President) Dec. 14, " 

Hood defeated by Thomas (Federal) near Nash- 
ville Dec. 15, 16, " 

Sherman storms Fort M'Allister, Dec. 13 ; his army 
enters Savannah Dec. 21, " 

Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of General 
Butler and Admiral Porter repulsed. .Dec. 24, 25, " 

The St. Alban's raiders recaptured and committed 
for trial Dec. 27, et seq., " 

The Federal Congress abolishes slavery in the 
United States Feb. 1,1805 

Fruitless meeting of President Lincoln and Secre- 
tary Seward with the Confederate Secretary Ste- 
phens and two commissioners, to treat for peace 
at Fortress Monroe Feb. 3, 

The Canadian government surrenders Bnrley, a 
raider, to the Federals Feb. 3, 

Lee takes the general command of the Confeder- 
ate armies ; he recommends the enlistment of 
negroes Feb. IS, 

Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
evacuated by the Confederates ; retreat of Beau- 
regard Feb. 22, 

The Confederate Congress decree the arming of 
the slaves Feb. 22, 

A new stringent tariffcomes into operation.. Apr.l, 

Three days' sanguinary conflict at Petersburg : at 
first favorable to the Confederates, March 31 ; 
Sheridan turns Lee's front at Five Forks, Apr. 1 ; 
and Lee retreats April 2, 

Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by the Con- 
federates and occupied by Grant April 2, 

Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Farmville, 
Apr. 6 ; Lee surrenders, with the Army of North- 
ern Virginia, to Grant, at Appomattox Court- 
house April 9, ' 

Mobile evacuated by the Confederates. ...April 12, 

The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charles- 
ton April 14, ' 

President Lincoln shot in the head at Ford's Thea- 
tre, Washington, about 10 o'clock P.M., April 14, 
by J. Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. Seward, 
the foreign secretary, and his sou, wounded in 
his own house by an assassin about the same 
time ; Lincoln dies at 7.30 A.M., April 15 ; An- 
drew Johnson, Vice-president, sworn in as Pres- 
ident April 15, ' 

The convention between Sherman and Johnston 
(favorable to Confederates), April 18, disavowed 
by the government, April 21 ; Johnston surren- 
ders on same terms as Lee April 25, ' 

J. Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
captured in a farm-house April 20, ' 

The Confederate General Dick Taylor (near Mo- 
bile) surrenders May 4, ' 

President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, 
Georgia (and consigned to prison) May 10, ' 

The Confederate General Kirby Smith, in Texas, 
surrenders ; end of the war May 20, ' 

President Johnson proclaims a conditional am- 
nesty May 20, ' 

President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
Southern ports. May 22; and an amnesty with 
certain exemptions May 29, ' 

Solemn fast observed for death of President Lin- 
coln June 1, ' 

Galveston, Texas, the last sea - port held by the 
South, surrendered by Kirby Smith Junes, ' 

The British and French governments rescind their 
recognition of the Confederates as belligerents, 

June 2, 0, ' 

President Johnson uniting with the Democrats 
and acting leniently toward the South; reorgan- 
ization of the state governments June, ' 



Close of the long trial of the conspirators, June 
29 ; execution of Payne, Atzerott, llarrold or 
Herold, and Mrs. Suratt July 7,1865 

All Southern prisoners of war to be released on 
parole on taking the oath of allegiance. .July29, " 

Federal debt declared $2,757,253,275 July 31, " 

The Confederate privateer Shenandoah (Captain 
Waddell) captures and destroys many Federal 
vessels (about 30) Aug., " 

Pacific policy of President Johnson ; he declares 
himself opposed to centralization and in favor 
of state rights ; and is bitterly opposed by the 
Radicals Sept., " 

Correspondence between Earl Russell and Mr. 
Adams (LTnited States minister at London) re- 
specting the Alaba7na, Confederate privateer; 
proposal of a commission to whom claims for 
reparation shall be referred Apr. 7-Sept. 18, " 

Much public discussion respecting equal negro suf- 
frage July, Oct., " 

The national debt stated to be £000,000,000. . .Oct, " 

Gen. Robert E; Lee becomes President of Wash- 
ington College, Virginia Oct. 2, " 

Several Southern States pass ordinances annulling 
secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing 
the Confederate debt Sept., Oct., Nov., " 

National thanksgiving for the peace Nov. 2, " 

Captain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, Nov. 0; sur- 
renders the Shenandoah to the British govern- 
ment, stating that he had not heard of the end 
of the war till Aug. 2 ; he and his crew paroled, 
Nov. 8 ; the vessel given up to the American 
consul Nov. 9, " 

Captain Wirz, after along military trial, executed 
for ciiielty to the Federal prisoners at Anderson- 
ville Nov. 10, " 

A Negro Convention at Charleston appeals for 
justice and generosity Nov. 25, " 

Ex -President Buchanan publishes his justifica- 
tion Nov., " 

Habeas Corpus Act restored in Northern States, 

' Dec. 1, " 

Close of correspondence between the British and 
United States governments respecting depreda- 
tions of the A labama, Shenandoah, etc. The Earl 
of Clarendon maintains that "no armed vessel 
departed during the war from a British port to 
cruise against the commerce of the LTnited 
States" Dec. 2, " 

President Johnson's message conciliatory and 
firm (he requires from the Southern States re- 
peal of their act of secession, abolition of slave- 
ry, and repudiation of Confederate debt). .Dec. 4, " 

The Radical party, opposed to the President and 
to clemency to the South, predominate in the 
Congress, and move violent resolutions against 
the restoration of Southern States to the Union, 

Dec, " 

Estimated Federal debt, £600,000,000; revenue, 
£80,000,000 Dec, " 

85 members for the Southern States excluded from 
Congress ; the Conservative party support the 
President in his endeavors to reconstruct the 
Union ; the Radicals violently oppose his poll 
cy, requiring the South to undergo previously a 
severe probation ; the President has restored 
state government to all the Southern States ex- 
cept Texas and Florida Dec. 29, " 

PRRSinF.NTS OP THE TTNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 

1789. General George Washington, the first President. 

Elected April 6. 
1793. General Washington again ; assitmed office on 

March 4. 
1797. John Adams, March 4. 
1801 and 1805. Thomas Jefferson, March 4. 
1809 and ISl.B. James Madison, March 4. 
1817 and 1821. James Monroe, March 4. 
ISL',"!. John Quincy Adams, March 4. 
1829 and 1833. General Andrew Jackson, March 4. 
1837. Martin Van Buren, March 4. 
1841. General William Henry Harrison, March 4. Died 

April 4 ; succeeded by 
1841. John Tyler (formerly Vice-president). 
1S45. James Knox Polk, March 4. 

1849. General Zachary Taylor, ISLarch 4. Died July 9, 

1850 : succeeded by the Vice-president, 

1850. Millard Fillmore. 

18.53. General Franklin Pierce, March 4. 
1857. James Buchanan, March 4. 
1861 and 1805. Abraham Lincoln, March 4. Assassin- 
ated April 14; succeeded by the Vice-president, 
186.5. Andrew Johnson, April 15. " 
1869. Ulysses S. Grant, March 4. 



UNI 



487 



UTR 



UNIVERSALTSTS, who believe in the final nalva- 
tioii of ;ill nu'u, have existed in various countries and 
agi^s. Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons 
to have adopted the opiniim of this universal salva- 
tion. — Joltn.son, Certain it is, about 1G91, he enter- 
tained a desi^'u for forming a new book of homilies ; 
and a sermon which he preached before the queen 
(Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments 
involved this doctrine. Universulists arc numerous 
in America. 

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, one of the six points of 
the charter (see Chartistn), was adopted by the French 
in the election of their president in 1851, and of their 
emperor in 1852, and by the Italian States in voting 
for annexation to Sardinia in 1S60. There is an earn- 
est atU'iuiit being made (1SG9) in many parts of the 
United States to introduce universal suffrage, that is, 
both men and women, without distinction of race or 
color. At the present time the negro is allowed to 
vote with the white man. 

UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in Europe are 
those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and 
Bologna. In old Aberdeen was a monastery, in which 
youths were instructed in theology, the canon law, 
and the school philosophy, at least 20O years before 
the University and King's College were founded. The 
following dates are generally those given by Bouillet: 



Aberdeen founded 1494 

Abo, Finland 1G40 

Andrew's, St.,Scotlandl411 

Angers, chiefly law. ...13G4 

Aujou, 1349; enlarged " 

Athens 1S36 

Basle, Switzerland . . . .1460 

Berlin ISIO 

Berne 1S34 

Besauf.on, Burgundy . .1676 

Bologna, Italy 433 

Bonn 181S 

Bordeaux 14T2 

Bourges 1465 

Bruges, French Flan- 
ders 1665 

Brussels 1834 

Caen, Normandy, 1436 ; 
revived 1S03 

Cambridge, began abt. 
631) ; revived'. 915 

Cambridge, New En- 
gland, projected 1630 

Cologne, in Germany, 
refounded 1385 

Coimbra, Portugal. . . .12T9 

Compostella, Spain . ...1517 

Copenhatren 1476 

Cordova,"Spain OCSiPadua, Italy 



King's College, Lon 

don {lohich see) 1829 

Konigsberg, Prussia.. .1544 

Leipsic, Saxonv 1409 

Leyden, Holland 1575 

Liege 1S16 

Lima, in Peru 1614 

Lisbon, 1290 ; removed 

to Coimbra 1391 

London University 

{lohichsee) 1S20 

Louvaine, Flanders, 

926; enlarged 1426 

Lyons, France 830 

Marburg 1527 

Mechlin, Flanders 1440 

Mentz 1477 

Montpellier 12S9 

Moscow, 1754 ; again . . 1803 

Munich 1826 

Munster 1491 

Nancy 1760 

Nantes 1460 

Naples 1224 

Orange 1365 

Orleans, France 1305 

Oxford (see Oxford)..S(i2{?) 

Paderborn 1592 

.1228 



Corfu 1S2: 

Cracow, Poland, 700 ; 

revived 1364 

Dijon, France 1722 

Dillingen, Swabia 1565 

Dole, Burgnudv 1422 

Dorpat ." 1632 

Douay, French Flan- 
ders 1568 

Dresden, Saxony 1694 

Drumcondra (Catho- 
lic). Ireland 1862 

Dublin (t^e.e Trinity Col- 

h'<i<) 1591 

Edinburg, founded by 

James VI 15S2 

Erfurt, Thuringia; en- 
larged 1390 

Erlangen 1743 

Evora, Portugal 1533 

Florence, Italy, eul'd. .1439 
Franeker 15S5 



Palenza,1209; removed 

to Salamanca 1249 

Palermo 1394 

Paris, 792; renovated. 1200 

Parma 1482 

Pan 1T22 

Pavia, 1360; enlarged. 1599 

Perpignan 1349 

Perugia, Italy 1307 

Petersburg, St., 1747 ; 

again 1S19 

Pisa, 1343 ; enlarged. ..1552 

Poitiers 1431 

Prague 1348 

Queen's University 

(Ireland) 1850 

Rheims,1145; enlarged 154S 

Rome 1245 

Rostock, Mecklenburgl419 

Salamanca 1239 

Salerno 1233 

Salzburg 1623 



Frankfort-on-the-Oderl506:Sarasrossa, Aragon 1474 

Fribourg, Germany. .. .14001 Seville .1504 

Geneva 1368 Sienna •. ... .1380 

Glasn-ow 14.50 Sigucnzn, Spain 1517 

Gottmiren 17.35 Sorboniie, France 1253 

Granada, Spain 1.537 Strasbourg 153S 

Gripswald 1547;Stutgardt 1775 

Groningen, Friesland. 1614, Toledo, Spain 1499 

Halle, Saxony 1694|Toulouse 1229 

Heidelberg 1386iTreves, Germany 1473 

llelnistadt 1575lTubingcn,Wirtembergl477 

Ingoldstadt, Bavaria. .1673;Turin 1405 

Jena, or Sala, Thurin- ^X'psal, Sweden 1476 

„ia 1.5.58 Utrecht, Holland 1636 

Kfel, ilolstein 1665|Valence, Dauphiue. . . .1454 



Valencia 12091 Wittenberg 1502 

Valladolid 1346 VVurtzburg 1403 

Venice 1592 Wilua 1803 

Vienna 1365!Zurich 1832 

UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest between 
the universities of Oxford and Cambridge on the River 
Thames began in 1S21», and has been annual since 1856. 
In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing parties were 
equal ; but on April S, 1805, Oxford won for the fifth 
time in succession. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Loudon. See London 
Universitij and Oxford. 

UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS. See Dodson's Act. 

UNKNOWN TONGUES. See Irvincjites, note. 

URANIUM, a brittle gray metal, discovered by 
Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It has 
lately been employed in the manufacture of glass for 
certain philosophical purposes. 

URANUS, a planet with six satellites, was discov- 
ered by William Herschel, March 13, 1781, first called 
Georgium Sidus, after George III. ; next Herschel ; 
and finally Uranus. It is about twice as distant from 
the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of its 
first revolution (in 84 years 7 days) since its discovery 
was celebrated on March 20, 186.5. Its perturbations 
led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. 

URICONIUM. See Wroxctcr. 

URIM AND Tnr.M.Mi.M, Ligut and Perfection (Exo- 
dus xxviii., 30). It is conjectured that these words are 
in some way connected with the breastplate worn by 
the high-priest when he entered into the holy place 
with the view of obtaining an answer from God (1420 
B.C). 

URSULINE NUNS (so called from St. Ursula), 
founded originally by St. Angela, of Brescia, in 1537. 
Several communities existed in England, and some 
still exist in Ireland. 

URLTGUAY, a republic in South America, declared 
its independence Aug. 25, 1825 recognized Oct. 4, 1828. 
The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, elected 
in 1856, was succeeded in 1860 by B. P. Berro. A civil 
war broke out in consequence of the invasion of the 
es-president. General Plores, June 20, 1863. On March 
1, 1864, the Vice-president Aguirre became president, 
who refused (in June) to modify his ministry accord- 
ing to the desire of General Flores, who marched to- 
ward the capital in June. In Feb., 1865, Flores be- 
came provisional president. Population in 1865 about 
350,000. 

USHANT, an island near Brest, N.W. France, near 
-which two naval battles were fought between the Brit- 
ish and French fleets. 

(1.) On July 27, 1778, after an indecisive action of three 
hours, the latter, under cover of the night, withdrew 
into the harbor of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- 
manded the English fleet, the Count d'Orvilliers the 
French. The failure of a complete victory was at- 
tributed to Admiral Sir Hugh Palliser's noncompli- 
ance with the admiral's signals. Palliser preferred 
articles of accusation against his commander, who 
was tried and acquitted, and the charge against him 
declared to be "malicious and ill founded." 
(2.) Lord Howe signally defeated the French fleet, 
taking six ships of the line, and sinking one of 
large force, and several others, June 1, 1794. While 
the two fleets were engaged in this action, a large 
fleet of merchantmen,'"on the safety of which the 
French nation depended for its means of prosecut- 
ing the war, got safely into Brest harbor, which gave 
occasion to the enemv to claim the laurels of the daj', 
notwithstanding their loss in ships, and in killed and 
wounded, which was very great. 
USURY was forbidden by Parliament, 1341. Until 
the i5th century, no Christians were allowed to re- 
ceive interest on monev, and Jews were the only usur- 
ers, and therefore often banisliod and persecuted (see 
Jeirti). By the 37th of Henry VIII. the rate of interest 
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute was re- 
pealed by Edward VI., but re-enacted 13th Eliz., 1570. 
See Interest for later legislation. 

UTAH, a western territory of the United States, was 
organized Sept. 9, 1850. The capital, Great Salt Lake 
City, is the chief seat of the Mormonites {tvhich see). 

ITTRECHT (the Roman Trajectum ad Rhemnn) was 
the seat of an iudoiiondcnt bishopric; founded about 
69.5. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary of his 
turbulent subjects, sold his temporal government to 



VAC 



488 



VAR 



the Emperor Charles V. in 152S. The union of the 
Seven United Provinces began here (see United Prov- 
inces), 1579. The celebrated treaty of Utrecht, which 
terminated the wars of (Jneen Anne, was signed by 
the ministers of Great Britain and France, ancl all the 
other allies, except the ministers of the Empire, April 
11, 1713. This treaty secured the Protestant succes- 



sion in England, the separation of the French and 
Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, tlie en- 
largement of the British colonies and plantations in 
America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the 
Allies. Utrecht surrendered to the Prussians, May 9, 
1787; was possessed by the French, Jan. IS, 1795, iind 
restored at the peace. 



V. 



VACCINATION (from Variola Vacciim, the cow- 
pox, discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He was born 
in 1749, and educated for the medical profession, par- 
tially under John Hunter. Having heard that milk- 
maids who have had the cow-pox never take the 
small-pox, he, about 1780, conceived the idea of vac- 
cination, which was then ridiculed by eminent phj'S- 
iologists. He made the first experiment by transfer- 
ring to a healthy child, in May 14, 179G, the jnis from 
the pustule of a milkmaid who had caught the cow- 
pox from the cows. He announced his success in a 
memoir published 1798, and vaccination became gen- 
eral in 1799, having been introduced Jan. 21 in that 
year. Dr. Jenner received £10,000 from Parliament 
for the discovery, June 2, 1802, and X20,000 in 1807. 
The first national institution for the promotion of 
vaccination, called the Royal Jennerian Institution, 
was founded Jan. 19, 1803. The Emperor Napoleon 
valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so high- 
ly that he liberated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of 
war, at Jeuner's request, and subsequently whole fam- 
ilies of English, making it a point to refuse him noth- 
ing that he asked. Vaccination, although much op- 
posed on moral and religious grounds, was practiced 
throughout all Europe previously to 1816. Dr. Jenner 
died in 1823.* The Vaccination Act, 3 & 4 Vict., passed 
July 23, 1840. Vaccination was made compulsory in 
England in 1S53, and in Ireland and Scotland in 1863. 
See Small-pox and Inocxdation. An important blue- 
book, entitled " Papers on the History and Practice 
of Vaccination," edited by Mr. John Simon, was pub- 
lished by the Board of Health in 1857. 

VADIMONIAN LAKE ; here the Romans totally 
defeated the Etruscans, 283 B.C. 

VAGRANTS in England. By law, after being 
whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to 
the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for 
three years, 1530. A vagrant a second time convict- 
ed, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
ear, 1535; and a third time convicted, death. A vaga- 
bond to be marked with a V, and be a slave for two 
years, 1327. Vagrants were punished by whipping, 
jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second of- 
fense, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 17 
Geo. II. ; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. HI, The present Vagrant 
Act was passed in 1S24. 

VALENCAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, Central 
France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned Ferdinand of 
Spain from 1803 to 1S13. His kingdom was restored 
to Ferdinand by a treaty signed Dec. 8, 1813. 

VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valentia Edetanorum of 
the Romans. Its university was founded, it is said, 
in the 13th century, and was revived in the 15th. Va- 
lencia was taken by the Earl of Peterborough in 1705, 
but submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
battle of Almanza in 1707.— It resisted the attempts 
made on it by Marshal Moncey, but was taken from 
the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 
men, and immense stores, by the French under Suchet. 
Jan. 9, 1812. ' 

VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city (founded 
about 3119 B.C.) was besieged from May 23 to July 26, 
1793, when the French garrison surrendered to the 
Allies under the Duke of York. It was retaken, to- 
gether with Coudc, by the French, Aug. 27-30, 1794 ; 
on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants were 
made prisoners, with immense stores. 

VALENTINE'S DAY (Feb. 14). Valentine is said 
to have been a bishop, who suftered martyrdom under 
Claudius II. at Rome; others say under Aurelian, in 
271. 618,000 letters passed through the post-office on 



* Dr. Jenner died suddenly in 1823. A statue, subscribed for by all 
natinns, was erected to his memory in Trafalgar Square, April 30, 1858, 
m the presence of the prince consort. It was removed to Kensington 
in 1862. Another statue was erected by the French at Boulomerand 
Inaugurated Sept. U, 1865. 



Feb. 14, 1S5C. The origin of the ancient custom of 
"choosing a valentine" has been much controverted. 
See Post. 

VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a priest, 
who, on being disappointed of a bishopric, forsook 
the Christian faith, declaring there were thirty gods 
and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called 
.lEones, or Ages. He taught in the 2d century, and 
published a gospel and psalms: his followers added 
other errors. 

VALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, com- 
manded by Kcllerman, defeated the Prussians, com- 
manded by the Duke of Brunswick, Sept. 20, 1792. 
The victory was of immense moral advantage to the 
Republicans. 

VALOIS, House of. See France, 1328. 

VALTELINE (Switzerland), now part of Austrian 
Italy. Here took place a general massacre of the 
Protestants by the Roman Catholics, who revolted 
against the government, July 20, 1620. It began at 
Tirano, extended to all the district, and lasted three 
days. 

VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandinavian Ve- 
nus), a metal discovered by Sefstrom in 1830, com- 
bined with iron ore. A similar metal, discovered in 
lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named Erythronium, 
was proved by Wiihler to be Vanadium. 

VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific Ocean, 
near the main laud. Settlements were made here by 
the English in 1781, which were seized by the Span- 
iards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty between the 
British government and that of the United States in 
1846, this island was secured to the former. It has 
become of much greater importance since the discov- 
ery of gold in the neighboring main land in 1858, and 
the consequent establishment of the colony of British 
Columbia {ivhicli see). Victoria, the capital, was found- 
ed in 1857. 

VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Capt. Vancouver served 
as a niidshijiman under Capt. Cook, and was appoint- 
ed to command during a voyage of discovery, to ascer- 
tain the existence of any navigable communication 
between the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans. 
He sailed in 1790, and returned Sept. 24, 179.5. He com- 
piled an account of this voyage of survey of the north- 
west coast of America, and" died in 1798. 

VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the Reman 
Empire in the 3d century, and began their ravages in 
Germany and Gaul, 400-414 ; their kingdom in Spain 
was founded in 411 ; under Genseric they invaded and 
conquered the Roman territories in Africa, and took 
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were subdued by Belisa- 
rius in 534. They were driven out by the Saracen 
Moors. 

TANn\I, KINGS IN AFRICA. 

429. Genseric (see Mecklcn- 490. Thorismuud. 

hurrj). 523. Hilderic. 

477. Hunneric. 531. Gelimer. 

484. Guudamund. 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND was discovered by Tasman 
in 1033 ; hence formerly called Tasmania. It was vis- 
ited by furneaux in 1773; by Captain Cook in 1777; 
and was deemed the south extremity of New Holland 
(now Australia) until 1799. when Flinders explored 
Bass's Straits, and proved Van Diemeu's Laud to be 
an island. A British settlement was established on 
the southeast part, within the mouth of the Dcrwent, 
in 1804, and named Hobart Town, or Hobarton, now 
the seat of government. This island was made a con- 
vict colony of Great Britain, whither many remarka- 
ble transports have been sent. Governor, Col. Thom- 
as Gore Browne (1862). Population in 1857,81,492: 
m 1859, 84,080. 

VARENNES, a town in N.E. France, is celebrated 



VAR 



489 



VEN 



by tlie arrest of Louis XVI., his qnceii, sister, and two 
chiUlroii. Thoy Hod from the Tuilcries ou June 21, 
and wen; talieu here ou the 2'-'d, IT'Jl, and conducted 
back to Paris, mainly tliroui;!! Drouet, the postmaster 
at au intermediate town, who recognized the king. 

VAKNA, a fortiticd town and sea-port iu Bulgaria, 
European Turkey. A great battle was fought near 
this place, Nov. 10, 1444, between the Turks uuder 
Amurath 11. and the Hungarians uuder their king 
Ladislaus and Johu Huuniades. The latter were de- 
feated with great slaughter: the king was killed, and 
Huuniades made prisoner. The Christians had pre- 
viously broken a recent truce.— The Emperor Nicho- 
las, of I{us^ia, arrived before Varna, the head-quarters 
of his army, then besieging the place, Aug. 5, 1S2S. 
Tlu; Turki.'~h garrison made a vigorous attack ou the 
besiegers, Aug. T; and another on the 21st, but were 
repulsed. Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary con- 
flict, to the Kussian arms, Oct. 11, 1S2S. It was restored 
at the peace iu 1S2!); its forliticatious were dismantled, 
but have since been restored. — The allied armies dis- 
embarked at Varna, !May 29, 1S54, and remained there 
till they sailed for the Crimea, September 3 follow- 
ing. While at Varua they suflered severely from chol- 
era. 

VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the Prot- 
estants at this place by the Duke of Guise on March 
1, 1562, led to the civil wars which desolated France 
to the end of the century. 

VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Slavery. 

VATICAN HILL (Rome) became the seat of the pa- 
pal government about SOO. The pope's palace is said 
to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, aucieut 
and modern. The library, founded by Pope Nicholas 
V.,144S, is exceedingly rich in printedbooks and MSS. 
— Pistolesi's description of the Vatican, with numerous 
plates, was published 1S29-3S.— The phrase "Thunders 
of the Vatican" was first used by Voltaire, 174S. — The 
ancient Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament 
in Greek was published at Rome in 1S5T. 

VAUDOIS. See Waldenses. 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in San- 
skrit, were probably written about 1000 B.C. Veda 
means knowledge. These books com])rise hymns, 
prayers, and liturgical formula. The edition by Pro- 
fessor Max Miiller, printed uuder the patronage of the 
East India Company, appeared iu 1S49-62. 

VEGETABLES for the table were thought from 
Flanders about 1520. See Gardening. 

VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, whose members restrict 
themselves to a vegetable diet, held their fifteenth an- 
niversary iu London on Sept. 4, 1S02. 

VEn:MIC TRIBUNAL {VehmgcricMe or Fehmge- 
richte), secret tribunals established iu Westphalia to 
maintain religion and the public peace, had their ori- 
gin in the time of Charlemagne, and rose to import- 
ance about 11S2, when Westphalia became subject to 
the Archbishop of Cologne. Persons of the most ex- 
alted rank were subjected to their decisions, being 
frequently seized, tried, and executed. The emperors 
endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till 
the IGth century. Sir Walter .^cott has described them 
iu "Anne of Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal 
■was abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of West- 
phalia, in ISll. 

VEII, an independent Latin city near Rome. Be- 
tween the Romans and Veieutes frequent wars occur- 
red, till Veil was utterly destroyed, 3S8 B.C. The 
Roman family, the Fabii, who had seceded from 
Rome for i)olitical reasons, were surprised and de- 
stroyed at the River Cremeraby the Veientes, 477 B.C. 
A siege of Veil by the Romans lasted from 405 to 390 
B.C. 

VELLORE (S.E. India) became the residence of the 
family of the dethroned Sultan of ^lysore, and was 
strongly garrisoned by English troops. The revolt of 
the Sepoys, in which the family of the lale Tippoo 
took an active part, took jilace July 10, 1S06. The in- 
surgents were subdued by Colonel Gillespie, and most- 
ly put to the sword: SuOScpoys were killed. 

VELOCIPEDES. Introduced into England in ISIS ; 
the invention of a German baron, Charles de Drais, 
after whom they were for some time styled Urasina. 
They soon fell into desuetude, but were revived ou au 
improved French model iu isri7, and in France and 
Englaiul jicquired considerable ])oi)ularity among the 
youth of both sexes. Velocipeitcs were IjroUL'lit into 
"the I'uiicd States in ISIO, attracting mucli attention in 
the city of New York, but after a time they were for- 



gotten, until reintroduced as a French noveltv in 1S6S 
when they speedily became the rage. The American 
vel()cipede is thus described: "The reach, or frame is 
made of hydraulic tubing. It is made by gau^^'e iust 
as sewnig-machiues, Waltham watches, and Spi-in-'- 
held muskets are made, so that when auy part wears 
out or IS broken it may be replaced at au hour's no- 
tice, its bearings are of comijositiou or trun-metal 
and the reach or frame is tul)ular, giving both light- 
ness and strength. The hub of the hiud whetd is 
bushed wUh metal, and the axle constitutes its own 



hree-sided, with circular flanges at each end ; and as 
they are htted to turn on the crank-pins, the pressure 
of the foot will always bring one of the three sides 
into proper position. They are so shaped as to allow 
of the iise of the fure part of the foot, bringing the 
ankle-joiut in play, relieving the knee, and renderin<' 
propulsion much easier than when the sliauk of the 
hiot alone is used, as iu propelling the French vehicle. 
•The connecting apparatus differs from that of the 
trench bicycle in that the saddle-bar serves only as a 
seat and a brake, and is not attached to the rear wheel. 
By a simple pressure forward against the tiller, aud a 
backward pressure against the tail of the saddle, the 
saddle-sprini: is compressed and the brake attached 
to it brou'fht firmly down upon the wheel." A veloci- 
pede has been made in the United States for runuiu"- 
ou ice. The frame is similar to that of the machine 
used in the streets ; it has, however, but one wheel, 
steered with a bar, but armed on the tire with short 
points to prevent its slipping. Instead of the two 
wheels behind are two sharp steel runners, like those 
attached to the ice-boats. 
VENDEE. See La Vendee. 

VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American repub- 
lic. Wheu the Spaniards lauded here in 1499, they ob- 
served some huts built upon piles, iu an Indian village 
named Cora, in order to raise them above the stag- 
nated water that covered the i)lain ; aud this iuducecl 
them to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Ven- 
ice. This state in July, 1S14, declared iu Congression- 
al Assembly the sovereignty of its people, which was 
recognized in 181S. It formed part of the republic of 
Colombia till 1S31, wheu it separated from the Federal 
Union, and declared itself sole and iudepeudent. Gen. 
D. T. Monagas was elected iu 1S55 president, and con- 
tinued so till March, 1S58, when a revolution broke 
out, and Don Joso Castro became President, who also 
was compelled to resign in Aug., 1S59, aud Dr. Pedro 
Gual assumed the government. A new Cnnstitutiou 
was promulgated iu Dec, 1S.5S. General Jose Paez 
was elected President Se])t. S, 1S61. He resigned ou 
June 17, 1803, and Juan E. Falcon succeeded him, June 
17. General Febres Cordero protested aud set up a ri- 
val government at Porto Cabello, which broke up iu 
October following. Marshal J. E. Falcon was sworn 
as President, June 8, 1805. The population iu 1859 
was about one million and a half. See Coloruhia. 

VEXr, VIDI, VICI—"1 came, I saw, I conquered." 
See Zela. 

VENICE (N. Italy). The Veueti inhabited its site 
wheu it was made a kingdom by the Gauls, who con- 
quered it about 350 B.C. Marceilus reconquered it tor 
the Roman republic, aud slew the Gaulish king, 221 
B.C. Population of the city of Venice iu 1S57, 118,172. 
Venice founded by families from Aquileia and 

Padua, fleeing from Attila, about A.D. 452 

First doge (or duke) chosen, Auafesto Pauluno. . . 097 

Bishopric founded 7.S3 

The Rialto made the seat of government 811 

Venice becomes independent of the Eastern Em- 
pire, and acquires the maritime cities of Dalma- 

tia aud Istria 977 

Its navy and commerce increases 1000-1100 

Bank of Venice established 1157 

Crete purchased 1205 

The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont,1203 
War with Genoa, 1293 ; the Venetian fleet is de- 
stroyed, aud peace concluded 1299 

The Doge Andrea Daudolo defeats Louis of Hun- 
gary at Zara 1346 

Venit"e helps iu the Latin conquest of Constantino- 
ple, aud obtains power iu the East, 1204; severe 

contest with Genoa 1350-Sl 

The Doure Marino Faliero is accused of conspirtt- 

cv and beheaded 1355 

The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia 1358 

War with the Genoese, who defeat the Veuetiaus 



VEN 



4 1)0 



VES 



at Poln, niKl ndvnnco nKiiliifft Venice, wliicli is 

vk'oroUKly (hifi'iidcd • '•}J] 

TlK^ (JcMiocne llc'i't In cnptiirod at Cliiozza l-i'^it 

And \)ci\r.i\ coiic.liidi.'il ''''"^I 

Venice liiUcH im iielive purl. In tlie llallau Wur,M'.'f> M 

'I'he city HUfleiH IVoni tli(! iilaKUO ; -.V ''''^ 

War Willi the TnikH; Venice I0BO8 many of ilH 

KiiHtern pdHWiKHionH '^'^'■''IHI 

Tlie Venc'liiinM lake AIliciiH, l-KKi; and (!yi)niH I'lTf) 

Venice hclpH lo overcotiK! ( :iiarli;H VJl I. ol' Frances. I'll).") 
Injui-ed by tint di.M.'i.vctry of Anienea (UW), and the 

paHMa^e to tlie Indh^H .1'1»T 

Tlio Ven(!tiann excite the Turks against tho hm- 

peror CInirleH V „••••••, H'!!! 

And im: nearly mined by the Iamii^iw of Canil)ray...ir)Os 
They aHwlst iii deleaiinj,' the Tiirkn at l.epanto... .IMI 

'l'he."TiukH retake ( !ypriin ' 

])eHtrnctive lire at Venice U>ii 

The Ubiito bridge and the Plnz/.n dl Sun Marco 

erected • • • • -.• • 1™-^ 

riinl V.'h interdict on Venice c()ntenii)tuon,Mly tliw- 

regarded • • • • ■ l'"*^ 

Naval victorieH over tho TiirlcH; at Hcio, l(!r)l ; niid 

in till! DiiriliinelleM yf'^ 

The TurkH tak<! ( landla • •. • '''!;; 

Venice recoverH part of tlio Morca l(>Hii-.ni 

]»nt ioHes it again 1715-3y 

Venic(( occupied by Bonaparte;, who, l)y tlie treaty 
of (!hiiii)o I''oriiiio, given jiart of its territory to 
Aiislriii.and annexes tho rest to llie CiHuipine 

|{c.pnl)lic ,• ;''^"'^ 

Tint whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom ol 

Italy by the treaty of I'reMburg If^OC 

All Venice linriHler'red to Ihe Empire of Alislrlil. . lHl-1 

Venice declared a rr<M; porl Jan. 2-t,lH;iO 

InHurrection liegiim March U'i, 1H4S; the city 8ur- 
ronderH to tlie AuHtrians after a long siege, 

Aug.22,lS.|9 
[In connc(pienc.> of tlie Italian War in 1SM>, the 
(•(luiilry has bc(Mi iiiiich (linorgani/,cd, and large 
niinib(A'H of persons eniigrateil in lsc>(l-l.| 
Venetian depniies will not atlcMid th(! Austrian 

I'arliaineiit at Vienna May,l«Cl 

LVeiiice has had Itili doges: Aniifesto, «i)7, to Luigi 
Manin, ITDT.J 

VKNTILATOKH were invented by tlie Kev. l^r. 
lliiies, and di'scribed l,o the Koyal Society of I>oiid(ni, 
May, nil ; ami Ihe venlilalor for tint user of ships was 
aniioiinciMl by Mr. Tri<'\valil in Noveinla^r, same year. 
The Marcpiess of Chabaiiiie's jilan for wanning and 
venlilaliuL; theatres and houses for aniii(tnc(ts was ap- 
idieil to tiuis(; of London in lsl'.». Tlu! syslenis of Dr. 
Keid (about isiilt) ami otia^rs IoHowimI. Dr. Arnotl's 
work on this subject was laibllshed in 1s;)H. A com- 
mission on warming and ventilation issued a report 
in is.y.t. 

VIONTKILOCiUISM (speaking from the belly). The 
])liem>mena are evidently (hrscrilied in /.w(i/((/(, xxix.,4. 
Anions,' eminent V(tntrilo(|ilists wen: Itaroii MirngcMi 
and M.SI. (JilU', about 177'.! (whose experiments wen! 
(■xamined liy a commission of the Krc^nch Acaditiny) ; 
Thomas King (about I71G); Charles Matthews (1824); 
ami ftl. Alexandre (1H22). 

VHNUS. lli'r transit over llie mm on Nov. 24, IfiH!), 
was llrsi ascitrlained by llorrox in l(i:'.:t. Tho astroii- 
onier-royiil Maskelyne observed her transit at St. Hel- 
ena, .1 uii(! (i, 1701. ('aiitain ("00k made his lirst voyage 
in the K/n/crt/'or, to Olidielle, to observe a, transft of 
Venus, .luiu! I!, I7(')'.». ^vr. Ciink'.t Wiiiaiira. 'i'he diurniil 
rotation of V(Uius was discovered by (lassini in U!('i7. 
Tlie tninsit on Di'C. !», IH74, may be observ(ul in Kast- 
ern lOuroiie and in Asia. 

VEKA CKllZ, l?OMaAUI>Ml!NT AN1> HUUUlCNDKll OK. 

The Mitxican anlhorilles having scorned ev(iry over- 
ture for pe.Mce, in Ihe autumn of ISKl (ieneral Scott, 
tlic comm,'imler-in-clii<'f of tlu! Americnn armies, was 
sent to compuT all J\lexico. lie landed at Vera Cniz 
on the '.Mil of March, IS-17, with aliout Ut.uOO men, ami, 
with I lie tleet ofi 'ommodore ( "onnor, invested the city 
and its l'iirlilicat,i(nis. Hit opened a cannonade and 
bomliardment, upon it on tli(! IHIh of.lune. The at- 
tack continued until tlu; 27tli, wlutn tlu; fort and town, 
with fiUdO prisoners, were surrendered to Scoll,\villi 
fillO pieces of artillery. Scott then marched tow.nrd 
the Mexican capital. See (Vrni (hirdit, ('(intrcrax, Cher- 
vhiixro, la MiilhM dd Hi-ij, Vhtlpulkpcc. 

VKHMONT, a Northern State; in North America, 
was .'Ji-l.tled by the l^'rench 1724 -HI, and ceded toOreat 
lirilain in 17t!:i; and frecMl from tin; authority of New 
Ytak, and admitted as a state; of the lliiion in 1701. 

VEllNEUIL (N.W. France), tho Bite of a balllo 



fought Aug. 17, 1424, between the nurpundianfl and 
Jt^nglish under the r(;g(!iit Duke of IJt^dford, and the 
ICrench, assisted by tlie Scots, commanded by the Oount 
(le Naiboniie, the Harls of Douglas and Uuclian, etc. 
Tlu; Krench at llrst were successful; but some Lom- 
bard auxiliaries, who had takem tlu; lOiiglisli camp, 
commenc(;d pillaging. Two thousand ICnglish archers 
caiiw; then fresh to the attack ; and tlu; Kr(;nc,li and 
Scots W(;r(; totally ehd'eated, and their leaders killed. 

VIOKNON (JAM-IOKY. The inadefpiate manner in 
which modern British art, was repr(;s(Mited in the; Na- 
tional (iallery was smnewbat resmediiMi in 1HI7 by the 
munincitnt pVesi^nt to tin; nation by Mr. liobert V(;r- 
non of a cedlcction of lr>7 pictur(;s, all but two being 
by llrst-rate British artists, 'i'liey weu'c tlrsl (;xliil)ited 
ai. Mr. Vernon's bouse; in Bull Mall, ni'xt in the; vaults 
beneath Ihe National (JalU'ry, afle'rwarel at Marlbor- 
emgh House;, ami are; now (iKOf)) at the Semtli Kensing- 
teni Mitse;iini. In Ih;.7, Mr. Jedin Sheepshanks feillow- 
ed Mr. Vernon's etxampie. 

VKKONA (N. Italy) was feinnded by the Onnls or 
ICtriiscans. The ampliitheatre was built, by Titus, 
A.J). H2. Vere.na has beu'ii the site of many eonllicts. 
On Sept. '27, 4H'.I, Tlie;e>ele)ric ile'fe;ate;d ()eie)ace;r, king of 
Italy. About I2W> Mastino eledla Si;ala was e'le;cteHl 
i)eah;st,i\; and his elewemlants (the Scaligerl) ruled, till 
subdued by the Vlsce.nti, eliike;s e)f Milan. Ve'romi was 
conepiered by the Venetiiins, MOr>, and helel by thi;m 
with some; intermissiems till its e-apture; by the Krencli 
(Je'ne'ral Masse;ua, .Iniie- lit, 17'.M1. Near tei it Cluirk;s 
Albi'rt ed'Sariliuia ili'rente;el Ihe; Austrians, May 4, 1H48. 
Vi'roiia is erne eif the; feuir strong Ausl,rian fortre;sseH 
li;rine'el the; (Quadrangle, eir (^uadrilatetral, and here the 
l<;mpe;ror l<'rane;is Jose;ph, em .July 12, IHMI, in an eireler 
eif the' elay anne)um;i;el te) bis army that he must, yield 
to ciri'iimstani'es nnfaveirabli; te) his iiolicy, ami tluiiik- 
eel his people and army lor their snppeirt. 

VI<;KSAIM.KS,I'Ai.Ae!Ke>if (near Paris). In Ihe reign 
eif Beinis XIII. Ve'r,saille;s was einly a small village, in 
a fore'st thirty mile's in circuit; and he'i-e; this prince 
linilt a liiintirig-si;at abenit WA'l. Louis XIV. between 
leiCl and I(;s7 e'lilarged it intei a magnillceiit jialacc, 
which be'e-ame the usual reisielencc of the kings eif 
b'rane'e!. lle'ie; was helel the military festival e)f the 
reiyal guards, OcL I, I7W>, wliie',h was nnim'diate;ly fol- 
leiwe'il (on the Mh ami (illi) by the attack of the' meib, 
\vhe> imiHsacre'el the gnarils ami breuiKlit the; kint; bae'k 
to Baris. It was allerwaril the' re'siele'iii'e; ed' Louis 
Bhilippe;, and is still a royal oMliie'i;. The' histeincal 
gallery was eipeiied in ls;t7. liy the tre'aty e»f pe'ace 
be;twe'e'n (ireat Britain and lirltish Neirlh Anu'rica, 
signeel at Paris, the latter iiower w;is aelmitleel let be 
a seivere-ign ami inele'peineie'ut state', Se'pt. !!, 17s:',. On 
tho same; elay a tre'aly was sigm'd at Versailli;s be- 
tween (Ire'at Prilain,' Krane-e, ami Spain, by whie-h 
l'omlie;he'rry and Carie'al, with e)tlier iieissessiems in 
Be'm,','il, we're; re;ste)r(!d te) Jt'runce, and Trince)male;e; le- 
steire-el te) the Dutch. 

VKKSR. Hvc. I'liitni. Surrey's translatie)n eif part 
eif ViniiVH Ji'iwiil inte) blank irnte is the- llrst, lOnglish 
cemipe'isition eif tin; kind, emiittiiig tragedy, extant in 
the kiiglisii ianguaue (piiblisheii in ir).l7}. The; verse 
pre'vioiisly nse'ei in eiur grave ceuiipeisitiems was Ihe; 
stany.a e)f"e;ighl line's, the otlni^d riiiiit (as ailopted willi 
the adeiitiem eifeini' line; by Spe'user in his I<\i\ricOiicc»), 
wlio probably borreiwe'el it IVenn Arieisto iiml Passe). 
Boccace;io int'roeliu'i'el it intei Italy in his 7V.se'/(/c, hav- 
ing e'.opied it freim the' eilel KreMich rliiiiisdiin. Trissino 
is said to havebee'ii the' llrst intreieluce'r of blank verse 
among tlie moderns, abeait IMIH.- lew.'*/"'*. 

VKSI'KUS. Sec Sicilian Vi'ii])i'rH. In the liemso of 
the Kre'iich ambassador at Plackfrhirs, in Lemelein, a 
.lesnit was pre'aching to npwarel eif thre'e' luindri;d per- 
sons in an ujipe'r reiom, the; lloeiv eif which gave; way 
with the weiglit, when the whole e'oiigre;gatie)ii was 
pree;ipit,ateel tei the; stre'e't, ami the pre'ae'her and more 
than a hnnelreel eif his auelitoiy, i:liietly persons eif 
rank, we're killeel. This e'atasl reiphe', termed tlies Fa- 
tal Vi'KiwrH, eie'e'urred Oe;t. 20, Wl\<,.—Stoii'. 

VKSTA. The jilaiu't Vesta (the ninlh) was rtisceiv- 
ei-eii by l)r.011ie'rs,e)f Bremen, on Mare-b '^'.t, 1.S07. She 
aiijie'ars like; a star eif the; sixth magnilude. 

VKSTALS were prieste;sses eif Ve'sta, wliei took e'nre 
eif the per|H'tual lire; e'emsecrate'el te> her worship. The 
mother eif Iv'omulus was a vestal. Nuiiia, in 71(1 B.C., 
appoinle'ii four, ami Tarepiin addeel two. Afle'r the 
expulsion eif the Tarepiins, the liiL,di-prie;st was in- 
trusted with the care eif them. Minulia was buried 
alive for breaking lie'r virgin ve>w, :t:i7 B.C. ; Se.xtalia, 
274 B.C. ; and Coriie;lia Maximiliana, A.D. 112. 
VESUVIUS. Py an eruiition eif Mount Ve.'suvius, 



VET 



491 



VIC 



the cities of Pompeii and Ilcrpulancnm {irhieh Kee) 
were overwhcliiicd A.l). 79, and more tlian '250,0(10 
persons perit^licd, amoiiK tlicni Pliny the niituralist. 
Numerous other disastrous eruptions have occurred. 
In 1G31 the town of Torre del (Sreco, with 4000 per- 
sons, and a uneal part of the surrounding country, 
were destroyt'd. Oiu' of the most dreadful eruptions 
ever known" toidc iilace smldciily, Nov. '24, 1759. The 
violent burst in li('>7 was tlie ;Mtli from the time of 
Titus. One in 1794 was most destructive: the lava 
(lowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated 
land, and the town of Torre del Greco was a second 
time burned; the top of the mountain fell in, and the 
crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. 
Eruptions in May, 1855; May and June, 1S5S; and 
June, 1S59, caused threat destruction, and in the spring 
and summer of isoo. A series of violent eruptions, 
causing much damage, occurred in Dec, IStil, and in 
Feb., iSG5. Torre del Greco was again destroyed in 
1861. 

VETERINAKY COLLEGE, London, was estab- 
lished at Camden-town, 1791; and Albert Veterinary 
College was opened in 1SG5. 

\TCE, Thk. An instrunicnt of which Archytas of 
Tarentum, disciple of I'ytlniLjoras, is said to have been 
the inventor, along with the pulley and otlicr imple- 
ments, 4'20 15.C. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND, an equity 
judge, appointed by Parliament, first took his seat 
May 5, 1813. A new court was erected about 1810, 
contiguous to Lincoln's Inn Hall. Two additional 
vice-chancellors were appointed under act 5 Vict., 
Oct., 1841. The ollice of vice-chancellor of England 
ceased in Aug., 1850, and a third vice-chancellor was 
appointed in" 1851, when two more equity judges, 
styled lords justicett, were appointed. 

VIOE-OnANOELLOUS OF ENGLAND. 

181.3. .Sir Thomas Plumer, April 13. 

1818. Sir John Leach, Jan. 13. 

18'27. Sir Antliony Hart, May 4. 

1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, Nov. 1, thk last. 

VICKSBLTRG (Mississippi), Campaign forthePos- 
sr.sBuiN oi'-, May 18, 18G2-July 4, Iso:!. Vicksburg lies 
on the east bank of the Mississijiiii, 40o niik-s above 
New Orleans, and about tlie same distance from Cairo. 
It is connected with Jackson, the state capital, l)y rail- 
road; and from De Soto, on the opjidi-iic bank, a rail- 
road running to Monroe drains the land r(]iiimcrce of 
Northern Louisiana. It was the most important and 
the most dcrcMsibU^ military position on rhc Missis- 
8ip])i. The town, before the war, bad a i)i)))ulation of 
about 50011; it is situated on tlic shelving declivity of 
high hills, and, Willi its dwellings scattered in groups 
on the terraces, ])resentM a viTy iiiclurestpie appear- 
ance. The high bliid's ujion which the town stands 
extend southward along tlie river to Warrentou, nnd 
northward till they tmieh the Yazoo, about 15 miles 
from Haines's lilud". Between these blufl's — which 
were in time strongly fortified by the Coiil'ederales — 
and the Yazoo is a low country, full of swamps, la- 
goons, sloughs, and bayous. It was in this sort of 
country that Sherman landed his troops (Dec, 1802), 
and sustained a repulse. The country in the rear of 
Vicksburg is very rough, and broken by abrupt ra- 
vines. The following are the remarkable incidents 
of the Vicksburg campaign in their chronological 
order: 

S.P.Lee, commanding the advanced naval divis- 
ion ofFarraf^ul's squadron, demanded the sur- 
render of Vicksburg, and was refused. M. L. 
Smith at this time commanded the military de- 
fenses of Vicksburg with KyiOO men... .May 18,1802 
General Thomas Williams, with 4 regiments and 
8 guns, occupies the peninsula opposite Vicks- 
burg June 24, " 

Farragut runs the Vicksburg blockade to join Da- 
vis, and bombards Xicksburg June 28, " 

Van Dorn takers command at Vick.sburg. . .July2S, " 
Exi)editiou up the Yazoo to destroy the ram Ar- 
kanKdn, meets the ram C(miing down, and re- 
tires ; the ram passes out into the Mississip])!, 
and takes refuge under the guns of Vicksburg, 

July 15, " 
Ellet and W. D. Porter, with the Qiiren ofth: Wcxt 
and Eaxcx, attack the ram, are repulsed, and with 

difllculty escape July 2'2, " 

Williams's canal, begun ujxm his arrival on the 

peninsula, proves a failure July 22, " 

Williams's force leaves for Baton Rouge. .July 24, " 
Destruction of the ram Arkannax, after Breckin- 
ridge's defeat at Baton Rouge Aug. 0, " 



Vicksburg defense.^ strengthened, nnd a linn of 
works thrown up ou the bluffs south of the 

Vazoo Aug.-Dee.,l«(;2 

Gen. J. C. Pemberton supersedes Van Dorn. .Oct., " 
Grant, moving upon Jackson and the rear of Vicks- 
burg, is compelled to retreat by the surrender of 

Holly Springs Dec 20, " 

Slieniian embarks from Memphis with 30,000 men 
(Dee. '20) ; is re-eiiforced by 12,000 men at Helena ; 
convoyed up the Yazoo bv Porter's fleet (Dec. 
26) ; lands near Chickasaw Bayou (Dec. 27) ; ad- 
vances against the northern defenses of Vicks- 
burg (Dec 28) ; assaults, and is repulsed with a 

loss of '2000 men Dec. 29 " 

Withdrawal of Sherman's expedition from the 

Y't''-"" Jan. 2,1SG3 

Grant meets Sherman, M'Cleruand, and Porter at 
the mouth of White River, and consults with 
them as to farther operations against Vicks- 

hurg Jan. 18, «' 

Occupatiim of Young's Point, 9 miles above Vicks- 
burg, on the opposite bank Jan. 21, " 

Tlic (jui'cn of the WcKt captured in the Red River 

by the Confederates Feb. 13, " 

Confederates destroy the Indianola below Vicks- 
burg Feb. 24, " 

Porter sends his "Dummy" past Vicksburg; in 
the jianic which follows the Confederates de- 
stroy the (^nccn of tin- W'citt, and annihilate the 

Iniliuntil(t,v;\\\r\\ they had raised Feb. 24, " 

Grant arrives at Young's Point (Feb. 2) ; reopens 
the work on Williams's canal; the levee breaks, 

and the project is abandoned March 8, " 

The Lake Providence route (for getting below 
Vicksburg on tlie west bank) opened, but im- 
mediately abandoned March 16, " 

The Yazoo Pass route (for obtaining a foothold 
on the high laud above Haines's Bluff) aban- 
doned '. March 23, " 

The Steele's Bayou route (for turning Port Pem- 
berton via Cypress Bayou, Steele's Bayou, Big 
Sunflower River, and Deer Creek, thus reaching 
the rear of Vicksburg) tried and abandoned, Feb., " 
After the failure of these exiierimeuts, (irant ad- 
vances to New Carthage (March '29), and scuds 
transports past the Vicksburg batteries, 

AprinG-22, " 
Grierson's raid from Le Grange, Tennessee, to 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana Ajiril 17-May 2, " 

Porter attacks Grand Gulf, but the troops fail to 

make a landing April 29, " 

M'Clinauind lands at Bi'uinsburg, below Vicksburg 
(April :m, rnllowed by M'l'bersoii, and defeats 
two Confederate brigades under Bowun at Port 

Gibson May 2, " 

Confederate evacuation of Grand Gulf May 3, " 

Sherman reaches Hard Times, and joins Grant's 

army May C-8, " 

Battle of Raymond; M'Pherson defeats Gregg 
and Walker. National loss, 410 ; Confederate, 

823 May 12, " 

Capture of Jackson, after a prief conflict, by Sher- 
man and M'Pherson. National loss, 205; Con- 
federate, 845 May 14, " 

Battle ofChaiiipion'sHill, or Baker's Creek. Pem- 
berton crossed the Big Black, and took position 
on Baker's Creek, about '25 miles west of Jack- 
son ; here he was defeated by Grant May 10, " 

Battle of the Big Black; on the banks of this river 
Peiiibc'rton made a briefstaud, and was defeated 

bv M'Clernand May 17, " 

Pcnibertou (uitei's the fortifications of Vicksburg, 

May 17, " 
Grant invests Vicksburg; Sherman establishes 
himself ou the Yazoo; Porter opens communi- 
caticms for Grant's army by the Yazoo. .May 18, " 

First assault on Vicksburg rei)iilscd May 19, " 

Second assault on Vicksburg reuulsed May 2'2, " 

Grant'sarmy re-enforced to nearly 70,000 men, June, " 
Surrender of Vicksburg, with 27,000 men, 128 pieces 

of artillery, and so siege guns July 4, " 

In the battles around Vicksburg befoi-e its surren- 
der, the Confederate loss in killed, wounded, and cap- 
tured was about 10,000; Grant estimates his loss as 
S.'')7.5. After the capture of Vicksburg, Sherman, with 
the bulk of Grant's army, advanced against Johnston, 
and comiiellcd the latter to evacuate Jackson, July 10, 
1803. Johnston, after the first battle of Jackson (May 
14), had in vain endeavored to induce Pemberton to 
Join him and fight a decisive battle outside of Vicks- 
burg. 

VICTORIA, formerly Poet Phillip (Australia), sit- 
uated between New South Wales and South Australia, 



VIC 



492 



VIE 



the most successful colony in that region. In 1T9S, 
Bass, iu his whale-boat expedition, visited Western 
Port, one of its harbors ; and in 1S02, Flinders sailed 
into Port Philip Bay. 

Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts with 
the intention of founding a settlement at Port 
Phillip, but afterward removed to Van Diemen's 

Land 1S04 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from 
New South Wales, explore part of the country, 

but do not discover its great advantages 1S24 

Mr. Henry imports some sheep from Van Diemen's 

Land 1834 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land 
from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and 
blankets. He shortly after, with tifteeu associ- 
ates from Hobart To wn, took possession of 600,000 

acres in the present Geelong country May,1835 

The Lauuceston Associates and Mr. John Pascoe 
Fawkener ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or everilow- 
ing) River, and encamp on the site of Melbourne, " 
The colonists (450 iu number) possess 140,000 sheep, 
2.500 cattle, and 150 horses; Sir R. Bourke, gov- 
ernor of New South Wales, visits the colony, de- 
termines the sites of towns, and causes the land 
to be surveyed and resold, setting aside many 
contending claims ; he appoints Captain Lous- 
dale chief magistrate (see Melbourne) 1S37 

The colony named Victoria 1S39 

Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and in- 
duces much speculation and consequent embar- 
rassment and insolvency 1841-2 

Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant governor 

under Sir G. Gipps 1839 

The province dechired independent of New South 
Wales; a reward of i;200 oflered for the dis- 
covery of gold in Victoria, which was soon aft- 
er found near Melbourne, and was profitably 

worked Aug., 18.51 

7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round 

Mount Alexander Nov., " 

From Sept. 30 to Dec. 31, 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
gold were obtained from Ballarat; and from 
Oct. 29 to Dec. 31, 94,524 ounces from Mount 
Alexander — total 124,835 ounces. 

The production was still very great 1852 

Immense immigration to Melbourne (see Mel- 

hoiirne) 1S52 

A representative Constitution granted 18.55 

Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor 1856 

The Parliament was opened Nov. 26,1857 

Four administrations had been formed in . . .1857-1800 
Exhibition of the products of the colony opened 

by the governor Oct. 1,1861 

Sir Charles Darling appointed governor. May ; ar- 

^ rives Sept. 10,1863 

Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
part of Australia; a ship containing them sent 

hack Oct., 1864 

Important land act passed March 22,1865 

The Assembly passes the new government tarifl", 
Jan., which is rejected by the^Legislative Coun- 
cil ; the governor raises money for the public 

service irregularly July, " 

The crisis still continues; appeal to tlie queen 

proposed Oct. " 

Parliament prorogued Dec!' " 

Population of the colony in 1836, 224;' in 1841* 
11,738; in 1846,32,879; in 1851,77,345; Dec 3l' 
1852, about 200,000 ; in March, 1857, there were 
258,116 males and 14.5,403 females: in all 403,519 
In 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 540,322. 
VICTORIA. See Hong-Kojig and Vancouver's Island. 
VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, instituted 
to reward the gallantry of persons of all ranks iu the 
army and navy, Feb. 5, 1856. It is a Maltese cross 
made of Russian cannon from Sebastopol. The queen 
conferred the honor on 62 persons (of both service^) 
on Friday, June 26, 1857 ; and on many of the Indian 
army, Aug. 2, 1858. 

VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water-lily 
brought to England from Guiana by Sir Robert Schorii- 
burg in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine spec- 
imens are at the Botanic Gardens at Kew, Regent's 
Park, etc. It was grown in the open air in 1855 bv 
Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea, 

VIENNA (the Roman Vindebona) was capital of the 
margraviate of Austria, 984; capital of the German 
Empire, 1278 ; and since 1806 the capital of the Aus- 
trian dominions only. Population in 1857, 476,222; iu 
1865, about 560,000, See Austria. 



Vienna made an imperial city in 1136 

Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 

Richard L of England, £40,000 1194 

Besieged by the Turks under Solymau the Mag- 
nificent with an army of 300,000 men ; but he 
was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 

70,000 of his best troops 1529 

Besieged July-Sept., 16S3 

The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Po- 
land, who totally defeats the Turkish army of 

100,000 Sept. 12, " 

Vienna taken by the French under Prince Murat, 

Nov. 14,1805 

Evacuated Jan. 12,1806 

Again captured by the French May 13,1809 

Restored on the conclusion of peace Oct. 14, " 

Congress of sovereigns at Vienna Nov., 1814 

The revolt iu Hungary induces an insurrection iu 

Vienna March 13,1848 

The emperor retires, May 17; but returns.. .Aug., " 
A second insurrection : Count Latour, the war 

minister, is murdered Oct. 6, " 

The emperor a":ain takes flight Oct. 7, " 

Vienna is bomoarded by Windischgratz and Jel- 

lachich, Oct. 28 ; its capitulatiou Oct. .80, " 

Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish War 

held at Vienna* 1853-5 

The fortifications demolished, and the city en- 
larged and beautified 1857-8 

The imperial Parliament (Reichsrath) assembles 
here May 31,1800 

TREATIES OF VIENNA. 

The treaty between the Emperor of Germany and the 
King of Spain, by which they confirmed to each oth- 
er such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were 
respectively possessed of ; and by a private treaty 
the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure 
the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use 
means for placing the Pretender on the throne of 
Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic 
Sanction. April 30, 1725. 

Treaty of alliance between the Emperor of Germany, 
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
the States of Holland, by" which the Pragmatic 
Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the 
Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to 
the treaty on the 22d of July.) Signed March 16, 
1731. 

Treaty of Peace between the Emperor Charles VI. of 
Germany and the King of France, Louis XV., by 
which tlie latter power agreed to guarantee the 
Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to 
France. Signed Nov. 18, 1738. See Pragmatic SaiK- 
tion. 

Treaty between Napoleon L of France and Francis 
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ced- 
ed to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territo- 
ries, which were shortly afterward declared to be 
united to France under the title of the lUyrian Prov- 
inces, and engaged to adhere to the prdhibitory sys- 
tem adopted toward England by France and Rus- 
sia. Oct. 14, 1809. 

Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, confirming the principles on M'hich they 
had acted by the treaty of Chaumout, March 1, 1814. 
Signed March 23, 1815. 

Treaty between the King of the Netherlands on the 
one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement 
of the Dutch territories,'and vesting the sovereignty 
in the house of Orange. May 31, 1815. 

Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania 
and Rugen to Prussia in exchange for Laueuburg. 
June 4, 1815. 

Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, Feb. 19, 1853. 

Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey signed by the 

* A conference of tlie four great powers, England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia, was held July 24, when a note was agreed on and trans- 
mitted for acceptance to St. Petersburg and Constantinople, July 31. 
This note was accepted by the czar, Aug. 10, but the sultan required 
modifications, which were rejected by Russia, Sept. 7. The sultan's 
note (Dec. 31) contained four points: 1. The promptest possible evac- 
uation of the principalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Mainte- 
nance of religious privileges to the communities of all confessions. 4. 
A definite settlement of the convention respecting the holy places. It 
was approved by the four powers, and the conferences closed on Jan. 
16, 1854. — A new conference of plenipotentiaries from Great Britain 
(Lord John Russell), France (M. Drouyn de I'Huys), A\istria (Count 
Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Russia (Count 'GortschakofF), took 
place March, 1854. Two points, the protectorate of the principalities 
and the free navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the pro- 
posals of the powers as to the reduction of the Russian power in the 
Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the conference closed, June 5, 
1855. The English and French envoys' assent to the Austrian propo- 
sitions was not approved of by their governments, and they both re- 
signed their official positions. 



VIG 



493 



representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, 

and Kiissia, April 9, 1S64. 
Treaty betwecu Austria and Prussia, and Denmark, 

By whicli Denmark ceded tlie duchies, Oct. 30, 1S64. 

VIGO (NAV. Spain) was attacked and burned by 
the tng ksh in 15S9. Sir Gonr-c Rooke, witli the 
coml)ined English and Dutch 'fleets, attacked the 
French lleet and the Spanish galleons in the port of 
Vigo, when several men of war and galleons were tak- 
en, and many destroyed, and abundance of plate and 
other valuable eflects fell into the hands of the con- 
querors, Oct. l'>, ITO'2. Vigo was taken by Lord Cob- 
ham in 1 ill), but relinqniehed after raising coutribu- 
1809^' ^^''^^ "°'"° ^'^^^^ ^^ ^^'^ British, March 2T, 

VILLA FRANCA (Portugal). Here the British cav- 
alry, under Sir Stapleton Cotton, defeated the French 
cavalry of Marshal Soult (April 10, 1812) and freed Es- 
tremadura.— ViLi.A Fkanca, a small port on the Med- 
iterranean near Genoa, was bought for a steam-pack- 
et station by a Russian company about August, 1S58 
which caused some political excitement.— At Vii r a 
Feanca, in Lombardy, the Emperors of France and 
Austria met on July 11, 1S59 (after the battle of Solfe- 
rino), and on July 12 signed the preliminaries of peace 
the oasis of the treaty of Zurich (^oMch sec). ' 

VILLAIN. See Slavery in England. 

VIMIERA (in Portugal), where the British, under 
Sir Arthur \Vellesley, defeated the French and Span- 
ish forces under Marshal Junot, duke of Abrante* 
Aug. 21 1S08. The attack, made with great bravery' 
was gallantly repulsed ; it was repeated by Kellermau 
at the head of the French reserve, which was also re- 
pulsed ;_ and the French, being charged with the bay- 
onet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leavin-^ 
many prisoners. "^ 

VINCENT, Cape St. (S.W. Portugal). Admiral 
Kooke, with twenty men-of-war, and the Turkish fleet 
under his convoy, was attacked by Admiral Tourville 
with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St 
\ lucent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war' 
and eighty merchantmen, were taken or destroyed bv 
the French, June IG, 1693. Near here Admiral Rod- 
ney destroyed several Spanish ships, January 16, ITSO 
(See /iVy(/)if^'s Victories.) The celebrated battle was 
lought Feb. U, 1797, between the Spanish and British 
fleets, off the Cape ; the latter commanded by Admi- 
ral Sir John Jervis, who took (after a well-fought bat- 
tle) four line-of-battle ships, and considerably dam- 
aged the rest of the Spanish fleet. Two of the cap- 
tured ships were of 100 guns each, and the other two 
each of 74. From this Cape the earl had his title. 

VINCENT DE PAUL, St., Charitable Society, 
founded m 1S3,S, in France, bv twelve young men. It 
extends its extremely beneficial operations even into 
Britain. Its power excited the jealousy of the French 
government, which suppressed its central committee 
at Pans in Oct.,lSGl. 

\nNCENT'S, St. (West Indies), long a neutral isl- 
and; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed that 
the right to it should be vested in the En<T]ish. The 
latter soon after engaged in a war againstlhe Carib« 
on the windward side of the island, who were oblio-eci 
to consent to a peace, by which they ceded a laW 
tract of laud to the British crown. In 1779 the Caribs 
greatly contributed to the reduction of this island bv 
the French, who, however, restored it in 1 783. In 1795 
the French landed some troops, and again instin-ated 
the Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued 
for several months. The great eruption of the Scouf- 
fner Mountain, after the lapse of nearlv a century, oc- 
curred in 1S12. Population in 1861, 31, 7.55 



VIS 



MNE.* The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 B C 
Gen. ix., 20). A colony of vine-dressers from Phocsa' 
m Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South 
Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 
COO B.C. Some think the vines are the aborigines of 
Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that thev f rew 
spontaneously on the Mediterranean shores of ftaly 



* Une />,.!M.ir.-In IhcsprinR of IS45, Mr. E. Tucker, of Margate, ob- 
served H funirus (srnce named Oidium Tudcer!) on prapes in the Lot- 
housca of Mr Slater, of Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally 
destroys the fruit. The spores of this tidium were found in the vine- 
eres of \ ersailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trellised vines 
nnd m 1850 many lost all their produce. In 185i>, it spread over France 
Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante and Cephalonia attacl<ed the currants' 
reducmg the crop to one twelfth of the usual amount. Through its 
ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased for several years 
Many attempts liavo heen made to arrest the progress of the disease! 
but without much effect. .Sulphur dust is the most efficacious remedy. 
The diseas.! had much ntmted in France, Portugal, and Madeira (ISfiS). 
In 1862 Cahforuiun wines were introduced into the two latter countries. 



naf'ne%nM^?'"f r.'^''^ ^'"'=,'^'^-' ^''"•"«1 into Cham- 
uboiu'\ '^f ''( Ge-many, by the Emperor Probus, 
tl n tCt ,■ ■ ■■ V'^ "^^^ ""'1 sugar-cane were nlant- 
' in Un te '° ^i"*?"-. J*^^ yme\-as planted i En- 
pfi ,1" ^ -' ,",'"^ '" ^^^ gardens of Hampton Court 
1 alace is an old and celelmited vine, said to siirnass 

Xhe Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 

VINEGAR. Known nearly as earlv as wiiip Tho. 
for'ddnk "Vr R " ^""^^ "f yineg^i Xvhich they t^ed 
t ,L •* • •*, ■ Koman soldiers were accustomed to 

a dch ci"tilen"o? T nf •, '^'^^ ^^'^^ represents Boaz^ 
a ucn cituen of Lethlehem, as providim- viuer^ar for 

^JSiS" ^•^•^' ^ ^"^'^ ^^i^^z 

E VrSfi^lt^Tii^,'^^ ^"^^^' E'l'ii'^corthy, in Wexford, S. 
U^eeu the BHtT h ^^^'^'^^''-y conflict took place be- 
thfl T?;=ir • ^"tish troops, commanded by Lake, and 
the Irish insurgent forces, June 21, 1798. The rebels 
sufl-ered a severe defeat, though they claimed the vlc- 
l^o^p*^:"^ *''"''■ ^^^'°S Mllelso minyo" the king's 

VINTNERS. See VictuaUrs. 

VIOL AND Violin. The lyre of the Greeks became 
v!!f,in'''V?"'^ 'i'^?-^''?' "^ the Middle Ages became t"I 
yioiiu. The violin is mentioned as early as 1200, iu 
the legendary life of St. Christopher. It was intro" 
duced into England, some sav, by Charles II Strad- 
uarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona was a renowned 
violin-maker (1700 to 1722). i-uowneu 

. VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the Virgin 
IS a festival m the Greek and Latin Churches, in hSn- 
or of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven ac- 

HTim??/?.'^?^-'" ''•*^"?'' ^?^- ''' A.I>:45.-The J^-esen- 
tation of the \ irgm is a feast celebrated Nov. 21 said 
to have been instituted among the Greeks in the 11th 
century ; its in.stitutiou in the West is ascribed to Pope 
C.regory XL, 13i2.* See Annunciatian and Conception, 
immacvlate. ' 

\T^RGINIA. See i?o«!(!, 449 B.C. 

VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in North 
America, was discovered by John Cabot in 1497, and 
was taken possession of and named by Raleigh after 
the virgin - queen Elizabeth, July 13, 1584 Vain at- 
tempts were made to settle it in 1.5S5. Two expedi- 
tions were formed by patent in 1606, and others in 
ibio. In 1626 it reverted to the crown, and a more 
permanent colony was established soon afterward 
George Washington was delegate for Virginia in the 
Congress of 1 . 74. Eastern Vii-ginia seceded from the 
Union, April 25,1861, but Western Virginia declared 
tor the Union, Feb. 13, and elected a governor, Feb 20 
1861. \irginia was the chief seat 'of the war. See 
United States and Richmond. 

■V^SCONTI, the name of a noble Italian family, 
which ruled m Milan from 1287 to 1447; the heiress of 
the family was married to Francesco Sforza, afterward 
Duke of Milan. 

VISCOUNT (Vice Comes), anciently the name of an 
oflicer under an earl, who, being oftentimes required 
at court, was his deputy, to look after the aflairs of the 
county. The first viscount iu England created by pat- 
ent Avas John, lord Beaumont, whom Henry VI. crea- 
ted \iscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above 
all barons, Feb. 10, 1440.— .4.s/i)Vio?c. This title, howev- 
er, IS of older date in Ireland and France. John Barry, 
lord Barry, was made Viscount Buttevant, in Ireland, 
9 Rich. II., 1385.— i?eafeon. 



MSIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths about 
330. See Goths. The Emperor Valens, about 369, ad- 
mitted them into the Roman territories upon the con- 
dition of their serving when wanted iu the Roman ar- 
mies; and Theodosiiis the Great permitted them to 
form distinct corps commanded by their own officers. 
In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and iu 410 took 
Rome. They founded their kingdom of Toulouse, 414 ; 
conquered the Alani, and ext'eudcd their rule into 
Spain, 414; expelled the Romans in 468, and finally 
were themselves conquered by the Saracens, under 
Muza, in 711, when their last k'ing, Roderick, was de- 
feated and slain. See Spain for a list of the Visigothic 
kings. Their rule in France ended with their defeat 
by Clovis at Vouglo iu 507. 

* "The Indian incarnate god Krishnu, the Hindoos believe, had a 
virgin-mother of the royal race, and was sought to be destroyed in his 
infancy, about 900 years B.C. It appears that he nassed his life in 
worlting miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his 
friends' feet : at length dying, but rising from the dead, he ascended 
into heaven in the presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate ne.ar- 
ly the same things of their Buddha."— Sir William Jones. 



VIT 



494 



VOL 



VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a brilliant victory 
obtained by Wellington over the French array com- 
manded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and Mar- 
shal Jourdau, June 21, 1813. The hostile armies were 
nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a long 
and fearful battle, tlie French were driven, toward 
evening, through the town of Vittoria, and in their re- 
treat were thrown into irretrievable confusion. The 
British loss was 22 officers and 479 men killed ; 107 offi- 
cers and 2G40 men wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 
151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all 
his ba'Tgao-e, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his 
baton as a" narshal of France. Continuing the pursuit 
on the 25th, Wellington took Jourdau's only remain- 
ing gun. 

VIVARIUM. See Aquavivarium. 

VIVISECTION, physiological experiments upon liv- 
ing animals having much increased, the Societies for 
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Dresden and 
Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of a committee of 
eminent scientilic men on the merits of the knowledge 
thus acquired. Their judgment was not unanimous. 
The London Society took up the question in 1860, and 
printed a pamphlet by Mr. G. Macilwain against vivi- 
section. In Aug., 1SC2, an international conference to 
discuss the question was held at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham.* 

VIZIER, Grand, an officer of the Ottoman Porte, 
first appointed about 1326. The office was abolished 
in 1838. 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth there 
are above 200 volcanoes which have been active in 
modern times. See Etna, Vesuvius, and Iceland. In 
Mexico a plain was filled up into a mountain more 
than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava 
from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Fer- 
ro broke out Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an im- 
mense quantity of red water that discolored the sea 
for several leagues. A new volcano appeared in one 
of the Azore Islands, May 1, ISOS. 

VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at war 
with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, Caius 
Martius (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) derived 
his name Coriolanus. The story of his banishment by 
his ungrateful countrymen ; of his revenge on them by 
bringing the Volsci to the gates of Rome, yet after- 
ward sparing the city at the entreaties of his mother, 
Volumnia (4S7 B.C.), is considered by many as a poet- 
ical legend. The Volsci were finally subdued and in- 
corporated into the Roman people about 338 B.C. 

VOLTAIC PILE, OE Batteky, was constructed in 
consequence of the discoveries of Galvaui (see Galvan- 
ism in article Electricity). The principle was discov- 
ered by Alessaudro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for 
thirty years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, 
and announced by him to the Royal Society of Lon- 
don in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Vol- 
ta was made an Italian count and senator by Napole- 
on Bonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honored. 
While young he invented the electrophorus, electric 
pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1S26, aged 81. 
The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly im- 
proved by the researches of modern philosophers. The 
nitric acid battery of Mr. W. R. Grove was constructed 
in 1839 ; the carbon battery of Professor Robert Bun- 
sen in 1842. The former is very much used in this 
country, that of Bunseu on the Continent. 

VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, near to 
which Garibaldi and his followers held a strong posi- 
tion. This was furiously assailed by the royal troops 
on Oct. 1, ISGO, who were finally repulsed after a des- 
perate struggle, the fiercest in which Garibaldi had j'et 
been engaged. He was aided greatly by a band of 
Piedmontese ftom Naples. On Oct. 2 General Bixio 
completed the victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapol- 
itan troops and dispersing others. 

VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Public contri- 
butions for the support of the British government 
against the policy and designs of France amounted to 
two millions and a half sterling in 1798. About 
£200,000 were transmitted to England from India in 
1799. Sir Robert Peel, of Bury, among other contribu- 
tions of equal amount, subscribed £10,000. — An7iual 
Register. See Patriotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a mil- 
lion pounds were subscribed in the British Empire 
for the relief of the Lancashire cotton-spinners. See 
Cotton. 

* Sir Charles Bell's opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured 
the subject it -.vaa meant to illustrate, or misled men into practical er- 
rors of the most serious character. 



VOLUNTEERS. This species of force was formed 
in England in consequence of the threatened invasion 
of revolutionary France, March, 1794. Besides the 
large army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, they sub- ■ 
sidized 40,000 Germans, raised the militia to 100,000 
men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between 
the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of great- 
est amount, it numbered 410,000, of which 70,000 were 
Irish.* On Oct. 26, 1803, King George III. reviewed in 
Hyde Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on Oct. 28, 
14,670 more. The English volunteers were, according 
to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. See Kaval 
Volunteers. In May, 1859, iu consequence of the prev- 
alence of the fear of a French invasion, the formation 
of volunteer corps of riflemen commenced under the 
auspices of the government, and by the end of the 
year many thousands were enrolled in all parts of the 
kingdom. 

[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
1803 as the Duke of Cumberland's sharp-shoot- 
ers. They retained their organization as a rifle 
club when other volunteers were disbanded. In 
1835 they were permitted by the Duchess of Kent 
to take the name of the Royal Victoria Rifle 
Club.] 
Kational Volunteer Association for promoting the 
practice of rifle -shooting was established in 
Loudon, under the patronage of the queen and 
prince consort, Mr. Sidney (afterward Lord) Her- 
bert, secretary at war, president, and the Earl of 
Derby and other noblemen vice-presidents (an- 
nual subscription one guinea, or a composition 

for life of ten guineas) ." Nov. 16,1859 

2500 volunteer officers presented to the queen ; a 
dinner followed, with the Duke of Cambridge in 

the chair ; and a ball March 7,1860 

The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in Hyde 

Park June 23, " 

[Mr.Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was pres- 
ent as a private ; he had been present as an offi- 
cer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 
First meeting of the National Association for rifle 
shooting held at Wimbledon ; Captain Edward 
Ross obtained the queen's prize of £250 and the 

gold medal of the association July 2-7,1860 

DM. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize.] 
Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent, . .July 14, " 
Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 

Edinburg Aug. 7, " 

Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by 

the Earl of Derby at Knowsley Sept. 1, " 

Lord Herbert stated that the association had a cap- 
ital of £3000 and an annual income of £1500, 

Feb. 16, 1861 
Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000, 

May, " 
Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling gains 
the queen's prize and the association medal, 

July 4-10, " 
Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, July 

13 ; of 9000 at Warwick July 24, " 

Registered number of volunteers 162,681... Apr. 1,1862 
20,000 volunteers reviewed by Lord Clyde at 

Brighton April 21, " 

Third meeting at Wimbledon; Mr. Pixley gains 

the queen's prize, etc July 1-14, " 

A commission recommends that an annual grant 
of either 20s., 30s., or 34s. be given to each vol- 
unteer, according to circumstances Oct., " 

Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, July 7, etc. ; the 
queen's prize, etc., won by Sergeant Roberts, of 
the 12th Shropshire Rifle Volunteers. . . .July 14, " 
An act to amend and consolidate the acts relating 
to the volunteer force of Great Britain was pass- 
ed July 21,1863 

22,000 volunteers reviewed by the Prince of Wales 
in Hyde Park (great improvement noticed) 

May 28, " 
Fifth meeting at Wimbledon, July 11, etc. ; the 
queen's prize, etc., won by Private John Wyatt, 

of the London Rifle Brigade July 23,1864 

Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. 

* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed at Dublin, under 
command of the Duke of Leinster, Oct. 12, 1179. Thej; armed peneral- 
ly to the amount of 20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of 
the houses of Lords and Commons in Ireland for their patriotism apd 
spirit for coming forward and defending their country. At the period 
when the force appeared, Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; manui^ac- 
tures had decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a prohibition 
of the export of salted provisions and butter. No notice of the com- 
plaints of the people had been taken in the English Parliament, when, 
owing to the alarm of an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to 
arm, and an immense force was soon raised. The Irish took this occa- 
sion to demand a free trade, and government saw there was no trifling 
with a country with arms in its hands. The Irish Parliament unani- 
mously addressed the king for a free trade, and it was granted, 1779, 



WAD 



496 



WAL 



Reviews and sham-fiffhts on Easter Mondays, near 
l!iii,4iton, Apr. 5, 1S03; near Guildford, Mar. 28, 

1S04; near Brisjlitou April 17,1865 

Sixtii )neetinK at Wimbledon, bej^an July 11 ; the 
queen's ])rize was won by Private Sliarman, of 
the 4th West York Kifle Volunteers, July 18: the 
meetinj^ ended with a review by the Cuke of 

Cambridi^e July 22, " 

VOSSE^M, Peace or, between the Elector of Brand- 
enburg and Louis XIV. of France ; the latter engaged 
not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; signed 
June C, 1CT3. 

VOUGLfi, or VouiLLE, S.W. France (near Poitiers), 
where Alaric II., kins; of the Visigoths, was defeated 
and slain by Clovis, King of France, 507. Clovis im- 
mediately after subdued the whole country from the 
Loire to the Pyrenees, and thus his kingdom became 
firmly established. A peace followed "between the 
Franks and Visigoths, who had been settled above 
one hundred years in that part of Gaul called Septi- 
mania. Clovis soon afterward made Paris the capital 
of his kingdom. — Heimult. 



VOYAGES. By order of Pharaoh-necho, of Efrypt 
some Phoenician pilots sailed from K^ypt down the 
Arabian Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of 
^°"^\ ^^\'P«' entered the Mediterranean by the Straits 
ot Gibraltar, coasted alous the north of Africa, and at 
length arrived in K-ypt, after a navigation of al)out 
three years, Ci.4 B.v.-lln-odotvs. The first voya"e 
round the world was made by a ship, part of a Span- 
ish squadron which had been under the command of 
Magellan vyho was killed at the Philippine Islands in 
a skirmish, 11, 1519-20. See Circumnavigators' and 
Aorthwest I'atinarje, 

VULGATE (from VulgatuH, published), a term ap- 
plied to the Latin version of the Scriptures, which is 
authorized by the Council of Trent (1546), and which 
IS attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. The older ver- 
sion, called the Italic, is said to have been made in the 
beginning of the 2d century. Critical editions of the 
\ulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtns V. in 
1590, and of Piipe Clement V. in 1592 and 1.503. (The 
former was suppressed as imperfect.) The Latin Bi- 
ble, called the Mentz Bible, was printed iu 1460. 



w. 



WADHAM COLLEGE, Oxford. Founded by Nich- 
olas Wadhani, Esq., and Dorothy, his wife, iu 1G13. In 
this collcLce, iu the chambers of Dr. Wilkins (over the 
gateway), the Royal Society frequently met prior to 
1G5S. 

WAGER or BATTLE. See Appeal. 

WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry work- 
men were first fixed by act of Parliament 25 Edw. III., 
1350. Ilaj-makers had but one penny a day. Master 
carpenters, masous,tilers, andother coverers of houses, 
had not more than 3d. per day (about 9rf. of our money), 
and their servants l%d. — Viner's Statutes. 
By the 23d Hen. VI., the wages of a bailiff of hus- 
bandry was 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of 
the price of 5s., with meat and drink ; chief hind, 
carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing, 4s. ; common 
servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing, 40d. ; wom- 
an-servant, 10s., clothing, 4s 1444 

By the 11th Hen. VII. a like rate of wages, with a 
little advance; as, for instance, a free mason, 
master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- 
ter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was 
allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. 
a day without meat and drink; or, with meat 
and drink, id. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to 
abate Id. A master having under him sis men 
was allowed Id. a day extra 1495 

W.\GE8 OF HAEVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT 
PERIODS. 
Year. Per diem. Year. Per diem. 
In 1760 Is. Od. 



Iu 1.^)0 


Os. 


Id 


1460 





2 


156S 





4 


1632 





6 


1688 





S 


1716 





9 


1740 





10 



17SS. 
1794. 
ISOO. 
1811. 
1850. 
1857. 



1 


4 


1 


6 


2 





2 


^M 


3 





5 






■ "WAOnORN'S NEW OVERLAND ROUTE to IN- 
DIA. Lieutenant Waghorn devoted a large portion 
of his life to connect liidia with England. On Oct. 81, 
1845, he arrived in London, by a new route, with the 
Bombay mail of the 1st of that month. His dispatch- 
es reached Suez on the 19th, and Alexandria on the 
20th, whence he proceeded by steam-boat to a place 
twelve miles nearer London than Trieste. He hurried 
through Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Bel- 
gium, and reached London at half-past four on the 
morning of the first-mentioned day. The authorities 
of the difl'crent countries through which he i)assed ea- 
gerly facilitated his movements. The ordinary ex- 
press, via Marseilles, reached London Nov. 2 follow- 
ing.' Mr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter 
to Tlie Times newspaper, in which he stated that in a 
couple of year.s he would bring the Bombay mail to 
London in 21 days. lie died January 8, 1850. 

WAGONS were rare in the last century. They, with 
carts, etc., not excepting those used in agriculture, 

»The Overland Mail, which had left Rnmhav on Dee. 1, 1S4?;, ar- 
riverl earlv on the .'iOth in London, by way of 'Marseilles and Paris. 
This Bjieedv arrival was owine to the (Treat exertions made by the 
French c'overnuient to allow that the route through Franco was short- 
er and better. 



were taxed in 1783. The carriers' wagons are now 
nearly superseded by the railways. 

WA6RAM, a village near Vienna, the site of a bat- 
tle fought July 5-6, 1S09, between the Austrian and 
French armies, in which the latter was completelv vic- 
torious. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : 
20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the 
defeated army retired to Moravia. An armistice was 
signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, by a treaty of 
peace, Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France; the 
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria, were enlarged at her 
expense ; part of Poland in Galicia was ceded to Rus- 
sia : and Joseph Bonaparte was recognized as king of 
Spain. 

WAHABEES, or WAHAmTSB, a warlike Mohammed- 
an reforming sect, considering themselves the only 
true followers of the Prophet, arose iu Arabia about 
1750, under the rule of Abd-el-Wahab. His grandson, 
Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by the 
Caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized Mecca and 
Medina, and continued their conquests, although their 
chief was assassinated in the midst of his victories. 
His son, Abdallah, long resisted Mohammed Ali, pa- 
cha of Egypt, but in 1818 he was defeated and taken 
prisoner by Ibrahim Pacha, who sent him to Constan- 
tinojile, where he was put to death. The sect, now 
flourishing, is well described by Mr. W. Giflford Pal- 
grave in his Journey and Residence in Arabia in 1862- 
3, published iu 1865. 

WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly 
before Christmas. The name was given to the musi- 
cians attached to the king's court. We find that a 
company of waits was established at Exeter in 1400 to 
"pipe the watch." The waits in London and West- 
minster were long officially recognized by the corpo- 
ration. 

WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), the site of a battle 
between Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and the 
Duke of York, iu which the latter was slain, and 3000 
Yorkists fell upon the field, Dec. 31, 1460. The death 
of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix 
the good fortune of Margaret ; but the Earl of War- 
wick espoused the cause of the duke's son, the Earl of 
March, afterward Edward IV., and the civil war was 
continued. An art and industrial expedition was open- 
ed at Wakefield, Aug. 30, 1865. 

W^ALBROOK CHURCH (London), reputed the mas- 
terpiece of Sir Christopher Wren, completed in 1679. 
There was a church erected here iu 1135, and a new 
church was erected in 1429. 

WALCHEREN EXPEDITION. This unfortunate 
expedition of the British to the island of Walcheren, at 
the mouth of the Scheldt, in Holland, iu 1809, consisted 
of .-iS ships nf the line and 200 smaller vessels, principal- 
ly transports, and 40,ooo land forces, the latter under the 
command of the Earl of Chatham, and the fleet under 
Sir Richard Strachan. P'or a long time the destination 
of this expedition remained secret ; but before July 
28, 1809, when it set sail, the French journals had an- 
nounced that Walcheren was the point of attack. Per- 
haps a more powerful and better appointed armament 
had never previously left the British ports, or ever 



WAL 



496 



WAL 



more completely disappointed public expectation. 
Flushiug was invested iu August; a dreadful bom- 
bardment followed, and the place was taken Aug. 15 ; 
but no suggestion on the part of the naval command- 
er, nor urging on the part of the officers, could induce 
the earl to vigorous action, until the period of proba- 
ble success was gone, and necessity obliged him to re- 
turn with as many of the troops as disease and an un- 
healrhy climate had spared. The place was evacuated 
Dec. 23, IStW. The House of Commons instituted an 
inquiry, and Lord Chatham resigned his post of mas- 
ter general of the ordnance to"' prevent greater dis- 
grace ; but the policy of ministers in planning the ex- 
pedition was nevertheless approved. The following 
epigram appeared at the time : 

" Lord Chatham, with his sword undrawn, 
Stood waiting for Sir Richard Strachau ; 
Sir Richard, longing to be at 'em. 
Stood waiting for the Earl of Chatham." 
WALDECK, a German principality, established iu 
16S2. The reigning family claim descent from the 
Saxon hero Witikiiid, who flourished about 772. The 
reigning prince, George Victor (born Jan. 14, 1S31), suc- 
ceeded his father, George, on May 15, 1845. Population 
in Dec, ISGl, 58,604. 

WALDENSES, a sect (also called Valdenses and 
Vaudois) inhabiting the Cottian Alps, derives its name, 
according to some authors, from Peter de Waldo, of 
Lyons (1170). They had a translation of the Bible, and 
allied themselves to the Albigenses, and were much 
vilifled and persecuted, which led to the establishment 
of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope Innocent III. 
commissioned some monks to preach against the her- 
esies of the Waldenses in Narbonue and Provence ; 
but the French bishops were at first jealous of this 
mission, armed as it was with great power, and the 
feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, 
1203-4. One of the monks, the first inquisitor, "Peter 
Chateauneuf, having been assassinated, the aspiring 
pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to marcli 
into the heretical district. 'All obstinate heretics were 
placed at the disposal of Simon 'de Montfort, com- 
mander of this crusade, and the whole race of the Wal- 
denses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued 
with fire and sword. See Albifiensefi. They settled in 
the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were frequent- 
ly dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th centurj', 
when Charles I. of England interceded for them (1027 
-9), and Oliver Cromwell (1G55-6) obtained them some 
degree of toleration. They were permitted to have a 
church at Turin, Dec , 1853. 

WALES, called by the Romans Britannia Secimda. 
After the Roman Emperor Honorius quitted Britain, 
Vortigern was elected King of South Britain. He in-, 
vited over the Saxons to defend his country against 
the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent 
for re-enforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and 
Angles, by which they made'themselves master.s of 
South Britain. Many of the Britons retired to Wales, 
and defended themselves against the Saxons in their 
inaccessible monntaius, about 447. In this state Wales 
remained uuconquered till Henry II. subdued South 
Wales in 1157 ; and in 12S2 Edward I. entirely reduced 
the whole country, putting an end to its independence 
by the death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* The Welsh, 
however, were not oitirely reconciled to this revolu- 
tion till the queen gave birth to a sou at Caernarvon 
in 12S4, whom Edward styled Prince of Wales, which 
title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne 
almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated 
with England by act of Parliament, 1530. See Britain. 
The supreme authority in Britannia Secunda in- 
trusted to Suetonius Paulinus 58 

Conquests by Julius Frontinus 70 

The Silures totally defeated 70 

The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Brit- 
ain 78 

Bran ab Llyr, surnamed the Blessed, dies about. . SO 

Reign of Caswallon 443 

The ancient Britons defeat the Saxons 447-448 

The renowned Arthur elected king 517 

Dyvnwal Moelmnd, a great monarch, comes from 
Armorica, and becomes King of the Cymry about C40 

Reign of Roderick the Great 843 

He unites the petty states of Wales into one prin- 
cipality ; his death 877 

* The statute of WrIbs, enacted at Rhuddlan, March 19, 1284, alleges 
that " Divine Providence has now removed aU ol)stacles, and transfer- 
red wholly and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales and 
its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal right.'* The an- 
cient laws were to be preserved in civil causes; but the law of inherit- 
ance was to be changed, and the English criminal law to be put in force. 
— Annals of England. 



Division of Wales into north, south, and central 

(or Powys-land) " 

The Welsh princes submit to Alfred 885 

The Danes land in Anglesey 900. 

Laws enacted by Howel Dlia, prince of all Wales, 

about 911 

He acknowledges the supremacy of Athelstau 928 

Civil wars at his death, about 948 

Great battle between the sous of Howel Dha and 
the sons of Edwal Voel; the latter victorious.. . 952 

Edgar invades Wales 963 

Danes again invade Wales, and lay Anglesey waste 980 
Devastations committed by Edwin, the sou of 

Eineon 990 

The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan, the usurper, slain iu battle by Llewelyn. . .1015 
Rhun, the fierce Scot, defeated near Caermarthen,1020 
The joint Irish and Scots forces defeated with 

great slaughter 1021 

Jestyu, lord of Glamorgan, rebelling, is defeated 

and slaiu 1039 

Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold.. 1055 

Rhys overthrown and slain 1056 

William I. claims feudal authority over Wales 1070 

Rhys ab Owain slain 1074 

Ravaging invasion of the Earl of Chester 1079 

Invas^iou of the Irish and Scots 1080 

William I. Invades Wales 1081 

Battle of Llechryd 1087 

[In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cyuvyn 
were slaiu by Rhys ab Tewd\\'r, the reigning 
prince.] 

Rhys ab Tewdwr slain 1087 

The Welsh destroy many Norman castles 1092 

The formidable insurrection of Payne Tuberville,1094 
Invasion of the English under the Earls of Ches- 
ter and Shrewsbury 1096 

The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings. 1106 
Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Wiudsbr, 

by Owain, sou of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn 1107 

[This outrage entailed dreadful retribution on 
Cadwgau'.s family.] 

Cardigan conquered by Strongbow " 

Cadwgan assassinated .1110 

Gruflydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereimty. .1113 
Another body of Flemings settle in Pembroke- 
shire " 

[The posterity of these settlers are still distiu- ' 
guished from the ancient British population by 
their language, manners, and customs.] 

Henry I. erects castles in Wales 1114 

Revolt of Owen Gwynned on the death of Henry 

I. ; part of South Wales laid waste 1135 

The Welsh ravage the borders 1136 

Strongbow, earf of Pembroke, invested with the 

powers of a count palatine in Pembroke 1138 

Henry II. invades Wales, which he subsequently 
subdues, after a stout resistance by Owen Gwyn- 
ned 1157 

Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the recov- 
ery of their lost rights and independence 1164 

Prince Madoc said to have emigrated to America 

about 1169 

Anglesey devastated 1173 

The Crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, 

archbishop of Canterbury 1183 

Powys Castle besieged 1191 

The Earl of Chester makes an inroad into North 

Wales 1210 

King John invades Wales, laying waste a great 

part of the principalities 1211-12 

Revolt of the Flemings 1220 

Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great 

ravages " 

Death of Maelgwy ap Rhys 1230 

Powys Castle taken by Llewelyn ap lorwerth's 

forces 1233 

William, earl of Pembroke, slain 1234 

Prince David ravages the marches, etc 1244 

Invasion of Henrylll 1245 

Anglesey again devastated " 

Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince 1246 

Convention of the Welsh nobility against the En- 
glish 1258 

Hay and Brecknock Castles taken by Prince Ed- 
ward 1265 

Peace with the English 1267 

Edward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster; 
on his refusal to come, deposes him; and in- 
vades Wales 1277 

Edward encamps a powerful army on Saltney 

Marsh " 

The sons of Grufydd treacherously drowned in the 



WAL 



497 



WAL 



River Dee 1)y the Earl Warrenne and Roger 
Wortimer ° J281 

ILnvardeii Castle taken by surpris^e by Llewelyn 
aiul his brother David; they destroy Flint and 
Khiutdlan Castles 1052 

Great battle between Llewelyn ap" Griifydd, the 
last prince, and the En<;-lish : Llewelyn slain, 
after the battle, by De Fl-aiictaii Dec. 11 " 

Wales finally siil)ducd by Edward L after a severe 
contest t( 

Trince David surrenders, and is execiited'as "a 
traitor j283 

The first English Prince of Wales,' sou of Ed ward" 
born at Caernarvon Castle (see Princes of Wales), 

rr,i • . -A-P''il 25,1284 

ihe insurrection of Llewelyn apMadoc ; checked, 

1294 , suppressed I3I6 

Great reliellion of OwaiuGlyndwr, or Oweii Glen- 
dower (grandson of the last prince, Llewelyn), 

comineuces 1400 

Radnor and other places taken by Owaiii GlyndwrUOl 

lie besieges Caernarvon 1402 

And .-eizes Harlech Castle ..., .'.' "1404 

Ilarlocli Castle retaken by the English forces! '. '. '. '14OS 

Owaiu (}lyndwr dies !l415 

Margaret of Aiijou, queen of Henry VL, takes r'efl 

uge in Ilaiiech Castle I459 

Town of Denbigh burnt ." ' ' '1400 

The Earl of Kichmond, afterward Henry VII. 
lauds in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh, ' 

„ , , Aug., 1485 

1 alatine jurisdiction lu Wales abolished by Ileurv 

VIII •; _ •'iggg 

Monmouth made an English county by the same 

king It 

The counties of Brecknock, Denbigh' audRadnor 

formed u 

Act for "laws and justice to be administ'er'e'd'iu 
Wales in same form as in England," 27 Ilenrv 
VIII •' ,, 

Wales incorporated into England by "Parii'am'ent.'l53G 
Divided into twelve counties 4543 

Dr. Ferrars, bishop of St. David's, burnt at 'the 
stake for heresy 4555 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the Exchequer,' attacked 
and murdered while on his assize tour.. " 

The Bible and Prayer-book ordered to be trans- 
lated into Welsh, and divine service to be per- 
formed in that language I563 

First congregation of "Dissenters assembled'iii 
Wales ; Vavasour Powel apprehended while 
preaching ^020 

Beaumaris Castle garrisoned for King Charles i.' 1G42 
- Powys Castle taken by Sir Thomas Myddeltou, 

.^ , Oct., 1644 

Dr. Laud, formerly Bishop of St. David's, behead- 
ed on Tower Hill Jau. 10,1645 

Surrender of Hawardeu Castle to the Parliament 
General Mytton " 

Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh. .............. " 

Rhuddlan Castle surrenders " 

Harlech Castle surrenders to Cromweirs'army un- 
der Mytton .1647 

Battle of St. Pagan's ; the Welsh totall'y de'fe'a't'e'd 
by Col. Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant. . .May 8,1648 

Beaumaris Castle surrenders to Cromwell " 

Pembroke Castle taken ; Colonel Poyer shot,* 

mi- T. ,. , ^ . ^ April 25,1649 

The French land m Pembrokeshire, and are made 
prisoners . . Feb.,1797 

Rebecca or "Becca" riots broke out against toll- 
gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper, was 
murdered Sept. 10 ; many persons were tried 
and punished Oct.,1843 

Subscriptions begun for establishing a university 
in Wales .Dec.,lS63 



PRINCES OF NORTU WALES. 

877. Anarawd. 

913. Edwal Voel. 

939. Howel Dha, the Good, prince of all Wales. 

94S. Jevaf, or Jevav, and la^o. 

972. Howel ap Jevaf. ° 

984. Cadwallon ap Jevaf 

oQo" ^^fei^V"' 'iP ^'''™ •''P n«wel Dha. 

n^o" kI^^ '^P Meyric ap Edwal Voel. 

998. Aedan, a usurper. 
1015. Llewelyn apSitsyllt. 
1021. lajjo ap Edwal apMeyric 
?np?' S,"*?!*' "P Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 
in^o- ^leddyn and Rygwallon. 
1073. Trahaeru ap Caradoc. 
1079. Griffith ap Conan. 
1137. Owain Gwynedd. 
1169. David ap Owain Gwynedd. 
1194. Llewelyn the Great. 
1240. David ap Llewelvn. 

1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood- 
slam after battle, in 12S2. 

PEINCES or 8OUTU WALES. 

877. Cadeth or Cadell. 

907. Howel Dha, the Good. 

948. Owain ap Howel Dha, his son. 

987. Meredith ap Owain. 

993. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 
1021. Rytherch ap Jestyn, a nsuroer, 
1031. Hywel and Meredydd. 

?A^r ^hydflerch and Rhys, the sons of the usurper. 
1001. Meredydd ap Owain ap Edwyn. 
Inl^- Su-^^ ^P Owain, and Rhydderch ap Caradoc. 
10<7. Rhys ap Tewdwr Mawr. 
1092. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 
1115. Griffith ap Rhvs'. 
1137. Rhys ap Grufydd, or Griffith. 
1196. Grufydd ap Rhys. 
1202. Rhys ap Grufydd. 
1222. Owain ap Grufydd. 
1235. Meredith ap Owain ; he died in 1267. 

PEINOES AND LOEDS OP POVVYS-LAND. 

1073. Meredydd ap Bled- 
dyn. 
1087. Cadwgan apBleddvn. 
1132. Madoc ap Meredydd. 
1160. Griffith ap Meredydd. 

1256. Gwenwinwin, or 

Gwen-^A'yuwyn. 
" Owain ap Grufydd. 



877. Mervyu. 

900. Cadeth ; also prince 

Of South Wales. 
927. Howel Dha, the Good. 

985. Meredydd ap Owain. 

1061. Bleddyn ap Cynvyn. 

ENGLISH PEINCES OP WALES.* 

1301. Edward Plantagenet (afterward King Edward 
IL), son of Edward L, born in Caernarvon 
Castle on the 25th April, 1284. It is asserted 
that immediately after his birth he was pre- 
sented by his father to the Welsh chieftains as 
their future sovereign, the king holding up the 
royal infant in his arms, and saving, in the 
Welsh language, "£iV/t Z»(/w," literally, in En- 
glish, "This is your man," but signifyino' 
"This IS your countryman and king." See° 
however, "/c/iD)>w." 

1343. Edward the Black Prince. 

1376. Richard, his son (afterward Richard IL). 

1899. Henry (afterward Henry V.), sou of Henry IV 

1454. Edward, son of Henry VL ; slain at Tewkesburv. 
May 4, 1471. •" 

1471. Edward (afterward Edward V.), son of Edward 



C40. Dyvnwal Moelmud, 
king of the Cymry. 
6S8. IdwalTo. 
720. Rhodri, or Roderick. 



SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 



7.55. Conan. 
S18. Mervyn. 
843. Roderick, e 
the Great. 



* At the commencement of the Civil War, Pcmbrolte Castle was the 
only Welsh fortress in the possession of the Parliament, and it was in- 

4rHste(l to the command of Col. Langharne. In 1647, he, and Colonels 
'owcl and Poyer, embraced the cause of the kine, and made Pembroke 
their head-quarters, after the defeat at St. Pagan's, retired to the cas- 
tle, followed by an army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after 
having endured great sufferings from want of water. Langharne, 
Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court-martial, and condemned to 
deatli ; but Cromwell having been induced to spare the lives of two of 
them, it was ordered that they should draw lots for the favor, and three 
papers were folded up, on two of which were written the words " Life 
given by God;" the third was left blank. The latter was drawn by 
Colonel Poyer, who was shot accordingly on the above-mentioned day. 



— Ptnnant. 



Il 



1483. Edward, son of Richard HI. ; died in 1484 
1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 
1503. Henry, his brother (afterward Henry VIII.). 
1537. Edward, his son (afterward Edward VI.)', was 

Duke of Cornwall, and not Prince of Wales 
1610. Henry Frederick, son of James I. ; died Nov. 6, 

1612. 
1616. Charles, his brother (afterward Charles I.). 
1630. Charles, his son (afterward Charles IL), never 

created prince of Wales. 
1714. George Augustus (afterward George II. ). 
1729. Frederick Lewis, his son ; died March 20, 1751. 
1751. George, his son (afterward George III.). 
1762. George, his son (afterward George IV.). 

_ * Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some authors say, dur- 
ing the early period of her life, by the Princess Mary of England eld- 
est daughter of Henry VIII., and afterward Queen Mary I. She waa 
created, they state, by her father Princess of Wales, in order to concil- 
iate the Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was, thev add the 
f i;",-.?!,'^ V '^ ^""'''' of Wafes in her own right, a rank she enjoved 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterward Edward VL, bora 
in ISi.!. This IS, however, denied by Banks. 



WAL 



498 



WAR 



1841. Albert-Edward, son of Queen Victoria. 

Traveled on tlie Continent, and studied at Ox- 
ford and Edinburg in 1S59. 
Visited Canada with the dignity of a viceroy, and 

the United States, ISGO. 
Entered the University of Cambridge in Jan. ; 
attended the camp at Dublin, July to Septem- 
ber; opened New Middle Temple Library, Oct. 
31,1861. 
Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward in- 
stead of Albert, Jan. 8; visited the Continent, 
Syria, and Egypt, March-June ; Germany and 
Italy, Aug.-Dec.,18G2. 
Admitted to the House of Peers, Feb. 5 ; a privy 

councilor, Dec. S, 1SG3. 
Married to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, 

March 10, 1863. 
Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct., 1SC4. 
[issMC : Albert-Victor, born Jan., 1864; George- 
Frederick, born June 3,1805; Louisa Victoria 
Alexandra Dagmar, born Feb. 20, ISGT; Victo- 
ria Olga Alexandra Mary, born July 0, 1S6S.] 
WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory), a temple near Kat- 
isbon, erected by Louis, king of Bavaria, to receive the 
statues and memorials of the great men of Germany, 
commenced Oct. 18, 1830, and inaugurated Oct. IS, 1842. 
The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of 
Scandinavian heroes after death. 
WALKING. See Pedestrianism. 
WALLACHIA. See Damihian Prhicipalities. On 
Dec. 23, 1861, the union of Wallachia and Moldavia, 
under the name of Roumania, was proclaimed at Jas- 
sy and Bucharest. 

WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis sailed from 
England on his voyage round the world, July 26, 1766, 
and returned to England May 19, 1TC3. 

WALLOONS, a people who fled to England from 
the persecution of the cruel Duke of Alva, the govern- 
or of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain, 156G. 
A church was given to them by Queen Elizabeth. The 
first permanent settlements in New York were made 
by Walloons (the descendants of French Protestants 
who had fled to Holland). Thirty-tive families arrived 
in 1623. Eight families went up the Hudson, and set- 
tled at Albany ; the remainder crossed the EastKiver, 
and settled upon lands now covered by the eastern 
portion of Brooklyn, around the navy-yard. There 
was born Sarah liapelye, the first white child born 
within the limits of the State of New York. 

WALLS. See Roman Walls. 

WALNUT-TREE has long existed in England.* 
The black walnut-tree {Julians nigra) was brought 
to these countries from North America before 1620. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole 
(afterward Sir Robert, and Earl of Orford) was born in 
16T6; became secretary at war in 1708; was expelled 
the House of Commons on a charge of misappropriat- 
ing the public money, 1711 ; committed to the Tower, 
Jan. 17, 1712 ; became first lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the Exchequer in 1715. He resigned, on 
a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717,bringingin the Sink- 
ing-fund Bill on the day of his resignation. On the 
Earl of Suuderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his 
office, and held it till 1742. He died March IS, 1745. 

SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTKATION (1721). 

Sir Robert Walpole, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Thomas, lord Parker, created Earl of Macclesfield, 
Lord Chancellor. 

Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 
Devonshire), Lord, President. 

Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by Lord Trevor), 
Privij Seal. 

Jamesj earl of Berkeley, First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Charles (Viscount Towushend), and John, lord Car- 
teret (the latter succeeded by the Duke of Newcas- 
tle), Secretaries of State. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the Earl ofCado- 
gan), Oi'dnance. 

Georsre Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), Secretary 
at War. "^ 

Viscount Torrington, etc. 

WALTZ, the popular German national dance, was 
introduced into England by Baron Neumau and oth- 
ers in 1813. — Raikes. 



WANDSWORTH, near London. Here was opened 
Wandsworth meeting-house, the first place of worship 
for Dissenters in England, Nov. 20, 1572. In Garrett 
Lane, near this place, a mock election of a mayor of 
Garratt was formerly held after every general electioh 
of Parliament, to w'hich Foote's dramatic piece. The 
Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small celebrity. 

WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of princes." 
Osymandyas of Egypt, the first warlike king ; he 
passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B.C. — 
Usher. He is supposed by some to be the Osiris of 
the priests. It is computed that, to the present time, 
no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have perished in the 
field of battle. See Battles. . 

GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CON- 
QUEST. 
Peace. I War with Peace. 

1068 1092 Scotland 1547 15.50 

1116 1118 France 1549 1550 

1138 1139 France 1557 1559 

1161 use! Scotland 1.557 1560 

1194 1195 France 1562 1564 

Spain 1588 1604 

Spain 1G24 1629 

France 1627 1629 

Holland 1G51 16.'-.4 

Spain 1055 1660 

France 1606 1668 

Denmark . . . .1666 166S 

Holland 1666 1068 

Algiers 1669 1671 

Holland 1672 1074 

France 1689 1097 

Peace of Ryswick, 

Sept. 20,1697 



FOREIGN WAR 
War with 

Scotland .... 

France 

Scotland .... 

France 

France 

France 

France 

Prance 

Scotland 

Scotland 

France 

France 

France 

France 

France 

France 

Scotland 

Scotland 



1201.. 


..1216 


1224. . 


..1234 


1294.. 


..1299 


1296.. 


..1323 


1327.. 


..1328 


1339.. 


..1360 


1368.. 


..1420 


1422.. 


...1471 


1492.. 


...1492 


1512. . 


...1514 


1522.. 


...1.527 


1522.. 


...1.542 



,1542 1546 



* Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest walnut-tree 
on record ; it was felled in 1657, and from it were cut nineteen loads of 
plank ; and as much was sold to a (runsmith in London as cost £10 
carriage ; besides which, there werss thirty loads of roots and branches. 
When standing it covered 76 poles of ground, a space equal to 2299 
square yards, statute measure. 



GREAT MODERN WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN. 

War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 1702. Peace 

of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 
War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace concluded, 1721. 
War ; Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739. Peace of Aix-la- 

Chapelle, April 30, 1748. 
War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed also on 

April 30, 1748. 
War ; the Seven Years' War, June 9, 175G. Peace of 

Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General peace, Feb. 10, 

1763. 
War with the LTnited States of North America, July 

14, 1774. Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. 
War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of Paris, Jan. 20, 

17S3. 
War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same time, 

Jan. 20, 1783. 
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace signed, Sept. 

2,1783. 
War of the Revolution, Feb. T, 1793. Peace of Amiens, 

March 27, 1802. 
War against Bonaimrte, April 29, 1803. Finally closed 

June 18, 181.5. 
War with United States of North America, June IS, 

1812. Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 
War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of Paris, 

March 31, 1856. 
For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see those 

countries respectively. 

WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin Warbeck, 
the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom Edward IV. had 
stood godfather, was persuaded by Margaret, duchess 
of Burgundy, sister to Richard III., to personate her 
nephew Richard, Edward V.'s brother, which he did 
first in Ireland, where he landed, 1492. The imposture 
was discovered by Henry VII., 1493. Some writers 
consider that Warbeck was not an impostor. 
Made an attempt to land at Kent with 000 men, when 

150 were taken prisoners and executed, 1495. 
Recommended by the King of France to James IV. of 

Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman. Lord Hunt- 
ley's daughter, in marriage, the same year. James 

IV. invaded England in his favor, 1496. 
Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, where 

3000 joined him, and he took the title of Richard IV., 

1497. 
Taken prisoner by Henry VII., 1498. 
Set in the stocks at Westminster and Cheapside, and 

sent to the Tower, 1499. 
Plotted with the Earl oAVarwick to escape out of the 

Tower by murdering the lieutenant, for which he 

was hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 28, 1499. 

W.^RDIAN CASES. In 1829, Mr. N. B. Ward ob- 
served a small fei-n and grass growing in a closed 
glass bottle, in which he had placed a chrysalis cov- 



WAR 



499 



WAT 



ered with moist earth. From this circumstance he 
was led to construct his well-lciiown cltmclii r/lazed 
cases, which aflord to phiiits light, heat, and moisture, 
and cxcliule deleterious gases, smoke, etc. They are 
particularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first 
employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, 
etc., with great success ; and Professor Faraday lec- 
tured ou the suhject in 1838. 

WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of London 
in their wards, where they elect annually their com- 
mon councilmen. The practice is said to have bcnin 
m 13SG. They had previously assembled in Guildhall. 
WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet was 
transferred to this city from Cracow in 156(), and it be- 
came the seat of government in 1GS9. Population in 
1S59, 16'2,77T. See Poland, 1S61-5, for recent events. 
Alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and Poland, 
against Turkey, in pursuance of which John So- 
bieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna (on 
the ISth of Sept. following), signed. . . .March 31,1683 

\V arsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 

Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland,' 
m, T^ • . Feb. 24,1708 
I he Russian garrison placed here in 1794; ex- 
pelled by the citizens with the loss of 2000 
killed and 500 wounded, and 3G pieces of can- 
non . ...... April 17,1794 

The Poles defeated by the Russians at Macieio- 

vice Oct. 4 " 

The King of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; coml 
pelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the 

Russians Nqy h 

SuwaiTow, the Russian general', 'after "the sieg'e 
and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 
30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in cold 

-^'^'"ocl Nov. 4, " 

A\ arsaw c(mstituted a duchy and annexed to the 

house of Saxony Au"-. 1807 

The duchy overrun by the Russians ; "Warsaw 

made the residence of a Russian viceroy 1813 

The last Polish revolution commences at Warsaw, 

T5 ffi <• o ,. „ Nov. 29,1830 

iJattle ot Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the 
Rus-sians were defeated and forced to retreat, 
with the loss of 7000 men Feb "5 1831 

Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken 
possession of by the Russians ; and great part 
of the Polish army retired toward Plock and 
Modlin Sept. 6-8, " 

The czar meets the Emperor of Austria and the 
Regent of Prussia; no result Oct. 20-25,1860 

WASHINGTON (in the District of Columbia, part- 
ly in \ irginia and Maryland, ou the bank of the Poto- 
mac, N.E. of Virginia), the capital of the United States, 
founded in 1791; and made the seat of government in 
1800. The House of Representatives was opened for 
the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken 
in the late war by the British forces under Gen, Ross, 
when all its superb national structures were consumed 
by a general coiitlagratiou, the troops not sparing even 
the national library, Aug. 24, 1814. Gen. Ross was soon 
afterward killed by some American riflemen, in a des- 
perate enL'agement at Baltimore, Sept, 12, followino-. 
—Part of the Capitol and the whole of the library of 
the I nited States' Congress were destroyed by fire 
Dec 24 18.51. The Prince of Wales was entertained 
by the President here in Sept., 1860. See United States. 
Washington was fortified in April, 1861, against the 
Confederates. Slavery abolished in the district, April 
4, 1801. ^ 



WASHINGTON, Fort, Captuee of. This fort was 
upon the highest point of York or Manhattan Island 
near its northern end, and was constructed in the 
spring and summer of 1776. When Washington with- 
drew to Westchester, just befoi-e the battle of White 
Plains, he placed .^ooo men, under Colonel Morgan in 
garrison at Fort Washington. These were attacked 
on the 16th of November by the combined British and 
Hessian forces, under the command of General Knyp- 
hausen, full 5000 strong. The fort was taken, but at 
an expense to the victors of 1000 men. The loss of 
the Americans in killed and wounded did not exceed 
100. More than 2000 of them were made prisoners 
and these, with those taken <m Loni,' Island, tilled the 
loathsome prisons and prison-ship at New York. 

WASIUM (named from the roval house of Wasa or 
Vasa), a supposed new metal, discovered by F. Bahr 
of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov., 18C3, Nicklcs declared 
it to be a compound of didymium, yttrium, and ter- 
bium. 



WASTE LANDS. The inclosure of waste lands and 
commons, in order to promote agriculture, first began 
in England about the year 1547, and gave rise to Ket's 
h« o !?i'' -^^^ ^^"'^'"■'^"'■es were again promoted by 
the authority of Parliament, 1785. The waste landi 
in England were estimated in 1794 to amount to 14 

^at on 9 ^^r^Arf' °^ '\^''^^ "'?''^ "'^^''^ ^aken into culti- 
vation 2,837,470 acres before June, 1801. In 1841 there 
vvere about 6,700 000 acres of waste land, of which more 
fc^r!>Sm°"^ ° '''P'"''^ of improvement. 
WATCHES are said to have been first invented at 

khV.'"nV'l''^';/^^I'K''S'^°"gl^ '^ '^ ^ffi™"! that Robert 
king ot iscotlaud, had a watch about 1310. 

Watches first used in astronomical observations 
by Purbach ^r,,^ 

Authors assert that the Empero'r'chai-l'es'v.' was " 
the first who had any thing that might be called 

Wof7 i:*^"?Sh some call it a smairtable-clock,1530 

Watches first brought to England from Germany 

A watch whic'h belonged "to 'Queen' El'iz'a'b'ethis'^^" 
preserved in the library of the Royal Institution. 
London. ' 

Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so call- 
ed) have had their invention ascribed to Dr. 
Hooke by the English, and to M. Huyghens by 
the Dutch. Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clock- 
maker, says that Dr. Hooke was the inventor: 
and he appears certainly to have produced what 
IS called the pendulum-watch about 1658 ; man- 
ifest, among other evidences, from an inscription 
on one of the double-balance watches present- 
ed to Charles II., "Rob. Hooke, inven. 1658 • T 
lompion, fecit, 1675." 
Repeating watches invented by Barlowe. . . . 1670 

Harrison's first time-piece produced 1735 

Watches and clocks were taxed in "1797 

The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 

WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic 
sect, considered water to be the original priucinle of 
every thing, about 594 B.C.~Stanle:j. In the Roman 
Church, water was first mixed with the sacramental 
wme, A.T).V22.~Lenfflet. Cavendish and Watt, in 1781, 
demonstrated that water is composed ofeightparts of 
oxygen and one part of hydrogen. In freezing, water 
contracts till it is reduced to 42° or 40° Fahr. :"it then 
begins to expand till it becomes ice at 32°.— Water 
was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 21 Hen. 
IIL, 1237 — Stow. It took nearly fifty years to com- 
plete It ; the whole being finished, and Cheapside con- 
duit erected, only in 12S5. The New River water was 
brought to London from Amwell, in Hertfordshire at 
an immense expense, by Sir Hugh Myddelton, in 1613. 
the city was supplied with its water by conveyances 
of wooden pipes in the streets and small leaden ones 
to the houses, and the New River Company was in- 
corporated, 1620. So late as Queen Anne's time there 
were water-carriers at Aldgate pump. London is now 
supplied by eight companies : The New River, East 
Loudon, Chelsea, Grand Junction, Southwark and 
Vauxhall, Kent, Lambeth, and West Middlesex. The 
water-works at Chelsea were completed and the com- 
pany incorporated, 1722. London Bridge ancient wa- 
ter-works were destroyed by fire, Oct. 29, 1779. An act 
to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 Vict , c. 84 
was passed July 1, 1852. The supply is now consider- 



ed to be much improved in quality and Quantity. In 
Jan., 1857, a company was formed to carry out Dr 
Normandy's patent for converting salt water into 
fresh. See Artesian Wells. 

WATER-CLOCKS. See Clocks. 

WATER-COLOR PAINTING was gradually raised 
from the hard, dry style of the last century, to its pres- 
ent brilliancy, by the eftbrts of Nicholson, Copley 
Fielding, Varley, the great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole' 
Prout, etc., within the present century. The exhibi- 
tion was founded in 1805. 

WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid mixture 
of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies (potash or soda). 
Glauber (De Lithiase) mentions a similar mixture in 
1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, the modern inventor, gave an 
account of his process in 1S25; and Mr. Frederick Ran- 
som, of Ipswich, ignorant of Von Fuchs's discovery, 
patented a mode of preparing water-glass in 1845, 
which he has since greatly improved upon. In 1857, 
M. Kuhlmann, of Lille, published a pamphlet setting 
forth the advantageous employment of water-glass in 
hardening porous stone and in stereochromy (which 
see). It has been applied to the exterior of many 
buildings in France and England. The memoirs of 



WAT 



500 



WEI 



Vou Fuchs and Kuhlmann were translated and print- 
ed in Eu^Iand iu 1859 by direction of tlie prince con- 
sort. 

WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are said to 
have been invented by Belisarius, the general of Jus- 
tinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The 
ancients parched their corn, and pounded it in mor- 
tars. Afterward mills were invented, which were turn- 
ed by men and beasts with great labor ; yet Pliny men- 
tions wheels turned by water. 

WATERPORD (S. Ireland), built 8T9, was totally de- 
stroyed by lire in 9S1. Rebuilt and considerably en- 
larged by Strongbow in 1171, and still farther in the 
reign of Henry VII., who granted considerable privi- 
leges to the citizens. Richard II. landed and was 
crowned here in 139'J ; in 1090, James II. embarked 
from hence for France, after the battle of the Boyne ; 
and William III. resided here twice, and confirmed its 
privileges. Memorable storm here, April IS, 179'2. The 
cathedral of Waterford, dedicated to the blessed Trin- 
ity, was first built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the 
first bishop of Waterford, after his return from En- 
gland from his consecration, 1096, This see was united 
with that of Lismore In 1363. It was valued in the 
king's books, by an extent returned 29 Ileurv VIII., at 
XT2 8«. Id. Irish per annum. By stat. 3 & 4"VVill. IV., 
the see of Waterford and Lismore was united by the 
Irish Church Temporalities Act with the see of Cashel 
and Emly, Aug. 14. 1833. The interior of the cathedral, 
organ, etc., were destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815. 

WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the great bat- 
tle on the 18th of June, IS15, between the Preiich army, 
of 71,94T men and 246 gnus, under Napoleon, and the 
Allies, commanded by the Duke of Wellington ; the 
latter, with 0T,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the va- 
rious attacks of the enemy from nine in the morning 
until five in the afternoon. About that time 16,000 
Prussians reached the field of battle ; and by seven, 
the force under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 
men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward 
his whole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage 
was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers and 
1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 officers and 
4560 men wounded— total 6932; and the total loss of 
the allied army amounted to 4206 killed, 14,539 wound- 
ed, and 4231 missing, making 22,9T6 Iwrs de combat. 
Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying army, re- 
turned to Paris ; and finding it impossible to raise an- 
other, abdicated the throne of France.— P. Nicholas.* 

WATER-SPOUT. Two water-spouts fell on the 
Glatz Mountains, in Germany, and caused dreadful 
devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; 
many persons perished, July 13, 1S2T. A water-spout 
at Glanflesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, passed over a 
farm of Mr. John Macartlij', destroying farm-houses 
and other buildings ; seventeen persons perished, Ault. 
4, 1831. The estimated length of one seen near Cal- 
cutta, Sept. 2T, 1855, was 1000 feet. It lasted ten min- 
utes, and was absorbed upward. One seen on Sept. 
24, 1850, burst into heavy rain. 

WATER TOFANA. See Poisoning. 

WATLING STREET. See Bovian Roads. 

WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with which the 
curves of the hull of a ship should be adapted to the 
curves of a wave of the sea) formed the subject of ex- 
periments begun by Mr. John Scott Russell in 1832, 
with the view of increasing the speed of ships. Col. 
Beaufoy is said to have spent X30,000 in researches 
upon this matter. It was also taken up hy the British 
Association, who have published reports of the inves- 
tigations. The principle has been adopted by naval 
architects. 

WAVBRLEY NOVELS. The publication of the 
series began with "Wuverley; or, 'Tis Sixty Years 
Since," in 1814, and closed with "Tales of my Laud- 
lord," fourth series, in 1831. The authorship was ac- 
knowledged by Sir Walter Scott at a dinner, Feb. 23, 
182T. 

WAWZ, or Wawer (Poland). The Poles, under 
Skrzynecki, attacked the Russians at Wawz, and, aft- 
er two days' hard fighting, all the Russians' positions 
were carried by st orm, and they compelled to retreat, 

* It is an historical fact, that the British forces have been twice sig- 
nally successful over those of France on the same Rround— Waterloo ; 
and that by the side of the very cliapel of Waterloo, which was re- 
marked for beins uninjured by sSot or shell on the memorable I8th of 
June, 1815, did Marlborough cut off a large division of the French 
forces opposed to him on the nth of August, 1705. It is no less a fact, 
that the conquerors of each of those days, on the same field, are the 
only commanders in the British service whose military career brought 
them to the summit of the peerage— to dukedoms. 



with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, March 
31, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, but their 
triumph was followed by defeat and ruin. 

WAX came into use for candles iu the 12th century ; 
and wax caudles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, be- 
ing but little used. In China caudles of vegetable 
wax have been in use for centuries. See Candlcberry. 
The wax-tree, Ligustrwni luciduni, was brought from 

China before 1794 Sealing-wax was not brought 

into use in England until about 1556. Its use has been 
almost superseded by the introduction of adhesive en- 
velopes, about 1844. 

WE. Sovereigns generally use tve for J, which style 
began with Kiug John, 1199. — Coke. The German em- 
perors and kings used the plural about 1200. 

WEATHER. See Meteorolor/ij. 

WEAVING appears to have been practiced in China 
more than a thousand years before it was known iu 
Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed the art to 
Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva; and the Peruvians to 
the wife of Manco Capac. Our Savior's vest, or coat, 
had not any seam, being woven from the top through- 
out in one whole piece. The print of a frame for 
weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmct's Diction- 
ary under the word {'estmcnts. Two weavers from 
Brabant settled at York, where they mantifactured 
woolens, which, says Kiug Edward, "may prove of 
great benefit to us and ouV subjects," 1331. Flemish 
dyers, cloth drapers, linen -makers, silk -throwsters, 
etc., settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, South- 
ampton, and other places, on account of the Dnke of 
Alva's persecution, 1507. See Luoni and Electric Loom. 

WEDGWOOD-WARE, pottery and porcelain, pro- 
duced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staflbrdshire, iu 
1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were founded in 
1771. Previously to 1763, much earthen-ware was im- 
ported from France and Holland. 

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, so called 
from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, worshiped on 
this day. "Woden was the reputed author of magic 
and the inventor of all the arts, and was thought'to 
answer to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans." — 
B^itler. 

WEEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). Com- 
missioners were appointed to inquire into the accounts 
of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great military 
clothing establishment at this place, in July, 1858, and 
commenced sitting in September. Many of the state- 
ments, afterward disputed, caused much dissatisfac- 
tion. 

WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be 
first used among the Jews, who observed the Sabbath 
every seventh day. They had three sorts of weeks, 
the first the common one of seven days, the second of 
years, which was seven years, the third of seven times 
seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. All 
the present English names are derived from the Sax- 
on: 

Latin. English. Saxon. 

DiesSolis, Day of the Sun, Sunday, Sun's day. 

Dies Luna?, Day of the Moon, Monday, Moon's daj-. 

Dies Martis, Day of Mars, Tuesday, Tiw's day. 

Dies Mercurii, Day of Mercury, Wednesday, Woden's day. 

Dies Jovis, Day of Jupiter, Thursday, Thor's day. 

Dies Veneris, Day of Venus, Friday, Friga's day. 

Dies Saturni, Day of Saturn, Saturday, Saterne's clay. 

WEIGHTS AND Measukes. These, and the stamp- 
ing of gold and silver money, were invented by Phei- 
don, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C. ct seq. — Arundclian Mar- 
bles. Weights were originally taken from grains of 
wheat, the lowest being still called a gram.—Chalmers. 

The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
chester by the law of King Edgar, 972. 

Standards of weights and measures were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of 
London, 9 Rich. L, 1197. 

A public weighing machine was set up iu London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the city 
officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice 
between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. (Stoir), 1309. 

Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
weight, measure, and yard" throughout the kingdom, 
13.53. & ' 

First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois weight, 
of24Hen. VIIL, 1532. 

Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III., 1794. 

Again regulated, isno. 

Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights and 
measures, 1824, took place throughout the United 
Kingdom, Jan. 1, 1S2G. 



WEI 



601 



WES 



New acts relating thereto passed iu 1834, 1S35, 1855, 
and lastly in is&i). 

10 & 17 Vict., c. 20, reirulates the weights to be used 
m the scale of bullion, and adopts the use of the Troy 
ounce, 1S53. 

A committee of the House of Commons recommend- 
ed that the decimal system should be leijalized, but 
not made compulsory until sanctioned by'seueral ap- 
proval, 1S02. 

(See Sta7idard, and Metrical System.) 

WEIMAK (termed the Athens of Germany), capital 
of the f^rand-duchy of Saxe Weimar, is celebrated as 
having: been the residence of the German classic writ- 
ers, Schiller, (i(]cthe. Herder, and Wieland, the grand- 
dukes having been eminent patrons of literatnre. The 
city became important iu the 15th century, aud suffer- 
ed iu the German wars. 

WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Succeeded 

that of \ iscount Goderich, Jan., 1828, aud resigned 

Nov. 10, 1830. 

Duke of Wellington, First Lord of the Treamry. 

Mr. Henry Goull)iirn, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

Earl Bathnrst, Pre.si,h')it of the Council. 

Lord Ellcnboroiigh,/'/uv^ Seal. 

Mr. (afterward Sir) Kobert Peel, Earl Dudley, and Mr. 
Wm. Huskissou, Home, Foreign, and Colonial Secre- 
taries. 

Viscount Melville, Board of Control. 

Jlr. Charles Grant, Board of Trade. 

Lord Palmerston, Secrctari/ at War. 

Mr. Herries, Master of the Mint. 

Earl of Aberdeen, Duchy of Lancaster. 

Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Chancellor. 

Mr. Iluskisson, Earl Dudley, Viscount Palmerston, and 
Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, aud various changes 
followed iu May aud June same year. 

The Earl of Aberdeeu and Sir George Murray became, 
respectively. Foreign and Colonial Secretaries. 

Sir Henry Hardinge, Secretary at War. 

Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterward Lord Fitzgerald), In- 
dia Boairl. 

Lord Lowther, First Commissioner of Land Revenues, 
etc., ]\ray and June, 182S. 

Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, etc. 

WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA, the larsrest tree in 
the \^orld, a native of California, was discovered by 
Mr. Lol)b in 1S53, and tirst described by Dr. John Lind- 
ley. When full grown it is about 450 feet high, and 
110 feet in circumference. 

WELLINGTON'S VICTOEIES, Etc. For details, 

see separate articles. 

Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some au- 
thorities, in March; toothers Mayl,17C9 

Appointed to command iu the Mahratta War in 
India; takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, Aug. 
12 ; and gains his tirst victory at Assaye, Sept. 
23, defeats Scindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; and at 
Gawalghur Dec. 13,1803 

Becomes Secretary for Ireland ISOT 

Takes the command iu Portugal ; defeats Junot 
at Vimiera Aug. 21,1808 

Defeats Victor at Talavera, July 28; created Vis- 
count Wellington Sept. 4,1809 

Repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 27 ; and occu- 
pies the lines at Torres Vedras Oct. 10,1810 

Defeats Massena atFuentes d'Onore, May 5; takes 
Almeida May 10,1811 

Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. 10; and Badajos, 
April 6 ; defeats Marmout at Salamanca, July 
22; enters Madrid Ausr. 12,1812 

Defeats Joseph Bonai)arte and Jourdan at Vitto- 
ria, June 21 ; storms St. Sebastian, Aug. 31 ; en- 
ters France Oct, 8,1813 

Defeats Sonlt at Orthez,Feb. 27; and at Toulouse, 

April 10,1814 

Created Duke of Wellington, with an annuity of 
£13,000 and a grant of £300,000 May, " 

Commands the army in the Netherlands; repulses 
an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, June 16; de- 
feats Napoleon at Waterloo, June IS ; invests 
Paris July 3,1815 

Commands the army of occupation in France, 

1S15, till Nov.,181S 

His assassination attempted by Cantillon, who es- 
capes Feb. 10, " 

Appointed master general of the ordnance 1819 

The Wellington shield and supijortin^' columns 
designed by Stothard, conimenniraling all the 
above-mentioned victories, presented to the 
duke by the merchants and bankers of London. 
(It was m;inufactured by Green and Ward, and 
cost £11,000) Feb. 1G,1S22 



The duke appointed commander-in-chief, Jan. 22; 

resigns April 30,'l827 

Becomes nrst minister j^^^ ^g.-^s 

Aids iu carrying the Catholic Emancipation Bili' 

Asserts that no reform in Parliament is needed' 

Nov. 2; resigns jsj^y le'isso 

Transacts all the business of the country afterthe 
^■^.«'f|"'''f,ion of Lord Melbourne till the arrival 
ot Sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes 
toreign secretary under Sir I{. Peel, Dec 1834 • 

resigns ' "'AnviriaoK 

Dies at Walmer Castle. . . . .■;.■;.■ "; Sept 14 1852 

His body removed to Chelsea Hospital, where it 

lay instate .';.. ' Nov 10 " 

Removed to the Horse Guards. . . . Nov" 17' " 

Public funeral at St. Paul's Cathedral'! .' .' .'Nov." 18,' " 

WELLS BISH(3PRIC (in Somerset). The cathedral 
church was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 704, 
"y^V ^v '?c^"^^'='V?'' ^° St. Andrew. Several other 
01 the \\ est. Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erect- 
ed into a bishopric in 900, during the reign of Kino- 
Edward the Elder. The present fhurch wSs begun by 
Robert, the 18th bishop of this see, and completed bv 
his immediate successor. The first bishop of Wells 
was ^thelm or Adelmus (afterward Bishop of Can- 
terbury).— iV«Aswi. The see was united with Bath 
{which see) iu lOSS. 

WENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which 
spread over Germany in the Cth ceutury, and settled 
especially in the northeastern parts. 



dents, formed themselves into a small society for the 
purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises 
On account of their strictness of life they were called 
Methodists in 1720 (as living according to the methods 
laid down in the Bible). John Wesley went to Geor^-ia 
m America, in 1735, with a view of convertino- the'ln- 
dians. On his return to England iu 1738, he com- 
menced itinerant preaching, and gathered many foN 
lowers. On finding the churches shut against him he 
built spacious meeting-houses in Loudon, Bristol and 
other places. For some time he was united with Geo. 
vvhitefield; but ditferences arising on account of the 
doctrine of election, which Wesley rejected, they sep- 
arated in 1741. (See Whitefleld.) Wesley was almost 
continually engaged in traveling through the United 
Kingdom. His society was well organized, ami he 
preserved his influence over it to the last. "His we- 
iiius for government was not inferior to that of Riche- 
lieu."— i1/rtcaM?a2/. In 1S51 there were 428 circuits iu 
Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or 
lay preachers, and about 920 itinerant preachers, and 
05i9 chapels.t The 117th Annual Conference met iu 
London on July 20, 1800. The 124th Annual Confer- 
ence was held at Bristol, July 25, 1867, on which occa- 
sion laymen for the first time were called on to oiler 
prayer at the opening or closing of committees. In 
1867, in Great Britain and her colouies there were 3172 
itinerant preachers and 582,608 members. In 1808 
itinerant preachers, 3061 ; members, 594,485, of whom 
44,430 were probationers. At the General Convoca- 
tion m the City of York, on the 6th Feb., 1868, the 



* A multitude of all ranis, estimated at a million and a half of per- 
sons, were congreRated in the line of route, a distance of three miles to 
witness and share in the imposing spectacle. The military consisted 
ot the household regiments of horse and foot guards, the 2d battalion 
of the Rifles, a battalion of the Royal Marines, the 33d regiment, the 
nth Lancers, and the 18th Light Dragoons, with the regiment of Scots 
Greys. There were, besides, a body of Chelsea pensioners, and men of 
different arms of the East India Company. The body was placed, early 
in the morning of the ISth, bv means of machinery, upon a lofty and 
sumptuous funeral car (which science had contributed to complete) 
drawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the cofHn was thus 
seen by the whole of the crowd. The procession moved about seven 
o'clock, and it was three o'clock before the body was lowered into the 
vault beside the remains of Nelson, under the dome of St. Paul's Ca- 
thedral. In 1857 a number of models for the tomb were e.xhibited in 
Westminster Hall ; none was chosen. The stone sarcophagus, com- 
pleted in 1858, cost jEl 100. 

t The Conference, the highest Wesleyan Court, is composed of 100 
ministers, who meet annually. It was instituted by John Wesley in 
17S4. At the centenary of tlie existence of Methodism, ii!! 6,000 were 
collected, to be expended in the objects of the society. Out of the 
original connection have seceded : 

Chapels In 185!. In 1S68. 

New Connection On 1796) 301 650 

Primitive Methodists (ISKI) 2871 6269 

Bible Christians, or Bryanites (1815) 403 1050 

Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) 329 . . . ^ 

Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849) 2000 ...'. 

The last arose out of the publication of " Fly Sheets," advocating re- 
form in the body. The suspected authors and their friends were ex- 
Jielled. By these disruptions the main bodv is thought to have lost 
I'lii.niin members.— This sect in America numbered about a million in 
1S44, when a division took place on the slavery question. 



WES 



50:; 



bishops of the Episcopal Church resolved that they 
would welcorae any practical attempt to effect a 
brotherly recouciliatiou between the Wesleyau body 
and the Church of England ; but as the plan proposed 
treated the Wesleyans as an inferior body, the scheme 
failed iu its object. 

WESSEX. See Britain. 

WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Columbus, 
St. Salvador being the first land he made in the New 
World, and first seen by him in the night between the 
11th and 12th Oct., 1492. The largest are Cuba, Hayti 
(or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto Rico, Trinidad, and 
Guadaloupe. "See the Islands respectively. 

WEST SAXONS. See Wessex in Britain. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan Rivek 
Settlement, which was projected by Colonel Peel in 
182S. Regulations issued from the Colonial Oflice, 
and Captain Stirling, appointed lieutenant governor, 
Jan. IT, 1S29, arrived at the appointed site iu August 
following. The three towns of Perth, Freemantle, 
and Guirdford were founded same year. In March, 
1830, fifty ships, with 2000 emigrants, with property 
amounting to £1,000,000, had arrived before hardly 
any dwellings had beeu erected or land surveyed. 
The more energetic settlers left for home or the 
neighboring colonies, and the colony languished for 
twe'uty years for want of suitable inhabitants— the 
first setters, from their previous habits and rank iu 
life, proving unable for the rough work of coloniza- 
tion. In iS4S the colonists requested that convicts 
might be sent out to them, and in 1S49 a band arrived, 
who were kindly received and well treated. The best 
results ensued. Bv 1S53, 2000 had arrived, and the in- 
habitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should be 
sent out annually. The reception of convicts is to 
cease in after years, in consequence of the energetic 
opposition of the other Australian colonies (lS(i5).— 
The settlement at King George's Sound was founded 
in 1S2G by the government of New South Wales. It 
was used as a military station for four years. In 1S30 
the home government ordered the settlement to be 
transferred to Swan River. Since the establishment 
of steam communication, the little town of Albany 
here, employed as a coaling station, has become a 
thriving sea-port. It possesses an excellent harbor, 
used by whalers. A journal, called the Freemantle 
Gazette, was published here iu March, ISOl. Popula- 
tion of West Australia iu 1S59, 14,837; Dec, 1S61, 
15,555. Governor, John Stephen Hampton, appointed 
1861. 

WESTERN CHURCH (called also the Latin or Ro- 
man) broke off communion with the Greek or Eastern 
Church, 653. (See Greek CImrch.) The history of the 
Western Church is mainly comprised m that of the 
Popes and of the several European kingdoms. (See 
Pojyes.) This church was disturbed by the Arian her- 
esy about 345 and 500 ; and by the Pelagian about 409 ; 
by the introduction of image-worship about COO ; by 
the injunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the 
rise of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
between the emperors and the popes respecting eccle- 
siastical investitures between 10T3 and 1173 Thy the 
rise and progress of the Reformation in the 15th and 
16th ceuturies; by the contests between the Jesuits 
and Jansenists in the 17th and 18th ceuturies; and by 
the progress of modern philosophy and rationalism 
iu the lltth. See Roman Catholics. 

WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman Empire was 
first divided into Eastern and Western by Diocletian 
in A.D. 296, but was reunited under Constans in 340. 
It was again divided into Eastern and Western by 
Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the 
Western portion, or Rome, properly so called, 3G4. 
See Eastern Empire, Itahj, and Rome. 

KULEES OP TUE WESTERN EMPIRE. 

BG4. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, 
and his brother Valens the Eastern Empire. 

367. Gratian, a youth, sou of Valentinian, made a col- 
league in the government by his father. 

375. Valentinian II., another son, also very young, is, 
on the death of his father, associated with his 
brother in the empire. Gratian is assassinated 
by his general, Andragathius, in 383. Valen- 
tinian murdered by one of his officers, Arbo- 
gastes, in 392. 

392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dig- 
nity; he and Arbogastes are defeated by Theo- 
dosius the Great, vi-ho becomes sole emperor. 
[Andragathius throws himself into the sea, and 
Arbogastes dies by bis own hand.] 

395. Honorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his fa- 



WES 

ther's death, in the West, and his brother Arca- 
dius iu the East. Honorius dies iu 423. 
[Usurpation of John, the Notary, who is defeated 
and slain near Ravenna.] 

425. Valentinian III., sou of the Empress Placidia, 
daughter of Theodosius the Great ; murdered 
at the instance of his successor, 

455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 
husband and the guilt of her second, invites 
the African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is 
sacked. Maximus stoned to death. 

455. Marcus JMsecilius Avitus; forced to resign, and 
dies in his flight toward the Alps. 

457. Julius Valerius^Majorianus : murdered at the in- 
stance of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 

401. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the su- 
preme power. Severus is poisoned by Ricimer. 

465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, 
without assuming the title of emperor.] 

407. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
senate and army ; murdered by Ricmier, who 
dies soon after. 

472. Flavius-Auicius Olybrius; slain by the Goths 

soon after his accession. 

473. Glycerins , forced to abdicate by his successor, 

474. Julius Nepos ; deposed by his general, Orestes, 

and retires to Salome. 

475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), 

son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the em- 
peror deposed by 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli ; takes Rome, as- 

sumes the style of King of Italy, and completes 
the fall of the Western Empire. 

(See Italy, Rome, and Germany.) 

WESTMINSTER. A city so called on account of 
its western situation iu respect to St.Paul's Cathedral, 
or from there being formerly a monastery named East 
Minster on the hillnow called Great Tower Hill. This 
city joins London at Temple Bar. Formerly Westmin- 
ster was called Thorney, or Thorney Island ; and in 
ancient times Canute had a palace here, which was 
burnt in 1203. Westminster and London were one 
mile asunder so late as 1003, when the houses were 
thatched, and there were mud walls in the Strand. It 
is said that the great number of Scotsmen who came 
over after the accession of James I. occasioned the 
building of Westminster, and united it with London. 
—Hoivel's Londinopolis. See Palace of Westminster 
and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER ABBEY. The miraculous stories 
concerning this pile of buildings were questioned by 
Sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey 
the present edifice, and who, upon close examination, 
found nothing to countenance the belief that it was 
erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians 
have fixed the era of the first abbey in the 6th centu- 
ry, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. 
The church, becoming ruinous, was splendidly re- 
built by Edward the Confessor (105.5-05) and fill- 
ed with monks from Exeter. (Pope Nicholas II. 
constituted it the place for the inauguration of 

the kings of England.) Dedicated Dec. 28,1065 

The church once more built in a magnificent and 

beautiful style by Henry III. about 1220 

In the reiirns of Edward II., Edward III., and 
Richard ll., the great cloisters, abbot's house, 
and the principal monastic buildings, were erect- 
ed. 
The western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt 

between 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window were built by 
the rival princes Richard HI. and Henry VII. ; 
and it was the latter monarch who commenced 
the beautiful chapel which bears his name, the 

first stone of which was laid Jan. 24.1502-3 

The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric, 1.''41 ; 

finally rnade a collegiate church by Elizabeth.. .1500 
Made a barrack for soldiers, July, \(j\z.—Mcrcurius 

Rustictis. 
The great west window and the western towers 

rebuilt in the reigns of George I. find II 1714-60 

The choir injured by fire July 9,1803 

Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 

parts, at an expense of X42,000, in 1S09 

A fire, without any serious injury April 27,1829 

The evening services for the working classes, 
when a sermon w'as preached by the dean. Dr. 

Trench, commenced on Jan. 3,1853 

The sooth anniversary of the foundation cele- 
brated Dec. 28,1865 

WESTMINSTER BisnopRio and Deanery. At the 



■\YES 

dissolutiou of monasteries, Westminster Abbey was 
viiliied at £3977 per auuum ; Kini; Henry VIII., iu 
lf)8'.», erected it into a deanery; and iu 1541 he erect- 
ed it into a bishopric, and appointed John Tliirleby 
prehitc. But he, having wasted the patrimony allot- 
ted by the king for the support of the see, was trans- 
lated to Norwich in 1550, and with him ended the bish- 
opric of Westminster; Middlesex was the diocese, be- 
ing restored to London. The dean continued to pre- 
side until the accession of ISlary, who restored the ab- 
bot; but Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and erected 
the abbey into a collciriate church of a dean and twelve 
prebeuduries, as it still continues. On the revival of 
the Order of the Bath in 17-'.'), the Dean of Westmiu- 
.ster was appointed dean of tliat order, which honor 
lias been continued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was cre- 
ated Archbishop of Westminster by Pope Pius IX. on 
Sept. 30, 1850. See Papal Aggression. 

M'ESTMINSTEK BRIDGES. The old bridge was 
accounted one of the most beautiful bridges in the 
world. It was begun (after a design of M. Labelye), 
Sept. 13, 1738; the'lirst stone was laid Jan. 20, 173S-0; 
and it was opened for passeu<rers Nov. 17, 1750; cost 
i;4--'0,C50. It was built of Portland stone, and crosses 
the riyer where the breadth is 12'23 feet. Owing to the 
sinking of several of its piers, most of the balustrade 
on both sides was removed, to relieve the structure of 
its weight.— By 16 & 17 Vict., c. 46 (Aug. 4, 18.53), the 
estates of its commissioners were transferred to her 
majesty's commissioners of works, who were empow- 
ered to" remove the then existing bridtre, and build a 
HKW liRiDOF. uiear the old one), which was shortly aft- 
er be<:un. The contract required the completion of 
the works by June 1, 1857. The driviug of the first 
elm pile commenced on July 3, and the driving of the 
iron piles and plates in September. The works were 
suspended i'or a time, in consequence of the failure of 
JU's.-rs. Maie, the contractors. The government event- 
ually undertook the building, which they intrusted to 
Mr. Thomas Page, the engineer. One half of the new 
bridire was opened for use early iu 1860 ; the whole on 
May 24, 1802. 

"WESTMINSTER Confession of Faitu anb Catf.- 
cnis.Ms were drawn up by the "Assembly of Divines" 
(partly consisting of laymen), who sat by authority of 
Parliament in Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster, from 
1643 to 1047. These have ever since been the doctrin- 
al standards of Scotch Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER HALL, London. One of the most 
venerable remains of English architecture, first built 
by William Rufus iu 1097^ for a banquetiug-hall ; and 
here, in 1099, on his return from Normandy, "he kept 
his feast of Whitsuntide very royally." The hall be- 
came ruinous before the reign of Richard II., who re- 
paired it in 1397, raised the walls, altered the win- 
dows, and added a new roof, as well as a stately porch 
and other buildings. In 1236, Henry III., on New- 
year's day, caused 6000 poor persons to be entertained 
in this hall, and in the other rooms of his palace, as a 
relebratinn of Qneen, Eleanor's coronatiou ; and here 
Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when 
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted 
was 10,000. — Stoic. The courts of law were establish- 
ed here by King .lohn. — Idem. Westminster Hall was 
stated to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
by ])illars : it is 270Teet in length, 74 feet broad. The 
hall underwent a general repair iu 1802. Concurrent- 
ly with the erection of the palace of Westminster, 
many improvements and alterations have lately been 
made in this magnificent hall. The Volunteer Rifle 
Corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 1859. 

WEST:\IINSTER palace, see under Palace of 
Wcstmiitstcr and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL, London, was founded 
by (^ueoii Elizabeih in LOGO, for the education of forty 
boys, denominated the (^'ueen's Scholars, who are pre- 
pared for the I'niversity. It is situated within the 
walls of the abbe.v, and is separated into two schools 
or divisions, comprising seven forms or classes. Be- 
sides the scholars on the foundation, many of the no- 
bility and gentry send their sons to Westminster for 
instruction. A proposal iu 1860 to remove the school 
was disapproved of in 1861. 

WESTMORELAND. This county and Cumberland 
were granted as a flef to Malcolm of Scotland by Ed- 
ward the Elder in 945, and resumed by Henry III. in 
Vj:!7. Neville, earl of Westmoreland, revolted against 
Elizabeth in 1569, and was attainted in 1570. 

WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy beloncred 
in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and afterward 



503 



WHI 



became subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. On 
the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse- 
Darmstadt; and in 1814 was ceded for an equivalent 
to Prussia. The kin-doui of Westphalia, one of the 
temporary kingdoms of r.onnp;irte, composed of con- 
quests from Prussia, llesse-Cassel, Hauover, and the 
smaller states to the west of Elbe, was created Dec. 1, 
1807, and Jerome Bonajjarte appointed kina:. Hano- 
ver was annexed to it, March 1, 1810. The'kingdom 
of Westphalia was abolished in 1813, and the countries 
restored to their former rulers. 

WESTPHALIA, or Munster, Peace or, signed at 
Munster and at Osnaburg, between France, the em- 
peror, and Sweden, Spain continuing the war a'^ainst 
France. By this peace the principle of a balau'ce of 
power in Europe was first recognized ; Alsace given 
to France, and part of Pomerania and some other dis- 
tricts to Sweden ; the elector jialatiue restored to the 
lower palatinate; the relisrious and political rights 
of the German states established ; and the independ- 
ence of the Swiss Confederation recognized by Ger- 
many, Oct. 24, 1648. 

WHALE FISHERY, it is said, was first carried on 

by the Norwegians so early as 837 Lcnqlet. Whales 

were killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for their oil 
only, till 1578 ; the use of their fins and bones was not 
yet known, consequentlv (a writer quaintlv adds) no 
stays were worn by the ladies. The Enelish whale- 
fishing commenced at Spitzbergen in 1598; but the 
Dutch had been previously fishing there. The fishery 
was much promoted by an act of Parliament passed 
in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 whales have been killed 
annually on the coast of Greenland, etc. The quanti- 
ty of whale-oil imported in 1814 was 33,567 tuns. The 
quantity in 1820, when gas-light became general, was 
reduced to 25,000 tuns; so that the consumption of 
oil had become, on this account, greatly diminished. 
In 1840 the quantity was about 22,000 tuns ; in 1850, 
21,360 tuns ; iu 1861, 19,176 tuns ; in 1864, 14,701 tuns. 

WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their emperor, 
Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of hus- 
bandry, and method of making bread from wheat, 
about 2000 years before the Christian era. Wheat was 
introditced into Britain iu the 6th century, by Coll ap 
Coll Yve\\\.—Hfiherts. The first wheat imported into 
England of which we have a note was in 1347. Various 
statutes have regulated the sales of wheat, and re- 
strained its importation, thereby to encourage its be- 
ing raised at home. Imported into the United King- 
dom iu 1S54, 2,056,455 qrs. of wheat, and 6,329,038 cwts. 
of flour; in 1861,0,912,815 qrs. of wheat, and 6,152,933 
cwts. of flour; in 1864, 23,196,714 cwts. of wheat, and 
4,975,935 cwts. of flour. See Corn Laics and Bread. 
In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable utility 
of considering the pedigree of wheat. 

WHEEL, Beeaking on the. A barbarous mode of 
death, of great antiquity, ordered by Francis I. for rob- 
bers, 1515. See Ravailtac, etc. 

WHEEL-^'ORK. See Spinning, Looms, Automa- 
tons. 

WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name Whig 
was a term of reproach given by the court party to 
their antagonists for holding the principles of the 
"Whigs," or fanatical Covenanters in Scotland; and 
the name Tory was given to the court partv, compar- 
ing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. 
— Baker. This distinction arose out of the discovery 
of the Meal-tub Plot (irhirh see) iu 1678. I'pou briug- 
ing up the Meal Plot before Parliament, two parties 
were formed : the ones who doubted the plot styled 
those who believed in it Whigs; these styled their ad- 
versaries Tories. In time these names, given as marks 
of opprobrium, became honored distincti(jns. — Ihime. 
The Whigs brought about the revolution of 16SS-9, 
and established the Protestant succession. They were 
instrumental in obtaining the abolition of the'slave- 
trade and slavery, the repeal of the Test and Corpora- 
tion Act, Catholic Emanciiiatiou, parliamentary and 
municipal reform, and the repeal of the Corn laws. 
The Whig Club was established by Charles James 
Fox; one of its ori2:inal members was the great Fran- 
cis, duke of Bedford, who died in 1802. For the prin- 
cipal Whig ministries, see Godolphin, Halifax, Walpole, 
Rockingham, Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, Pal- 
■nierston. 

WHISKY, the distilled spirit produced from malt 
and other corn in Scotland and Ireland, of which 
about eight millions of gallons have been distilled 
annually in the former, and upward of nine millions 
of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this article 
has produced an annual revenue of about three mil- 



WHI 



50-t 



WIG 



lions. The distillation of whisky iu these countries is 
referred to the 16th century ; but some authors state 
it to have been earlier. See Distillation. In 1855 the 
duties on spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
equalized with those distilled in England. 

WHISKY INSURRECTION, a popular outbreak in 
Western Pennsylvania, in the summer of lTti4, ou ac- 
count of the imposition of duties on domestic dis- 
tilled spirits. The people of Western Pennsylvania, 
where large quantities of whisky were manufactured, 
resisted the collection of the revenue by excise offi- 
cers with force of arms. The insurrection became 
general iu several counties. Many outrages were 
committed. Buildings were burned, the mails were 
rifled, and government officers were insulted and 
abused. At one time there were 6000 or 7000 insur- 
gents under arms. The President of the United 
States (Washington) finally called out the military 
force of the country, to put down the insurgents, and 
was successful. Great leniency was shown to the of- 
fenders, and the excitement died away. 

WHITE-BAIT DINNER, when the cabinet minis- 
ters meet at the end of each session, is said to have 
begun at the end of the last century, through Sir Rob- 
ert'^Prestou and Sh- George Rose invitino; Mr. Pitt and 
his colleagues to dine at Dagenham, and afterward at 
Greenwich. Another account dates the origin in 1721. 

WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, so 
called ou account of their wearing linen frocks over 
their coats. They committed dreadful outrages in 
1761, but were suppressed by a military force, and 
their ringleaders executed in 17C-2. They rose into in- 
surrection again and were suppressed 17S6-7. White- 
boys have appeared at various times since, commit- 
ting the most frightful crimes. The Insurrection Act 
was passed on their account in 18-22. 

WHITEFIELD, Geokge, the founder of the " Cal- 
vinistic MethoclMs" was the son of an innkeeper at 
Gloucester, where he received his first education. He 
was admitted a servitor at Oxford in 1782, and became 
a companion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in 
establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 
1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine of 
election. He was the most eloquent preacher of his 
day. His first sermon was preached iu 1736; and he 
commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said to 
have delivered 1S,UOO sermons during his career of 34 
years. His followers are termed "the Countess of 
Huntingdon's Connection," from his having become 
her chaplain in 1748. There were 109 chapels of this 
connection iu 1S51; but many of his followers have 
joined the Independents. He was born in 1714, and 
died in 1770. See Tabernacle. 

WHITE FRIARS. See Carmelites. 

WHITEHALL (London), built by Ilnbert de Burgh, 
earl of Kent, before the middle of ihe 13th century. It 
afterward devolved, by bequest, to the Black Friars 
of Holborn, who sold it to the Archbishop of York, 
whence it received the name of York Place, and con- 
tinued to be the town residence of the archbishops till 
purchased by Heury VIII. of Cardinal Wolsey in 1530. 
At this period it became the residence of the court. 
Queeu Elizabeth, who died at Richmond iu 16U3, was 
brought from thence to Whitehall, by water, in a grand 
procession. It was on this occasion, Camden informs 
us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty 
was written : 
"The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 

At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 

More clung about the barge : fish under water 

Wept out their eyes of peari, and swam blind after. 

I think the bargeman might, with easier thighs. 

Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 

For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scanned, 

She had come by water, had she come by land." 
In 1697,Whitehall was destroyed by an accidental fire, 
except the banqueting-house, which -had been added 
to the palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a 
design of Inigo Jones, iu 1619. In the front of White- 
hall,"Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. 
converted the hall into a chapel, 1723-4. The exterior 
of this edifice uuderwent repair between 1829 and 
1833. 

WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries formed 
about 1377, against Louis, count of Flanders. The 
struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by Philip, 
duke of Burgundy. 

WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of freestone, 
the official residence of the Presidents of the United 
States. 



WHITE PLAINS, Battle or, between the Ameri- 
cans under Washington, and the British under Howe, 
was fought, in a series of skirmishes, on the 28th of 
October^ 1776. The Americans were driven from their 
position, and took post upon the hills a few miles far- 
ther north. The British general did not think it pru- 
dent to pursue. The loss of the belligerents was near- 
ly equal— about 300 each. 

WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turcomans 
who conquered Persia about 146S ; and persecuted the 
Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who founded the 
Sophi dynasty iu 1501. 

WHITE TOWER, the keep or citadel in the Tower 
of London, a large square, irregular building, erected 
in 1070 by Gandulph, bishop of Rochester. It meas- 
ures 116 feet by 96, and is 92 feet iu height ; the walls, 
which are 11 feet thick, having a winding staircase 
continued along two of the sides, like that in Dover 
Castle. It contains the sea armory and the volunteer 
armory— the latter for 30,000 men. Within this tower 
is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by 
the English monarchs. The turret of the N.E. angle, 
the highest of the four by which the White Tower is 
surmounted, was used for astronomical purposes by 
Flamsteed previously to the erection of the Royal Ob- 
servatory at Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE. The festival appointed to com- 
memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the 
apostles: the newly-baptized persons or catechumens 
used to wear white garments ou Whitsunday. This 
feast is movable, being always exactly seven weeks 
after Easter. Rogation Week {which see) is the week 
before Whitsunday. Whitsunday in 1866, May 20 ; iu 
1867, June 9 ; iu 1808, May 31. 

WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir Richard 
Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Loudon, served 
the office of lord mayor three times, the last time iu 
1419. Many stories connected with his name are des- 
titute of truth. His munificent charities are little 
known and seldom praised. He founded his college, 
dedicated to the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, iu 
1424 ; and his almshouses in 1429 : the latter stand on 
Highgate Hill, near the supposed site of the famous 
stone which commemorated the legend of his return 
to London, after leaving it in despair, the church bells 
chiming him back by the promise of his future great- 
ness. 

WICKLIPFITES, the followers of John Wicklifie 
(born 1324), a professor of divinity in the University 
of Oxford, and rector of Lutterworth iu Leicestershire. 
He was the father of the Reformation of the English 
Church from popery, being among the first who op- 
posed the authority of the pope, transubstantiation, 
the celibacy of the clergy, etc. Wickliflfe was protect- 
ed by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's un- 
cle, yet virulently persecuted by the Church, and res- 
cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which 
caused his death, December 31, 1384, iu his 60th year. 
The Council of Constance, in 1428, decreed his bones 
to be disinterred and burnt, which was done by the 
Bishop of Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the 
River Swift. Wickliflfe's English version of ihe Bible 
was commenced in 1380 : an edition of it was printed 
at Oxford in 1850. 

WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's 
brother to marry his widow (1490 B.C.). For the 
burning of widows in India, see Siittecs. Among the 
numerous associations in London for the relief of wid- 
ows are, one for the widows of musicians, instituted 
iul738; one for widows of naval men, founded in 1739; 
one for widows of medical men, 1788 ; a law society, 
for widows of professional gentlemen, 1817 ; and a so- 
ciety for artists' widows, 1827.— WinowEiis were taxed 
in England as follows : a duke, £12 10s. ; lower peers, 
smaller sums ; a common person. Is., 7 Will. III., 1695. 

WIG. See Peruke. 

WIGAN (Lancashire). In the Civil War, the king's 
troops, commanded by the Earl of Derby, were defeat- 
ed and driven out of the town in 1643 by the Parlia- 
mentary forces, under Sir John Smeaton. The earl 
was again defeated by Colonel Ashton, who razed the 
fortifications of Wigan to the ground, same year; and 
once more by a greatly superior force, commanded by 
Colonel Lilburue, 1051. Iu this last engagement, Sir 
Thomas Tildersley, an ardent Royalist, was slain; a 
pillar was erectedto his memory in 1679. 

WIGHT, Ible or, the Roman Vecta or rectis, was 
conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Claudius. It 
was conquered by the Saxons, unde^r Cerdic, about 530 ; 
iu 7S7 by the Danes ; and iu 1001, when they held it for 



WIL 



505 



WIL 



several years. It was takon b}' the French, July 13, 
l;!77, aud has several times suflVred rnmi invasions by 
that people. lu the year 144'.^ llrnry VI. alienated the 
Isle of VV'i;;ht to Henry de iK'ancliani]), lii'st premier 
Earl of EnLiland and then Duke of Warwick, with a 
precedency of all other diike.s Init Norfolk, and lastly 
crowned him King of the Isle of Wight with his own 
hands: but this earl dying with(;ut heirs male, his re- 
gal title died with himl| and the lordship of the isle re- 
turned to the crown. Charles I., after his flight from 
llamjjtou Court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook Castle 
in li')47. In the time of Charles II., timber was so 
plentiful that it is said a squirrel might have traveled 
on the tops of the trees for many leagues together; 
but it is now mnch reduced, through supplyuig the 
dock-yards for the British nav}'. The queen has a ma- 
rine residence here called Osborne House. 

WILKES'S NUMBER 45, from the 4.5th number of 
the ^Wurth liriton, published by Mr. Wilkes, an alder- 
man of London. He commenced a paper warfare 
against the Earl of Bute and his administration, and 
in this number, printed April 2:>, ITfi:!, made so free a 
use of royalty itself that a general warrant was issued 
against him "by the Earl oi" Halifax, then Secretary of 
State, aud he was committed to the Tower, April 30. 
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but ex- 
posed him to two duels; yet he obtained A'4O00 dam- 
ages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure of his 
papcr.s. lie was afterward condeuiiied for libel, but 
was, however, elected a fifth time^M.P. for Middlesex in 
Oct., 1774, and served the oflice of lord mayor. He was 
elected chamberlain of London in 1779, and died in 
1797. See Xnrth liritun, and also Warrants, General. 

WILLS ANTi Testaments are of very high antiquity. 
Sec Genesis xlviii. Solon introduced them at Athens, 
57S B.C. There are many regulations respecting wills 
in the Koran. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the 
first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 
31 B.C. The power of bequeathing lands by the last 
will and testament of the owner was coutirmed to En- 
glish subjects 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restric- 
tions and limitations respecting the feudal system, 
which were taken off by the statute of 82 Henry VIII., 

1541 -Dlackstone's Commentaries. The tirst will of a 

sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to be that 
of Richard IL, 1399; Edward the Confessor made a 
will, 10G6. Various laws have regulated the wills aud 
testaments of British subjects. All previous statutes 
were repealed by 1 Vict. c. 2G, 1S37, and the laws with 
relation to wills thereby amended.* The present Pko- 
BATE CocuT {trhich .sm) was established in 1S57. An 
oiBce for the reception of the wills of living persons 
was opened in Jan., ISGl. See Thelhisson's Will. 

EXTRACTS FKOSI THE LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON I., EM- 
PEKOK OP FRANCE, t 

[He died May 5, 1S21, eleven days after he had signed 

these documents. The original in French occupies 

about twentv-six pages in Peiguot's "TestaraensRe- 

marquables," 1S29.] 

" This day, April 24, 1821, at Longwood, in the Island 
of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act of my last 
will: .... 

" I leave to the Count de Moutholon 2,000,000 francs, 
as a proof of my satisfaction for the attentions he has 
paid to me for "these six years, and to indemnify him 
for the losses which my residence in St. Helena has oc- 
casioned him. Heave to the Comte Bertrand 500,000 
francs. I leave to Marchand, my tirst valet-de-cham- 
bre, 400,0(1(1 francs ; the services he has performed for 
nie ;ire those of a friend. I desire that he may marry 
a widow, sister, or daushtcr of an officer or so"ldier o"f 
my old guard. To St.1)enis, 100,000 francs. To No- 
varre, 100,000 francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To 
Archamband, 50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. 
To Chandelle, idem. 

"To the Abbe Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire that 
he mav build his house near Poute Novo de Rossino. 
To the Comie Las Casas, 100,000 francs. To Comte 
Lavalctte, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon in chief, 
Larrey, 100,000 francs. He is the most virtuous man I 
Lave known. To General Braver, 100,000 francs. 

"To General Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. 
To General Urouet, 100,000 francs. To General Cam- 

• By this net tlie test.-itor must be nliove '31 ; not a lunatic or iiliot, 
not tii'df iind (tunib, not drunk at the time of sicninp, not an outlawed 
or unnardoned felon. All kinds of jiropcrty may be devised. Tlie will 
must be written legibly and intellipibiy, aud sijrned by the testator, or 
by his direction, in the presence of two or more witnesses, who also 
m\ist siffn. A married woman may bequeath only her pin-money or 
separate maintenance, without the consent of her husband. 

t These documents, dated from April I.t-34, which had been fleposit- 
ed since 1821 in Enpland, have been, at the request of the Frencli pov- 
ernment, civeu up to the authorities at Paris, to be deposited amonf? 
the archives of that capital. 



bronne, 100,000 francs. To the children of General Mu- 
ton Duveriiais, ](i(i,(MiO francs. To tlie children of the 
brave Lalirdoyrre, lii(i,Oii(i francs. To the children of 
(ieneral (Jii-ard, killed at Liu'iiv, 100, OdO francs. To the 
cliildren of (ieiicral Chartraiid, l(i(i,liOO francs. To the 
children of the virtuousGeneral Travost, 100,000 francs. 
To General Lallemand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To 
General Clausel, 100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, 
also 100,000 francs. To the Baron de Menevalle, 100,000 
francs. To Arnault, author of Marius, 100,000 francs. 

"To Colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs: I request him 
to continue to write for the defeuse and glory of the 
French armies, aud to confound the calumniators and 
the apostates. To the Baron Bignon, 100,000 francs: 
I request him to write the historv of French Diplomacy 
from 1792 to 1815. To Pocrgi de'Talaro, 100,000 francs. 
To the Surgeon Emmery, 100,000 francs. 

"These sums shall b"e taken from the six millions 
which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from 
the interest at the rate of 5 per cent, since July, 1815, 
the account of which shall be adjusted with the bank- 
ers by the Counts Montliolon and Bertrand, and by 
Marchand. 

"These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to 
the widows and children, and in their default, shall 
revert to the capital. I institute the Counts Moutho- 
lon, Bertrand, and Marchand my testamentary execu- 
tors. This present testament, written entirely by my 
own hand, is signed aud sealed with my arms. 

"NAPOLEON. 

"April 24, ISSIjLonRwood." 

The following are part of the eight Codicils to the 
preceding will of the emperor : 

"On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such as 
money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, ca.skets of which 
the viceroy is the depositary, aud which belong to me, 
I dispose of two millions, which I leave to my most 
faithful servants, thope that without their showing 
any cause, my son Eugene Napoleon will discharge 
them faithfully. He can not forget the forty millions 
which I have given him in Italy, or by the right (pa- 
rufic) of his mother's inheritance. 

" From the funds remitted in gold to the Empress 
Maria-Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, 
at Orleans, in 1S14, there remain due to me two mil- 
lions, which I dispose of by the present codicil, in or- 
der to recompense my most faithful servants, whom I 
beside recommend to the protection of my dear Maria- 
Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to Count Montholon, 
100,000 francs of which he shall pay into the chest of 
the treasurer (Las Casas) for the same purpose as the 
above, to be employed according to my depositions iu 
legacies of conscience. 

"10,000 francs to the sub-ofiicer Cantillon, who has 
undergone a prosecution, being accused of a desire to 
assassinate Lord Wellington, of which he has been de- 
clared innocent. Cantillon had as much right to as- 
sassinate that oligarch as the latter had to send me to 
perish on the rock of St. Helena, etc., etc., etc. 

" LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 

"MoNSTErR Lafitte, — I remitted to you in 1815, at 
the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum of 
nearly six millions, for which you gave me a double 
receipt. I have canceled one of these receipts, and I 
have charged Comte de Montholon to present to you 
the other receipt, in order that you may, after my 
death, deliver to him the said sum, with interest at the 
rate of five per cent, from the 1st of July, lSt5, deduct- 
ing the payments with which you have been charged 
invirtue of my order. I have also remitted to you a 
box containing my medallion. I beg you will deliver 
it to Comte Montholon. 

"This letter having no other object, I pray God, 
Monsieur Lafitte. that he may have vou in Ills holy 
and worthy keeping. "NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, April 25,1821." 

WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Feb., 1742. 

Earl of Wilmington, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Lord Ilardwicke, Lord Chancellor. 

Earl of Harrington, President of the Council. 

Earl Gower, Lord Privij Seal. 

Mr. Sandys, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

Lord Carteret aud the Duke of Newcastle, Secretaries 
of State. 

Earl of Wiuchelsea, First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Duke of Argyll, Commander of the Forces aud Master 
General of the Ordnance. 

Mr. Henry Pi'lham, Payntastcr of the Forces. 

With several of the household lords. 

[On Lord Wilmington's death, July 26, 1743, Mr. Pel- 
ham became prime minister; and in Nov., 1744, he 
formed the "Broad -bottom" admiuistratiou. See 
Pdham.2 



WIL S06 

WILSON'S CREEK (Missouri), Battle of, fought 
August 10, 1S61. Lyon, after liis success at Booueville 
(June 17), advauced to Spriugtield ; but witli 5000 meu 
he could uot expect to hold his position against the 
enemy, who numbered about '20,000 ; and he could ob- 
tain no re-euforceaients from Fremont at St. Louis. 
He determined, therefore, to retreat, but, before doing 
so, advanced to Wilson's Springs on the 9th of August. 
It was the intention of each army to attack the other 
on the morning of the 10th. Lyon anticipated the Con- 
federate commanders, and a battle followed, which, 
nexl to that of Bull Run, was the severest engagement 
of 1861. Lyou and Sigel led the two main columns of 
attack. The Confederates, who had an overwhelming 
advantage in numbers, were commanded by Price and 
M'Culloch. Lyou was killed while leading a charge. 
Sturgis succeeded to the command of Lyon's column, 
and maintained the battle for six hours by means of 
his superior artillery, when he ordered a retreat. Si- 
gel's column was routed. The battle secured the lei- 
surely retreat of the National troops from Springtield. 

WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient city, 
■whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to the Celt- 
ic Britons, though the alleged date of its foundation, 
892 B.C., is manifestly unworthy of attention. It be- 
came the capital of the West Saxon kingdom under 
Cerdic, 530 A.D. , was the residence of Alfred, 8T9-901 ; 
and under the rule of Egbert was the metropolis of 
England. In the reign of William I., though Winches- 
ter was still a royal residence, Loudon began to rival 
it, and acquire the pre-eminence; and the destruction 
of religious houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. 
Several kings resided at Winchester, and many Par- 
liaments Avere held there. Memorials of its ancient 
superiority exist in the national denomination of 
measures of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester 
bushel, etc., the use of which has but recently been 
replaced by imperial measures. "The bishopric is of 
great antiquity. The cathedral church was tirst found- 
ed and endowed by Kingil, or Kene£ilsus, the lirst 
Christian king of the West Saxons. The church tirst 
built becoming ruinous, the present fabric was besjun 
by Walkin, the 34th bishop, 10T3, but uot finished till 
the time of William of Wykeham, who founded the 
college about 1373. The church was first dedicated to 
St. Amphibalus, then to St. Peter, and afterward to St. 
Swithin, once bishop here. St. Birine was the first 
bishop of the West Saxons, 035. The see is valued in 
the king's books at £2793 4s. 2d. annually. Present in- 
come, £10,500. 

KEOENT BISnOPB OP WINOHESTER, 

Prelates of the Order of the Garter. 
1781. Brownlow North, died July 12, 1S20. 
1820. George Pretyman Tomline, died 1827. 
1827. Charles Richard Sumner (peesent bishop, 1865). 

WINCHESTER (Virginia). This town is situated 
in the Shenandoah Valley. During the American Civil 
War there were several conflicts here of greater or less 
importance. Here, on March 23, 1802, General Shields 
repulsed " Stonewall" Jackson. Jackson attacked 
General Banks at this place (May 25) and forced him 
to retreat. General Milroy held the town with 7000 
men at the time of Lee's invasion (June, 180.3). On 
the approach of the Confederates he retreated (June 
15), and a column of the enemy gaining his rear, while 
another attacked in front, he was defeated, his whole 
force dispersed, and 2300 captured. In the autumn of 
1864, General Sheridan, commanding the Army of the 
Upper Potomac, held a strong position near the rail- 
road from Harper's Ferry toward Winchester. The 
Confederate General Early commanded a large force 
in the valley of the Shenandoah, and on the'lSth of 
September was posted on the Opequan Creek near 
Winchester. Sheridan gained the rear of the Confed- 
erates, and on the 19th defeated them, capturing 4500 
prisoners. On the Confederate side Generals Rodes 
and Gordou were killed; on the National, General D. 
A. Russell was killed, and Generals Upton, M'lutosh, 
and Chapman were wounded. The National loss was 
over 3000. The Confederate loss iu killed and wound- 
ed was 3500. 

WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the winding up 
the affairs of joint-stock companies which are unable 
to meet their engagements) were passed in 1848, 1857, 
and 1862. 

WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and some writ- 
ers state them to be of Roman invention ; but certain- 
ly we are indebted for the windmill to the Saracens. 
They are said to have been originally introduced into 
Europe by the Knights of St. John, M'ho took the hint 
from what they had seen lu the cnisa.des.— Baker. 



WIN 

Windmills were first known in Spain, France, and 
Germany, iu 1299. — Anderson. Wind sawmills were 
invented by a Dutchman in 1633, when one was erect- 
ed near the Strand, iu Loudon. 

WINDOWS. See Olms. There were windows in 
Pompeii, A.D. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It is 
certain that windows of some kind were glazed so ear- 
ly as the 3d century, if uot before, though the fashion 
was uot introduced until it was done by Beunet, 033. 
Windows of glass were used in private houses, but the 
glass was imported, 1177.— ^wder.son. In England, in 
1851, about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upward 
iu each ; about 275,000 had ten windows and upward ; 
and 725,000 had seven windows, or less than seveu. 
WMudow-tax first enacted in order to defray the 

expense of and deficiency in the recoiuage of 

gold 1095 

The tax increased, Feb. 5, 1746-7; again iu 1778; 

and again on the commutation tax for tea, 

Oct. 1,1784 

The tax again increased in 1797, 1802, and 1808 

Reduced ; IS23 

The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 

about a million and a quarter sterling ; and iu 

1850 (to April 5), £1,832,084. 
The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict., c. 36 (which 

act imposed a duty upon inhabited houses iu 

lieu thereof) July 24,1851 

WINDSOR CASTLE (Berkshire),* a residence of 
the British sovereigns, begun by William the Con- 
queror, and enlarged by Henry I. about 1110. Edward 
III., who was born here, caused the old building, with 
the exception of three towers at the west end, to be 
taken down, aud re-erected the whole castle, under 
the direction of William of Wykeham, 1350, and built 
St. George's Chapel. He assessed every county in 
England to send him workmen. James I. of Scotland 
was imprisoned here, 1400-23. Several additions were 
made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand north 
terrace; aud Charles II. repaired and beautified it, 
16S0.— Camden; Mortimer. The chapel was repaired 
and opened, Oct., 1790. The castle was repaired and 
enlarged, 1824-8; and George IV. took possession of 
it, Dec. 8, 1828. Our sovereigns have here entertained 
many royal personages, as the Emperor aud Empress 
of the French, in April, 1855. A serious fire occurred 
at the castle, in the Prince of Wales's tower, owing to 
some defect iu the heating apparatus, March 19, 1853. 

WINE. "Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of 
the wine," 2347 B.C. (Gen. ix., 20). See Vine.. Ching- 
Noung, emperor of China, is said to have made rice 
wine, 1998 B.C. The art of making wine is said to 
have been brought from India by Bacchus. Christ 
changed water into wine at the marriage iu Cana of 
Galilee, A.D. 30.— John ii., 3, 10. Wine was sold in 
Euglaud by apothecaries as a cordial iu 1300, and so 
continued "for some time after, although there is men- 
tion of "wine for the king" so early as 1249. In 1400 
the price was twelve shillings the pipe. A huudred 
and fifty butts and pipes condemned, for being adul- 
terated, to be staved and emptied into the channels 
of the streets, by Rainwell, mayor of London, 1427. — 
,SYoif)'.s Chron. The first importation of claret wine 
into Ireland was on June 17, 1490. The first act for 
licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 25, 
1001. Wine duties to be 2s. 9a. per gallon on Cape 
wine, and 5s. M. on all other wines, 1831. In 1856, the 
customs duties on wines produced £2,073,694 ; iu 1858, 
£1,721,742 ; in 1859, £1,982,302 ; in 1863, £1,212,971. 
By the French treaty of commerce about 1860, the duty 
on wines was much reduced. Wine licenses are grant- 
ed to refreshment houses by an act passed in 1860. 

IMPOHTATION OP WINE OF ALL KINDS INTO THE UNIT- 
ED KINGBOM. 
Gallons. I Gnllons. I Gallons. 

1800 3,307,400 1845.... 8,409,776 1859. .. . 8,195,513 

1815 4,300,528 1850. . . . 9,304,312 1861 . . . .11,052,430 

1830 0,879,558 18.54. . . .10,875,855 1864. . . .15,451,622 

1839 9,909,050J1S57. . . .10,330,4S5| 



* Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of the town of 
Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in circumference : in 1607 it was 77X 
miles round, but it has since been reduced in its bounds to about 56 
miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found to contain 59,600 acres. 
Virginia Water and the plantations about it were taken out of the for- 
est. The marshes were drained and the trees planted for William, 
duke of Cumberland, about 1746 ; and much was done by George IV., 
who often resided at the lodge. On the south side is Windsor Great 
Park, which was fourteen miles in circumference, but it has been much 
enlarged by the Inclosure Act ; it contains about 3800 acres. The Lit- 
tle Park, on the north and east sides of the castle, contains about 600 
acres. The gardens are elegant, and have been considerably improved 
by the addition of the house aud gardens of the Duke of St. Alban's, 
purchased by the crown. 



WIN . 

WINE IN THE United States. Grape is exten- 
sively cultivated in New Vui-k, Ohio, and Calit'uruia, 
and less extensively in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ken- 
tucliy, and North and South Carolina. The cultiva- 
tion of native grapes began in Ohio as early as 179G. 
The vahie of tlie wine made from grapes grown in 
America was estimated for 1807 at about $12,"^U00,U00. 

WINTER. See Frosts. 

WIKE. The invention of drawing wire* is ascribed 
to Kodolpli of Nuremberg, about 1410. Mills for this 
purpose were lirst set up at Nuremberg in 1.5G3. The 
lirst wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 
llJGo.—Mio-limer. 

WIKTKM15ERG. See Wurtemherg. 

WISt.'ONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America, was or- 
ganized as a Territory iu 1S36, and received into the 
Union May '2'.), 1848. 

WITCIICKAFT. The piraishment of witchcraft 
was coiunianded iu the Jewish law {Exodus xxii., 18) 
14'.il B.C., "Thou Shalt not sutler a witch to live." 
Saul, after banishing or condemning witchcraft, incur- 
red the wrath of God by consulting the witch of En- 
dor, l('5i5 B.C. (1 Sam. xxviii.). Bishop Hutchinson's 
important historical "Essay on Witchcraft" was pub- 
lished in ITIS. The Church of Rome subjected per- 
sons suspected of the crime to the most cruel tor- 
ments; and Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against 
witchcraft in 1484. Thousands of victims, often inno- 
cent, were burned alive, while others were killed by 
the tests applied. 

Joau of Arc was burnt at Eheims as a witch, May 30. 

1431. ^ ' 

About live hundred witches were burnt in Geneva iu 

three mouths, 1515. 
One thousand were burnt iu the diocese of Come iu 

a year, about 1524. 
An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one 

sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. 
Nine hundred were burnt iu Lorraine between 15S0 

and 1.095. 
One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtzburg 

between 1627 and 1U29, old and young, clerical, learn- 
ed, and ignorant. 
At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years out of a 

population of 60U; and more than 100",000 perished, 

mostly by the flames, in Germany. 
Grandier, the parish priest at Loudo;;, was burnt on 

a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of 

nuns, 1634. 
In Bretagne, twenty poor women were put to death 

as witches, 1654. 
Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 

America, at Massachusetts, 164S-9; and persecutions 

raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1083. 
At Salem, iu New England, nineteen persons were 

hanged (by the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more 

were condemned, and tifty confessed themselves to 

be witches and were pardoned, 1092. 
Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged 

with having bewitched and rendered unfruitful the 

lands belonging to that palatinate, and were burnt, 

Jan. 17, 1775. 
Five women were condemned to death by the Brah- 
mins, at Patua, for sorcery, and executed, Dec. 15, 

1802. 

WITCnOKAFT IN ENGLAND. 

Severe laws were in force against them iu these coun- 
tries iu former times, by which death was the pun- 
ishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by 
the i)ui)lic executioner and the hands of the people. 

A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- 
cery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 33 Hen. 
VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Eliz., 1562, and I. James, 1603. 

The 73d canon of the Church prohibits the clergy from 
casting out devils, 1603. 

Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witch- 
craft in England in 200 years at 30,000. 

Matthew Hopkins, the '' wrtch-fiiuler," canfea the ju- 
dicial murder of about 100 persons iu Essex, Nor- 
folk, and Suffolk, 1645-7. 

_ _• The nstonishinjr ductility, whicii is one of tlie distinguishing qual- 
ities of gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylin- 
der of 48 ounces of silver, cortrcd with a coat of gold weighing only 
one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire, two yards of which only weigh 
one grain : so that 98 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49' grains, 
and one single grain of gold covers the whole 98 vards ; and the thou- 
sandth part of a grain is above one eighth of an inch long.— TlaHey. 
Eight grains of gold, covering a cylinder of silver, are commonly drawn 
into B wire 1.1,000 feet long ; yet so perfectly does it cover the silver, 
that even a microscope does not discover any appearance of the silver 
undenieath.— yjuy/e. 



507 



WIV 



Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 

1604. 
Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the su- 

perstitiou about witchcraft later thau any other 

counties. ^ 

Seventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St.Osvths iu 

Essex, about 1676. •' "' 

Tvvo pieteuded witches were executed at Northnmp- 
T„ i°"i,-"i^t"^\j"^^ ''^'^ others seveu years afterward. 

hV,!a,3 t-TT '"^?' ''''?'^ ^'''' 'l^^usliter, aged nine, were 

hanged at Huntingdon. 

In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the 
period of about a hundred years. Among the vic- 
t^ims were persons of the highest rauk, while all or- 
ders in the state concurred. James I. even caused a 
whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The 
king published his Dcemonologic in Edinburg, 1,597. 

1 he last suflerer in Scotland was at Doruach iu 1722. 

llie laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many 
years, when an ignorant person, attempting to re- 
vive them, by finding a bill against a poor old 
woman in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they 
were rcjmdcd, 10 Geo. II., 1736. 

Credulity iu witchcraft still abounds in the country 
districts of England. On Sept. 4, 1863, a poor old 
paralyzed Frenchman died in consequence of hav- 
ing been duclced as a wizard at Castle Iledingham, 
Essex. 

WITCHCRAFT, Salem. A curious chapter iu the 
history of popular delusions is the record of that 
which is known iu American history as Salem Witch- 
craft. The people of Massachusetts, from the rulers 
to the most humble, generally believed in witchcraft. 
It had taken strong hold upon their feelings, and iu 
the early spring of 1692 excitement suddenly broke 
out at Danver (part of Salem), Massachusetts, and 
spread like an epidemic. It commenced in the family 
of the parish minister. His niece or daughter acted 
strangely, and an old Indian servant woiuan was ac- 
cused of having bewitched her. Fasting and prayer 
were resorted to to break the "spell." The malady 
increased. The alarm spread over the whole commu- 
nity, and the idea seized the colonists that evil spir- 
its, having ministering servants among them, over- 
shadowed the land. Old and ill-favored women were 
suspected and accused of practicing sorcery. Even 
the lady of Governor Phipps did not escape suspicion. 
Many excellent persons, suspected, were imprisoned, 
and 3Ir. Burroughs, a minister, was executed. Men 
of strong minds and scholarly attainments, were thor- 
oughly deluded. For six months the dreadful delu- 
siou prevailed, and during that time 20 persons suf- 
fered death, 55 were tortured or frightened into a 
confession of witchcraft, and when a special court was 
convened in October, 1692, no less than 150 accused 
persons were in prison. A sudden reaction took 
place, and many of the accusers shrunk abashed from 
the public gaze. 

WITENA-MOT, or Witena-gemot, the assembling 
of the wise men, the great council of the Anglo-Sax- 
ons. A witena-mot was called in Winchester by Eg- 
bert, 800, and in London, 833, to consult on the proper 
means to repel the Danes. See Parliament. 

WITEPSK (in Russia, where a battle was fought 
between the French under Marshal Victor, dnke of 
Belluno, and the Russians, commanded by General 
Wittgeusteiu. The French were defeated after a des- 
perate engagement, with the loss of 3000 men, Nov. 
14, 1S12. 

WITNESSES. The evidence of two witnesses re- 
quired to attaint for high treason, 25 Edw. III., 1352. 
In civil actions between party and party, if a man be 
subpa;iiaed as a witness on a trial, he must appear iu 
court on pain of iJlOO to be forfeited to the king, and 
XIO, together with damages equivalent to the loss sus- 
tained by the want of his evidence to the party ag- 
grieved. Lord Ellenborough ruled that no witness is 
obliged to' answer questions which may tend to de- 
grade himself, Dec. 10, 1802. New act relating to the 
examination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III., 1773. 
Act to enable courts of law to order the examination 
of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 1 
Will. IV., March 30, 1831. 

WIVES. See Marriage. By the Divorce and Mat- 
rimonial Causes Act, passed in 1S57, the condition of 
married womeu has been much benefited. When ill 
used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation ; 
and while in the latter state, any property they may 
acquire is secured to them personally, as if unmarried. 
By another act, passed in 1857, they are enabled to dis- 
pose of reversionary interests in personal property or 
estates. 



WIV 508 

WIVES' POISON, or Watee Tofano. See Poison- 
ing. 

WOLVES were once very numerous in England. 
Tlieir heads were demanded as a tribute, particularly 
300 yearly from Wales, by King Edgar, 961, by which 
step they were said to be totally destroyed. — Carte. 
Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of 
wolves in several counties of England, 1289. Ireland 
was infested by wolves for many centuries after their 
extirpation in England; for there are accounts of 
some being found there so late as ITIO, when the last 
presentment for killing wolves was made in tlie couu- 
ty of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which king- 
dom S34 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. 

WONDERS OF THE Woeld. 1. The pyramids of 
Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for Mauso- 
lus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 3. The 
temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hang- 
ing gardens of the city of Bab3'lon. 5. The vast brazen 
image of the sun at Rhodes, called the Colossus. 0. 
The ivory and gold statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The 
pharos or watch-tower built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
king of Egypt. See separate articles. 

WOOD-CUTS. See Engraving on Wood. 

WOOD'S HALFPENCE, for circulation in Ireland 
and America, were coined by virtue of a patent passed 
1722-3. Against this project. Dr. Jonathan Swift, by 
his Drajner's Letters, raised such a spirit against Wood 
that he was eftectually banished the kingdom. The 
halfpence were assayed in England by Sir Isaac New- 
ton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724. 

WOODEN PAVEMENT (expensive and perishable) 
seemed at one time likel}' to supersede stone in the 
principal thoroughfares of London. A wooden pave- 
ment was laid down at Whitehall in 1839, and in Ox- 
ford Street, the Strand, and other streets. It was soon 
taken up as inefficient. 

WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire) In Woodstock, now 
Blenheim Park, originally stood a royal palace, in 
which King Ethelred held a Parliament, and Alfred 
the Great translated Boctiiis de Consolatione Philnso- 
phifp, SS3. Henry I. beautitied the palace ; and here 
resided Rosamond, mistress of Henry II., 1191. In it 
were born Edmund, second son of Edward I., 1301, and 
Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here the 
Princess Elizabeth was confined by her sister Mary, 
1554. A splendid mansion, built at the expense of the 
nation for the Duke of Marlborough, was erected here, 
to commemorate the victory he obtained at Blenheim 
in 1704. At that time every trace of the ancient edi- 
fice was removed, and two elms were planted on its 
Bite. 

WOOL. From the earliest times down to the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was not 
only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest 
in the universe ; and even in the times of the Romans 
a manufacture of woolen cloths was established at 
Winchester for the use of the emperors. — Andermn. 
In later times, wool was manufactured in England, 
and is mentioned 11S5, but not in any quantity until 
1331, when the weaving of it was introduced by John 
Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This was 
the real origin of the now unrivaled manufacture, 6 
Edw. III., 1331 Jlgmcr's Foedcra. 

WOOLEN CLOTH. Woolen cloths were made an 
article of commerce in the time of Julius Csesar, and 
are familiarly alhuled to by him. 

WOOL-COMBERS in several parts of England have 
a procession on Feb. 3, in commemoration of Bishop 
Blaize, who is reported to have discovered their art. 
He is said to have visited England ; and St. Blazv, a 
village in Cornwall, is celebrated for having been"his 
landing-place. He was Bishop of Sebastia, in Arme- 
nia, and sufi"ered martyrdom in the Diocletian perse- 
cution, 289. 

WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chancellor of 
England in the House of Lords, is so called fro7n its 
being a large square bag of wool, without back or 
arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple 
commodity of England in the reign of Edward IIL, 
when the woolsack first came into use. 

WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient military and 
naval arsenal in England, and celebrated for its royal 
dock-yard, where men-of-war have been built as early 
as the reign of Henry VIIL, 1512, when the Harry 
Grace dc Dieu was constructed. Here she also was 
burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was formed about 
1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; it contains vast 
magazines of great guns, mortars, bombs, powder, and 



WOE 



other warlike stores ; a foundery, with several fur- 
naces, for casting ordnance ; and a laboratory, where 
fire-works, cartridges, grenades, etc., are made for the 
public service. The Royal Military Academy was , 
erected in the royal arsenal, but the institution was 
not completely formed until 19th Geo. II., 1745. The 
arsenal, store-houses, etc., burnt, to tlie value of 
£200,000, May 20, 1802. Another great fire occurred 
June 30, 1S05. Fatal explosion of gunpowder, Jan. 20, 
1813. The hemp-store burnt down, July 8, 1813. An- 
other explosion by gunpowder, June 16, 1814. About 
10,000 persons are now employed in Woolwich Arse- 
nal. 

WORCESTER was successively an important 
Welsh, Roman, and Saxon town. It was burnt by 
the Danes 1041, for resisting the tribute called Dane- 
gelt. William I. built a castle 1090. The city was fre- 
quently taken and retaken during the Civil Wars of 
tlie Middle Ages.— The Bisiiopeio was founded by 
Ethelred, king of the Mercians, 6S0, and taken from 
the see of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The 
married priests of the cathedral were displaced, and 
monks settled in their stead, 964. The church was 
rebuilt by Wolstan, 25th bishop, 1030. The sec has 
yielded to the Church of Rome four saints, and to the 
English nation five lord chancellors and three lord 
treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at X1049 
16s. '6}id. per annum. Pre-^ut income, i;5000. 

WORCESTER, Battle op, Sept. 3, 1051, when the 
Scots army which came to England to reinstate Charles 
II. was defeated by Cromwell, who called it his crowiv- 
ing mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. 
More than 2000 of the Royalists were slain, and of 8000 
prisoners most were sold as slaves to the American 
colonists. 

WORKING-IMEN'S CLUBS may be considered to 
have begun with the Working Men's Mutual Improve- 
ment and Recreation Society, established in Lancaster 
by the instrumentality of the Eev. H. Soils, in ISGO. 
The Westminster Working Men's Club, in Duck Lane, 
originated with Miss Adeline Cooper, and was opened 
in Dec, ISGO. The Working Men's Club and Institute 
Union was established by Lord Brougham and others, 
June 4, 1862. 

WORKING-MEN'S COLLEGES. The first was es- 
tablished in Sheffield by working men. The second 
in London, by the Rev. Professor Frederick D. Maurice, 
as principal, in Oct., 18.54; a third in Cambridge, and, 
in 1855, a fourth at Oxford; all wholly for the working 
classes, and undertaking to impart such knowledge as 
each man feels he is niost in want of. The colleges 
engage to find a teacher wherever 10 or 12 members 
agree to form a class, and also to have lectures given. 
There were eleven classes at the one in London in 
1856 ; Mr. Ruskin gave lessons in drawing. These 
colleges have been found to be self supporting. 

WORLD. See Creation and Globe. 

WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Ilesse-Darmstadt 
Here Charlemagne resided in 806 B.C. Several impe- 
rial diets have been held at Worms, where was held 
the imperial diet before which Martin Luther was 
summoned, April 4, 1.521, and by which he was pro- 
scribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and 
on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. 
Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that 
M'hen Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his 
danger, he answered, "If there were as many devils 
in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its 
houses, I would go on." Before the emjjeror, the 
Archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, 
seven margraves, thirty bishops and prelates, and 
many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther 
appeared, April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowl- 
edged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms 
in fact a conqueror. Yet, to save his life, he had to 
remain in seclusion, under the protection of the Elect- 
or of Saxony, for about a year. 

WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is that 
of Abel, 3872 B.C., Gen. iv. "Men began to call on the 
name of the Lord," 3769 B.C., Gen. iv. The Jewish or- 
der of worship was set up by Moses 1490 B.C. Solo- 
mon consecrated the Temple, 1004 B.C. To the cor- 
ruptions of the simple worship of the patriarchs all 
the Egyptian and Greek idolatries owed their origin. 
Athotes, sou of Menes, king of ITpper Egypt, is sup- 
posed to be the Copt of the Egy]5tians, and the Tnth, 
or Hermes, of the Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, 
and the Teutatcs of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B.C.— 
Usher. 

WORSHIP IN England. The Druids we-e the 
priests here at the invasion of the Romans (55 B.C.), 



WOR 



509 



WRE 



who eventually introduced Olivistianity, which was 
almost extirpated by tlic victorious iSaxons (455-820), 
who were i)a;,'ans. Tlio Jionian Catholic form of Chris- 
tianity was introduced by Augustine, 596, aud coiitiu- 
ued till the Keformatiou, ivhidi see. 



PLAOKS OF \V0USnH» IN ENGLAND AND WAT.KS 
Places of Worship. 

Church of Eiifrland 14,07T 

Wesleyan Methodists C,5T9 

Independents 3,244 

Baptists 2,789 



570 
371 
229 
IGO 
222 
132 (?) 

53 

50 

32 

32 

3 

109 



IN 1851. 

Sittings. 

5,317,915 
2,194,298 
1,(107,700 

186,111 
91,.559 
68,554 
86,692 
30,783 
18,529 

8,438 
12,107 

9,305 

7,437 

291 

35,210 

198,242 

105,557 



Roman Catholics. 

Society of Friends 

Unitarians 

Scottish Presbyterians 

Latter-day Saints {Monnonites). . . . 

Brethren "(Plymouth) 

Jews 

New Church (S wedenborgians) 

Moravians 

Catholic and Apostolic Church ) 

(Irvingitcs) J 

Greek Church 

Countess of Huutiugdou's Cou-> 

nection j 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists S2S 

Various small bodies, some with-) ^ j<. 

out uame.« / *'*" 

(See Wesleyan Methodists, note.) 

WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from 
haviui: been first s])un at a town called Worsted, in 
Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where man- 
ufactures of worsted are still extensively carried on, 
14 Edw. III., li-iO.— Anderson. "A Worsted-stocking 
Knave" is a term of reproach or contempt used by 
Shakspeare. 

WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given to the 
following eminent men : 

Jews. Died. I Heathens. Died. 

Joshua B.C.1426 Hector of Troy. . .B.C.1184 

David 1015 Alexander the Great. . 323 

Judas Maccabasus 161 Julius Csesar 44 

Christiiuis. ' Died. 

King Arthur of Britain A.D. 542 

Charlemagne of France S14 

Godfrey of Bouillon 1100 

In Shakspeare's Lovers Labor's Lout, Act v., Sc. 2, 
Hercules and Pompey appear as worthies. 

WOTIILYT YPE. See under Photorjraphy. 

WOl~NDING. Malicious wounding of another was 
adjudged death by the English statutes. The Coven- 
try Act was passed in 1071. See Coventry Act. By 
Lord Ellenborough's act, persons who stab or cut 
with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure another, 
were declared guilty of felony without benefit of 
clergy. Those guilty of maliciously shooting at an- 
other in any dwelling-house or other place are also 
punishable under the same statute in the same de- 
gree, 43 Geo. III., 1802. This oftense is met by some 
later statutes, particularly the act for consolidating 
and amending the acts relating to ofteuses agaijist 
the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1S2S. This last act'is ex- 
tended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., 1S29. An act for the 
prevention of maliciously shooting, stabbing, etc., in 
Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 
June 4, 1829. 16 and 17 Vict., c. 30, 1853, was passed 
for the prevention aud punishment of assaults on 
women and children. 

WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other ships 
by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the 
open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about 
an average of 365 ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by 
Lloyd's Lists that 677 British vessels were totally lost, 
under various circumstances, in that year. 
British vessels wrecked in 1848 were, sailing vessels, 

501, steamers 13; tonnage, 96,920. 
In 1851 there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which num- 
ber 11 were steamers; the tonnage of the whole be- 
ing 111,976 tons. 
The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. 
and Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of 
dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea; but a few of 
them are recorded. 
Many ves.eels were lost in the great storms Oct. 25,26, 
1859, May 2S, 1861, Oct. 19, 20, 1861, and Nov. 13, 14, 
1862. 

WBE0K8 OP VES8ET.S ON BRITISH COASTS. 

Vessels. Lives lost. I Vessels. Lives Inst. 

1S52 1015 920 18.54 897 1549 

1853 832 6891855 1141 469 



VesseU wrecked 

or sufft-rinff other 

rimuiiltifs. 

1856 1153.. 

18.57 1143.. 

1858 869.. 

1859 1415.. 

1860 1379. ...541.. 



Vessels 
totiiUy 
vrecked. 

!".384'.'.' 
..354... 



521 
532 
340 
1645 
536 



Vessels wrecked Vessels * . 
or suffering other totally V'™' 
casualties. wrecked. ' 

1861.... 668.... —....884 
1862.... 1827.... 4.55.... 690 
1863. ...2001.... 503. ...020 
1864.... 1741 467 516* 



KEMAKKABLE OASES OP VESSELS WP.EOKED OK DUKNT. 

Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to 
Spithead, upset in a squall ; all on board per- 
ished July 20,1545 

Coronation, 90 guns, foundered ofi' the Ramhead; 
crew saved : llanvich, 79 guns, wrecked on Mount 
Ed^cumbe ; crew perished Sept. 1,1091 

Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, 

Jan. 29,1096 

Stirling Castle, 70 guns, Mary, 70 guns, Northum- 
berland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Van- 
guard, 70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, 
lost near Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Reso- 
lution, 60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Ncuxagtlc, CO 
guns, at Spithead, 193 drowned; Reserve, 60 guns, 
at Yarmouth, 173 perished in the night of 

Nov. 2G,17Ce 

Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost with 
Admiral Sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly Isles {ichich 
see) Oct. 22,1707 

Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston Neck ; crew per- 
ished Dec. 25,1709 

Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on board 
perished. Oct. 15,1711 

Victory, 100 guns, near the Isle of Aldcrney; all 
perished Oct. 5,1744 

Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 40 men 
perished Sept. 21, " 

yamur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; 
Pembroke, 00 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of her 
cre%v perished April 13,1749 

Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N., on her 
way to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished. .April 13,1753 

Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary; 
130 of the crew perished Nov. 29, " 

Tilbury, 09 guns, lost ofl'Louisbourg ; most of the 
crew perished Sept. 25,1759 

Ramilies, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head ; only 26 
persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Nicholas's 
Island, Plymouth Feb. 15,1760 

Dtic d' Aquitainc, 64 guns, and Sunderland, CO guns, 
lost off Pondicherry ; all perished Jan. 1,1761 

Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Marti- 
nique Feb. 3,17G2 

Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda; crew 
perished 1775 

Thunderer, 14 guns; Stirling Castle, 6i; Defiance, 
64 ; Phwnix, 44 ; La Blanche, 32 ; Laurel, IS ; 
Shark, 28; Andromeda, 28; Deal Castle, 24; Pe- 
nelopc,'ii\ Scnrborotigh,W; Barbadoes,14; Came- 
Icon, 14: Endeavor, 14; and Victor, 10 guns; all 
lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in 

Oct., 1780 

Oen. Barker, Indiaman, off Scheveling Feb. 17,1781 

Orosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria Aug. 4,1782 

Sivan, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 persons 
drowned Aug. 4, " 

Royal George, above 600 persons perished, Aug. 29, " 

Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage "from 
Jamaica; Captain Ingletield and 11 of the crew 
saved Sept. 21, " 

Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of Admiral Rod- 
ney's prizes; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in 
the West Indies Oct. 5, " 

Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry Roads, 
East Indies Nov. 5,1783 

Cafo, 50 guns. Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, on the 
Malabar coast ; crew perished " 

Cotint Belgioioso, Indiaman, ofi" Dublin Bay; 147 
souls perished March 13, " 

Menai, ferry-boat, in the Strait ; 00 drowned, Dec. 5,1785 

Halsewell, E. Indiaman ; 100 persons perished, 

Jan. 6,1786 

Ilartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth on 
board May 24,178T 

Charlemont Packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 104 
drowned Dec. 22,1790 

Pandora, frigate, on a reef; 100 souls perished, 

Aug. 28,1791 

Union, packet, of Dover, lost off the port of Calais ; 
a similar occurrence had not happened for 105 
years before Jan. 28,1792 

Winterton, E. Indiaman : many perish Aug. 20, " 

* 3619 lives were saved by the use of rocket apparatus, life-boats, etc. 



WEE 



510 



WRE 



Impetueux, 74 guns, Inirnt at Portsmouth, Ang. 24,1792 

Scorpion, 74 guus, bunit at'Leghorn Nov. 20,1793 

Ardent, G4 guus, burnt off Corsica April, 171)4 

Doijne, by tire, at Spithead (see Boyne) May 4,171)5 

Courageux, 74 guus, Capt. B. Hallowell, near Gib- 
raltar ; crew, except 124, perished Dec. 18,1796 

La Tribune, 36 guus, off Halifax; 300 souls per- 
ished Nov. 10,1797 

Resistance, blowu up iu the Straits of Bauca, 

July 24,1798 
Jloyal Charlotte, East Indiamau, blowu up at Cul- 

pee Aug. 1, " 

Proserpine, frigate, iu the Elbe ; 15 lives lost, 

Feb. 1, " 
Luline, 3G guns, wrecked off the Vlio Island, coast 

of Holland ; only two men saved Oct. 9,1799 

Imjyreqnable, 98 guus, wrecked between Langstoue 

and Chichester Oct. 19, " 

Sceptre, 64 guus, wrecked iu Table Bay, Cape of 

Good Hope ; 291 of the crew perished " 

Nassau, 64 guus, ou the Uaak Bank ; 100 perished, 

Oct. 25, " 
Ethalion, frigate, 38 guus, on the Penmarks, 

Dec. 24, " 
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls per- 
ished Jan. 14,1800 

Mastiff, gun-brig, on the Cockle Sands Jan. 19, " 

Jiepiilse, 64 guns, off Ushaut March 10, " 

Queen, W. ludiaman, by tire, off Brazil July 9, " 

Invincible, 74 guus, near Yarmouth ; Captain John 
Kenuie and the crew, except 126 souls, perished, 

March 16,1801 
Margate, Margate hoy, near Reculver ; 23 persons 

perished Feb. 10,1802 

Bangalore, E. Indiamau, Indian Sea April 12, " 

ActivCjVfesi Indiamau, iu Margate Roads, Jau. 10,1803 
Hindostan, East ludiaman, went to pieces on the 

Culvers Jau. 11, " 

La Determinic, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads : many 

drowued March 26, " 

Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St.Vinceut. ..May 31, " 
Ladii IJobart, packet, ou au island of ice. .June 28, " 

Seine, frigate, 4-1 guns, off Schelling July 31, " 

^//?('/((7>c^ Capt. Wilson, off Pellew Islands. .Aug. 9, " 
Victurg, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 drowned, 

Sept. 30, " 
Circe, frigate, 32 guus, ou Yarmouth coast, Nov. 16, " 

Natitiliiy, E. Indiamau, ou Ladrones Nov. 18, " 

Fanng, iu (.Chinese Sea ; 46 souls perish . ..Nov. 29, " 
SuffiMuitc, sloop of war, 16 guus, off Cork.. Dec. 25, " 

Apollo, frigate, ou coast of Portugal April 1,1804 

Cumberland Packet, on Antigua coast Sept. 4, " 

Romneg, 50 guns, on Ilaak Bank, Tesel. ..Nov. 18, " 
Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men, Nov. 24, " 

Severn, on a rock, near Grouville Dec. 21, " 

Doris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon 

Bay Jau. 12,1805 

Abergavenny, East Indiamau, on the Bill of Port- 
land ; more than 300 persons perish Feb. 6, " 

Kaias, transport, off Newfoundland coast. .Oct. 23, " 
^mas, transport, off Newfoundland; 340 per- 
ished Oct. 23, " 

Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands ; 300 

perished Dec. 21, " 

King George, packet, from Park Gate to Dublin, 
lost on the Hoyle bank ; 125 persons, passengers 

and crew, drowued Sept. 21,1806 

Athenien, 64 guus, near Tunis ; 347 souls perished, 

Oct. 27, " 
Glasgoiv, packet, off Farm Island; several drowued, 

Nov. 17, " 
Felix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls lost, 

Jau. 22,1807 
Blenheim, 74 guns. Admiral Sir T. Troubridge, and 
Java, 32 guns, foundered near Isle of Rodriguez, 

East Indies Feb. 1, " 

Ajax, 74 guns, by lire, off the island of Tenedos ; 

250 perished Feb. 14, " 

Blanche, frigate, ou the French coast ; 45 men per- 
ished March 4, " 

Ganjfcs, East Indiamau, off the Cape of Good Hope, 

May 29, " 
Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rockdale, 
transport, on Dunleary Point, near Dublin ; near- 
ly 300 souls perished Nov. 19, " 

Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Ilannois Roek iu the 

Channel Nov. 28, " 

Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay; 60 lives 

lost Dec. 29, " 

Agatha, near Memel ; Lord Royston and others 

drowued April 7,1808 

Astrca, frigate, on Anagada coast May 23, " 

Frith, passage-boat, iu'the Frith of Dornoch; 40 
persons drowued Aug. 13,1809 



Foxhound, IS guns, foundered ou passage from 
Halifax ; crew perished Aug. 31,1809 

Siriiis, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guus, wrecked 
when advanciug to attack the French, off Isle of 
France Aug. 23,1810' 

Satellite, sloop-of-war, 16 guns, upset, and all ou 
board perished Dec. 14, " 

Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Ilaak Bank; 
360 persons perished Dec. 22, " 

Pandora, sloop-of-war, oft" Jutland, 30 persons per- 
ished Feb. 13,1811 

Saldanha, frigate, ou the Irish coast; 300 persons 
perished Dec. 4, " 

St. George, of 98, aud Defense, of 74 guns, and the 
Hero, stranded ou the coast of Jutland, Admiral 
Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 persons) 
perished except 18 seamen Dec. 24, " 

Manilla, frigate, ou the Haak Sand, 12 persons per- 
ished Jau. 28,1812 

British Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, 
wrecked ou the Goodwin Sands, and all ou board 
perished Dec. 17,1814 

Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire. .Jan. 21,1816 

Sea-horse, transport, near Tramore Bay; 365 per- 
sons, chietly soldiers of the 59th regiment, aud 
most of the crew, drowued Jan. 30, " 

Lord Melville and Boadicea,_ transports, with up- 
ward of 200 of the 82d regiment, with wives aud 
children, lost near Kinsale ; almost all perished, 

Jan. 31, " 

ilrtrpooner, transport, aear Newfoundland; 100 per- 
sons drowned , Nov. 10, " 

William and Mary, jjacket, struck ou the Willeys 
Rocks, near the Holmes Light-house, English 
Channel, nearly 60 persons perished Oct. 24,1817 

Queen Charlotte, East ludiaman, at Madras , all on 
board perished Oct. 24,1818 

Ariel, in the Persian Girlf; 79 souls perished, 

March 18,1820 

Earl ofMoira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool; 
40 drowued Aug. 8,1821 

Blcndon Uall, ou Inaccessible Island ; many per- 
ished July 2.0, " 

Juliana, East ludiamau, ou the Kentish Knock ; 
40 drowned Dec. 26, " 

Thames, ludiaman, off Beachy Head ; several 
drowned Feb. 3,1822 

Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, 

June 20, " 

Ellcsmerc, steamer; 11 persons lost Dec. 14, " 

Alert, Dublin aud Liverpool packet; 70 souls per- 
ished March 26,1823 

Robert, from Diibliu to Liverpool; 60 souls per- 
ished May 16, " 

Fanny, iu Jersey Roads ; Lord Harley and many 
drowued Jan. 1,1828 

Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey; 9 persons drowned March 19, " 

Xewry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passen- 
gers ; cast away near Bardsy; about 40 persons 
were drowned April 16, 1830 

Lady Sherbrookc, from Londonderry to Quebec ; 
lost near Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32 only 
Atere saved Aug. 19,1831 

Experiment, from Hull to Quebec ; wrecked near 
Calais April 15,1833 

Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin 
filled, and 11 ladies and children were drowned ; 
all on deck escaped July 13,1833 

Amphitrite, ship with female convicts to New 
South Wales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 
131 persons, three only were saved Aug. 30,1833 

United- Kingdom, W. Indiamau, with rich cargo; 
run down by the Qiwcn of Scotlaiul steamer off 
Northfleet, near Gravesend Oct. 15, " 

Watcrwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford ; 4 
drowned Dec. IS, " 

Lady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney; of 90 per- 
sons ou board, not more than 20 were saved, 

Jau. 9,1834 

Cameleon, cutter; run down off Dover by the Cas- 
tor frigate ; 13 persons drowued Aug. 27, " 

Killarney, steamer, oft" Cork ; 29 persons perished, 

Jan. 26,1838 

Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 per- 
sons drowued. Owing to the courage of Grace 
Darling aud her father, 15 persons were saved 
(see Forfarshire) Sept. 6, " 

Protector, E. Indiamau ; at Bengal ; of 178 persons 
on board, 170 perished. Nov. 21, " 

William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and 
Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by Capt. Clegg, 
of the riuddersfield Jan.11,1840 

Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay ; 53 recruits, 20 



WRE 



511 



WRE 



ofiicers, and T passengers perished: the Lord 
Ca-stli'i-iiKjIi also wrecked; most of her crew and 
passeuL,'eVs lost June 17,1840 

H.il.S. l-'ainj. Captain Hewitt; sailed from Har- 
wich on a surveying cruise, and was lost next 
day iu a violent gale, off the coast of Norfolk, 

Nov. 13, " 

City of Bristol, steam packet, 35 souls perished, 

Nov. IS, " 

Thame.% steamer, Captain Gray, from Duliliu to 
Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain and 
55 persons perished Jan.4,lS41 

Governor l:\-iinvr, from Liverpool for America ; run 
down off Holyhead by the Nottiwiliam steamer 
out of Dublin; l'J'2 persons perished Feb. 19, " 

Amelia, from Loudon to Liverpool ; lost on the 
Ilerne Sand Feb. 26, " 

President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board ; sailed on 
March 11 ; encountered a territic storm two days 
afterward, and has never since been heard of, 

March 13,1841 

[In this vessel were Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- 
dian ; a sou of the Duke of llichmond, etc.] 

WilliiDii Browne, hy striking on the ice; 16 passen- 
gers who had been received into the long boat 
were thrown overboard by the crew to lighten 
her April 19, " 

Isabella, from London to Quebec; struck by an 
iceberg May 9, " 

Solum;/, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle ; crew saved Au^. 25, " 

Amanda, off Metis; 29 passengers and 12 of the 
crew lost Sept. 20, " 

James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 
Glasgow Nov. 21, " 

Ahercrombie Bobinsun and M'aterloo transports, in 
Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope: of 830 persons 
on board the latter vessel, 1S9, principally con- 
victs, perished Aug. 28,1842 

Spitfire, war steamer, on the coast of Jamaica, 

Sept. 10, " 

Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, 
off Merlemont, near Boulogne: of 116 persons 
on board, seven only were saved Nov. 13, " 

Hamilton, on the Gunileet Sands, near Harwich ; 
11 of the crew perished Nov. 15, " 

Conqveror,Tiast Indiaman, homeward bound, near 
Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost, . . .Jan. 13,1843 

JesKie /.(«/(/(), East Indiaman, on the Cornish coast; 
many lives lost Jan. 16, " 

Solinti}, roval mail steamer, near Corunua; 28 lives 
lost) and the mail April 7, " 

Catharine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines ; 
most of the crew were massacred by the natives, 
or afterward drowned April 12, " 

Amelia Thomijson, near Madras; part of the crew 
saved May 23, " 

Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 
regiment on board, which was miraculously 
saved July 13, " 

Pefiasus, steam packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
islands; of.'iOiiersons, 7 only were saved, July 19, " 

[Mr. Elton, a favorite actor, was among the suffer- 
ers.] 

Phoenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 
Newfoundland; many lives were lost. .Nov. 26, " 

Elbcrfeldt, iron steam-ship, from Brielle. . .Feb. 22,1844 

Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off 
the Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; about 30 lives 
lost ■ June 16, " 

Marrjaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer ; many lives 
lost Oct. 22,1845 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- 
drum Bay (see Great Britain) Sept. 22, " 

[Recovered by Brunei, etc., Aug. 27, 1S47.] 

John Lloud, by collision, in the Irish Sea; several 
lives hist Sept. 2.5, " 

Tirew/, W. India mail packet; 72 souls perished, 

Feb. 19,1847 

Carrick, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 emi- 
grants perished May 19, " 

Aventjcr,H.'M. Bteam frigate; off N. coast of Afri- 
ca ; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost. . .Dec. 20, " 

Exmonth, emigrant-ship, froiu Londonderry to 
Quebec; of 240 persons on board, nearly all 
were drowned April 28, " 

Ocean Monarch (ivhich see) Aug. 24,1848 

Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, by fire ; 400 per- 
sons miraculously escaped Nov. 12,1849 

Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
Sands, off Margate ; above 400 lives lost. Mar. 30,1850 

Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick (see Orion), 

June IS, " 



Rosalind, from Quebec; a number of the crew 
drowned Sept. 9,1850 

Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 passen- 
gers from Limerick to New York (of whom more 
than one half perished), wrecked off the Western 
coast of Ireland Nov. 12, " 

Amazon, W. India mail-steamer (see Amazon), 

Jan. 4,1852 

Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, and 
of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queeustown, 
Jan. 7, 1S52, for the Cape, having on board de- 
tachments of the 12th Lancers, 2d, 0th, 12th, 43d, 
45th, and 60th Itilles, 73d, 74lh, and 91st regi- 
ments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock 
off Simon's Bay, South Africa, and of 038 per- 
sons, only 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of 
the crew and soldiers perished Feb. 26, " 

Victoria, steam packet (see Victoria) Nov. 8, 9, " 

Libj, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, ou 
the Gulf of ]\Ian, by which more than 30 persons 
lost their lives Dec. 24 " 

St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to 
New York, with 121 emigrant passengers (chief- 
ly Irish), and a crew consisting of 29 seamen (the 
captain inclusive), was destroyed by fire at sea. 
The crew and 70 of the passengers were saved 
by the American ship Orlando, and conveyed to 
Havre, in France ; but the remainder, 51 souls, 
are supposed to have perished Dec. 24, " 

Queen Victoria, steam-shii), bound from Liverpool, 
was wrecked off the Bailey Light-house, near 
Dublin; she mistook her course iu a snow- 
storm ; 07 lives were lost out of 120 Feb. 15,1853 

Independence, on the coast of Lower California, 
and which afterward took fire ; 140 persons 
were drowned or burnt to death, a few escap- 
ing, who underwent the most dreadful addi- 
tional sufferings on a barren shore Feb. 10, " 

Duke of Sutherland, steamer from London to Alier- 
deen ; wrecked on the pier at Aberdeen, and the 
captain (Hoskins) and many of the crew and 
passengers perished April 2, " 

Rebecca, on W. coast of Van Diemen's Land ; Cap- 
tain Shephard and many lives lost April 29, " 

William, and Mary, an American emigrant-ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken 
rock ; aboxrt 170 persons perished May 3, " 

Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, April 26, 
and foundered ; about 25 lives lost May 20, " 

Bourneuf, Australian emigrant vessel. Struck on 
a reef near Torres Straits. The captain (Bibby) 
and six lives lost Aug. 3, " 

Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
driven on shore on the Barra Islands on west 
coast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost. .Sept. 29, " 

fl«nroof/, brig, by collision with the Trident steam- 
er, near the Mouse Light, near the Nore ; found- 
ered with six of the crew, who perished. .Oct. 5, " 

Dalhousie, foundered off Beachy Head. The cap- 
tain (Butterworth), the passengers, and all the 
crew (excepting one), about 00 persons iu all, 
perished. The cargo was valued at above 
i;i00,000 Oct. 19, " 

Marshall, screw steamer, in the North Sea, ran 
into the barque Woodhovse; about 48 persons 
supposed to have perished Nov. 28, " 

Taylcur, emigrant-ship, driven on the rocks off 
Landbay Island, north of Ilowth; about 880 
lives lost Jan. 20,1854 

Favorite, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen 
to Baltimore, came into violent contact with the 
American barque Ucspcr, off the Start, and im- 
mediately went down ; 201 persons were drown- 
ed April 29, " 

Lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, May 
10,1854; foundered in a hurricane; 350 rank and 
file of the Madras light infantry, officers and 
crew, in all 400 souls, perished Ma}', " 

Arctic,U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fo^^ with 
the Vesta, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; 
over 300 lives lost Sept. 27, " 

Forerunner, African mail steamer, struck on a 
sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went 
down directly afterward, with the total loss of 
ship and mails, and 14 lives Oct. 25,^ " 

Nile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry 
Rock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished. . .Nov. 30, " 

City of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 per- 
sons on board, disappeared in " 

In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, Nov. 
13-16, 1S54, eleven transports were wrecked and 
six disabled. The new steam-ship Prince was 
lost with 144 lives, and a cargo worth X500,000, 
indispensable to the army iu the Crimea. The 



WRE 



512 



WRE 



loss of life in the other vessels is estimated at 
340 1S54 

Georijc Cannrmj, Hamburg and New York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe: 90 lives lost; and 
Stalei/, English schooner, near Neuwreek, in a 
great storm Jan. 1,1855 

Mercury, screvif steamer, by collision with a French 
ship ; passengers saved Jan. 11, " 

Janet Boyd, barque, in a storm off Margate Sands; 
28 lives lost Jan. 20, " 

Will o' the Wisp, screw steamer, on the Burn Rock, 
off Lambay ; 18 lives lost Feb. 9, " 

Morna, steamer, on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 21 
lives lost Feb. 25, " 

John, cmii;rant vessel, on the Muncles Rocks off 
Falmouth; 200 lives lost Mayl, " 

Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York with ISO persons on board ; never since 
heard of (supposed to have struck on an ice- 
berg) Jan. 23,1850 

Joncphine )rj7/('.s, packet ship, lost by collision with 
the screw steamer Manyerton in the Channel ; 
about TO lives lost Feb. 3, " 

John Hutlcdye, from Liverpool to New York, ran 
on an iceberg and was wrecked; many lives 
lost Feb. 20, " 

Many vessels and their crews totally lost, Jan. 1-8,1857 

AWthern Belle, American vessel, was wrecked near 
Broadstairs. The American government sent 
21 silver medals and ^702 to be distributed 
among the heroic boatmen who saved the crew, 

Jan. 5,0, " 

Violet, royal mail steamer, lost on the Goodwin ; 
many jjcrsons perished Jan. 5, " 

Tyne, royal mail steamer, stranded on her way to 
Southampton from the Brazils Jan. 13, " 

St. A ndrcw, screw steamer, totally wrecked near 
Latakia; loss about £145,000 Jan. 29, " 

Charleinayne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of 
Canton ; passengers saved ; loss about XI 10, 000, 

March 20, " 

H.M.S. lialeiyh, 50 guns, wrecked on southeast 
coast of Macao April 14, " 

Catharine Ad(uiison, Australian vessel, wrecked 25 
miles from Sydney; 20 lives lost, .about June 3, " 

II. M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits 
of Banca July 10, " 

Dunbar, clipper, wrecked on the rocks near Syd- 
ney ; 121 persons, and cargo valued at £22,000, 
lost; one person only saved, who was on the 
rocks thirty hours Aug. 20, " 

Central Avirrica, American steamer, from Havana 
to New York, foundered at sea. Had on board 
579 persons, of whom only 152 were saved ; also 
$2,0oo,(ii)(» in gold, which was lost Sept. 12, " 

Sar((li Saiid.f, an iron screw steamer, sailed from 
Portsmouth for Calcutta in Aug., 1857; 300 sol- 
diers on board. On Nov. 11, the cargo (govern- 
ment stores) took fire. By the exertions of 
Colonel Moffat and Captain Castle, the master of 
the vessel, who directed the soldiers and the 
crew, the llames were subdued, although a bar- 
rel of gunpowder exploded during the conflagra- 
tion. A new danger then arose — the prevalence 
of a strong gale— water was shipped heavily 
where the port quarter had been blown out. 
Nevertheless, after a fearful struggle, the vessel 
arrived at the Mauritius, Nov. 21, without losing 
a single life Nov. 11-21, " 

Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the 
Cape de Verde Islands Dec. 1, " 

Ava, Indian mail steamer, with ladies and others 
from Lucknow on board ; wrecked near Ceylon, 

Feb. 10,1858 

Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her way 
to Melbourne ; by great exertions all on board 
were saved Aug. 23, 24, " 

Austria, steam emigrant-ship, burnt in the middle 
of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on board, only 
67 were saved. The disaster due to careless- 
ness Sept.1.3, " 

St. Paul, Cajitain Penuard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked 
on the island of Rossel, Sept, 30, 1858. The cap- 
tain and S of the crew left the island in search 
of assistance, and were picked up by the Prince 
of Denmark schooner. The French steamer Styx 
was dispatched to the island, and brought away 
one Chinese, Jan. 2.5, 1859. All the resthad been 
massacred and devoured by the natives " 

Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost, 

Jan. 23,1859 

Pmnona, American ship, 419 persons on board, 
from Liverpool to New York, was wrecked on 



Blackwater Bank, through the master mistak- 
ing Blackwater for the Tuskar light ; only 24 

persons saved April 27-28,1859 

Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 8 
lives lost. The vessel contained invalid soldiers 
from India, who, with the crew, behaved admir- 
ably June 2, " 

Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, 
Red Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all per- 
sons saved. After 3ij days' exposure to the 
sun, without water, they were rescued by H.M.S. 
Cyclops; Sir John Bowring, who was on board, 

lost valuable papers June 12, " 

Admella, steamer, running between Melbourne 
and Adelaide, struck on a reef; of about 72 per- 
sons, only 23 were saved ; many perished through 

exposure to cold Aug. 0, " 

Royal Charter, screw steamer. Captain Taylor, to- 
tally wrecked off Moelfra, on the Angle.sea 
coast; 440 lives lost. The vessel contained gold 
amounting in value to* between X700,000 and 
£800,000; ''much of this has been recovered, 

night of Oct. 25-26, " 
Indian, mail steamer, wrecked off the coast of 

Newfoundland ; out of 110, 27 lives lost, Nov. 21, " 
Blervie Castle, sailed from London Docks for Ade- 
laide ; lost ill the Channel and all on board, 57 

persons; last seen on Dec. 25, " 

Aorf/terwer, steamer, wrecked on a rock near Cape 
Mendoriuo, between San Francisco and Oregon ; 

38 lives lost Jan. 0,1860 

Endymion, sailing vessel, burnt in the Mersey; 

loss above £20,000 Jan. 31, " 

Dreadful gales ; and many wrecks on the coast, 

Feb. 15-19, " 
American barque lAina, with emigrants, wrecked 

off Barfleur ; above 100 lives lost Feb. 19,1800 

Ondine, steamer, lost through collision with the 
Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachy Head ; 
the captain and about 50 persons perished, 

Feb. 19, " 
Hungarian, new mail steamer, wrecked off the 
coast of Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost on 

the night of. Feb. 19-20, " 

Ximrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. Da- 
vid's Head ; 40 lives lost Feb. 28, " 

Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with Lord 
Elgin and Baron Gros ; wrecked off Point de 
Galle, Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed much 
heroism; no lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a 

good deal was recovered May 22, " 

Lady Elgin, American steamer, sunk through col- 
lision with schooner Augusta, on Lake Michi- 
gan ; of 385 persons on board, 287 were lost, in- 
cluding Mr. Herbert Ingraham, M.P., founder of 
the "Illustrated Loudon News," and his sou. 

Septs, " 
.4 rc??V, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland; many 
persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own 

life while endeavoring to save others Oct. 5, " 

Connaught, steamer, burnt ; crew saved through 
the gallantry of the crew of an American brig, 

Octr7, " 
jM7i?ato, wrecked through collision with an Amer- 
ican vessel, Joseph Fish ; 13 lives lost. .March 15,1801 
Canadian, steamer, struck on a tiekl of ice in the 
Straits of Belle Isle, and foundered in half an 

hour; 35 lives lost June 4, " 

H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near the 
B.ahamas, and lost [the captain and master were 

censured for neglect of duty] Dec. 29, " 

Harmony, lost, with all hands, off Plymouth, 

Feb. 27,1802 
Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 

storm ; crew all lost except two Oct. 19, " 

Ocean Moruxrch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York 
March 5, laden with provisions ; foundered in a 

gale March 9, " 

Upward of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 

March, " 
Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 

Milford Haven ; about 50 lives lost April 1, " 

Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons ; struck on 
sands near Bude Haven, Cornwall ; about 26 

lives lost Oct. 19, " 

Many vessels lost during storm Oct. 19, " 

Colombo, East India mail steamer, in thick weath- 
er, wrecked on Minicog Island, 440 miles from 
Point de Galle, Ceylon ; no lives lost (the crew 
and passengers taken off by the Ottawa from 

Bombay, Nov. 30) Nov. 19, " 

Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle with abont 41 
passengers; never since heard of; supposed to 
have foundered off Flamborongh Head. .Dec. 20, " 



WRI 513 



XEN 



Orphnis, II. M. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons, 
Coniiiirtiuler Burnett, wrecked on Miinakau Bar, 
W. coast of New Zealaud ; 70 persons saved ; 
about I'.M) iHTislied Fel). 7,1803 

Atiiilii-Siixiiii, mail steamer, Captain Burgess, in a 
deuf^e loi,', wrecked on a reef off Cape Race, 
Kewfouudlaud ; about 'i37, out of 440, lives lost, 

April 27, !' 

All Serenn, Australian etnp ; pale in the Vaciflc; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suflered mucli 
till they reached the Fiji Isles in a puut), 

Feb. 21,1804 

Many shipverecks in consequence of the cyclone 
at Calcutta Oct. 5, " 

H.M.S. Ra<rhorsc, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese coast ; 
90 lives lost Nov. 4, " 

The stitiilcii, I'n'ciiilship, etc., in the gale off Tyne- 
mouth, and the J)iilliousie, screw steamer, mouth 
of the Tay, same gale ; 34 lives lost Nov. 24, " 

H.M.S. lioudmii, l)urnt off Flares Island, near Mon- 
tendes; '.U lives lost Dec. 14, " 

Lelia, cutter, off Great Ormes Head, during a gale ; 
several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned l)y upset- 
ting of the life-boat Jan. 14,1805 

Eaple Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- 
cutta; -'05 coolies drowned; great cruelty and 
neglect imputed Aug. 24, " 

Duman Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rocas, 
S.America; no lives lost Oct. 7, " 

Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Ballycro- 
neeu Bay ; 15 lives lost ; sailed from Cork, 

Dec. 18, " 

Saviphirc, mail steamer, collision with an Ameri- 
can barque ; several lives lost Dec. 13, " 

Londoii, steamer, on her way to Melbourne, found- 
ered in Bay of Biscay ; about 220 persons per- 
ished (including Capt. Martin, Dr. Woolley, prin- 
cipal of the University of Sydney, G. V. Brooke, 
the tragedian) ; about the same time the Ama- 
lia steamer with a cargo worth £200,000; no 
lives lost Jan. 11,1SGG 

Many wrecks and much loss of life during gales, 

Jan. 0-11, " 

Vv KITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first es- 
sajr toward writing. The most ancient remains of 
writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by 
the ancients for edicts and matters of public notoriety. 
Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history 
of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of the 
hieroglyphics, 2112 B.C. — Usher. Writing is said to 
have oeen taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter 
of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C.— Thvey'dides. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought 
the Phoenician letters into Greece. — Vossms. The 
commandments were written on two tables of stone, 
1491 B.C. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used 
waxed table-books, and continued the tise of them 
long after papyrus was known.* I*ee Pripiirus, Parch- 
ment Paper. Astle's " History of Writing" was first 
published in 1784. 

WROXETER, in Shropshire, the Roman city Urie.o- 
nium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and coins 
were found here in 17.'i2. Some new discoveries hav- 
ing been made, a committee for farther investigation 
met at Shrewsbury on Nov. 11, 185S. Excavations 
were commenced in Feb., 18.59, which were continued 
till May. Large portions of the old town were discov- 
ered ; also specimens of glass and pottery, personal 
ornaments and toys, household utensils and imple- 
ments of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of man and 
of the smaller animals. A committee was formed in 
London in Aug., 18.59, with a view of continuing these 
investigations, which were resumed in 1801, through 
the liberality of Bcriah Botfleld, M.P. 



WURTEMBERO, originallv part of Suabia, wag 
made a county in 1297, and a duchy in 149.5. The 
dukes M'ere Protestants until 1772, wlien the reigning 
prince became a Roman Catholic. Wiirtemberg has 
been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, particu- 
larly since the revolution of France. Moreau made 
his celebrated retreat, Oct. 23, 1790. The political con- 
stitution is dated Sept. 2.5, 1819. Population of Wiir- 
temberg in Dec, 1801, 1,720,708; of Stuttgardt, the 
capital, 51,055. 

DUKES. 

1495. Eberhard I. 

1490. Eberhard II. 

1498. Ulrich; deprived of his states by the Emperor 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
1550. Christopher the Pacific. 
1508. Louis. 
1593. Frederick I. 
1008. John Frederick ; joined the Protestants in the 

Thirty Years' War. 
1028. Eberhard IIL 
1074. William Louis. 
1077. Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. in 

Ireland, and with the English armies on the 

Continent. 
1733. Charles Alexander. 
1737. Charles Eugene. 

1793. Louis Eugene (joins in the war against France. 
1795. Frederick Eugene makes peace with France, 

1790. 
1797. Frederick II. marries the princess royal of En- 
gland, May is ; made Elector of Germany, 1803 ; 

acquired additional territories, and the "title of 

king, in 1805. 

KINGS. 

1805. Frederick I. supplies a contingent to Napoleon's 
Russian army, yet joined the Allies at Leipsic 
in 181,3. Died in 1810. 

1810. William L, Oct. 30 ; son (bom Sept. 27, 1781). He 

abolished serfdom in 1818; instituted repre- 

' sentative government in 1819 ; entered into a 

concordat with Rome in 1857; was the oldest 

living sovereign, 1802 ; died June 2.5, 1804. 

1804. Charles I., son; June 25; born March 0, 1823; 
married Princess Olga, of Russia. 

WTTRTZBURG, in Bavaria, was formerly a bishop- 
ric, and its sovereign was one of the greatest ecclesi- 
astic princes of the empire. It was given as a i)rinci- 
pality to the Elector of Bavaria in 1803; and by the 
treaty of Presburg in 1805 was ceded to the Archduke 
Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral title was trans- 
ferred from Salzburg to this place. In 1814 this duchy 
was again transferred to Bavaria in exchange for the 
Tyrol, and the Archduke Ferdinand was reinstated in 
his Tuscan dominions. Ministers from the second- 
rate German states met at Wnrtzburg to promote 
union among them, Nov. 21-27, 1859. 

WURTZCHEN. See Bautzeii. 

WYATT'S INSURRECTION. See Rebellions, 1554. 

WYOMING, Massacre of. A Tory leader named 
John Butler, at the head of Loyalists and Indians, en- 
tered the beautiful Wyoming Valley, in Pennsylvania, 
at the beginning of July, 1778. Most of the able-bodied 
men were away with the army. Colonel Zel)ulon But- 
ler was there, and he rallied what force he could to 
confront the invaders. They had an engagement a 
little above Wilkesl)arre on the 4th ofJuly. The 
Americans were driven back, and took refuge in a 
fort. They then surrendered, with promise of protec- 
tion ; but, before sunset, the Indians, thirsting for 
blood, spread over the valley, set fire to dwellings, and 
murdered many of the inhabitants. The valley was 
made a desolation before midnight. 



X. 



XANTIIICA, a military festival observed by the 
Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus (our 
April), instituted about 392 B.C. 

XANTIIUS, in Lycia, Asia Minor, was besieged by 
the Romans under Brutus, 42 B.C. After a great strug- 



• " I woulil check tho petty vanity nf thoa,. who sli(;lit (rood p™mBn- 
Bhip.RS below the notice of n' scholar, hy rcniimlinir them that Mr. Fox 
was (tistinjruished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. Profesfior Porson 
by tho correctness and elefjance, and Sir William .lones hy the ease and 
beauty of the characters they respectively eniployed." — Dr. Parr. 

Kk 



gle, the inhabitants set fire to their city, dcstro3'ed 
their wives and children, and perished. Tlie conquer- 
or wished to spare them, and oflered rewards to his 
soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians into his 
presence, but only 150 were saved. — Plutarch. 

XENOPHON. Sec Retreat of the Greeks. 

XERES ]>K i-A Fkontera (S.W. Spain), the Asta Re- 
flia of the Romans, and tho seat of the wine trade in 
Spain, of which the principal wine is that so well 
kiQowu in England as Sherry, an English corruption 



XER 5U 

of Seres. The British importations of this wiue in 
1S50 reached to 3,826,785 gallons ; and in the year end- 
ing Jan. 5, 1852, to 3,90-1,978 gallons. Xeres is a hand- 
some and large town, of great antiquity. At the bat- 
tle of Xeres, July 19-26, 711, Koderick, the last Gothic 
sovereign of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Sar- 
acens, commanded by Tarik and Muza. 

XERXES'S CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the Hel- 
lespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece in 
the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, together 
with the numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and 
women that attended it, amounted (according to some 
historians) to 5,283,220 souls. Herodotus states the 
armament to have consisted of 3000 sail, conveying 
1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry and the mariners and 



YEO 

attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped 
at Thermopylse {ichich see) by the valor of 300 Spartans 
under Leonidas, Aug. 7-9, 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerx- 
es was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, Oct. 20, 
480 B.C. ; and he hastened back to Persia, leaving be-- 
hind Mardonius, the best of his generals, with an army 
of 300,000 men, who was defeated and slain at Platrea, 
Sej)t. 22, 479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- 
banus, 465 B.C. 

XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle between 
the Spanish army under the command of General Bal- 
lasteros, and the French corps commanded by General 
Regnier, Sept. 10, 1811. The Spaniards defeated their 
adversaries ; the loss was great ou both sides. 



YARD. The precise origin of onr yard is uncertain. 
It is, however, likely that the word is derived from the 
Saxon gijnl, a rod or shoot, or gyrdan, to inclose; 
being anciently the circumference of the body, until 
Henry I. decreed that it should be the length of his 
arm. See /Standard Measures. 

YARMOUTH, Great (Norfolk), was a royal de- 
mesne in the reign of William I., as appears from 
Domesday Book. It obtained a charter from John, 
and one from Henry III. In 1348 a plague here car- 
ried off 7000 persons; and that terrible disease did 
much havoc again in 1579 and 1064. The theatre was 
built in 1778 ; and Nelson's Pillar, a fluted column 140 
feet in height, was erected in 1817. The suspension 
chain bridge over the River Bure was built by Mr. R. 
Cory af an expense of about i;4000. Owing to the 
weight of a vast number of persons who assembled on 
this'bridge to witness an exhibition on the water, it 
suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine lives, mostly 
those of children, were lost. May 2, 1845. The railway 
from London to Norwich was opened in 1844. 

YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first 
who fixed the length of the year. 
The Roman year was introduced by Romtilus, 73S 
B.C. ; and it was corrected by Numa, 713 B.C., and 
again by Julius Cissar, 45 B.C. See Calendar. 
The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 deci- 
mals, 205 B.C. 
The lunar year, which comprehends twelve lunar 
months, or 3.54 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, was in use 
among the Chaldieans, Persians, and ancient Jews. 
Once in every three years was added another lunar 
month, so as to make the solar and the lunar year 
nearly agree. But, though the mouths were lunar, 
the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of 
thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so 
alternately ; and the month added triennially was 
called the second Adar. The Jews afterwai"d fol- 
lowed the Roman manner of computation. 
The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 

days, C liours, 9 minutes, 11 seconds. 
The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
March; the Athenians in June; the Macedonians on 
Sept. 24 ; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 
Aug. 20 or .30 ; and the Persians and Armenians on 
Aug. 11. Nearly all Christian nations now com- 
mence the year ou Jan. 1. 
Charles IX. of France, in 1504, published an arret, the 
last article of which ordered the year for the time to 
come to be constantly and universally begun, and 
written on and from January 1. 
(See Acio Sti/le, Platonic Year, Sahlatical Year, French 

lievolutionarij Calendar.* 
The beginning of the year has been reckoned from 
the day celebrating the birth of Christ, Dec. 25th ; 
his circumcision, Jan. 1 ; his conception, March 25; 
and his resurrection, Easter. 
The English began their year on the 25th of Decem- 
ber until the time of William the Conqueror. Tliis 
prince having been crov^'ned on Jan. 1, gave occa- 



* The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland is de- 
scribed in the following calendar, given by a traveler : " June 2.3. Snow 
melts. Jiilu 1. Snow gone. Jidi/ 9. Fields quite green. Jii.lt/ 17. 
Plants at fall growth. Juli/ 25. Plants in flower. Aug. 2. Fruits Vine. 
Aug. 10. Plants shed their seed. Aug. 18. Snow." The snow tlien 
continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Aug. 18th of one 
year to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; sn 
that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn are to- 
gether only fifty-six daj's, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four 
weelss' duration in these countries. 



sion to the English to begin their year at that time, 
to make it agree with the then most remarkable pe- 
riod of their h\&tory.— Stow. Until the act for alter- 
ing the style in 1752 (see Style), the year did not 
legally and generally commence in England until 
March 25th. In Scotland, at that period, the year 
began on the 1st of January. This diff'ereuce caused 
great practical inconveniences; and January, Feb- 
ruary, and part of March sometimes bore two dates, 
as we often find in old records, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, 
or 1745^. Such a reckoning often led to chronolog- 
ical mistakes; for instance, we popularly say "the 
revolution of 1688," as that event happened in Feb- 
ruary, 16SS, according to the then mode of computa- 
tion ; but if the year were held to begin, as it does 
now, on the 1st of January, it would be the revolu- 
tion of 1689. 

Year op Our Lord. See Anno Bnnnmi. 

Year of the Reign. From the time of William the 
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign 
has been given to all public instruments. The 
king's patents, charters, proclamations, and all acts 
of Parliament have since then been generally so 
dated. The same manner of dating is used in most 
of the European states for all similar documents and 
records. See List of Kings m\6.er England, p. 187. 

Year and a Day. A space of time in law, that in 
many cases establishes and fixes a right, as in an 
estra}^ on proclamation being made, if the owner 
does not claim it within the time it is forfeited. The 
term arose in the Norman law, which enacted that 
a beast found on another's laud, if unclaimed for a 
year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It 
is otherwise a legal space of time. 

YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman-French 
of cases argued and decided in the courts of common 
law. The printed volumes extend from the beginning 
of the reign of Edward II. to nearly the end of the 
reign of Henry VIII., a period of about 220 years ; but 
in this series there are many omissions. These books 
are the first in the long line of legal reports in which 
England is so rich, and may be considered as, to a 
great extent, the foundation of our unwritten law, 
" Lex non scripta." In 1863 et seq., the year-books of 
30 & 31 Edward I., 1302-3, were edited by Mr. A. J. 
Horwood, for the series of the Chronicles and Memo- 
rials published at the expense of the British govern- 
ment. 

YELLOW FEVER, a dreadful American pestilence, 
made its appearance at Philadelphia, where it com- 
mitted great ravages, A.D. 1099. It appeared in sev- 
eral islands of the West Indies in 1732, 17.39, and 1745. 
It raged with unparalleled violence at Philadelphia in 
Oct., 1762 ; and most awfully at New York in the be- 
ginning of August, 1791. This fever again spread 
great devastation at Philadelphia in July, 1793, carry- 
ing oft' several thousand persons. — Hardie. It again 
appeared in Oct., 1797, and spread its ravages over the 
northern coast of America, Sept., 1798. It reappeared 
at Philadelphia in the summer of 1802; and broke out 
in Spain in Sept., 1803. The yellow fever was very vi- 
olent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, 
July, 1815; at Antigua in Sept., 1810; and it raged 
with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of 
St. Leon, in Sept., 1819. A malignant fever raged at 
Gibraltar in Sept., 1828, and did not terminate until 
the following year. 

YEOMAN OP THE GtJAiii), a pecirliar body of foot 
guards to the king's person, instituted at the corona- 



YEW 



ol5 



YOR 



tion of Henry VII., Oct. 30, 14>«5, which originally con- 
pisted of tifly mcu under a captniu. Tliey were of a 
larfj;er stature tlian other guarcli?, being required to ho 
over six feet in height, and were armed with arquc- 
bu.scs and other arms. The band was increased by 
Henry's successors to one hundred men, and seventy 
supernumeraries ; and when one of the hundred died, 
it was orck'rcd that his place sliouUl be supplied out 
of tile seventy. They were clad after the manner of 
King Henry VIII. — Aiihiiiole'.-i fiiatit. This is said to 
have been the first peruKuient military band instituted 
in England. John, Earl of t)xt'ord, was the first cap- 
tain in 14SG. — Jlcat.iiDi's Pol. Index. 

YEW-THEE (Taxvn). The origin of planting yew- 
trees in church-yards was (these latter being fenced) 
to secure the trees from cattle, and in this manner 
preserve them for the encouragement of archery. A 
general plantation of them for the use of archers was 
ordered by Richard III., l-lsii.—.SYoip'.s Clironides. Near 
Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were lately seven yew- 
trees called the Seven Sisters, supposed to have been 
planted before lOSS; the circumference of the largest 
was thirty-four feet seven inches round the trunk. In 
1S51, a yew-tree was said to be growing in the church- 
yard of Gresford, North Wales, whose circumference 
was nine yards nine inches, being the largest and old- 
est yew-tree in the British dominions ; "but it is af- 
lirmed on traditionary evidence that there are some 
of these trees in England older than the introduction 
of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the 
survey taken of Richmond palace in 16-19 is said to be 
still existing. 

YEZDEGIRD, or Persian Era, was formerly uni- 
versally adopted in Persia, and is still used by the Par- 
gees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computa- 
tion.s. This era began on the 26th of June, A.D. 632, 
when Yezdegird was elected King of Persia. The 
year consisted of 365 days only, and therefore its com- 
mencement, like that of the Old Egyptian and Arme- 
nian year, anticipated the Julian year by one day in 
every four years. This ditl'erence amounted to nearly 
112 days in tlie year 10T5, when it was reformed by 
Jelaledin, who ordered that in future the Persian year 
should receive an additional day whenever it should 
appear necessary to postpone the commencement of 
the following year, that it might occur on the day of 
the sun's passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 

YNGLINGS (youths, or offshoots), descendants of 
the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled Sweden till S30, 
when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf Tnetelia, be- 
ing expelled, led to the foundation of the Norwegian 
monarchy. 

YOKE. The yoke is spoken of as <a type of servi- 
tude throughout Scripture. The ceremony of making 
prisoners pass under it was practised by the Samnites 
toward the Romans, 321 B.C. See Caudinc Forks. 
This disgrace was afterward inflicted by the Romans 
upon their vanquished enemies. — Dv/resnoy. 

Y'ORK. The Ehorncvm of the Romans, and one of 

the most ancient cities of England. 

Here Severus (A.D. 207), and here also Constan- 
tine kept courts, and his son Constantiue the 
Great was born in 274, and proclaimed emperor, 

A.D. 306 

Abbey of St. Mary's founded by Seward the Dane,1050 

York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans 
slain 1069 

The city and many churches were destroyed by 
fire June 3,1137 

York received its charter from Richard II. and the 
mavor was made a lord 1389 

The Guildhall erected 1446 

The castle was built by Richard III., 14S4, and was 
rebuilt 1741 

The Corporation built a mansion-house for the 
lord mayor 1728 

The famous York petition to Parliament to re- 
duce the expenditure and redress grievances 
was gotten up Dec, 1779 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society established 1822 

First meeting of the British Association held here, 

Sept. 27,1831 

Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five per- 
sons killed Sept. 27,1861 

DUKES OP YORtC. 

1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of King Edward 
III.), created duke, Aug. 6; die<l 1402. 

1406. Edward (his son) was detrraded by Henry IV. in 
1309, but restored in 1414; killed at Agincourt, 
1415: succeeded by his nephew. 

1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, who 



was beheaded for treason in 1415) became re- 
gent of France in 1435: quelled the rebellion 
in Ireland in 1449; claimed the throne, and 
was appointed protector in 1454: his office 
was annulled, and he began the civil war in 
14.5."), and was slaiu after his defeat at Wake- 
field in 1460. 

1460. Edward (his son), afterward King Edward IV. 

1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- 
dered in the Tower, 1483. 

1494. Henry Tudor, afterward Henry VIII. 

1605. Charles Stuart, afterward Charles I. 

1G43. James Stuart (his second son), afterward James 

1716. Ernest (brother of George I.), died 1728. 

1760. Edward (brother of George III.), died 1767. 

17S4. Frederick (son of George III.), born Aug. 16, 
1762 ; marries Princess Frederica of Prussia, 
Sept. 29, 1791 ; commands the British forces at 
Antwerp, April 8, 1793; present at the siege of 
Valenciennes, May 23 ; defeated at Dunkirk, 
Sept. 7; at Bois-le-Duc, Sept. 14; and at Box- 
tel, Sept. 17 ; appointed commander-in-chief, 
1798; defeated near Alkmaar, Sept. 19 and 
Oct. 6, 1799; accused by Colonel Wardle of 
abuse of his patronage, he resigns, Jan. 27, 
1809; becomes again commander-in-chief, 
ISll ; strongly opposes the Catholic claims, 
1825 ; dies Jan. 3, 1827. 

YORK, ARcnmsTioTRio of. The most ancient met- 
ropolitan see in England, being, it is said, so made 
by King Lucius about ISO, when Christianity was first 
partially established in England. The Bishop Ebo- 
rius was present at the Council of Aries, 314. The 
see was overturned by the Saxons, was revived by 
Pope Gregory on their conversion, and Paulinus was 
made archbishop about 625. York and Durham were 
long the only two sees in the north of England, until 
Heiiry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and Henry 
VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan 
see of the Scottish bishops ; but during the time of 
Archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedi- 
ence, and had archbishops of their own. Much dis- 
pute arose between the two English metropolitans 
about precedency, as by Pope Gregory's institutions 
it was thought he meant that whichever of them was 
first confirmed should be superior: appeal was made 
to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was de- 
termined m favor of Canterbury. The Archbishop of 
York was allowed to style himself primate of England, 
while the Archbishop of Canterbury styles himself pri- 
mate of all England. The province of York now con- 
tains the dioceses of Ycu'k, Carlisle, Chester, Durham, 
Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripon {ivhieh see). 
York has yielded to the Church of Rome eight saints 
and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord chan- 
cellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents 
of the North. It is rated in the king's books, 39 Hen- 
ry VIII., 154G, at £1609 19s. 2d. per aunnm.—Beatson. 
Present income £10,000. 

ARCHBISHOPS OF YORK SINCE 1500. 

1501. Thomas Savage, died Sept. 3, 1507. 

1508. Christopher Baiubrigg, poisoned at Rome, July 

14,1514. 
1514. Thomas Wolsey, died Nov. 29. 1530. 
1531. Edward Lee, died Sept. 13, 1544. 
1545. Robert Holgate, dejirived March 23, 1554. 
l.WS. Nicolas Heath, deprived. 
1501. Thomas Young, died June 26, 1568. 
1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, Jan, 

10, 1576. 
1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died July 10, 15SS. 
1589. John Piers, died Sept. 28, 1594. 
1,595. Matthew Hutton, died Jan. 16, 1606. 

1606. Tobias Matthew, died March 29, 1628. 
1628. George Mountaigne, died Oct. 24, 162S. 

" Samiiel Harsnet,"died May 25, 1631. 
1G32. Richard Neyle, died Oct. 31, 1640. 
1641. John Williams, died INIarch 25, 1G50. 

ISee vacant ten iiears.] 
1G60. Accepted Frewen, died March 28, 1664. 
1664. Richard Sterne, died June 18, 16S3. 
16S3. John Dolben, died April 11, 1686. 
[See vacant tiro vears.'i 
168S. Thomas Lamplou<ib, diod'lMay 5, 1601. 
1691. John Sharp, died Feb. 2, 1T14. 
1714. Sir William Dawes, died Ai)ril 30, 1724. 
1724. Launcelot Blackburn, died March 23, 1743. 
1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct., 

1747. 
1747. Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, Mar., 

1757. 
1757. John Gilbert, died 1761. 



YOR 



)1G 



ZOO 



1761. Robert Hay Drummond, died Dec. 10, 1776. 

1777. William Markham, died Nov. 3, 1S07. 

ISOS. Edward Veuables Vernon, died Nov. 5, 1S47. 

1847. Thomas Musgrave, died May 4, 1860. 

1860. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury 

(from Durham), 1862. 
1862. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester, 

PEESENT archbishop. 

YORK MINSTER was erected at diflferent periods, 
and on the site of former buildings. The first Chris- 
tian church erected here, which appears to have been 
preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, 
king of Northumbria, of wood, in 625, and of stone 
about 035. It was damaged by Are iu 741, and was 
rebuilt by Archbishop Albert about 780. It was again 
destroyed by fire in the year 1060, and rebuilt by Arch- 
bishop Thomas. It was once more burnt down iu 
1137, with St. Mary's Abbey, and 39 parish churches in 
York. Archbishop Roger'began to build the choir in 
1171 ; Walter Gray added the south transept in 1227; 
John de Romayne, the treasurer of the cathedral, built 
the north transept in 1200. His son, the archbishop, 
laid the foundation of the nave in 1291. In 1330, Wil- 
liam de Melton built the two western towers, which 
were finished by John de Birmingham in 1.342. Arch- 
bishop Thoresby, in 1301, began to rebuild the choir, 
iu accordance with the magnificence of the nave, and 
he also rebuilt the lantern tower. Thus by many 
hands, and many contributions of multitudes on the 
promise of indulgences, this magnificent fabric was 
completed. It was first set on fire by Jonathan Mar- 
tin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal 
fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829; the damage, estimated 
at £60,000, was repaired in 1832. An accidental fire 
broke out, which iu one hour reduced the belfry to a 
shell, destroyed the roof of the nave, and much dam- 
aged the edifice, May 20, 1840. 



YORK AND Lancaster, Wars op. See Roses. 

YORK (Toronto), in Upper Canada, was captured 
by an American expedition under General Pike on 
the 27th of April, 1813. The Americans were about 
1700 strong ; the British numbered about 850, includ- 
ing 100 Indians, under General Sheafle. The Ameri- 
can loss occurred chiefly from the explosion of the 
British magazine, which had been set on fire. There 
were 52 killed and 228 wounded. General Pike was 
killed. The British lost 110 killed, 300 wounded, and 
36 military and 4 naval oflicers and 250 privates be- 
came prisoners. 

YORKTOWN (Virginia, United States). Lord Corn- 
wallis had taken possession of Yorktown in Aug., 1781 ; 
but, after sustaining a disastrous siege, he was obliged 
to surrender his army, consisting of about 7000 men, to 
the allied armies of France and America, under the 
command of General Washington and Count Rocham- 
beau, Oct. 19, 1781. This mischance was attributed to 
Sir Henry Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succor they expected ; and it mainly led to 
the close of the war. It was strongly fortified by the 
Confederates iu the American Civil War, but surren- 
dered to M'Clellau, May, 1862. See Peninsular Cam- 
paign. 

YTTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria was dis- 
covered by Professor Gadolin in a mineral at Ytterby, 
in Sweden, 1794. The metal was first obtained by 
WiJhler in 1828. It is of a dark gray color, and 
brittle. 

YVRES (now Ivry, N.W. France), where a battle 
was fought, March 14, 1590, between Henry IV. of 
France, aided by his chief nobility, and the generals 
of the Catholic league, over whom the king obtained 
a complete victory. 



z. 



ZAIIA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of the 
battle between the two greatest commanders in the 
v/orld at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. 
The victory was won by Scipio, and was decisive of 
the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace 
the year after, which closed the second Punic War. 
The Romans lost about 2000 killed and wounded, 
while the Carthaginians lost in killed and prisoners 
more than 40,000; some historians make the loss 
greater; 202 B.C. 

ZANTE. One of the Ionian Islands, lohicli see. 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zan- 
zalee, 535 ; he taught that water baptism was of no ef- 
ficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptized with 
fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect 
was at one time very numerous. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The 
letter z was retained in Scotland, and was commonly 
written for the letter y so late as the reign of Queen 
Mary, up to which period many books in'the Scottish 
language were printed in Ediuburg with these words, 
1543. 

ZELA (N.E. Asia Minor), where Julius Ctesar de- 
feated Pharuaces, king of Pontus, son of Mithridates. 
CiEsar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dis- 
patch to the senate of Rome in these words : " Veni, 
vidi, vici"—"l came, I saw, I conquered" (perhaps the 
shortest dispatch on record). This battle ended the 
war: Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where he 
was slain by his lieutenant, Asander; Pontus was 
made a Roman province, and Bosphorus given to 
Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B.C. 

ZELL, Hanover. See Benviark, 1772. 

ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the Par- 
sees, of which 3 out of 21 are extant. The age of these 
books is much disputed. Professor Max Miiller says 
that the MSS. had been preserved by the P.trsee priests 
at Bombay, where a colony of fire-worshipers had fled 
in the 10th century. Anquetil Duperron's French 
translation, from a modern Persian version, was pub- 
lished in 1771. 

ZENO, Sect of. See Stoics. 
ZENOBIA, Queen of the East. See Palmyra. 
ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle, where 
the Germans under Prince Eugene defeated the Turks, 



Sept. 11, 1697. This victory led to the peace of Corlo- 
witz, ratified January, 1699. 

ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine, was known to the 
Greeks, who used it in the manufacture of brass. It 
is said to have been known iu China also, and is no- 
ticed by European writers as early as 1231, though the 
method of extracting it from the ore was unknown 
for nearly five hundred years after. The metal zinc is 
first mentioned by Paracelsus (who died in 1541). A 
mine of zinc was discovered on Lord Ribblesdale's es- 
tate. Craven, Yorkshire, iu 1809. Zincography was in- 
troduced in London shortly after the invention of li- 
thography became known in England, in 1817. See 
Lithography. Zinc is much used in Voltaic batteries, 
and its application in manufactures has greatly in- 
creased of late years. It is often called spelter. See 
Photozincography. 

ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth Zirco- 
nia, which was discovered by Klaproth in 1789; from 
this Berzelius obtained the metal iu 1824. Zirconia is 
found in the sand of the rivers of Ceylon. The metal 
exists in the form of a black powder. 

ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shrub brought from the 
south of Europe about 1640. The ZizypMis Pali^irus 
shrub (Christ's Thorn) was brought from Africa before 
1590. See Floicers. 

ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its twelve 
signs named, and their situations assigned them by 
Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks and Ara- 
bians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos.— Sir W. 
Jones. 

ZOLLVEREIN {Customs' Union), the name given to 
the German Commercial Union, of which Prussia is at 
the head. It began in 1S18, and was gradually joined 
by nearly all the~German states except Austria, and a 
treaty was signed March 22, 1833, which became the 
basis of the association. On Feb. 19, 1853, an impor- 
tant treaty of commerce and navigation, between Aus- 
tria and Prussia, to last from Jan., 1854, to Dec, 1805, 
was signed, to which the other states of the Zollverein 
gave in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. In Nov., 1861, 
Prussia threatened to withdraw unless certain changes 
were made. 

ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is the di- 
vision of biology which treats of animals. Aristotle 
(322-284 B.C.) is the founder of the science. Systems 
of classification have been made by John Eay (1028- 



ZOR 



)17 



ZUT 



1705), Charles Linuu (170T-78), G. Buffon (1707-SS), and 
Geoi-gc Cuviei- (1709-1832).* 

The Zoological Society of Loudon (originally the Zoo- 
logical club) was founded in 1S2G, and its gardens 
in the Regent's Park were opened in April, IS'27 ; 
the sociely was chartered March 27, 1S29. 
Dr. Oanies Murie was appointed by the society to be 

their lirst "anatomical iiroscctin-," May 3, 1805. 
On tlie demolition of Exeter Cliange in 1829, the men- 
agerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the 
Kiug's Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey 
Zooloj'ical Gardens, 1832. 
The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened 1832. 
(See Aqiiarium,Rippop(jtamus, Giraffe, Hud Acclimati- 
zation). 

ZORNDORPF, in Prussia, where a battle was fought 
between the Prussian and Russian armies ; the former, 
commanded by the King of Prussia, obtained a victo- 
ry over the forces of the czarina, whose loss amounted 
to 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did uot ex- 
ceed 11,000, Aug. 25 and 26, 175S. 

ZOUAVES ANn Foot Chasseitrs. When the French 
established a regency at Algiers in 1S30, they hoped to 
find the employment of native troops advantageous, 
and selected the Zooaouan, a congregation of Arab 
tribes, famous for daring and skillful courage. In 
time, numbers of Red Republicans, and other enthusi- 
astic Frenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the 
costume, etc. : eventually the Africans disappeared 
from the ranks, and no more were added, they having 
been frequently guilty of treachery. The French 
Zouaves formed an important part of the army in the 
Crimean War, lS54-5.t 



* The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes, viz. : 
Mammalia, which includes all animals'that suckle their young ; Aves, 
birds; Amphibia, or ampliibious animals; Pisces, fishes ; Insecta,m- 
sects; Vermes, worms ; 1741. Cuvier, who died in Paris May 13, 1832, 
in his great work, Reiine Avimale, published in 1816, distributed the 
animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (ribbed) ; the MoUus- 
ca (soft bodied); the Articulata (jointed); and the Radiata (the or- 
gans disposed round a centre). In 1859, Professor Owen made known 
a system of arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature of 
tbeir brains. 

•f The Zouave organization and drill were introduced into the Feder- 
al army in the great Civil War in America by Ephraim E. Ellsworth 



ZUINGLIANS, the followers of the reformer Ulricas 
Zuinglius, who at Zurich declaimed against the Church 
of Rome, and eftectcd the same separation for Switz- 
erland from the papal dominion which Luther did for 
Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called; 
by the first he was authorized to proceed, by the sec- 
ond the ceremonies of the Romish Church were abol- 
ished, 1519. Zuinglius died in arms as a soldier, being 
slain in a skirmish against his popish opponents iu 
1531. The Zuiuglians were also called Sacramentari- 
aus. 

ZULPICH. See Tolhiac. 

ZURICH was admitted a member and made head 
of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was the first to-\vn 
in Switzerland that separated from the Church of 
Rome. See Zxdwjliam. A grave-digger at Zurich 
poisoned the sacrameutal wine, by which eight per- 
sons lost their lives and many others were grievously 
injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here, 
losing 4000 men, June 5, 1799. The Imperialists were 
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men 
killed and wounded, Sept. 25, 1799. See Switzerland. 
On June 24, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the 
allied French aud Sardinian army at Solferiuo. Pre- 
liminaries of peace were sigued at Villa Franca by the 
Emperors of Austria aud France on July 12 following. 
A conference between the representatives of the pow- 
ers concerned having been appointed, the first meet- 
ing took place on Aug. 8. After many delays, a treaty 
was signed on Nov. 11, and ratified Nov. 12. Lombar- 
dy was ceded to Sardinia ; the formation of an Italian 
Confederation, under the presidency of the pope, was 
determined on, aud the rights of the ex-sovereigns of 
Tuscany, Modena, aud Parma were reserved. The 
formation of the kingdom of Italy iu 18G1 annulled 
the treaty of Zurich. 

ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here, Sept. 22, 
1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, the amia- 
ble Sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," was killed. 
He was serving with the English auxiliaries, com- 
manded by the lEarl of Leicester. 

early in iSfil. He was assassinated on May 24, same year, at Alexan- 
dria, just after taking down a secession flag. 



INDEX. 



[The references nre to articles in the bodj^ of the work ; the italics refer to articles in tliia Index, 
mentioned : two dates, thus, 15US-82, siguii'y tlie year of the person's birth and death ; 6., born ; 
killed.! 



The year given is A.D. when B.C. is not 
rf., died; /..flourished; ;«., murdered ; k., 



AiiitAS, l^ersia, 15S2 

Al)b(>t, Abp. ; Canterbury, ICU 

Abbot, Charles ; speaker, 1S02 

Abbott, S. : Andover Theological 
St'ininary, ISOT 

Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 

Abdcr:ihmaiil.-V.,caliphs,755-1023 

Abdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1S:J9-01 

Abdul-Aziz, Turkey, 1801 

Abelard, d. 1142 ; Abelard 

Abercromby, Jas. ; speaker, 1S35 

Abercromby, Sir Ralph, 1T38-1S01 ; 
Trinidad," Alexandria 

Aberdeen, Earl of, 1TS4-1SG0 ; Ab- 
erdeen admin., note 

Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1704-1831 

Abingdon, Earl of; trials, 1794 

Abinger, Lord, att. gen., 1827 ; Ex- 
chequer, h. 1834 

Abrantes, Duke of; see Junot 

Absalom killed 1023 B.C. 

Abubcker ; AH, 032 

Accum, F. : adulterations, 1S22 

Achilli I'. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 

Achmet; see Aluiied 

Acilius ; statues, temples 

Ackernvann, R. ; lithography, 1817 

Acrou ; aromatics, 473 B.C. 

Acton, Mrs. ; Royal Inst., 1838 

Actuarius ; purgatives, 1245 

Adair, Serg. ; Junius, 1709 

Adalbert, St. ; Prussia, 997 

Adam ; duel, 1779 

Adam, R. and Bros., ai'chitects, 
1728-92 

Adams, J. C, mathematician; Nep- 
tune, 1845 

Adams, J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), 
(ijfcuidcnts), adm. U. S., tl. States 

Adams v. Dundas ; trials, 1831 

Adderlev, Mr. ; Birmingham, 1S56 

Addiugtou, H., 1757-1S44; Addiug- 
ton administration 

Addison, Joseph, 1072-1719, Specta- 
tor, 1711 ; Stanhope administra- 
tion, 1717 ; allegory, Clio, clubs 

Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, 
queens (Hen. I., William IV.). 

Adeodatus ; Pope, 072 

Adolphus, Frederick ; Sweden, 1751 

Adrian, Rome; Emperor, 117; 
edicts, persecutions, popes 

-(Egcus ; Athens, 12S3 B.C. 

yEgiueta, Paulus; surgery, 640 

.(Egisthus; Mycenie, 1201 B.C. 

.dimiliauus ; Rome, 140 B.C. 

/Eneas ; Italy, Alba, 1182 B.C. 

.iEschines, Gk. orator, 389-344 B.C. 

.^schylus, Greek tragedy, 520-456 
B.C. ; drama 

./Esculupius; infirmaries 

.(Esop; fables (about 000 B.C.) 

Africamis ; see ScijyU) 

Agamemnon ; Mycena\ 1201 B.C. 

Agathoclcs ; Carthage, Sicily, Syra- 
aise, 317 B.C. 

Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 

Agesander ; Laocoiin 

Agesilaus; Sparta, 398 B.C. 

Agis ; Sparta, 427 B.C. 

Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 

Agnodice ; midwifery 

Agricola ; Britain, 78 ; Lancaster, 
Caledonia, Roman wall 

Agricola, John ; Antinomians 

Agrippa ; Pantheon, 27 B.C. 

Aholiab ; sculpture 

Ahmed I.— III. ; Turkey, lG03rf acq. 



Airy, G. B., 6. 1801; Greenwich, 

1835; pendulum, standard 
Aislabie, Mr. ; Sunderland admin- 
istration, 1718 ; South Sea 
Akbar, India ; 1550 
Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 
Alaric, d. 410 ; Rome, France 
Albemarle, George Monk, duke of, 

1008-70 ; administrations, 1000 
Alberoni, Card., 1604-1751 ; Spain, 

1715 
Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Germa- 
ny, Hungary 
Albert (Pr. Consort), 1819-01 ; En- 
gland, 1840 ; regency bill, dueling 
Albertus Jlagnu.s ; automatons 
Albion the Longobard, killed 573 
Albuquerque (viceroy) ; India, 1503- 

1515 
Alcibiades killed 404 B.C. ; Athens 
Alcippe ; Areopagitie 
Alcock, Mr. ; dueling, 1807 
Alcuin (theologian),"735-S04 
Aldebert ; impostors, 743 
Alden, Timothy ; type-setting ma- 
chine, 1856 
Aldhelme; Salisbury, 705; poetry, 

ballads 
Alectus ; Britain, 294 
Alenf on, Due d' ; Agincourt, 1415 
Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine 
Alexander the Great, 350-323 B.C. ; 
Macedon, Egypt, Gordian, Tyre, 
Memphis 
Alexander Severus; Rome, em., 222 
Alexander I. ; Russia, ISOl ; Aus- 

terlitz, 1805 ; Leipsic, 1813 
Alexander ; see Pope ; Scotland 
Alexander, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Alexander, Sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 

1722 
Alexius, East (emperors), lOSl-1203 
Altieri, V., 1749-1803 
Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; England, 

councils, clocks, crown, militia 
Alfred, Prince ; Godwin, 10.^3 ; En- 
gland ; royal family, h. 1844 
Alihaud ; France, 1836 
All Pacha; Rosetta; Turkey, 1820 ; 

Albania 
Allen, Col. Ethan ; Montreal, 1775 
Alleyue, Edw., d. 1017 ; Dulwich 

college 
Almansour ; Bagdad, 762 
Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
AlphonsuB ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 

(kings) 
Alsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 
Althorp, Vise. ; Grey administra- 
tion, 18.30 ; Melbourne, 1835 
Alva, Duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 

Holland 
Alvanley, Lord ; duel, 1835 
Alvinzi, Marshal ; Areola, 1796 
Alyattes; Lydia, 701 B.C. 
Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 
Amadeus, Savoy; annunciation 
Ambrose, St., d. 397; anthems, Te 

Deum, liturgies 
Ambrosias; Stouehenge 
Amcnophis; Egypt, 1S21 B.C. 
Americus Vespucius, d. 1512 ; Amer- 
ica, note 
Amherst, Lord; China, 1S16; India, 

1823 
Ammianus Marcellinus, hist., d. 390 
Amontous, W. ; telegraphs, 1663- 
1705 



Amos prophesies about 787 B.C. 
Ampere, A. M., 1735-1830 ; electrici- 
ty (Galvanism); electric telegraph 
Amulius ; Alba, 794 B.C. 
Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
Amyntas ; Macedon, 540 B.C. 
Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, bel- 
lows 
Anacletus ; Pope, 78 
Anacreon, poet,/, about 5.57 B.C. 
Auastasius ; Pope ; Bast ; emperors 
Anaxagoras, 480 B.C. ; earthquakes 
Anaximander, 547 B.C. ; maps 
Anaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air 
Anderson, J. ; slavery (in United 

States), note, 1853 
Andre, Major, United States, 1780 
Andrew ; Hungary, kings 
Andrews, H., (^1820; ahnanacs 
Audrouicus, 240 B.C. ; drama 
Audrouicus ; Eastern Empire, 1071- 

1391 
Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 
Angerstein, J., d. 1822 ; National 

Gallery 
Anglesey, Arthur, Earl of; Ireland 

(lord lieutenant), 1828, 1830 
Angus, Earl of; Linlithgow 
Anjou, Plantageuet, Jaruac, 15C9 ; 

Naples, 1266 
Ankerstrom (kills Giistavus III.) ; 

Sweden, 1792 
Anna, Santa; Mexico, 1853 ' 
Anne of Brittany, d. 1514 ; maids of 

honor 
Anne of Austria, c?. 1066 ; iron mask 
Anne ; England, semper eadem 
Ansel], G. ; fire-damp, 1805 
Anselm, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 
Anson, Admiral ; Acapulco, 1744 ; 

naval battles, 1747 
Anson, General ; India, 1S57 
Anthony; mouachism, 4th century 
Antigonus; Ipsus, 301 B.C., profiles 
Autiochus I.— X., 280-65 B.C. ; Syr- 
ia, Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. 
Antipater; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 B.C. 
Antonelli, Card., 6. 1806; Rome, 

1848 
Antoninus Pius ; Rome, emperors, 

138 ; Roman wall 
Antony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 B. 
C. ; Armenia, Philippi, 42 B.C. ; 
Actium, 31 B.C. 
Anviti, Col., killed ; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. 
Apollodorus; Trajan's pillar, 114 
Apollouius ; Syria, 108 B.C. 
Appian, hist.,/, about 147 
Ajjpius Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; 

aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
Applegarth ; printing machine 
Apries; Egypt, 571 B.C. 
Apsley, Ld. ; North admiuis., 1770 
Apuleius, d. 174 
Aquinas, T., theol., d. 1274 
Arago, D. F., uat. phil., 1780-1853 
Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
Arbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 
Arcadius and Honorius, Eastern 

and Western Empire, 395 
Archelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. ; 

Macedon, 413 B.C. 
Archemorus ; Nenuean games 
Archer, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 
Archidamus; Sparta, 648 B.C. 



620 

Archilochus, 708 B.C. ; Iambic verse 
Archimedes, 2S7-212 B.C. ; circle, 
cranes, meclianics, mensuration, 
organs, reflectors, screw, planeta- 
rium 
Archytas ; antomaton, pulley 
Ardesoif, Mr. ; cock-fighting, 17SS 
Aretino, Guy ; musical notes, 1025 
Arfastus, Chancellor, lord high, 1067 
Arfwedsou, Mr. ; lithium, 1S17 
Argand, A. ; Argand lamp, 1782 
Argyll, Duke of; Dunblane, 1715 
Ariarathes ; Cappadocia 
Ariobarzanes, 322 B.C. ; Cappado- 
cia, 93 B.C. 
Ariosto, L., Italian poet, 1474-15B3 
Aris, Gov. ; prisons, 1800 
Aristarchus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 
Aristseus ; conic sections, 830 B.C. 
Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 

Athens 
Aristippus ; Cyrenaic sect, 392 B.C. 
Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 B.C. 
Aristophanes, d. 427 B.C. ; comedy 
Aristotle, 384-332 B.C. ; Aristoteli- 
an philosophy, acoustics, botany, 
Macedon, mechanics, metaphys- 
ics, philosophy 
Arius, d. 336; Arians 
Arkwright, R. (1732-92) ; cotton, 

Manchester, spinning 
Arlington, Lord ; Cabal, 1670 
Arminius, d. 1609 ; Arminians, Dort 
Armstrong, John ; adminis. U. S., 

1813 
Armstrong, W. G. ; electricity, 1840 ; 

cannon, 1859 
Arue, T., music composer, 1710-88 
Arnold, Gen. ; United States, 1780 
Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1S42 
Arrian, hist.,/. 148 
Arsaces ; Parthia, 250 B.C. 
Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 
Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 
Artemisia; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 
Artemones; battering-ram, 441 B.C. 
Arthur, king ; Britain, 506 
Artois, Count d' ; dueling, 1778 
Arundel, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
Arundel, Henry, Earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1547 
Ascanius ; Alba, 1153 B.C. 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdrubal 
Asellius ; lacteals (1622), Ij'mphatics 
Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ashburton, Lord ; treaty, 1842 
Ashe, Gen. ; Brier Creek, 1779 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashley, Lord ; Cabal, 1670 
Ashley, Sir Arthur ; cabbages 
Ashton, Colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
Aske ; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
Aslett, Rob. ; Exchequer bills, 1803 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy, charities 
Astley, Lord ; Naseby, 1645 
Aston, Sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astor, J. J., 6. 1763 ; Astor Library 
Astyages ; Media, 594 B.C. 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athanasiau 

Creed 
Athelstan ; England (king), 924 • 

mint, 928 
Athenseus, Greek, d. 194 
Athol, Duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 
Athothes ; hieroglyphics, wrfting 
Atkinson, Gen. ; Black Hawk War, 

1832 
Atossa ; marriage by sale 
Attains, d. 197 B.C. ; seven churches 

(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, Bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
Attwood, T. ; Chartists, 1838 
Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
Auber, D. ; music composer, 6. 1784 
Auchmuty, Sir Samuel ; Batavia, 

1811 ; Monte Video, 1807 
Auckland, Ld.Bp.; Bath and Wells, 

1854 
Auckland, Lord ; Grey administra- 
tion, 1830; India, 1835 
Augerean, Gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Angustenburg,Duke of; Denmark, 
1863 • ' 



INDEX. 

Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 

Augustin the Monk, apb. Canter- 
bury, 602 ; Rochester 

Augustus (Emperor), Rome, 27 B. 
C. ; prgetoriau guards 

Aulus Gellius, Latin misc., fl. 169 

Aurelian; Rome, emp., 270; Ale- 
manni 

Aurelius; Rome, emp., 161 

Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 

Ausonius, poet, d. 394 

Austin ; see Auatin, St. 

Austin, Captain ; Franklin 

Austin, W. ; trials, 1855 

Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 

Averroes, med. v:riter, jl. 1199 

Avisa ; queens (John) 

B. 

Babbage, C, &. 1792 ; calculating 

machine 
Baber; India, 1525 
Babeuf, d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
Babington, which see, 1580 
Babrius; fable 

Bach, J. Sebastian, music, 1685-1754 
Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
Back, G. ; northwest passage, 1833 
Bacon, Lord (1561-1626) ; lawyers, 

ieronautics 
Bacon, Nathaniel; Bacon's rebel- 
lion, 1676 
Bacon, Sir Nicholas ; lord keeper, 

1558, baronet 
Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 
Bacon, Roger, d. 1292; astrology, 
camera lucida, loadstone, magic 
lantern, magnet, optics, .specta- 
cles 
Bacon, T. P. ; trials, 185? 
Badger, G. E. ; admin. U. S., 1S41 
Baflln, W. F. ; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
Bagnal, Lieut. ; duel, 1812 
Bagot, Bishop ; Oxford, 1829 
Bagration, Prince ; Mohilows, 1812 
Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 
Bailey, Rev. W. ; trials, 1843 
Baillie, Col. ; Arcot, 1780 
Baillie, General ; Alford, 1645 
Baillie, Joanna, poet, 1763-1851 
Bailly, M., philos. ; executed, 1793 
Bainbrigg, Abp. ; York, 1508 
Baines,M. T. ; Palmerstou admin- 
istration, 1855 
Baird, Sir David ; Cape, 1806, Se- 

ringapatam, 1799 
Bajazet; Turkey, 1389 
Baker, Col. ; Ball's Bluff, 1861 
Baker, H. ; Bakerian Lecture, 1765 
Baker, S. W. ; Africa, 1864 
Balard, M. ; amyleue, 1844 
Balchan, Admiral ; Alderney, 1744 
Baldwin I.— V. ; Jerusalem, 1100- 

1185 ; East Flanders 
Bales, P. ; calligraphy 
Balfe, M. W., 6. 1808 
Balfour, John ; Scotland, 1679 
Baliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329 ; 

Annan, 1332 
Baliol, John ; Scotland, 1293, Ox- 
ford, Dunbar 
Ballarat, Melbourne, 1854 
Ballard, John ; Babington's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Ballasteros, Gen. ; Ximena, 1811 
Balmerino, Lord ; rebellion, Scot- 
land, 1745 ; trials, 1746 
Baltimore, Lord ; America, 1632 • 

trials, 1768 
Bancroft, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
Bancroft, G., hist., b. ISOO; admins. 

U.S., 1845 
Banks, Sir J., 1743-1820; Hort. Soc, 

Royal Institution, 1799 
Banks, Gen. N. P., Port Hudson, 

1863 ; Red River campaign, 1864 
Bannister, Mr. ; retired, 1815 
Bar, Due de ; Agincourt, 1415 
Baradffius ; Eutychians, Jacobites 
Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
Barantz ; northwest passag.e, 1594 
Barbarossa, d. 1546 ; Tunis, Algiers 
Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 



Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and Do- 

rey ; trials, 1844, and note 
Barberini ; Portland vase 
Barbou ; printers, 1539-1755 
Barbour, Jas. ; adminis. U. S., 1825 
Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853 
Barclay, Capt. ; pedestrianism,1809 
Barclay, Perkins & Co. ; porter 
Barclay, Rob., rf. 1090; Quakers 
Barham, Lord ; Admiralty, 1805 
Baring, Alex., Peel adminis., 1834 • 
Ashburton treaty, 1842 ; Sir F., 
London Institution, 1805 ; Rus- 
sell administration, 1846 
Barker, Robert ; panorama, 1788 
Barlow; clocks, 1676 
Barlow, Rev. J. ; Royal Inst., 1842 
Barlow, Sir G. ; India, governors. 
1805 ' 

Barlowe, William ; compass, 1608 
Barnard, General ; India, 1857 
Barnes, T., d. 1841 ; Times 
Barnet, Geo. ; trials, 1816 
Barnum, P. T. ; Am. Museum, 1841 
Barre, Isaac, Rockingham adminis- 

tratiou, 1782 
Barrett, Captain ; Cumberland, na- 
val battles, 1811 
Barrie, Capt. ; naval battles, 1811 
Barriugton, Bp. ; Durham, 1791 
Barrington, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
Barriugton ; trials, 1790 
Barron, Com. ; duel, 1820 
Barrot, O. ; France, 1843 
Barrow, Isaac, 1630-77 
Barry, Sir Charles, architect, 1795- 

1860; Parliament 
Barry, W. T. ; adminis. U. S., 1829 
Barth, Dr. ; Africa, 1849 
Barthelomy, E. ; trials, 1855 
Barton, Bernard, poet, d. 1849 
Barton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 
Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 
Baschi, Matt. ; Capuchins, 1525 
Basil, St., d. 380; Basilians 
Basil ; East. Emp., 867 ; Russia 
Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1402 
Bates, Ed. ; adminis. U. S., 1861 
Bath, Earl of; Bath admin., 1746 
Bathou ; Transylvania, 1851, etc. 
Bathurst, Bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
Bathurst, Earl ; Liverpool adminis- 
tration, 1812 
Bathyllus ; pantomimes 
Batman, J. ; Victoria, 1835 
Batthyauy, Hungary, 1848 
Battus; Cyrene, 631 B.C. 
Baumgarten ; assthetics, 1750 
Bavaria, elector of; Ramilies, 1706 
Baxter, Sir D. ; Dundee, 1863 
Baxter, G. ; printing in colors, 1836 
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
Bayard, Chevalier, killed, 1524 
Bayle, P., d. 1706 ; dictionary, 169T 
Bayley, Lieut. ; duel, 1818 
Baynard, Geoffrey ; combat 
Bazalgette, J. W., 6. 1819 ; sewers, 

Thames 
Bean aims at the queen ; trials, 1842 
Beaton, Cardinal, m. 1546 
Beattie, Jas., poet, 1735-1S03 
Beauclerc, Lord Charles, dro^^ed 

while assisting at a wreck, 1861 
Beau Nash ; ceremonies 
Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight 
Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
Beaufort, Cardinal, d. 1447 
Beanharnais, Eugene, 1781 - 1824 ; 

Italy, Mockeru 
Beaulieu, General ; Lodi, 1796 
Beaumont, Sir G., National Gallery 

opened 
Beaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 
Beaumont, Viscount, 1440 
Beauregard, P. G., b. 1818; United 

States, 1861 ; Fort Sumter 
Beauvoir, Sir J. de ; trials, 1835 
Becket, T., m. 1170 ; Becket 
Beckford, W. ; Fouthill Abbey 
Bede, Venerable, d. 735 
Bedford, Duke of; duel, 1822; Ire- 
land, lord lieutenants, 1490-1757- 
France, 1422; Admiralty, 1744; 
nobility, 1470 



Bedingflelil, Ann ; trials, 1T63 
Becby, Williain ; lou^'evity 
Beec'hing, J. ; life-boat, 1S51 
BceihoveUjL., music compos., 17T0- 

1827 
Be;j:um charge, Chunar, 17S1 
Bchcin, Martin ; Azores 
Behi-iii ;;;,(/. 17-11 ; Behriug's Straits 
Bcia, Ilimi^ai-y 

Belasyse, Ld. L. ; admiuistr. 10S7 
Belcher, Sir E. ; circiimuavi'jatiou, 

1S3G; Franklin 
Belcredi, Conut Kd., 6. ISiS; Aus- 
tria, 1805 
Belisarius, (/.5G4 ; Africa, East.Emp. 
Bell, Andrew, d. 1832 ; Lancasteriau 

schools 
Bell, Sir C, 1778-1842 ; nerves 
Bell, 11. ; steam, 1S13 
Bell, John; administrations U. S., 

1S41 
Bellamont, Lord; duel, 1773 
Bellamy, trials, 1844 
Bellarmine, Cardinal, 1542-1621 
Bellin<,'ham kills Perceval, 1S12 
BelliuLrham, Sir Daniel; mayor (of 

Dublin), 1665 
Bellini, music, 1S02-.35 
Bellot, Lieut., d. 1853 ; Franklin 
Belochus; Assyria, 1446 B.C. 
Belus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 
Belzoni, d. 1823 
Bern ; Hungary ; d. 1S50 
Benbow, Adm" ; naval battles, 1702 
Benedict, Benedictines ; popes, 574- 

175S 
Benthara, Jer. (1746-1832) ; savings' 

banks 
Bentiuck, Lord G. ; d. 1848 ; protec- 
tionists 
Bentinck, Lord W. ; Assam, India, 

1827 
Bentley, Richard, scholar, 1662-1742 
Benton, Col. ; duel, 1813 
Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1780-1857 
Berengaria ; queens (Richard I.) 
Berengarius ; ft- te de Dieu 
Berenger, Butt, Lord Cochrane, and 

others ; trials, 1814 
Beresford, Lord ; Albuera, 1811 
Beresford, Lord J. ; suicide, 1841 
Beresford, Wm. ; Derby adm., 1852 
Berg, Gen. ; Poland, IS'63 
Berkeley case ; trials, 1811 
Berkeley cause ; trials, 1811 
Berkeley, Hon. C. ; duel, 1842 
Berkeley, Lord ; Admiralty, 1717 
Berkeley, Lord ; America, N., 1644 ; 

Brest, 1694; Carolina 
Beruadotte, 1764-1818 ; Dennewitz, 

Sweden 
Bernard, St., 1091-1153 
Bernard, S. ; trials, 1853 
Bernini, 159S-1680 
Berri, Duke and Duchess of- 

France, 1820-1833 
Berrien, J. M. ; administrations U. 

S., 1829 
Berry, Lieut. ; trials, 1S07 
Berthelot, P. M., 6. 1827 ; acetylene, 

oleliant gas, 1862 
Berthier, Gen. ; marshals 
Berthollet, C. L., 1748-1S22 ; chlo- 
rine 
. Bertie, Lady G. C. ; lord great cham- 
berlain 
Berwick, Duke of, d. 1734; Landen, 

Almanza, Newry 
Berzelius, James, 1779-1848 ; chem- 
istry, silicium 
Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, 1856 
Bessus, Persia, 331 B.C. 
Best, Capt. ; duel, 1804; Surat, 1611 
Bethell, Sir R. ; solicitor gen., 1852; 
attorney gen., 1859 (see Westburij) 
Bethenco'urt ; Canaries, 1400 
Betty, Master ; theatres, 1804 
Bevcrn, Prince ; Breslau, 17.57 
Bewick, T., 1753-1828; wood en- 
graving 
Bexley,Vansittart, Lord ; Liverpool 

administration, 1812 
Beza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- 
1605 



INDEX. 

Bialobrzeski, Abp. ; Poland, 1S61 
Bibb, G. M. ; administrations U. S., 

1S44 
Bickersteth, Bp. ; Ripon, 1S56 
Biela, comet, 1S26 
Big Sam, giants, 1809 
Bingley, Lord ; Oxford admin., 1711 
Bird, the boy ; trials, 1831 
Birkbeck, Dr., d. 1841 ; Mechanics' 

Institutes 
Biscoe, Capt. ; southern continent, 

1832 
Bishop, burking, 1831 
Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 
Bishop, Sir H., music, 1787-1855 
Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 
Bismarck, O., 6. 1813; Prussia, 1862; 

Gastein 
Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
Black, Joseph, 1728-99 ; magnesia, 

air, balloon 
Black, J. S. ; administrations U. S., 

1860 
Blackburn, Abp. ; York, 1724 
Blackstone, Sir W., law, 1723-80 
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800; rhetoric, 
verse; John, chronologist, rf.l797 
Blair, M. ; administrations U. S., 

1861 
Blake, Admiral R., 1599-1657 ; Al- 
giers, Dover Straits,Portlaud Isle, 
Santa Cruz 
Blakesley, Robert ; trials, 1841 
Blanc, Louis, b. 1813 ; France, 1848 
Blanchard ; balloon, 1784-1819 
Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
Blanchard, T. ; timber bending, 1855 
Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
Bligh, Captain ; bread -fruit -tree, 

Adventure Bay, Bounty mutiny 
Bligh, Captain, v. Mr. Wellesley 

Pole ; trials, 1825 
Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1S06 
Blomtield, Bishop ; London, 1828 
Bloudin ; Crystal Palace, 1861 
Blood, Col., d. 1680 ; Blood, crown 
Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 
Bloomfleld, R., poet, 1766-1S23 
Blucher, Marshal, d. 1819 ; Janvil- 

liers, Ligny, Waterloo 
Blum, R. ; shot in 1848 
Blumenbach, J. F., 17.52-1840 
Blundell, Lieut. ; duel, 1813 
Boadicea ; Britain, d. 61 
Boardman, Captain ; duel, 1811 
Boccaccio, 1313-75, Decameron 
Boddington ; trials, 1797 
Boden, Colonel ; Sanscrit, 1833 
Bodley, T. ; Bodleian library, 1602 
Boerhaave, H. ; med. writer, 1668- 

173S 
Boethius, killed, 024 
Boettcher; Dresden china, 1700 
Bogle V. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
Bohemia, king of— "Ich Dien," 

Crecy, 1346 
Boileau, Nicholas, poet, 1636-1711 
Bois de ChC-ne, Mdlle. ; beards, 1834 
Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Boldero, Captain ; duel, 1842 
Boleslaus; Poland 
Boleyu, Anne, England (queen 

Henry VIIL) 
Boleyn, Earl of Wiltshire ; admin- 
istrations, 1.532 
Bolingbroke, Lord ; Oxford admin- 
istration, 1711 ; deism 
Bolivar (1783-1830), Colombia 
Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bonaparte family, France 
Bonar, Mr. and Sirs. ; trials, 1813 
Bonaventura, 1221-74; conclave 
Bonavisa, Anthony ; distafl", 1505 
Bond; magnetism, 1068 
Bond, Prof. ; photography, 1851 
Bonelli, electric loom, 1854 
Bonheur, Rosa, painter, b. 1822 
Bonner, Bishop of London ; admin- 
istrations, 1554 
Bonnet, C, natHralist, 1720-93 
Bonnycastle, J., mathematician, d. 

1821 
Bonpland, A., naturalist, 177-3-1S5S 



621 

Bonwell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1S60 
Boone, Colonel ; America, 1754 
Boosey, T. ; copyright, 1854 i 
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
Booth, J. Wilkes ; assassination of 

Lincoln ; U. States, 1865 
Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-Andrew 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borghese, H. ; diamond 
Borgia, C«sar, killed, 1507 
Boroihme, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 
Borowlaski, Coimt; dwarf, 1739 
Borrington, Lady ; trials, 1808 
Borrompo, Abp. Charles, 1538-84 
Boscan, poet, 1496-1.543 
Boscawen, Adm., 1711-60 ; Lagos 
Bosquet, Marshal; Inkermann, 1854 
Bossuet, J., misc., 1627-1704 
Boswell, Sir A. ; duel, 1S22 
Boswell, James, biographer, 1740-95 
Both well. Earl of; Scotland, 1567 
Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
Bouchet, Anthony ; lUuminati 
Bouchier, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1486 
Boufflers, Marshal ; 1644-1711 
Bougainville, d. 1811 ; circumnavi- 
gation. New Hebrides 
Bouille, Marquis de ; Eustatia, 1781 
Boulby, Mr. ; China, 1860 
Bonlton, Mat., d. 1809 ; Birmingham 
Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 17S8 
Bourbon family; Bourbon, Duke 

of; duels, 1778 
Bourke, Sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, 

1831 
Bourmont, Marshal; Algiers, 1830 
Bourne, Sturges ; Canning admin- 
istration, 1827 
Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
Boweu, Sir G. ; Queensland, 1859 
Bower, Mr. Elliott ; trials, 1S52 
Bowes, Miss; Strathmore,'1766 
Bowring, Sir J. ; b. 1792 ; Canton, 

China, Siam 
Bowstead, Bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Bowyer, Bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
Boyd, Captain ; duel, 1808 
Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
Boyle, Earl of Orrery ; orrery 
Boyle, Robert, 1026-92; phospho- 
rus. Royal Society 
Boyle, He"nry ; Godolphin adminis- 
tration, 1702 
Boylstou, Dr. Z. ; inoculation, 1721 
Brabant, Duke of; merchants, 1296 
Bradbury, H. ; nature - printing, 

185.5-6 
Bradford, William ; administrations 

U.S., 1794 
Bradley, Admiral ; trials, 1814 
Bradley, James, 1693-1762 ; astrono- 
my, Greenwich 
Bradwardine, Abp. ; Canterbury, 
1349 ' *- ' J'' 

Bragauza, John of; Portugal, 1640 
Bragg, Gen. ; United States, 1862-3 
Braham, John, singer, 1777-1856; 

theatres 
Brahe, Tycho, 1540-1601 ; astrono- 
my, globe 
Brafdwood, James ; fires, k. 1861 
Bramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrostat- 
ics, planing-machine 
Branch, John ; administrations U. 

S., 1829 
Brande, W. T., chemist, 6. 1788; 

Royal and London Institutions 
Braudreth, the Luddite ; Derby tri- 
als, 1817 
Brandt, Count ; Zell, 1772 
Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
Brasidas, killed 422 B.C. 
Breakspeare, Nicholas ; Pope, 1154 
Breckinridge, John ; administra- 
tions U. S., 1S05 
Breckinridsre, General J. C. ; Baton 

Rouge, 1862 
Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 15C6 
Bremer, Sir Gordon ; China, 1S40 
Bremer, Frederica, novelist, b. 1802 
Breiidon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 
Brenn, Captain ; Hibernia, 1S33 



522 



INDEX. 



Brennus ; Rome, 390 B.C. 
BreretoD, Colonel ; Bristol, 1832 
Bresson, Count ; suicide, 1S47 
Brett, J. W. ; submarine telegraph, 

1S45 
Bre>yster, David, 6. 1781 ; kaleido- 
scope, British Association 
Brian Boroihme ; harp, Cloutarf, 

lOU 
Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
Bridgewater, Earl ; Admiralty, 1699 
Bridgewater, Duke of, 1T20-18U3 ; 

Bridgewater Canal 
Bridport, Loid ; L'Orient, 1795 
Brieune, M. de ; notables, 1788 
Bright ; corpulency, 1809 
Bright, John, b. 1811 ; agitators, 

Peace Congress 
Briudley, James, 1716-72 ; tunnels, 

Bridgewater Canal 
Brinklett ; trials, 1828 
Briuvilliers, Madame de, executed, 

1676; poisoning 
Bristol, Mayor of; trials, 1832 
Bristol, John, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Brodie, Sir B. C, sitrgeon, 17S3- 
1862 ; chemist, b. 1817, graphite, 
1862 
Broke, Captain ; Chesapeake, 1813 
Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 
Bromley, Sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Brongniart, A., geogr. : 1770-1847 
Brooke, Sir James, "&. 1803 ; Borneo 
Brothers, R., d. 1824 
Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854 
Brougham, H., b. 1778 ; chancellor, 

impeachment, social science 
Broughton, Lord ; Russell adminis- 
trations, 1846, 1851 
Brown, A. V. ; administrations U. 

S., 1857 
Brown, General ; Prague, 1T51 
Brown, H. ; trials, 1858 
Brown, Capt. John ; U. States, 1859 
Brown, W., 1783-1864; Liverpool, 

1857 
Brown, E., d. 1620 ; Browuists, In- 
dependents 
Brown, Robert, botanist, d. 1858 ; 

Brownian 
Browne, American general ; Chip- 
pewa, 1814 ; Fort Erie 
Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1S37 
Browne, George ; Dublin, 1554 
Browning, O.'H. ; administrations 

U. S., 1816 
Brownrigg, Elizabeth ; trials, 1767 
Brownrigg, General ; Candy, 1816 
Bruce, J., 1730-94; Africa, Bruce, 

Nile, Palmyra 
Bruce, David ; Neville's Cross, 1346 
Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 1318 
Bruce, Robert, d. 1329; Scotland, 

king, 1306 ; Bannockburn, 1314 
Bruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, Com. ; Lagos, China, 1S51 
Brucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553 
Bruck, Baron ; Lloyd's, note 
Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
Brueys, Admiral ; Nile, 1798 
Brunei, I. K., 1769-1849; blocks, 

steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunei, I. K., 1806-59 ; steam 
Bruno ; Benedictines, Chartreuse, 

Cologne, turnery 
Brunswick, Duke of; Valmy, 1792; 

Quatre-Bras, 1815 
Brunt,Davidson,Thistlewood,Ings, 

andTidd; Cato Street, 1820 
Brutus, Lucius Junius ; consuls, 509 

B.C. 
Brutus and Cassius ; Philippi, 42 

B.C. 
Bryant, W. C, 6. 1797; author 
Bubb ; Opera-house, 1821 
Buchan, M. ; Buchanites, 1779 
Buchan, Captain ; N. W. passage, 

1819-22 
Buchanan, J. ; United States, 1856 ; 

administrations LT. S., 1857 
Buckhurst, Thomas, lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1589 



Buckingham, Stafford, duke of; 

constable, 1521 
Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of; 
admiuistrations,1615,1021 ; dress ; 
killed, 1628 
Buckingham, Duke of; Cabal min- 
istry, 1670 ; Peel administrations, 
1841 ; duel, 1822 
Buckingham, Marquess of; Ireland, 

lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, Earl of; Liver- 
pool administration, 1812 
Buckland, W. ; geologist, 1784-1856 
Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1803 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1823-62 
Buckner, General S. B. ; Fort Don- 

elsou, 1862 
Buell, Gen. D. C. ; Perryville, 1862 
Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 
Buflbn, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoolo- 
gy, 1749 
Bugeaud, Marshal, 1784-1849; Mo- 
rocco, 1S44 
Bulkeley, Bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J., "God save the'l\;ing,"1006 
Bull, G., Bishop, 1634-1709 
Bulwer, E. Lytton, novelist, 6. 1805 
Bunning, J. B. ; coal exchange, 1849 
Buusen, Baron C. J., 1791-1800 
Bunsen, R. ; Voltaic pile, 1842 ; 

spectrum, 1S60 
Bunyan, J., 1628-88, Bedford ; alle- 
gory. Pilgrim's Progress 
Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 1474- 

1564 
Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
Burdett, Sir F., 1769-1844; duel, 

1807 ; riots, trial, 1820 
Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 
Burdou, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Biirger, G. ; poet, 1748-94 
Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
Burgoyne, Gen. ; Bemis's Heights ; 

Saratoira, 1777 
Burke, E^dniund, 1730-97 ; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1782 ; Can- 
ada, Junius 
Burke and Wills ; Australia, 1860-3 
Burleigh, Lord ; administr., 1558 
Burnes, Sir A., murdered; India, 

1841 
Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
Burns, R. ; poet, 1759-96 
Burnside, Gen. Ambrose ; Freder- 
icksburg, 1802 ; Knoxville, 1863 
Burr, Colonel; administrations U. 

S., 1801 ; duel, 1804 
Burton, R., 1570-1616 
Bury, Richard de ; libraries, l.?41 
Bute, Earl of; Bute admin., 1762-3 
Butler, Bishop S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
Butler, Bishop J., 1092-1752 
Butler, Captain ; Silistria, 1854 
Butler, Sam. (Hudibras), 1612-80 
Butler, B. F. ; admiuis. U. S., 1834 
Butler, Gen. B. F. ; New Orleans, 
1862 ; Grant's Virginia campaign, 
1864-5 
Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 
Buttevant, viscounts, 13S5 
Button, Sir Thomas ; N.W. passage, 

1612 
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
Buxton, Sir T. F., 1782-1845; pris- 
ons, 1S15 
Byng, J., executed 1757; Gibraltar; 

BynsT, 1757 
Byrne, Mi.«s ; riot, 1819 
Byron, Comm. ; Port Egmont, 1765 
Byron, George, lord, 178S-1S24; 

Greece ; Missolonghi 
Bysse, Dr. ; musicarfestivala 

C. 

Cabot, George ; administrations U. 

S., 1798 
Cabot, Sebastian and John ; Amer- 
ica, 1497 
Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 
Cabrera, General ; Spain, 1840 
Cade, Jack; Cade's insurrection, 

1450 
Cadmus, 1453 B.C. ; alphabet, Boso- 
tia 



Cadogan, Captain ; duel, 1809 
Cadwallader; Britain, 678 
Cadwallader, Gen. ; duel, 1778 
Csecilius Isidorus ; slavery in Rome, ■ 

12 B.C. 
Caedmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 6S0 
Cresalpinus ; blood, circulation, 1509 
Cajsar, Julius, 100-44 B.C. ; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Zela, Rubicon 
Cajsar, Octavius, 63 B.C.-14 A.D. ; 
Rome, Actium, massacres, trium- 
virate, Philippi, emperor 
Cagliostro, d. 1795 ; diamond neck- 
lace 
Caithness, Earl of; steam carriage, 

1860 
Calaphilus ; wandering Jew 
Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1701 
Calder, Sir Rob. ; naval battles,1805 
Calderou, P. ; dramatist, 1601-82 
Calepini ; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, J. C. ; administrations U. 

S., 1817 
Calhoun,Mr. ; temperance soc.,1818 
Caligula ; Rome, emperor, 87 
Calippus ; Calippic period, 330 B.C. 
Calixtus, Pope ; Calixtins, 1656 
Callcott, J. W. ; music, 1700-1821 
Callicratus ; calligraphy 
Callimachus ; abacus, architecture, 

Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
Callinicus ; Greek fire, wild-fire 
Callisthenes ; Chaldaean, Macedon, 

328 B.C. 
Calonne; notables, 1788 
Calthorpe, Lord ; Birmingham, 1857 
Calverly ; pressing to death, 1605 
Calvert and Co. ; porter, 1760 
Calvin, John, 1509-64 ; Calvinism 
Cambaceres ; Directory, 1799 
Cambridge, Dukes of; Cambridge 
Cambridge, present Duke of, b. 1819 
Cambyses ; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
Camden, Lord ; chancellor, lord, 
Percival adminis., 1809, Excheq- 
uer, Ireland (lord lieutenant) 
Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, Lord ; duel, 1804 
Cameron, H. I. ; trials, 1858 
Cameron, S. ; administrations U. 

S., 1821 
Camillus ; Rome, 391 B.C. 
Camoens, poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, Bishop ; Bangor, 1859 
Campbell, Sir C. See Clijde 
Campbell, G. W. ; administrations 

U.S., 1814 
Campbell, James ; administrations 

U. S., 1853 
Campbell, John, lord, 1779-1861; 
attorney general. King's Bench, 
chancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 
Campbell, Major ; duel, trials, 1808 
CampbelJ, Capt. ; marriages forced, 

1690 
Campbell, Thomas, poet, 1777-1844 
Campion ; trials, 1857 
Canaletti, painter, 1697-1768 
Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can- 
ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 
king's speech 
Canning, Visct. ; 1812-62; India,lS55 
Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
Cantillon ; wills (Napoleon's), 1821 
Canton, J., d. 1772 ; phosphorus, 

magnetism 
Canute; England, 1017 ; Alney 
Capel, H. ; Admiralty, 1679 
Capet family ; France, 987 
Capo d'Istria, Count; Greece, 1831 
Car; augury 
Caracalla ; Rome, emperor, 211 ; 

Alemauui 
Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1019 ; An- 

nibal, 1568-1609 
Caraccioli, Adm., executed 1799 
Caractacus ; Britain, 60 
Carafi"a, Bishop ; Theatines, 1524 
Carausius ; Britain, 281 
Cardan, J., 1501-76 
Cardigan, Lord ; duel, 1840 ; trials, 
1841-03 ; Balaklava. 1854 



Carflen, Mr. ; trials, 185t 
CardroKS case ; trials, 1861 
Cardvvcll, Kdward ; Palmerston ad- 

miiiistnitioii, lsr>5-1859 
Caicv, iiislioj) ; yt. Asaph, 1S30 
Carlfton, Sir Guv; Li. States, 1782 
Carlile, 11.; atheist; trials, lt>19, 

1831 
Carlisle, Earls of; Ireland, lord 

lieutenant, 1859 
Carios, Don ; Spain, 1833 
Carlyle, Thos., b. 1795 
Carmarthen, Marquess of; admin- 
istrations, 1<;89 
Caruot, L., mathem., 17.53-1823 
Caroline ; queens (George II.) ; 

parks 
Caroline, Queen (George IV.) ; 
Brandenburg Uouse, delicate in- 
vestijration 
Carpenter, Gen. ; Preston, 1715 
Carr, Bishop ; Worcester, 1831 
Carr, -Ilolwell ; National Gallery, 

1824 
Carru ; contrclation, ISGO 
Carstairs, Kev. W. ; thumb-screw 
Carter, Richard ; alchemy, 1476 
Carteret ; circumnavigator, 1700 
Carteret, Lord ; Walpole adminis- 
trations, 1721 
Carthage, St. ; Lismore, 636 
Cartier ; America, 1534 
Cartwright, Major ; trials, 1820 
Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces, 231 

B.C. 
Casella, L. ; thermometer, 1861 
Cashin, Miss ; quackery, 1830 
Cashman ; Spalields, riots, 1816 
Casimir ; Poland 
Cass, Lewis; administrations U. S., 

1831 
Cassander; Macedon, 316 B.C. 
Cassini, 16l'5-1712; astronomy; Bo- 
logna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
Cassius : Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Cassivelaunus ; chariots 
Castanos; Spain, 1852 
Castel, M. ; Dartmouth, 1404 
Castlereagh, Lord ; union with Ire- 
land, 1S!)0 ; Pitt administr., 1804 ; 
Liverpool administr., 1S12; duel, 
1809 ; suicide, 1822 
Catesby, Rob. ; gunpowder, 1605 
Catharine ; England, queens (Hen- 
ry v., VIII., Charles II.) 
Catharine; Russia, 1725; Odessa; 

Sebastopol 
Cathcart, Lord ; Copenhagen, 1807 
Cathcart, Gen. ; Kaffraria ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Cato (the censor) ; agriculture, 149 
B.C. ; (the tribune), kills himself, 
40 B.C. 
Catullus, poet, d. 40 B.C. 
Catulus; Cimbri,101 B.C. 
Caulaincourt ; Chatillou, 1814 
Caus, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
Cautley, Sir P. ; Gan^s, 1854 
Cavaignac, General ; France, 1848 
Cavalfere, Emilio di ; opera, recita- 
tive, 1600 
Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 
Cavendish, II., d. 1810 ; balloons, 
electricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, water 
Cavendish, John de; judges, 1382 
Cavendish, Lord John ; Portland 

admiuistration, 17S3 
Cavour, Camille de, 1810-61 ; Sar- 
dinia, Austria 
Caxton, Wm., 1421-91 ; printing 
Caylus, Count ; encaustic painting, 

1765 
Cecil, Wm. : administrations, 1572 
Cecroi)s ; Athens, 1.550 B.C. 
Celeste, Madame ; theatres, 1844 
Celestiu; pope, 1143 
Celsus; midwifery, etc., 37 
Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex) 
Cerinthus ; Apocalvpse 
Cervantes, M. S., 1547-1616; Don 

Quixote 
Chacornac ; planets, 1853 
Chad, St. ; baths, 667 



INDEX. 

Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 
Chambers, Bishop ; Peterborou"h, 

1541 
Chambers ; Eucyclopoed., 1728, 1859 
Chambers, Sir William ; Somerset 

House, 1775 
Changaruier, General; France, 1851 
Channing, W., 1780-1842 
Chantrey, F., sculptor, 1781-1841 
Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 
Chares ; Colossus, 288 B.C. 
Charlemagne, 742-814; academy, 
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Christi- 
anity, Navarre 
Charles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- 

vara, 18.19 
Charles ; England, France, Spain, 
Savoy, Germany, Sweden, Sicily, 
etc. 
Charies V.; emperor, 1.500-1558; 

Spain, Austria, Germany, Spires 
Charies V. ; Bastile, 1309 
Charles VL ; picquet, 1390 
Charles XII., 1082-1718 ; Sweden, 

Frederickshald 
Charies the Bold, Burgundy, 1408, 

Nancy, Liege 
Charies", Archduke, 1771-1847; As- 

perne, Eckmiihl, Essling 
Charies of Anjou ; Naples, 1206 
Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 
Charles Stuart, Prince ; pretender, 

Culloden, 1746 
Chariesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 
Charlotte, Queen (George III.) 
Charlotte, Princess of Wales, 1796- 

1817 ; Claremont 
Charteris, Col. ; trials, 1730 
Chase, Salmon; administrations U. 

a, 1861 
Chasse, Gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
Chateaubriand, Viscount. 1769-1S4S 
Chatham, Earl of, 1708-78; New- 
castle admin., 1757; Chatham ad- 
min., 1766 ; Walcheren, 1809 
Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
Chaucer, G., 132S-1400 ; Canterbury 

Tales 
Chaves, Marquis of; Portugal, 1826 
Chelmsford, Lord ; Derby adminis- 
tration, 1858 
Cherubini, music comp., 1700-1842 
Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 18.51 
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
Chevallier, M., 6. 1806 
Chevreul, E., chemist, etc., 6. 1786 ; 

caudles 
Chicheley, Archbishop ; Cauterbu- 

17, 1414-1443 
Childeric; France, kings 
Chilliugworth, W., theolo., 1602-14 
Chiug Noung ; China, wine, 1998 

B.C. 
Chladni, E. ; 1750-1827; acoustics 
Choiseul, E., Due de, 1719-85 
Cholmondelev,Gen.; Horse Guards, 

1693 
Chosroes I. ; Persia, .531 
Christian; Denmark; Sweden, 1448 
Christian IV. ; Christiania, 1624 
Christian VII. ; Oldenburg 
Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain, 

1833 
Christophe ; Hayti, 1811 
Christopher, Robert Adam ; Derby 
adminis., 1852; Denmark (king.s) 
Chrysostom, Father, 3.54-^07 
Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 
Cialdini, Gen. ; Italy, 1860 ; Castel 

Fidardo, Gaeta 
Cibber, C. ; poet laureate, d. 1757 
Cicero, 106-43 B.C. ; Athens, Rome, 

Catiline, philippics 
Cid (Spanish hero), </. 1099 
Cimabue, music, 1240-1300 
Cimarosa, musician, 17.55-1801 
Cimon ; Enrymedon, 466 B. C. 
Cinoinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. 
Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 
Clanny, Dr. Reid : safetj--lamp, 1817 
Clanricarde, Mnrq. of; postmaster, 
1840; Russell admin., ]s.'-,i ; Pal- 
merston administration, 1S55 | 



623 

Clapperton, Hugh, traveler, 1788- 

1827 
Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 
Clare, Earl of; duel, 1820 
Clarence, Duke of; Anjou, Claren- 
cieux ; rebellion, 1478 ; Admiral- 
tv, 1827 
Clarendon, Earl of (Hyde), 1608-74; 
adminis., 1600, 1685; G. F.Villiers, 
6. 1801 ; Ireland, lord lieut. ; Ab- 
erdeen, Palmerston 
Clarke, Adam, theolog., 1760-1832 ; 
Saml., theolog., 1675-1729; Edw. 
D., traveler, 1708-1823 
Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 
Clarke, Gen. ; cape, 1795 
Clarke, M. C. ; Shakspeare, Con- 
cordance, 1847 
Clarksou, Thomas, d. 1846 ; slavery 
Claude Lorraine, pafnter, 1600-82 
Claudian, Latin poet, rf.408 ; archery 
Claudius ; Rome, emperor, 41 
Claudius, App.; decemviri, 451 B.C. 
Clausel, Marshal ; Algiers, 1836 
Clausseu, Chev. ; flax, 1851 
Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1079 
Clay, Henry; slavery, U. S., 1820, 
Liberia; admin. U. S., 1825; du- 
el, 1826 
Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 
Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 
Clayton, J. M., adminis. U. S., 1849 
Cleaver, Bish. ; Bangor, St. Asaph, 

1806-1815 
Cleisthenes; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Clemens Romanus, pope, 662; Ales- 

andriuus, d. about 213 
Clement, popes, 91 ; — IV., con- 
clave, 1208 ; — VIL, pontiff, ben- 
etices,Clementines, 1378; — VIII., 
index; — XIV. (Ganganelli),1709; 
Jesuits ; — Jacques ; France ; 
1589; — Joseph, planing machine, 
1825; —Julian; midwifery, 1063 
Clementi, M., music, d. 1832 
Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. 
Cleomeues ; Sparta, 520 B.C. 
Cleon, Athenian demagogue, d. 422 

B.C. 
Cleopatra ; Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 
Clifford, C. ; life-boat (note), 18.56 
Clifford, Lord ; Roman Catholics, 

1S29 ; Sir Tho., Cabal, 1070 
Clifford, Nathan ; admin. U.S., 1846 
Clinton, H. Fynes, 1780-1852; chro- 

nologv 
Clinton; Sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Keuilworth, 

1120 
Clinton, De W. ; duel, 1802 
Clinton, Geo. ; admiuis.U. S., 1805 
Clive,-Robt., Lord, 1725-74 ; Arcot, 

India, Plassey 
Cloncurrv, Lord, v. Piers ; trials, 

1807 
Close, Mr. ; duel, 1836 
Clotaire, France, kings, .5.58 
Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Lndo- 
vicus, Louis) ; France, 481 ; Nor- 
mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, 
fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
Cloots, Auacharsis, exec., 1794 
Clune, etc. ; trials, 1830 
Clyde, Lord, b. 1792 ; India, 185T 
Ch-mer; printing-press, 1814 
Co'bb, H. ; adminis. U. S., 18.57 
Cobbett, William, 1762-1835 ; trials, 

1800, 1811, 1831 

Cobden,R., 1804-05; anti-corn law 

league, free trade, French treaty, 

Peace Congress 

Cobham, Loi^d ; roasting alive, 1418 

Coburg, Prince of; Fleurus, 1794 

(see Saxc-Cobnrn) 
Cochrane, Lord (afterward Dun- 
donald) ; d. 1800 ; Basque Roads, 
stocks, trials, 1814 
Cockburn, Sir A., solicitor general, 
18.58 ; attorney general, King's 
Bench 
Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
Codrington, Admiral SirE. ; Nava- 

rino, 1827 
Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 



524 



INDEX. 



Cohorn, B. van (military engineer), 

1641-1704 
Coke, Sir Edw., 1550-1634 ; Parlia- 
ments, 1592 
Colbert, J. B., 1619-S3 ; tapestry 
Colbome, Sir John ; Canada, 1838 
Colclough, Mr. ; duel, 1807 
Coleman, St. ; Cloyue, Gth cent. 
Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
Colenso, Bish., Church of England, 

1863 
Coleridge, Sam. T. ; poet, etc., 1772 

-1834 
Coles, Captain Cowper; navy of 

England, 1855-02 
Colet, J., Paul's school, 1512 
Coligui, Admiral, killed 1572 
Collamer, J. ; adminis. U. S., 1S49 
Collard, Rear Adml. ; suicide, 1840 
Collier, J. P., Shakspeare, 1849 ; Jer- 
emy, 1650-1720 
Collingwood, Lord, 1750-1810 ; Tra- 
falgar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
Collins, Govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
Collinson, Capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Collucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
Colman, G., d. 1794 ; G., Jr., (1. 1826 ; 

theatres, 1777 
Colonua family flourish, 1-288-1555 
Colonna, v., poetess, 1490-1547 
Colpoys, Admiral ; mutinies, 1797 
Colt, Col. Sam., flre-arms, 1829 ; pis- 
tols, 1853 
Coltou, C. C; Apophthegm, 1822 
Columba, St., 521-97; isles 
Columbanus, d. 614 or 615 
Columbiere ; armor, bearings, 1639 
Columbus, Christoph., 1436 or 1442- 
1506; America, Bahama, Caraccas, 
Christopher's, Salvador, Domingo* 
Columbus, Bartholom. ; maps, 1489 
Columella, medical writer, about 46 
Colville, Sir Chas. ; Cambray, 1815 
Combe, G., 17SS-1S58 ; craniol.ogy 
Combermere, Ld. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
Comines, Ph. de, hist. 1445-1509 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
Comneni ; Eastern emperors, 1057 ; 

Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Comte, A., 1795-1852 ; positive phil. 
Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Coucle, Louis ; Jaruac, 1569 
Conflaus ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, d. 479 B.C. ; China 
Congleton, Lord ; suicide, 1S42 
Congreve, W. dramatist, 1672-1729 
Congreve, Sir William, d. 1828; fire- 
works, 1814 
Conolly, J. ; lunatics, 1839 
Conon; Sparta, 394 B.C. ; Argimisse 
Conrad ; Germany, 911 
Conrad II. ; Germany, 1024-; Bur- 
gundy 
Conrad, C. M. ; adminis. U. S., 1850 
Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine ; Rome, emperor, 323 ; 
Adrianople, aruspices, banner, 
Britain, Eastern Empire, Rome, 
York, Scotland 
Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
Constantius ; Rome, emperors, 305 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041- 

1674 
Conway, Sir Edw., adminis., 1621; 
Gen. "Conway, Chatham adminis- 
tration, 1766 ; duel, 1778 
Cook, Captain, 1728-79 ; Australia, 
Cook's voyages,Behring's Straits, 
Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, New 
Hebrides, New Zealand, Nori'olk 
Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, Port 
Jackson 
Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 
Cook, J. P., murdered ; trials, 18.56 
Cooke, Sir George ; Chatham, 1766 
Cooke, E. W., R. A., b. 1810 or 1811 
Cooke, Elizabeth ; trials, 1S32 
Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1765-1812 
Cooke, W. F., electric teleirr., 1837 
Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1768-1841 
Cooper, Jas. "Fenimore, American 
novelist, 1798-1851 



Cooper, Mr. ; slave-trade, 17S7 

Cooper ; trials, 1805, 1842 

Cooper, Peter ; electricity (Atlantic 

telegraph), 1853 
Coote, Sir Eyre; India, Arcot, 1760; 

Carnatic, Cuddalore 
Cope, Sir John ; Preston-pans, 1745 
Copernicus, Nic, 1473-1543; astron- 
omy, attraction, solar system 
Copleston, Bishop ; Llandaff, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
Coram, T., foundling hospital, 1739 
Corday, Charlotte ; France, 1793 
Corder, Wm. ; trials, 1828 
Cordova, General de ; Granada, 1492 
Corelli, A., musician, h. 1053 
Corin ; libertines, 1525 
Coriolanus ; Volsci, 490 B.C. 
Cormac ; Cashel, 901 
Corneille, P., tragedy, 1004-84 
Cornelia, Maximiliana ; vestals, 92 
Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 
Cornhill, Henry ; sheriff, 1189 
Cornwall, Bish. ; Worcester, 1808 
Cornwallis, Abp., Canterbury, 1708 ; 

Lichfield, 1781 
Cornwallis, Marq., 1738-1805; Ad- 
miralty, India, America, Banga- 
lore, Ireland (lord lieutenant), fee- 
ringapatam 
Coroebus ; Olympiads, 770 B.C. 
Correggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 
Corry; duel, 1800 
Corse, Gen. J. M. ; Allatoona Pass, 

1864 
Cort, H. ; iron, 1781 
Corte Real ; America, northwest 

passage, 1500 
Cortez,R; Mexico, 1521 ; rf. 1547 
Corwin, Thos. ; adminis. U. S., 1850 
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1003 
Cosmo I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
Costa, M., musician, b. 1810 
Coster, L. ; printing 
Cotteuham, Lord ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1830 
Cottiugton, Lord; administrations, 

1635 
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian Library, 1600 
Cotton, Sir Stapleton ; VillaFranca, 

1812 
Coulomb, C.,ri. 1806; electricity,1785 
Courtauvaux ; ether, 1759 
Courtenay, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1381 
Courtenay ; Thomites, 1838 
Courtenay, Sir Wm. : Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de ; iodine, 1812 
Courvoisier; trials, 1840 
Cousin, v., French philos., b. 1792 
Coutts, Miss A. Burdett, 6. 1814; 

trials, 1847 
Coventry, Sir John ; Coventry Act, 

1670 
Coventry, Sir Thomas; administra- 
tions, 1628-1672 
Coverdale, Miles, 6. 1487 ; Bible, 1535 
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1018-07 
Cowper, Ld. ; Burford, Halifax, 1714 
Cowper, E. ; printing machine, 1815 
Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 
Covle, Mr. Bernard ; duel, 1802 
Crabbe, G., poet, 1754-1832 
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland adminis- 
tration, 1718 
Crampton, Mr. ; United States, 1850 
Crane, Sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
Cranfield, Lionel, Lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1021 
Cranmer, Archbp., 1489-1550 ; Can- 
terbury adminis., 1529 ; Cranmer, 
homilies, martyrdom 
Cranworth, Lord ; chancellor, 1852 
Crassus, Marcus ; ovation, slain, 53 

B.C. 
Craterus ; Cranon, 322 
Crawford, G. W. ; admin. U. S., 1849 
Crawford, W. H. ; admin. U. S., 1815 
Crawfurd, Earl of; Brechin, 1452 
Crawley; trials, 1802-1803; steel 
Crellin, Miss ; trials, 1842 
Crespigny, Mr. ; duel, 1828 
Cresswell, Sir C. ; probate, 1857 



Crewe, Bishop ; Bamhrough, 1778 

Crichton, James, "the admirable," 
m. about 1500 

Crillon, Due de ; Gibraltar, 1782 

Crittenden, John J. ; administra- 
tions U. S., 1841 

Crockatt v. Dick ; trials, 1818 

CrcEsus ; Lydia, 500 B.C. 

Croft ; impostors, 1553 

Croft, Sir Richard ; suicide, ISIS 

Crofts, Mr. ; dwarfs, 1053 

Crollius; calomel, 1608 

Croly, G. ; poet, 1785-1800 

Crompton, S., 1753-1827; cotton, 
mule, 1779 

Cromwell, Oliv., 1599-1058; admin- 
istrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, agi- 
tators. Commonwealth, England, 
Drogheda, Dundaik, mace, Ire- 
land, Marstou Moor, Naseby, 
Worcester 

Cromwell, Richard; adminis., 1658; 
England 

Cromwell, T., lord Essex; admin- 
istrations, 1532 ; registers 

Crookes, Wm.; thallium, 1861 

Crosbie, Sir Edward ; trials, 1798 

Cross, E. ; Surrev Gardens, 1831 

Crossley, F. ; Haliiiix, 1857 

Crouch; trials, 1844 

Crowninshield, J. ; administrations 
U.S., 1805 

Crowther, Lieut. ; duel, 1829 

Crozier, Capt. ; N.W. passage, 1845 

Cruden, Alex. ; Concordance, 1737 

Cruikshank, G., 6. 1794; wood en- 
graving 

Ctesias ; historian, 398 B.C. 

Ctesibius, 140 B.C. ; clock, organ, 
pump 

Cubitt, Mr. ; tread-mil], 1817 

Cullen, W., physician, 1710-00 

Cumberland, Duke of; Closter-sev- 
en, Culloden, Foutenoy, 1745 

Cumberland, It. ; comedies, 1732-84 

Cumming v. Lord de Roos ; trial, 
1837 

Cumming, Rev. John, 6. 1810 

Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam 

Curio; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.C. 

Currau, John Philpot, orator, 1750- 
1817; duel, 1790 

Cursor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.C. 

Curtius, Marcus ; earthquakes, 358 
B.C. 

Gushing, Caleb ; adminis. U. S., 1853 

Gushing, W., Chief-Justice, b. 1733 

Cuthbert, St., d. 687 ; Canterbur3\ 
741 

Cuthbert v. Browne ; trials, 1829 

Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832; 
zoology 

Cuyp, A., painter, 1600-72 

Cyprian, Father, m. 258 

Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 

Cyril, father, d. 3S0 

Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 
Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 
Media, Persia 

Cyrus the Younger ; Cunaxa, 401 
B.C. 

Czertnak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 

D. 

Daboll, C. ; air-whistle, 1850 
Dacier, Mad. ; 1050-1720, Delphin 
Daedalus ; labyrinth, axe, 1240 B.C. ? 
Dagobert ; Denis, St. 073 
Daguerre, M., d. 1851 ; photography 
Dahl, Professor ; dahlias 
Dahlgren, J. A. ; flre-arms, 1850 
D'Alembert, 1717-83 ; acoustics 
Dalhousie, Marquess of, 1812-60; 

India, governor general, 1848 
Dallas, A. J. ; adminis. U. S., 1814 
Dallas, Geo. M. ; admin. U. S., 1845 
Dalmas, A. ; trials, 1844 
Dalmatia, see Soult 
Dalrymple, Sir Hew; Cintra, 1808 
Daltbn, John, chemist, 1706-1844; 

atomic theory, 1808 
Damasus, Pope, 306 ; pontiff, crown, 

pope, tiara 



INDEX. 



625 



Damiens; Damiens's attempt, 1757 
l):iini)ii'r, IJisliop ; Kly, isiis 
l)ani|)ic;f ; ciiTUiiiiiavigator, t()S9 
Dainrcmoiit, Marshal ; Algicrs,Uon- 

stantia, isa7 
Daurtus ; Greoce, 1485 B.C. ? 
Danby, Earl of; aclmiuistrations, 

l(Ji:i ; plivsic s^arrteu 
Damioi-tU'kl ; Meal-tub Plot, 1G79 
Daniel jji-ophesies (HiO B.C. 
Daniel, Sam. ; poet laureate, 1C19 
DauiieUei-, J., sculptor, 175-^-1841 
Danneiiberi;, (ieii. ; Olteuitza, 1854 
Daute, Alii,'hieri, Italiau poet, 1205- 

i:«l 
Danton, G., executed 1794 ; clubs, 

French 
D'Arblav, Mad., 1752-1S49 
DarbouV. Uo.-iscr; trials, 1841 
D'Arcoii, M. ; Gil)raltar 
Dardanus, Ilium, 14^ B.C. 
Dan;:an, Ireland, Dublin exhibition, 

1S.')3 
Darius, Persia, 521 B.C. ; Greece 
Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, ISiiS 
Darlin;;, Sir C. ; Jamaica, 1S57 ; Vic- 
toria, 1SU3 
Darnie.s ; France, 1S40 
Daruley, Lord; Scotland, 1505 
Dartmouth, Earl of; Oxford ad- 
ministration, 1711; Rockingham 
administration, 1700 
Darwin, Charles, naturalist, 6. 1809 
Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 17ol- 

1800 
Dashwood, Sir Francis; Bute ad- 
ministration, 1702 
Daubeny, C. ; atomic theory, 1850 
Dauglish, Dr. ; bread, 1859 
Daun, Count, d. 1700; Hochkirchen, 

Torgau 
Davenant, Wm. ; drama, opera, 1084 
Davenport, Miss ; theatres, 1844 
David, George ; impostors, 1550 
David!.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 
David, J., painter, 1748-1825 
David; Jews, 1005 B.C. 
Davidson, D. ; trials, 1855 
Davila, 1570-1031 
Davis, Jefferson, b. 1808; United 

States, 1801 ; adminis. U. S. 
Davis ; N. W. passage, 1585 ; quad- 
rant, China 
Davoust, Marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- 

hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 
Davy, Sir Humphry, chemist, etc., 
1779-1829 ; Royal Institution, ba- 
rium, electricity, phosphorus, cal- 
cium, magnesium, potassium, so- 
dium, safety lamp, strontium 
Davys, Bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 
Dawes, Abp. ; York, 1714 
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 

1800 
Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fair 
Dayton, Gen. ; duel, 1803 
Deacle D. B. Baring; trials, 1831 
Deane, Adml. , naval battles, 1053 
Deane, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1501 
Dearborn, Henry, administrations 

U. S.,1S01 
Debain ; harmonium 
De Ballon; duel, 1811 
De Burgh, Hubert; Whitehall 
De Candolle, A., botanist, 1778-1841 
Decatur, Com. ; duel, 1820 
Decius Mus sacrifices himself, 295 

B.C. 
De Courcy, Baron ; peers, 1 181 
Dee, Dr. J., </. 1008 ; astrology 
Deerfoot ; pedcstrianism, 1801 
D'Estaign, Count; Beucoolen,17C0; 

Georgia 
D'Esterre, Mr. ; duel, 1815 
D'Etrees, Adml. ; Tcxel, 1073 
De Foe, Daniel, 1003-1731 ; Robin- 
eon Crusoe, Juan, plague 
De P'oix, Gaston ; Ravenna, 1512 
De Gasparis, A. ; planets, 1849 
De Genlis, Mad., 1740-1830 
De Grasse, Admiral ; Chesapeake, 

naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
De Grey, Earl ; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 142T 



De Haven, Lieut. ; Franklin, 1850 
Delabeche, II., 1790-1855; geology 
De la Clue, Admiral ; Lagos, 1759 
Delanibre, J., mathematician, 1749- 

1822 
De la Roche, Paul, 1797-1850 
De la Rue ; trials, 1845 
De la Rue, Warren, photography, 

1857; eclipse, 1800 
De I'Epce, Abbii, 1712-89 ; deaf 
De Lesseps, M. ; Suez, 1857 
Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
De Loundres, Henry ; Dublin, 1205 
Demetrius; Athens, Macedon, im- 
postors, Poland 
Democritus, b. about 470 B.C. 
Demosthenes, 382-322 B.C. ; philip- 
pics 
Denisou, Archdeacon ; trials, 1850 
Denison, Bishop ; Salisbury, 1801 
Denison, E. B. ; bells, 1850 
Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
Denman, Lord, 1778-1854 ; att. gen., 

King's Bench 
Denmark, Prince George ; Admi- 
ralty, 1702, queens (Anne) 
Denner, J., clarionet, about 1090 
Dennison, Wm. ; administrations 

U. S., 1804 
Denny, J. ; trials, 1851 
De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1780- 

1859 
Derby, Countess of; Latham House, 

1044 
Derby, Earl of; Man, Wigan, Derby 
Derby, present Earl of, 6.1799 ; Der- 
by admin., 1852, 1858 
De Roos, Lord, v. Gumming; trials, 

1837 
De Ruyter,Adml.; Sheerness,lC07; 

Chatham, Texel 
Derwentwater.Earl of; executions, 

1710; Greenwich 
Desaix, General ; Marengo, ISOO 
Des Cartes, Rene, 1596-1050 ; Car- 
tesian, rainbow 
Desmoulius, Camille ; exec. 1794 ; 

clubs, 1782 
Dessaliues ; Hayti, 1803 
De Stai'l, Madame, 1700-1817 
Deucalion ; Deluge, 1508 B.C. 
De Veres, Earls of Oxford ; Id. gt. 

chamberlain, marquess, duke 
Devigne, Henry ; billiards, 1571 
Devitle, H. St. 0. ; aluminium, 1856 ; 

platinum, 1859 
Devonshire, Duke of; Devonshire 

administration, 1756 
De Winter, Adm. ; Camperdown, 

1797 
De Witt; chain, 1066; murderer, 

1072; Hague, TO. 1762 
Dexter, Sam'l. ; admin. U. S., 1800 
Dhuleep Singh ; India, 1849 ; Pun- 
jab 
Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 

Hope, 1480 
Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 13S3 
Dibdin, C, 174S-1S14 ; ballads 
Dibutades ; models 
Dick, Mr. ; trials, 1818 
Dickens, Charles, novelist, 6. 1813 
Dickenson, Col. ; duel, 1806 
Dickerson, M. ; administrations U. 

S.,1834 
Dickinson, Capt. ; trials, 1829 
Dickson, Col. ; trials, 1859, 1863 
Diderot, D., philosopher, 1713-84 
Didius Julianus ; Rome, emp., 193 
Dido; Carthage, 809 B.C. 
Didot, M. ; paper-making, stereo- 
type 
Diebitsch, Gen. ; Balkan, 1829 
Diesbach ; prussic acid, 1709 
Digby, E. ; Gunpowder Plot, 1605 
Digges, L. ; optics, 1071 
Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 
Diocletian; Rome, emp., 284; Dal- 

matia 
Diodati, J., theologian, 1570-1649 
Diodorus Siculus ; 50B.C.-13 A.D. ; 

Etna 
Diogenes, Cyiiic, d. 323 B.C. ; an- 
thropophagi 



Dionysius Halicamassus, Gr. poet, 

Jl. 30 B.C. 
Dionysius of Syracuse, 406 B.C. 
Dionysius ; Portugal, anno domini, 

catapultiB 
Diophantus ; algebra, 370 
Dipoenus ; sculpture, marble 
Dircks, H. ; ghosts, 1S5S 
Disraeli, I., 1766-1848; Benjamin, 
b. 1805 ; Derby admin., 1852, 1858 
Diver, Jenny ; trials, 1740 
Dix, John A. ; admin. U. S., 1861 
Dixon, Capt. ; Apollo 
Dixon, Ilcpworth, b. 1S21 
Dobbin, J. C. ; adminis. U. S., 1853 
Dockwra, Mr. ; penny-post, 1083 
Dodd, Dr. ; trials (executed for for- 
Dodd, Mr. ; steam, 1815 

gery), 1777 ; Magdalens, forgery 
Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 
Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 
Dodson, Sir Joh;i ; Admiralty 

Court, 1857 
Dolben, Ahp. ; York, 1083 
Dolci, C, painter, 1016-86 
Dollond, John, 1706-61 ; achromatic 

telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
Domenichino, Z., painter, 1581-1641 
Dominic, St. ; Dominicans, 1215 
Domitian ; Rome, emp., 81 
Douald of the Isles ; Harlaw, 1411 
Douatus, grammarian,/. 355 
Donizetti, G. ; musician, 1798-1S48 
Donkin, Sir R., suicide, 1841 
Donovan ; duel, 1779 
Dore, Gustav, artist, b. 1833 
Dorey, Georgiana; trials, 1844 
Doria, And., 1460-1500 
Dormer, Lord; Roman Catholics, 

1829 
Dorset, Duke of; administrations, 

10S9 ; Pelham admin., 1744 
D'Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 
Dost Mohammed ; Afghanistan, 

1829 
Douglas, Earl of; Homelden, 1402 
Douglas, James ; British Columbia, 

1S5S 
Douglas, Sir John; delicate inves- 
tigation, 1800 
Douglas, William ; Otterburn, 1388 
Douw, G., 161.S-80 

Dovo, H., 6. 1803; dichrooscope,lS60 
Dove,W. ; trials, 1856 
Dowdeswell, William, Rockingham 

admin., 1705 
Doyle, J., b. 1820 ; caricatures 
Doyle, Sir John ; Portugal, 1828 
Doyle U.Wright; trials, 1851 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.C. ; laws, Dra- 
co 
Drake, Francis, 1545-90 ; Armada, 
Cadiz, California, Chatham, cir- 
cumnavigation, Drake's ; Dept- 
ford. New Albion 
Drayton, M., poet, 1,503-loni 
Drebbel ; optics, 1021 ; microscope, 

thermometer 
Dred Scott case ; slavery, U. S. 
Drouet ; Varennes, 1791 
Drummond, Abp. ; York, 1761 
Drummoud, Geu. ; Chippewa, 1814 
Drummond, Lieut. ; lime-light, 

about 1820 
Drummoud, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 

1843 
Dryden, John, poet; 1631-1700; poet 

laureate 
Duane, W. J. ; adminis. TJ. S., 1833 
Dubois, Cardinal, 1656-1723 
Duboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 
Dubritius, St. ; Llandaff, 613 
Duchesne, Pore, see Ilebcrt. 
Duckworth, Sir ; Dardanelles, 1807 
Ducrow; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
Dudley, Earl of Leicester ; adminis- 
trations, 1558 
Dudley, Lord ; admin., 1551 
Duell,Wm. ; trials, 1740 
Dufay ; electricity, 1733 
Duft', Captain ; trials, 1841 
Dugdale.W., 1605-86 
Duggan, Wm. ; trials, 1832 
DuGuescliu, B. ; Montiel, 1309 



526 

Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 260 

Dalon'g, P. L., 1TS5-1S3S ; acids 
Dumouriez, General, 1739-1&23 ; Je- 

mappes, 1792 
Dun, John ; bailiff 
Duncan, Admiral Lord ; Camper- 
down, 1797; Texel 
Duncan, Dr. ; icbuology, 182S 
Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
Duucaunon, Viscount ; Melbourne 

administration, 1834-5 
Duncombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1034 
Dundas, Gen. ; Kilcullen, 1798 
Duudas, Henry; savings' banks, 

1810; Pitt admin., 1804 
Dundas, Lieut. Col. ; Prescott, 1838 
Dundas, Major ; trials, 1831 
Dundas, Sir D. ; solicitor general, 

1846 ; com. -in-chief, 1809 
Dundas, Sir R. ; Baltic, 1S55 
Dundee, Vise. ; Killiecrankie, 1089 
Dundouald, Earl, 1775-1860 
Dundonald, Lord, see Cochrane ; d. 

1S60 
Dunn, Richard ; trials, 1847 
Duns Scotus, d. 1308 ; burying alive 
Duustau, Abp., (/. 988 ; Canterbury, 

959; coronation 
Dupetit Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 
Dupont; Bayleu, 1808 
Dupont, S. F. ; Port Royal Expedi- 
tion, 1802 
Durazzo, Charles of, m. 13S6 ; Na- 
ples, king, 1381 
Durer, A. U., 1471-1528, engraving 
Durham, Earl of, 1792-1840 ; Grey 

admin., 1630 ; Canada, 1838 
Duroc, Marshal ; Bautzen, 1813 
Dutrochet; eudosmosis, about 1S28 
Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
Dwyer; trials, 1843 
Dyce, Wm., painter, 1806-64 
Dymocke family ; championship 

E. 

Eadbald ; convents, 630 

Eadraer, d. about 11-24 

Early, Gen. Jubal ; Grant's Virginia 

Campaign, 1864-5 
Eastlake, Sir C, 1793-1809; Royal 

Academy 
Eaton, Daniel ; trials, 1796, 1812 
Eaton, John H. ; admin. U. S., 1829 
Eden, Bp. ; Man, 1847 
Edgar ; England, king, 958 
Edgar, Rev. Mr. ; temperance, 1829 
Edgeworth, Maria, 1767-1849 
Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 
Edward the Confessor, England; 

kings, 1042 ; Danegeld 
Edward I. ; England, kings, 1272, 

Lewes, Scotland, Wales 
Edward III. ; England, kings, 1327, 

Cressy, Sluys, Garter 
Edward IV. ; England, kings, 1461, 

Barnet, Tewkesbury, Towtou 
Edward VI. ; England, kings, 1547, 

Christ's Hospital 
Edward, Black Prince; 1330-76; 

duke, Cressy, Poitiers 
Edwardes, Lieut. ; India, 1843 
Edwy, England, 955 
Egan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 
Egbert ; England, king, 828 
Egerton, Sir Thomas ; chancellor, 

lord high, 1590 
Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-03 
Eglinton, Earl of; Ireland, lord 

'lieutenant, 1852, tournament 
Egmont, Lord ; adrainis., 1763 
Egreraont, Earl of; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1702 
Ehrenberg, C, naturalist ; 6. 1795 
Eicke, H. ; trials, 1859 
Eldon, Lord ; chancellor, lord, 1801 ; 

d. 1838 
Eleanor, queens (Edward I., Hen. II. 

and IIL) 
Elsin, Lord ; Elcin marbles ; d. 1841 ; 

James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, 1846; 

China, 1857 ; Japan ; Palmerstou ; 

India, 1861 ; govr. geu., 1861 



INDEX. 

Elgin, Lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 

1807 
Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. 
Elisha prophesies 890 B.C. 
Elizabeth, England, queens (Ed- 
ward IV. and Henry VII.) 
Elizabeth ; France ; trials, 1794 
Elizabeth, Queen, 1533-1603; En- 
gland, 1558 ; goose, poor laws, 
Richmond, Whitehall 
Elkingtou ; gilding, electrotype 
Ellenborougb, Lord ; attorney gen- 
eral, 1801 ; King's Bench, delicate 
investigation ; present lord, born 
1790 ; Wellington administration, 
1828 ; India, govr. gen., 1842 ; Der- 
by administration, 1858 
Ellesmere, Lord ; administrations, 

1615 ; chancellors, lord, 1003 
Ellice, E. ; Melbourne administra- 
tion, 1834 
Elliot, Captain ; China, 1840 
Elliot, Geu. ; Gibraltar, 1781 
Elliot, Sir Gilbert, North adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Ellis, Wellbore ; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Ellsworth, D. ; Chief Justice, h. 1745 
Elphinstone, administrations, 1795 ; 

Cape of Good Hope, Saldanha 
Elsynge, Wm. ; Sion College, 1340 
Elzevir family, printers, 1583-1080 
Emerson, R. W. ; essayist, 6. 1803 
Emmet, Robert ; rebellions, con- 
spiracies ; trials, 1803 ; press 
Empedocles ; suicide 
Eucke, J. F. ; 6. 1791 ; comets, 1818 
Enderby, Messrs. ; southern conti- 
nent, 1838 
Enghien, Due d', executed 1804 
Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography 
Epaminondas, S71 B.C. ; Leuctra, 

Mantinea,362 B.C. 
Epictetus ; philosopher ; fl. 118 
Epicurus ; 342-270 B.C., philosophy 
Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence 
Erasistratus ; anatomy, about 300 

B.C. 
Erasmus, D., 1467-1536 ; Greek lan- 
guage, Rotterdam 
Eratosthenes ; degree, 250 B.C. ; 

armillary sphere 
Eratostratus fires Diana's temple, 

356 B.C. 
Erechtheus; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
Eric ; Denmark 

Ericsson, Capt. ; caloric ship, 1853 
Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car 
Erie, Sir W. ; Common Pleas, 1859 
Ernley, Sir John ; administrations, 

1685 
Erroll, Earls of; Constable of Scot- 
land, lord high 
Erskine, Gen. ; India, 1795 
Erskine, Lord ; chancellor, lord ; 

Grenville administration, 1806 
Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1S5S 
Espartero ; Spain, Bilboa, 1836 
Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 
Essex, Earl of; administrations, 

1532, 1579 ; Newbury, 1643 
Este, Sir Augustus d' ; marriage 

act, royal, 1844 
Ethelbert ; 560, Canterbury 
Etheldra; Ely, 073 
Ethelred ; 979 ; coronation, Dane- 
geld 
Ethersey, Com. ; suicide, 18.57 
Etty, Wm., painter, 1787-1849 
Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
Euclid ; geometry, 300 B.C. 
Eugene, Prince ; 1063-1730 ; Bel- 
grade, Turin, Zenta 
Eugenie, Empress, France, 1858 
Eugenius ; popes ; Aquileia 
Euler; 1707-83; acoustics 
Eumenes ; parchment, 100 B.C. 
Bumolpus ; Eleusinian Mysteries 
Euripides, 480-100 B.C.; tragedy 
Eurystheus ; Mycenre, 1289 B.C. 
Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 
Eusebius of Cfesarea, 275-340 
Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
Eustis, Wm. ; adminis. U. S., 1809 



Euthalius ; accents, 458 

Eutyches ; fl. 447 

Evander ; Circensian games 

Evans, General de Lacy ; British ■ 

lemon, 1835 ; Spain, 1835 ; Irun, 

Sebastian 
Evans; trials, 1858 
Evans, W. E., harmonium, 1841 
Evelyn, J., 1620-1700 ; horticulture, 

lime-tree 
Everett, Ed. ; adminis. U. S., 1852 
Ewing, Thos. ; adminis. U. 8., 1841 
Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
Exmouth, Lord ; Algiers, ISIO 
Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
Ezekiel prophesies about 595 B.C. 

F. 
Faber, P. ; oratorians, 1S48 
Fabii, killed at Cremera,477 B.C. ; 

Fabii 
Fabiu.s, Quintus ; painting, 311 B.C. 
Fahrenheit, G. D., 1080-1730 ; ther- 
mometer, about 1720 
Fairbairn,Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 
Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1045 
Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
Falcoubridge ; London, 1453 
Falconer, H., geologist, d. 1805 
Falieri, M., Venice, 1355 
Falkland, Visct. ; Newbury, 1643 
Falstaff, Sir John ; taverns 
Faucourt, Samuel ; circulating li- 
braries, 1740 
Faraday, Michael, 6ornl791 ; Royal 
Institution, chemistry, electricity, 
•magnetism, magneto-electricity, 
ice 
Farquhar, Mr. ; buys Fonthill Ab- 
bey, 1822 
Farragut, Adml. D. G. ; Vicksburg, 

Mobile 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Fatima ; Mobammedanism, note 
Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1723 
Fauutleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
Faust, John ; printiiig, 1442 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C. 
Faux, Guy ; Gunpowder Plot, 1605 
Fawcett, Col. ; duel, 1843 
Felix, popes 
Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 
Felton assassinates Buckingham at 

PortsmoiTth, 1628 
Fenelon, Abp., 1651-1715 ; Cambray 
Fenuing, Eliza ; execution.?, 1815 
Fenwick, J. ; executed, 1697 
Ferdinand; Austria, Naples, Por- 
tugal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, Cas- 
tile, Cordova 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, Mindeu, 

1759 
Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 
Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 
Ferrers, Earl ; trials, 1760 
Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
Fessenden,W. P. ; administrations 

U. S., 1864 
Field, Cyrus M. ; electricity (Atlan- 
tic Telegraph), 1853 
Fielding, ll., novelist, 1707-1754; 

magistrates 
Fieschi; France, 1830 
Fillmore, M. ; United States, Presi- 
dent, 1850 ; administrations U. S. 
Finch, D. ; Admiralty, 1680 
Finch, Sir John ; chancellor, lord ; 
administrations, 1040; Heneage, 
chancellor, 1673 
Finiguerra ; engraving, 1400 
Finuerty, Peter ; trials', 1808, ISll 
Finnis, Col. ; India, 1857, note 
Finnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 
Fisher, Bp. ; administrations, 1509, 

Salisbury ; executed 15S5 
Fisher; duel, 1806 
Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1S56 
Fitzgerald, Lord ; attainder, 1798 
Fitzgerald, Lord, v. Mrs. Clarke; 

trials, 1814 
Fitzgerald, Lord ; Wellington ad- 
ministration, 1830 



INDEX. 



527 



Fitzherbert, Mrs. ; libel, 17S9 
Fitz-Osboru ; justiciars, 11107 
Fltzpatrick, Grcuville adiniii., ISOG 
Fitzpatrick, Hiii,'h ; trials, isi3 
Fitzroy, K., lSl/5-65 ; circnmnavip:a- 
tioii, ISiiG; Kew Zealand, 1843 ; 
meteoi-olouy, 1857 
Fitzwaltcr, Itobcrt cic ; Duuinow, 

1244 
Fitzwilllara, Earl ; Grenville ad- 
minis., 1S06 ; Ireland ; lord lieut. 
Flamiuius; Thrasyniene, 217 B.C. 
Flamstccd, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flannock ; rebclliou.s, 1497 
Flavins, Titus Lartius ; dictators, 

498 B.C. 
Flaxman, ,T., sculptor, 1754-1S26 
Fletcher of Saltoun,/. 1700; ballads 
Fletcher, will-forger ; trials, 1S44 
Flight and Kobsou, apollouicon, 
1817 
• Flinders, Capt.; explores New IIol- 
laud, 1801 
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
Flores, Gen., Uruguay, 1863 
Floras, Rom. historian ; /. 106 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos., 6. 1794 
Floyd, J. B. ; Caruifex Ferry ; ad- 
ministrations U. S. 
Pohi ; China, 2240 B.C. 
Foix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 1512 
Folengio, Theo. ; macaroni 
Folkestone, Lord ; arts, society of, 

17.54 
Follett, Sir Wm. ; solicitor gen. ; 

attorney gen., 1844 
Folliott, Bp. ; Hereford, 1803 
Footc, Sam. ; 1721-77 ; theatres 
Foote V. Ilayue ; trials, 1824 
Forbes, Lord ; Horse-Guards, 1702 
Forbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 
Forbes, J. D., uat. philos., b. 1809 
Forrest, Ed. ; Astor Place Riots, 

1849 
Forster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
FOrster, M.; plauets, ISGO 
Forsyth, John ; adminis. U. S., 1S34 
Fortesciie, Lord ; Ireland ; lord 

lienteuaut, 1839 
Forward, W. ; admiuistratious U. 

S., 1S41 
Forwood, St. (Southey), murdered 
wife and four children, Aug., 1805 
Foscaro, Doge ; deposed ]457 
Foster, John, essayist, 17T0-1843 
Fottrell, Capt. ; duel, 1817 
Foucault, M. ; pendulum, 1851 
Fouche, J., Due d'Otrauto,1763-lS20 
Fould, Achiile, b. 1800 ; France, ISGl 
Foulis, R. & A. : printers, 1707-7G 
Fourdrinier, JL ; pajier, 1807 
Fourier, C, d. 1837 ; Fourierism 
Fowke, Capt. ; exhibition, 1802 
Fox & Henderson ; Crystal Palace, 

18.51 
Fox, bishop of Winchester; admin- 
istrations, 1.50!) ; privy seal 
Fox, Charles Jas., 1748-1806; duel, 
1779 : Portland admin., 1783 ; In- 
dia bill, people 
Fox, George ; 1G24-91 ; Quakers 
Fox, Henry ; Newcastle adm., 1757 
Fox, Sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 
Foxe, John, niartyrologist, 1517-87 
Francia, Dr., 1755-1840'; Paraguay 
Francis, St. ; 1182-1226, Cordeliers 
Francis I., emperor, 17— ; Germa- 
ny, Austria 
Friincis I., France, 1,515 ; dueling, 
cloth of gold, Mariguan, lie, Pa- 
via, Sicily 
Francis; trials, 1S42 
Francis, Sir Philip ; Junius 
Francisco d'.Vssisc ; Spain, 1S46 
Frankfurt, Lord, v. Alice Lowe ; 

trials, 1S42, is.vi 
Frankland, Edward, ethyl, methyl, 

1849 
Franklin, B., 1706-1790; electricity, 

1752; lightning; abolition 
Franklin, Gen.W. B. ; SoulhMoun- 
tain, 1SG2 ; Fredericksburg, 1862 ; 
Red River Campaign, 1864 



Franklin, Sir John ; northwest pas- 
sage, 1S'.'5 ; Franklin 
Franks; suicide; trials, 1825 
Fraser v. Bagley ; trials, 1S44 
Frederick-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1827 ; 

York 
Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, 
Hesse, Nuremberg, Palatinate, 
Prague, Hochkirchen, Torgau 
Frederick-Lewis, Prince; Wales, 

1729 
Fremont, J. C, 6. 1813 ; Upper Cal- 
ifornia, 1845-6 ; U. S., 185G 
Fremy, M. ; steel, 1861 
French, Col. ; trials, 1S20 
Freney ; trials, 1749 
Frewen, Abp. ; Y'ork, 1660 
Frith, W. P., painter, 6. 1820 
Frivell, Wm., post-office, 1631 
Frobisher, Sir Martin, died 1594 ; 

northwest passage, 1576 
Froissart, historian, 1337-1410 
Frost, John ; Chartist ; Newport, 

1839 
Froude, J. A., historian, b. 1818 
Frumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 
Fuad Pasha ; Damascus, Turkey, 

18G0-6 
Puller, J. ; Roj'al Institution, 1833 
Pulton, Robt., 17G5-1S15 ; steam-en- 
gine, 1803 
Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
Furneaux, Capt. ; Adventure Bay, 

New Holland ; returns, 1774 
Fuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 

G. 

Gage, Gen. ; America, 1775 

Gaine, W. ; parchment, paper, 1857 

Gainsborough, Thos., painter, 1727 
-88 

Galba ; Rome, emp., 63 

Gale, balloons; gunpowder, 1SG5 

Gale Jones; trials, 1811 

Gale, Sarah, and Greeuacre ; trials, 
1857 

Galen, 130-200 ; physic 

Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 

Galileo di Galilei, 15G4-1G42; acous- 
tics, astronomy, falling bodies, 
harmonic curve, ice, InTjuisition, 
planets, .sun, telescopes 

Gall, J., 175S-182S ; craniology 

Gallatin, Albert ; admin. U."S., 1S02 

Galle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1S4G 

Gallieu ; balloons, 1755 

Gallieuus; Rome, emp., 2G0 

Galvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricit}', 
1791 ; Voltaic pile 

Galway, Earl of; Almauza, 1707 

Gama, Vasco da, d. 1525 

Gambier, Lord; BascLUc Roads,lS00; 
Copenhagen 

Gangauelli ; Clement XIV., popes, 
17G9 

Gangeland ; apothecary 

Gardner, Gen. Frank ; Port Hud- 
son, 1SG3 

Gardiner, Bish. ; administrations, 
1529 

Gardiner, Lieut. Alan ; missions, 
1850 

Garfield, Gen. J. A. ; Middle Creek, 
1862 

Garibaldi, Jos., b. 1807 ; Italy, 1850- 
62 ; Solferiuo, Sicily, Naples, Vol- 
turno 

Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 

Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu- 
tion, 1801 

Garnet, Gunpowder Plot, 1G05 

Garrick, David, 1717-79 ; theatres, 
Drury Lane, jubilees 

Garrison, Wm. L., abolition 

Garrow, Wm. ; attorney general, 
1813 

Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat Club, 1703 

Gassendi, 1.592-1655 ; sun, sound 

Gaston de Foix; R.avenna, 1512 

Gates, General ; Saratoga, Bemis's 
Heights, 1777 ; Camden, 1780 

Gaudeu, Bp. ; eikou basilike, 1649 



Gaudin, M. ; sapphire, 185T 
Gaunt, John of, born 1340 ; Ghent, 

Roses, wars 
Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; rebel- 
lions 
Gay, John, 1687-17."2 ; fables, operas 
Gay-Lussac, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons 
Ged, William ; stereotvpe, 1730 
Gefl'rard, General ; Ha'yti, 1858 
Gelasius I., pope, 492 ; breviary, 

pall. Candlemas 
Gellert, C. F., 1715-G9 
Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany,^. 

149 
Gelon ; SjTacuse, 485 B.C., Himera 
Genghis Khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; 

Hungary, India, Afghanistan 
Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
George, David, died 155G ; family of 

love 
George I.— IV. ; England ; kings 
Cieorge I. ; accession, 1714 
George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
George, St. ; garter 
Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
Geramb, barons ; aliens, 1812 
Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
Germaine, Lord George Sackville, 

Minden, 1759 
Germanus ; Sodor, 447 
Gerrv, Elbridge ; administrations 

U. S., 1813 
Ger.stenzweig, General, Poland, vi. 

1861 
Gesler ; Switzerland, 1306 
Geta ; Rome, emp., 211 
Gibbins, Mr., killed ; riots, 1S31 
Gibbon, Edward ; historian, 1737-94 
Gibbons, Grinlin ; sculptor, 1648- 

1721 
Gibbons, Orlando; music, 1583-1625 
Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 
Gibbs, Sir V. ; attorney gen., 1807 ; 

Common Pleas 
Gibson, J., sculptor, 1790-1S66 
Gibson, T. M. ; Palmerston admin- 
istration, 1859 
Giesmar, General ; Praga, 1831 
Gifford, Lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 
Giflbrd, R. ; attorney general, 1819 
Giftord, William ; "Quarterly Re- 
view," 1809 
Gilbert, Archbishop ; York, 1757 
Gilbert, Dr. ; electricity, 1600 ; mag- 
netism 
Gilbert, G., execution, 1803 
Gilbert, Gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 
Gilchrist, Earl (of Angus), 1037 
C4ildas, historian, 516-570 
Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 
Gillespie, Col. ; Vellore, ISOG 
Gillespie, General ; Kalunga ; duel, 

1788 
Gilmer, Thos. W. ; administrations 

U. S., 1844 
Gilpin, H. D. ; adminis. U. S., 1840 
Ginckel, Gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 ' 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, F., compass, 1302 
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
Gladstone, Rev. Mr. ; trials, 1S52 
Gladstone,W. E. ; 6om 18U9 ; Peel, 
Aberdeen, Palmerston adminis- 
tration, Russell 
Glaisher, J. ; meteorology, 1850 ; 

balloons, 1862 
Glanville, R. de, chief justice, 1180 
Glas, Capt., murdered ; trials, 1768 
Glas, John ; Glasites, 1727 
Glenelg, Lord (Chas. Grant) ; Wel- 
lington administration, ISi'S 
Glcndower, Owen ; Wales, 1401 
Glerawley, Lord, v. Burn; trials, 1820 
Gloucester, Duke of; marriage act, 

1772 
Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Gobelin, G. ; tapestry. Gobelins 
Goderich, Lord, d. 18.59 ; Goderich 
Godolphin, Earl ; Godolphiii ad- 
ministration, 1684 
Godfrey, M. ; Bank of England, 1694 



INDEX. 



Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 

Godo)', M., Prince of Peace ; Spain, 

1800; rf.l851 
Godwin, Sir G. ; PeRU, 1852 
Godwin, Wm. ; politics, novels, 1755 

-1836 
Goethe, or Giithe ; German miscel., 

lT4n-i8:i2 

Gog ;uulMa-,'Of;; Guildhall 
Goldoiii, Italian dramatist, 1707-95 
Goldst'liniidt (Jenny Liud) ; Night- 

inccalc fund 
Golclschmidt, n. ; planets, 1852 
Goldsmith, Oliver ; miscel., 172S-74 
Gonsalvo de Cordova, (/. 1515 
Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 
Goodrich, Bp. ; admiuistra., 1551 
Goodyear, V. ; caoutchouc 
Gordian ; Rome, enips., 237 
Gordon, Col., duel, 178:!; China, 1S63 
Gordon, Lord G., </. 1793 ; riots, li- 
bel ; trials, 1781, 1788 
Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
Giirgcy, Gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Gorham v. Bishop of Exeter ; trials, 

1849 
Gortschakoff, Gen. ; Kalafat, 1854 ; 

Silistria, Tchenniya 
Gortschakofl', Prince ; Vienna con- 
ference, 1853 ; Poland, 1801 
Gossett, Sir W. ; trials, 1842 
Gongh, Sir Hugh ; China, 1841 ; In- 
dia, 1846 ; Goojerat, Sobraou, Kc- 
rozeshah 
Goulburn, II. ; Wellington admin- 
istration, 1828 
Gould, J. ; works on birds, 1S32-G4; 

humming-birds, 1862 
Gould, Miss, trials, 1822 
Gould, murderer; trials, 1840 
Gourlay, Captain ; duel, 1824 
Gower, Earl ; Wilmington admin., 

1742; North admin., 1770 
Gower, J., (/. 1402 

Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133 ; Cai- 
ns slain, 121 B.C. 
Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 
Grafton, Duke of ; Rockingham 

adm.,1705; Grafton adm., 1767 
Graham, A. ; planets, 1848 
Graham, Gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; Se- 
bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 
Graham, Mr. ; magnetism, 1722 
Graham, Mr. ; duel, 1791 
Graham of Claverhouse, 1643-1089 ; 

Killiecrankie 
Graham, Sir Jas., 1792-lSGl ; Grey, 

Peel 
Graham, Thos., b. 1805 ; mint, dif- 
fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 
Graham, Wm. A. ; administrations 

U. S., 1850 
Grammont, Due do, Dettingen, 1743 
Granard, Arthur, Earl of; Kilmain- 

ham, 1075 
Granby, Marquess of; Chatham ad- 
ministration, 1766 
Granger, F. ; adminis. IT. S., 1841 
Granger, Gideon ; admin. U. S.,1802 
Grant, Capt. John ; cookery, 1867 ; 

cottager's stove 
Grant, Gen. Ulysses, h. 1828 ; Vicks- 
burg, 1803 ; Grant's Virginia Cam- 
paign 
Grant, Lieutcn't. ; trials, 1810, 1844 ; 

Central Africa, 1803 
Grant, sec Clenclg, Pittsburg, 1862 
Grant, Sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 
Grantham, Lord ; Shelburne admin- 
istration, 1782 
Grantley, Ld. ; attorney gen., 1703 
Granville, Earl ; Palmer'stou, Rus- 
sell administration, 1851 
Gratian ; canon law. 1151 
Gratian, Roman emperor 
Grattan, Henry, 1740-1820; dueling, 

1800, 1820 
Gray, Bishop ; Bri.«tol, 1827 
Gray, Lord ; Pom fret Castle, 1483 
Grav, Thomas, 1716-71 
Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 
Greatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1006 
Greaves, Lord ; suicide, 1830 



Greeley, Horace, 6. 1811 
Green, Gen. ; Augusta, 1781 
(ireen, Mr. ; balloons, 1828 
Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
Greene, General ; Camden, 1781 
Greenwood, T. ; tile, 1800 
Grijgoire, M. ; National Conven- 
tion, 1792 
Gregory I. -XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. 
Gregory VIL ; Italy, 237 
(Jregory XI., Pope ; pallium 
Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1583 
Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 

320-390 
Gregory the Great, died 604; Aber- 
deen, chanting, Christianity 
Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846 
Greuvillc, George, Newcastle adm., 

1754; Grenville adm., 1703 
Grenville, Lord; Grenville admin., 

1800 ; delicate investigation 
Gresham, Sir T., d. 1.579 ; Gresham 
Grey, Bishop ; Hereford, 1832 
Grey, Earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform 
Grey, Henry, Earl ; Russell admin- 
istration, 1835 
Grey, Lady Jane, executed in 1554 ; 

gland, queens 
Grey, S. ; electricity, 1720 
Grey, Sir George; Russell admin., 

1840 ; Palmerston admin., 1855 
Grey, Sir G. ; Cape, 1856 
Griesbach, J., Greek critic, 1745- 

1812 
Grimaldi, Joseph, retires, 1828 
Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863 ; dictiona- 
ry (German) 
Grindall, Abp. ; York, 1570 ; Can- 
terbury, Liturgy 
Grinlield, General ; Demerara,1803, 

Tobago 
Grinneil,Mr. ; Franklin expedition, 

1850 
Griswold, R. ; administrations U. 

S.,1801 
Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
Grogan, Col. ; captured, IT. S., 1841 
Gros, Baron ; china, 1858 
Grote, G.,(J.1794 

Grotius, II., 1583-1045; philosophy 
Grove.W. R. ; Voltaic battery, 1839 ; 

correlation, 1SJ2 
Growse, Elias ; needles 
(Jrundy, Felix ; adminis. IT. S., 1SS8 
(Juclph ; Bavaria, Brunsv.'ick 
(Juericke, Otto von, died lost); air, 

electricity, 1047 ; Magdeburg 
Guoriu-Meneville (ailanliue)," silk, 

1858 
Guernsey, W. IL ; trials, 1S5S 
Guesclin, B. dn, d. 1380 
Guicciardini, F. ; hist, 1482-1540 
Guido, Aretino, H 1030 
Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1042 
Guilford, Earl of; trials, 1853 
Guinness, Mr. ; Patrick's, St., 1805 
Guiscard ; Naples, 1059 ; conspira- 
cies, 1710 
Guise, dukes of; Guise 
Guizot, M., fc. 1787; France 
Gunter, E. ; Guntcr's chain, 1006 
Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
(Jurncy, Russell ; recorder, 1856 
(iurw()od. Colonel; suicide, 1S45 
Gustavus Adolphus ; killed, Lut- 

zen, 1032 ; Sweden, Munich 
Gustavus I. — IV. ; Sweden 
Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1.521 
Outer, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
Ctuthrie, Jas. ; admmis. U. S., 1853 
Guthrie, Sam'l. ; chloroform, 1831 
Guttenberg, J.,d. 1467 ; printing 
Guy Faux ; Gunpowder Plot, 1605 
(Juy, Thos. ; Guy's Hospital, 1721 
Guyton, Morveau ; balloons, 1784-94 
Guzman, Dominick de ; beads, 1202 
Gwinnett, B. ; duel, 1777 
Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1CS7 
Gyges; Lydia, 718 B.C. 
Gylippus,414 B.C. ; Syracuse 

H. 

Ilabakknk, prophet, about 320 B.C. 



Habersham. Jos. ; administrations 

U. S., 1795 
Ilachette, Jeanne de la ; Beauvais, 

1472 
Hacker, L. ; Sabbath-schools, 1740 
Hacket, Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
Ilackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 
Haddington, Earl of; Ireland (lord 

lieut.), 1834 
Iladley ; quadrant, 1731 
Hadrian ; Rome, emperor, 117 
llrecker ; magnetism, 1851 
Ilafiz (Persian pod), jl. 14th cent. 
Ilaggai prophesies about 630 B.C. 
Ilaggart, David ; trials, 1821 
Haggarty and Ilolloway ; trials, 

1807 
Hahnemann, Sam'l., 1755-1843 ; ho- 

mccopathy 
Haklnyt, R. ; geographer, 1553-1616 
Hale, Sir Mattliew, .judge, 1609-76 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 

1701 
Halifax, Earl of; Halifax adminis- 
tration, 1714; trimmer 
Hall, Marshall, M.D., 1790-1857 
Hall, N. K. ; administra. IT. S., 1S50 
Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Samuel, d. 1862; lace 
Hall V. Scmple ; trials, 1862 
Hall, Sir B. ; health, Palmerston 

administration, 1855 
Hallam, Henry, 1778-1859 
Haller, A. von ; physiologist, 1708- 

77 
Ilalley, Edm., astronomer; Green- 
wich, 1719 
Ilalloran, Dr. ; transported for forg- 
ing a frank, 1818 
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 237 B.C. 
Hamilton, Alex. ; duel, 1748, 1804; 

administrations IT. S. 
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; tri- 
als, 1709 
Hamilton, Bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
Hamilton, Duke of; dueling, 1712; 

trials, 1813 
Hamilton, J. ; court of honor 
Hamilton, James, marquess of, ad- 
ministrations, 1640 
Hamilton, Marv; trials, 1736 
Hamilton, Paul ; admin. U. S., 1809 
Hamilton, Sir W. ; Ilerculaneuni 
Hamlin, II. ; admiuistra. IT. S., 1861 
Hammond, Mr. ; ambassador, 1791 
Hampden, John, killed 1643 ; ship- 
money, Chalgrove 
Hampden, Richard ; adminis. ICCO 
Hampton, II. ; free church, 1859 
Hancock, John ; Declaration of In- 

dejieiidcnce, 1776 
Hancock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 
Ilandcock; trials, 1855 
Handel, G. F., 1684-1759 ; Handel, 

opera, oratorios 
Hannibal, 247-183 B.C.; Rome, Ber- 
nard, Saguntum, Spain, Caunse, 
Carthage, Zama 
Hanson, Capt. ; duel, 1770 
Hans Sachs, German comic \\Titer, 

1474-1578 
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1768 ; umbrella 
Ilarcourt, Lord ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711 
Hardee, General W. S. ; Sherman's 

march, 1S64-5 
Ilardicanute ; England, 1039 
Harding, Prof. ; planets, 1804 
Ilardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
Ilardinge, Sir Henry (afterw.Lord), 

1846; India 
Ilardwicke, Earl of; Pelham adm., 
1744; Derby adm., 1852; Ireland 
(lord lieut,), 1801 
Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
Ilargrave, J. ; cotton, 1767 
Hargreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
Harlan, Jas. ; adminis. U. S., 1805 
Harley, Robert, Godolphin admin- 
inistration, 1702; Harleian libra- 
ry, see Oxford 
Ilarniodius kills Hipparchus, 514 
B.C. 



INDEX. 



629 



ITaniey, Gen. ; United States, 1855 
Iliiroldll. ; Hasliiif;-.sltlOG 
ll;irouii-al-Kiislii(l, i-iiliph, TSG-SU9 
]Iiii-i>ur,W. ; Hcdronl, ir,(ll 
llaiiiiiiiton, Karl of; relham lul- 

iniiiislralioii, 17-J4 
llanis, Mr. ; Covcnt Garden, or- 
j!;ans, 1(JS2 ; clocks, apples, lliix- 
lons 
Harris, Sir W. S. ; liglitning con- 
ductors, 1S20 
Harrison, (Jcneral ; United States, 

I'rosideiit, 1S41 ; adniinis. U. 8. 
Ilarrisiiii, J. ; pneumatic loom, 1SG4; 

time-piece, 1714 
Ilanisdii, Mr. ; coni^elatlon, 1S5T 
Jlarrowliv, Karl of; Pitt adminis- 
tration," I s( 14 <-t Hf>l. 
Ilarsnet, Archbishop; York, 1G2S 
Hartini:eiMMr. ; duel, 1S20 
llarlland. Sir 1{. : Madras, ITTl 
llarvov, B. Ba-enal ; trial, ITUS 
Harvey, Dr. Win., lr)TS-10.'5T; blood, 

anaioiny, midwil'ory 
Harwood; porter, 1730 
Hasdrubal; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 

taurus, 207 B.C. 
HaslinL,'s, Afarquess of, India, gov- 
ernor ireiieral, ISi:! 
Haslin-;s, Warren, 17.32-lSlS; India, 

1772; Chuuar, Hastings 
Hatchell, Mr. : duel, 1S14 
Hattield ; executions, ISi).^ 
Hatileld lires at George 111. ; trials, 

18(10 
Ilatton, Sir Christopher, died 1591 ; 
chancellor (lord high), master iu 
Chancery 
Haiiy, U., 1742-1822 ; crystaHogra- 

phy 
llaiiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 
Havelock, Gen.; India, 1857; Cawu- 

pore 
Hawke, Adm. ; naval battles, 1747 
Hawkesbury, Lord ; admiuis., 1SU7; 

Amiens 
Hawkey, Lieut. ; duel, trial, 1846 
Hawkins, Sir John, rf.l5'.»5; Guinea, 
slave-trade, 15G2 ; potatoes, to- 
bacco, Chatham 
Hay, Lord John ; Briti.sh le'^iv)n, 

is;;:-); St. Sel)a>lian's 
Ilavdii, Joseph Lconipiler of this 

bookj;-/. ls.-,i; 
Ilavdn, Joseph, 17:)2-1S09 ; music 
Hav<lon, J5ciij., painter, 1786-]84G 
Haves, Mr. ; duel, 1728,1800; trials, 

1802 
Hayes, Sir II. B. ; trials, 1800 
Haynau, General ; Hungary, 1849 
H.iyward; trials, 1821 
IL B. ; caricatures 
Head, Sir Francis ; Canada, 1S30 
Headl'ort, Manpiess; trial, 1805 
Heanic, northwest passage, 17G9 
Healh, Archbishop ; York, 1555 
Helierdeu, l)r. ; Humane Society, 

1774 
Hebert, .1. R. (Pero Duchesne), exe- 
cuted 1794 
Hector of Troy ; slain 1183 B.C. 
Heenan, J. ; boxing, 1800 
Heiiel, G., philosopher, 1770-1831 
Hehl ; animal magnetism, 1774 
Heine, U., German poet, 1797-1S56 
Helen,i,St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
Heliodorus,//. 398 
Heliogabalus ; Roman emp., 218; 

silk 
Ilelmholtz, U.,b. 1821 ; ophthalmo- 
scope, 1851 
Heloise, rf. 1103; Abulard 
Helps, Arthur; hist, and miscel., h. 

ISU 
Helsham, Ca|)t. ; duel, 1829 
Homans, Felicia, jxiet, 1794-1835 
Hi'ncke, pl.mets, lh45 
Heni,'ist, octarch, Salisbury 
Hen lev. Joseph ; Derby administra- 
tion; is52 
Henley, Lord ; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 17G3 
Henley, orator, d. 1750 
Hennis, Dr. ; duel, 1833 
Ll 



Henrietta; queens (Charles I.) 
Henry, Jas.W. ; admin. U. S., 179G 
Henry ; kings ; Fngland, France, 

Germany, Spain 
Henry I. ;"Tinchebray. 1100 
Henry IL ; tournaments, 1559 
Henry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Nantes, 

Kavaillac, Yvres 
Henry V. ; Agiucourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
bourg 
Henry VIL; Bosworth, 14R5 
Henry VHL; England, 1.509 ; age, 
defender, field, monasteries, 8])urs 
Henry the Lion; Brnnswiik, U:;'.) 
Ilenshaw, D. ; adminis. U. S., 1843 
Heiishaw, Mr.; duel, 1820 
IIci)l)urii, Kiisign ; trials, 1811 
Hcraclitus, philosopher,}/. 500 B.C. 
Ileraclius ; cross, 615 
Herbert, Adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1C89 
Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593-1G35 
Herbert of (Jherbury, Lord, 1581- 

1048 
Herbert, Sidney (aft. Lord), 1810-01, 
Peel, Palmerstou administration 
Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
Herder, J. G. vou, philosopher, 1744 

-1803 
Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 
Hero of Alexandria, y/. 284-221 B.C. 
Herod; Jews, 42 B.C. 
Herodian, historian, /f. 173 
Herodotus, burn 4S4 B.C. ; history 
Herophilus; anatomy, .')02 B.C. 
Herostratus fires temple at Ephe- 

sus, 356B.C. 
Ilerries, J. C. ; Peel adminis., 1834 
Herring, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 
Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
Herschel, J. F., 6. 1790 ; actinome- 

ter, photography 
Herschel, W., 1738-1S22 ; Saturn, a.s- 
tronomy, telescope, sun, Urauus, 
nebular hypothesis 
Hertford, Karl of; administrations, 

LMT; Pin key 
Hertford, iSIarquess of; his execu- 
tors i\ S'lisse, trials, 1842 
Hervic, H. ; Doctors' Coinmons,15G0 
Hesiod, Greek poet,/. 850 B.C. 
Hess, General ; Solferino, 1S.59 
Hcytcsbury, Lord ; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 18-14 
Hiero, Syracuse, 4T8-275 B.C. 
Hieronymus, see Jerome 
Hilary ; hymns, 431 
Hildreth, R., born 1807, authors 
Hill, Lord ; commander-in-chief, 

1823 
Hill, Rowland, b. 1795 ; post-oiflce 
Hillsborough, Lord; North admin- 
istration, 1770 
Hind, J. R., b. 1823 ; planets, 1847 ; 

comets 
Ilindes, Lieutenant ; duel, 1817 
Hinds, Bishop ; Norwich, 1849 
Hipparchus, /. 102 B.C. ; astrono- 
my, Canary, constellation, de- 
grees, latitude, longitude 
Hippias; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Hippocrates, d. 357 B.C. ; anatomy, 

surgery, loadstone 
Hoadley, Bj). B., </. 1701 ; Bangorian 

controver.sy 
Hobart, Lord ; Addingtou admin- 
istration, isol 
Hol)l)es, 'P., l.W8_tG79; academies 
Hol)l)iiiia, painter,/. 1681 
Hobhou^e, Sir J.'C. (afierw. Lord 
Broughton) ; Melbourne admin- 
istration, 1834 
IIoclio, (Jeneral ; Dunkirk, 17l'3 
Hocker, murdeier; trials, ]s4.% 
Hodgson, General; Bellei.-le, I7G1 
Hodgson )'. (Jreene; trials, ls;i2 
Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hofmann, A., b. 1818 ; chemistry, 

amiiiniiia, aniline 
Hogarlli, \V., iiainter, Ifi97-17G4 
HoiTLT, James, poet, 1772-1835 
HollK'iii, Hans, tMr.54 
Holcrcift, T. ; melodrama, 1793 
Holderiies-e, Earl of; Devonshire 
adiuiuistraliou, 1750 



Holgate, Archbishop ; York, 1545 
Holinshcd, Ralph, d. about 1580 
Ho!k;ir; India, lsu4 
Holland, Lord ; Melbourne admin- 
istration, ls:i.") ct neq., trials, 1797 
Holland, Sir H., b. 1788 ; Royal In- 
stitute, 18G5 
Holiest murderers ; trials, 18.51 
Holmes, Adm., Cape Coast, 1GG3 
Holt, Jos. ; administra. U. S., ISGO 
Holt, Sir John, King's Bench, 1GS9 
Holt; trials, 1844 
Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
Homo, Lieutenant ; Delhi, 1857 
Homer,/. 902 B.C. {Ciinton) ; poetry 
Hompcsch, Baron, duel, 180G 
Hone,Wm., 1779-1842 ; trials, 1817, 

almanacs 
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
Houorius; Western Empire, 395 
Hood, Adm. ; Madeira, 1807 ; Tou- 
lon 
Hood, General J. B. ; Atlanta Cam- 
paign, 1804; Nashville 
Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 

1845 
Hook, Theodore, novelist, 17SS-1S41 
Ilooke, Robert, 1035-1703; air, boil- 
ing, camera, geology, mechanics, 
microscope, telegraphs 
Hooker, Richard, theol., 1553-lGOO 
Hooker, W., botanist, 17S5-1SG5 ; J. 
D., b. 1816 ; Gen. R., U. S., 18G2-3, 
Fredcridisburg, Chancellorsville 
Hopkins, Maltliew ; witches, 1G45 
Hopley, T. ; trials, ISGO 
Horace, G5-S B.C., Latin poet ; Ath- 
ens, satires 
Horler, II. ; trials, 1853 
Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
Horn, Count ; Nordlingen, 1C34 
Home, G., Bisliop ; Norwich, 1790 
Home Tooke, John, (/. 1812 ; Home 

Tooke.etc. 
Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 
Hornor, Mr. ; tJolosseiim, 1S24 
Hornsby, Dr. ; Radclifl'e obs., 1771 
Hcn'rebow; astronomy, 1G59 
Horrox, Jer., d. 1C41 ; astronomy, 

Venus 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsfall.Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Ilorsley, Bishop; St. Asaph, 1802 
Ilosea prophesies about 785 B.C. 
Hotham, Adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotspur ; Ottcrburn, 1388 
Iloublon, Sir J., Bank of England, 

1095 
Howard, Adml. Sir Edward, naval 

battles, 1513 
Howard, John, 172G-1790 ; prisons, 

potatoes 
Howard, Luke, d. 1864 ; clouds 
Howard of Effingham, Lord; arma- 
da, 1.'-j88 
Howard iJ.Gossett; trials, 1842 
Howe, Gen. W. ; Bunker Hill, 1775 
Howe, Lord, 1784; Pitt, 1783; Brest, 

Ushant 
Howe, Sir William ; Long Island, 

177G 
Ilowel Dha ; Wales, 911 
Ilowley, Dr., Archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1S2S; Lambeth 
Hubbard, S. D. ; admin. U. S., 1852 
Iluber, F., 1750-1S31 ; bees 
Hudson, IL; Hudson's Bay 
Hudson, Jeffrey, 1G2G; dwarf 
Huggins, William ; spectrum, note 
Hughes, Sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
HUL'O, Victor, /*. 1802 
Hull, Gen. W.; Detroit, 1S12 
Iliillah, J., 6. 1812; music, ISIO 
Humbert, General; Killala, 179S 
Humboldt, A. de, 1769-18,59 
Humboldt, W. de, 1707-1835 
Hume, David, hist., 1711-1776; J08., 

I)olitics, 1777-1855 
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d, 

at Bury, 1447 
IIunniad"es,J. ; Hungary, 1442; Tur- 
key, Varna 
Iluni, Henry, reformer ; trials, 1820, 
Clcrkeuwell, Manchester 



630 

Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials, 1811 

-1812 
Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, h. 182T 
Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-1793 ; 

W., 1718-83 
Huntly, Earl of; Brechin, 1452 
Huuton, Jos. (forgery); executions, 

1828 
Hurd, Bishop ; Worcester, 1781 
Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830 ; Wel- 
lington admiu., 1828 ; Liverpool, 
1830 
Huss, John, hurnt, 1415 ; Hussites 
Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 
Hutchinson, John, d. 1737 ; Hutch- 

insonians 
Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's es- 
cape, 1815 
Hutchinson, Major ; Alexandria, 

1801 
Hutton, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
Hutton,W.,(;. 1815; geology 
Huygheus, ri. 1695 ; astronomy, op- 
tics, pendulums 
Hyde, Lawrence ; administrations, 

1079 et seq. 
Hyde, Sir E. ; chancellor, lord high, 

1660 
Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, 

Carnatic, Mysore 
Hyginus, Pope, 139 ; martyr 
Hypatia, philosopher, 'iJi. 415 B.C. ; 

hydrometer 
Hyperides ; Crauon, 322 B.C. 
Hyrcanus, John, died 107 B.C. ; Sa- 
maritans 



I. 

Ibrahim Pacha, 1789-1848 ; Antioch, 
Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Syria, 
Turkey, Damascus, Wahabees 
Ignatius, St. ; mart, 115; liturgies, 

250 
Impey, Major; duel, 1801 
Inachus ; Argos, 1850 B.C. 
Incledon, C, d. 1826 
Ifiez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
Ingham, S. D. ; admin. U. S., 1829 
Inglefleld, Captain ; Franklin, 1852 
Inglis, Colonel ; Albuera, 1811 
Ingram, Herbert, d. 1860, Illustrated 

London News 
Innocent I. — XII. ; popes 
Innocent III., pope, 1198; transub- 

stantiation 
Irenseus, martyr, 202 
Irving, E., 1792-1834 ; Irvingites, 

trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 
Irving, Washington, 1783-1659 
Isabella ; salique law, Spain 
Isaiah prophesies about 700 B.C. 
Islip, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 1349 
Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. 
Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
Ivan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars 

J. 

Jackson, Bishop ; Oxford, 1812 ; 

Lincoln, 1852 
Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
Jackson, Gen. ; United States,lS29; 

administrations U. S. ; duel, 1806 
Jackson, J. B. ; printing in colors, 

1720 
Jackson, Thomas J., "Stonewall," 

1824-63 ; Manassas, United States, 

1862 ; Chancellorsville 
Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861 
Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's Hospital, 1854 
Jacobi; Baltic, note, electrotj'pe 
Jacquard loom, 1806 
James ; England, Scotland, Spain 

(kings) 
James, C. T. ; anthracite coal, 1804 
James, H. ; photozincography, 1860 
James IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
Jane, England, 1554 ; queens, Sicily 
Janseu, C, 1585-1638 ; Jansenism 
Jason, Argonautic exp., 1263 B.C. 
Jay, John, abolition 
Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 1793 

-1803 



INDEX. 

Jeffcott, Sir John W. ; duel, 1833 
Jeflerson, T. ; United States, Presi- 
dent, 1801-8; administrations 
Jeffery, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 
Jefl'rey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 
Jeffreys, George (afterward Lord) ; 
administra., 1685 ; King's Bench, 
chancellor, lord high, bloody as- 
size, d. 1089 
Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
Jenner, E., 1749-1823 ; vaccination 
Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
Jeremiah prophesies about 629 B.C. 
Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings, 

1760 
Jerome, 331-420 ; ascension, litur- 
gies 
Jerome of Prague ; burnt 1416 
Jersey, Countess of ; delicate inves- 
tigation, 1806 
Jervis, Sir John ; Cape St. Vincent; 
solicitor gen., att. gen.. Common 
Pleas, d. 1856 
Joan of Arc, bnrnt 1431 ; Joan 
Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
Joel prophesies about 800 B.C. 
John I.— XXIII. ; popes, 523, etc. 
John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 
John, King ; Bohemia, Portugal, 

Spain, France, Poitiers 
John, King ; England (1199), char- 
ter of forests, magna charta, "We" 
John of Leydeu ; Anabaptists, 1534 
John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
John, St., d. 100; baptism, accusers, 

evangelists. Gospels 
Johnson, Andrew, b. 1809 ; United 

States, 1865; administrations 
Johnson, Captain ; trials, 1846 
Johnson, Cave ; adminis. U. S., 1845 
Johnson, Judge ; trials, 1805 
Johnson, Reverdy ; adm. U. S., 1849 
Johnson, R. M. ; admin. U. S., 1837 
Johnson, Sam., 1709-84; dictionary, 

literary societies 
Johnston, Albt., k. Pittsburg, 1862 ; 
Joseph, U. S., 1863 ; Atlanta Cam- 
paign 
Johnston, Captain ; steam, 1825 
Johnston, General ; Ross, N., 1798 
Johnston, Robert ; trials, 1818 
Johnston, Sir John ; marriages, 

forced, 1690 
Joinville, Jean de, hist., 1224-1318 ; 
Prince de ; Ocean Monarch, 1848 
Jonah prophesies about SG2 B.C. 
Jones, Colonel; Dungan, 1047, Rath- 
mines 
Jones, Gale; trials, 1811 
Jones, H. Bence ; Royal Institu- 
tion, 1860 ; spectrum, note 
Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1653 
Jones, Jan'e ; trials, 1842 
Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 
Jones, Owen, 1842 ; Alhambra, 

James's Hall, St. 
Jones, Sir Wm., 1746-1 7C4 ; Asiatic, 

chess, Menu, Sanscrit 
Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
Jones, Wm. ; adminis. U. S., 1813 
Jonson, Ben, 1574-1037 ; poet laur. 
Joquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 
Jordan, Mrs., actress, d. 1816 
Joseph ; Germany, Namur, Portu- 
gal 
Josephine,Emp., 1703-1814; France, 

1809 
Josephus, Jewish historian, d. 93 
Jotham; fables, 1209 B.C. 
Joubert, General ; Novi, 1799 
Jourdan, Marshal ; Cologne, Fleu- 

rus,V!ttoria, 1813 
Jovian, Rome, emperors, 363 
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 18,58 
Judas Maccabseus ; rules, 108-160 

B.C. 
Judith ; Abyssinia, 060 
Jugurtha, died 104 B.C. ; Numidia, 

Jngurthine War 
Julia"n ; Rome, emperor, 360, edicts, 

Paris 
Julianus, Salvius ; edicts, 132 



Julius Csesar ; see Ccesar, Julius 
Julius II., Pope, 1503 ; Rome, Bo- 
logna, Laocoun, Cambray 
Julius, Mr. ; duel, 1791 
Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 
Junot, Marshal, 1771-1813 ; Cintra, 

Vimiera, 1808 
Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist, 1748-1830 
Justin, Emperor, Rome, 518 and 505 
Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 
Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
Justinian ; Eastern Empire, 527 
Juvenal, 59-128; satires 
Juxou, Abp. ; administra., 1640 ; 
Canterbury, 1000, bishops 

K. 

Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
Kant, Immanuel, 1724-1804 ; meta- 
physics 
Kauuitz, 1755-94 

Kaye, Bp. ; Bristol, 1820, Lincoln 
Kcan, Charles, 6. 1811 ; theatres 
Kean, Edmund, 1787-1833 
Keane, Lord; Ghiznee, 1839 
Keats, John, 1796-1821 
Keenan ; trial, 1803 
Keith, George ; earl marischal of 

Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
Keith, George ; Quakers, 1040 
Kellett, Captain ; P'rankliu, 1848 
Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 
Kelly, Sir F. ; solicitor gen., 1845 ; 

attorney general 
Kemble, Charles, 1775-1854 
Kemble, John, 1757-1823 
Kemble, Miss F., 6. 1811 
Kemp, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
Kempenfeldt, Adm. ; Royal George, 

1782 
Kenipis, T. a, theology, 1380-1471 
Kendall, Amos ; admin. U. S., 1835 
Kennedy, Alderman ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, C!. R. ; trials, 1858, note 
Kennedy, J. P. ; admin. U. S., 1852 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 18.°)l-53 
Kent, Edward, duke of, 1707-1820 
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 1060 
Kentigern, St. : abstinence, Glas- 
gow^, Asaph, 560-S3 
Kenyon, Lord ; attorney general, 

1782, King's Bench 
Kepler, J., 1571-1630 ; optics, plane- 
tary motions, 1609, rainbow, tides, 
dye-houses 
Keppel, Adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, 
trials, 1779, coalition, naval bat- 
tles 
Keppel, Commodore ; China, 1S57 
Keying ; China, 1842-58 
Killigrew, Thomas ; drama, 1C02 
Kilmarnock, Lord ; rebellious, tri- 
als, executions, 1746 
Kihvarby, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
Kihvarden, Lord ; King's JBench ; 

trials, 1803 
King, C. ; trials, 1855; gems, 1800 
King, Colonel ; suicide, 1850 
King, Dr. ; Ccesarean operation 
King, Horatio ; adminis. U. 8., 1861 
King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 

1851 
King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
Kina-, W. R. ; adminis. U. S., 1853 
Kinglake, A. W., historian, h. 1802 
Kingsley, C, novels, etc., b. 1819 
Kingston, Duchess of ; trials, 1776 , 
Kingston, Earl of, v. Lord Lorton ; 

trials, 1776 
Kingston, Evel3'n, duke of ; Wal- 

pole, 1721 
Kirby and Wade, Captains ; shot, 

1702; naval battles, ^io^e 
Kircher; .(Eolian harp, 1653, philos- 
opher's stone, trumpet 
Kirkman ; piano-forte 
Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
Kiss, Karl, sculptor, 1802-65 
Klapka, General G., 1820 
Kleist; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
Klopstock, poet, 1724-1803 



INDEX. 



631 



Kmot}', General (Ismail Pacha), d. 

lS(i5 ; Iluniraiy, Kars 
KiKitchbull, iSirE. ; Peel adminis- 

tratious, is;;4-r> 
Kneller, Sir Godfrey, paiuter, 164S- 

lT-23 
Knight, Chas., diffusion soc, 1S'2T 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knight, Mr. ; northwest passage, 

lOO'i, South Sea bubble, bribery 
Knight V. Wolcot ; trials, ISOT 
Knox, Heury ; admiuistratious U. 

S., 1789 
Knox, John, 1505-72 ; Presbyteri- 
ans, congregation, Scotland 
Knut/.en, iVfatthias ; atheism, 1C7-1 
Koelv, i'aul de, novelist, h. 1794 
Kohl, P. ; execution, l^tiS 
Kiinig, F. ; printing machine, 1S14 
Kcinig, M. ; phonoscope, tonometer, 

1SG2 
Kilmer, Th., poet, 1701-1S13 
Kosciusko; Poland, 1704; Cracow 
Kossuth, L., 6. 1802 ; Hungary, Uni- 
ted States 
Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
Kotzebue; northwest passage, 1815; 

Aug. drama : killed, 1819 
Ko'.ili Khan; Moguls, India, Persia, 

1730 
Kunckel ; phosphorus, 1070 
Kutusoff, M., 1745-1813 ; Russia, 

Moskwa, Smoleusko, 1812 
Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 

L. 

Labouchere, Henry ; Russell adm., 

1846; Palmerston adm., 1855 
Labourdonnaye ; Touruay, 1792 
La Bruyure, French essays, 1044-9G 
Lachaise, Pore, 1624-1709, cemetery 
Lacordaire, Piire 11. D., 18!)2-61 
Lactantius; rf. 325; fathers 
Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary 
Lacnnec, R., physician, 1781-1826 
Lafarge, Madame ; trials, 1840 
Lafayette, Marquis, 1757-1834 
Lafltte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon's) 
La Fontaine, 1621-95, fables 
Lagava, etc. ; execution, 1856 
Lagny ; circle, 1719 
La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813; acous- 
tics, astronomy, 1780 
Laing, S. ; India, 1801-2 
Laird, Mr. ; Birkenhead 
Lake, Gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; Del- 
hi, Lincellas 
Lake, Hon. Capt. ; Sombrero, 1807- 

10 
Lalaude, J., astronomer, 1732-1804 
Lally ; beheaded, 1766 
La Marmora, General A., born 1804 ; 

Tchernaya, 1855 ; Italy, 1862 
Lamartine, A. de ; b. 1792; miscel- 
laneous writer 
Lamb, C. ; 177.'5-1S.34; essays 
Lamb, Dr. ; killed, 1628; riots 
Lamballe, Princesse de ; France, 

1792 
Lamberg, Count ; Austria, 1848 
Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
Lambert, Mr. ; rf. 1809; corpulency 
Lambrecht, Mr. ; duel, trials, 1830 
Lambton, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
Lameuuais, POre, F. R. de, 1782-1854 
LamoriciOre, Gen., 1806-05 ; France, 

1851 : Rome, 1860 
Lamplough, Archbp. ; York, 1688 
Lancaster, Captain ; I3antam, 1603 
Lancaster, Duke of; Lancaster 
Lancaster, Joseph ; 1771-18.38, Lan- 

casterian schools, education 
Lander, Uichard ; 1804-34 ; Africa 
Landseer, Sir E., painter, b. 1803 
Lanfranc, Abp. ; Canterlmry, 1070 
Langara, Admiral ; naval "battles, 

1780 
Laugdale, Lord ; master of rolls, 

1836 
Langdale, Sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 
Langhani, .Vbp. ; Canterbury, 1366 
Langton, Abp. ; Canterbury, 12()(i 
Launes ; marshals ; Asperue, 1809 



Lansdowne, Marquess of, 1780-1863; 
see Pctti/, IShclbiirne ; Goderich 
adm., 1827 ; Russell adm., 1840, 
1851; Aberdeen adm., 1852; Pal- 
merston adm., 1855 ct .leq. 

Laomedon, Troy, 1260 B.C. 

Laplace, P. de ; mathematics, 1749- 
1827 

Latimer, Bp. ; burnt, 1555 ; Protest- 
ants 

Latimer, Viscount; adminis., 1672-3 

Land, William, Archbp., 1573-1645 ; 
Caiitorburv, administrations 

Lauderdale, Duke of; Cabal, 1670 

Laura ; Petrarch, 1327 

Lautrec, (/. 1528 

Lavalette's escape, 1815 

Lavater, J., 1741-1801 ; physiogno- 
my 

Lavoisier, A., 1743-94 ; carbon, ni- 
tric acid, etc. 

Law's bubble, 1720 

Lawes, H., 1600-62 

Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 

Lawrence, Gen. H. ; 1806-57 ; India, 
1857 

Lawrence, Sir J. ; bornlSll; India, 
1863 

Lawrence, Sir T., painter, 1769-1830 

Layard, Austen ; b. 1817 ; Nineveh 

Layer's conspiracy, 1722 ; Layer 

Leake, Adm. ; d. 1720 ; Admiralty, 
Gibraltar, Mediterranean, Minor- 

Leatham, E. ; trials, 1801 

Le Boo, Prince; Pelew Islands, 1784 

Ledru Rolliu, A. ; b. 1808 ; France, 

1848 
Lee, Alexander ; thealn-es, 1830 
Lee, Archbishop ; York, 1544 
Lee, Chas. ; administra. U. S., 1795 
Lee, Gen. Robt, U. S., 1862 ; Penin- 
sular Campaign, 1862 ; Gettys- 
burg, 1863 ; Grant's Virginia Cam- 
paign, 1864-5 
Lee, W. ; stoclving frame, 1589 
Leech, John, 1817-64, caricatures 
Leeds, Duke of; administra., 1089 
Leeke, II., Bushire, 1856 
Leeuweuhoek ; 1632-1723 ; animal- 

cuire, polypus 
Lefevre, C.Shaw ; speaker, 1839 
Legare, H. S. ; administrations U. 

S., 1843 
Leggatt, B. ; burning, 1612 
Legge, Bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 1754 
Legros, Raymond ; Dublin, 1171 
Leibnitz, Gottfr., 1646-1710; mathe- 
matics, fluxions 
Leicester, Earl of; administrations, 

1558; national associations 
Leicester, Earl of, v. Morning Her- 
ald; trials, 1809 
Leighton, Archbp. Robert, 1611-84 
Leighton, G. C. ; printing in colors, 

1849 
Le Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 
Lelewel ; Poland, 1863 
Lely, Sir P., painter, 1017-80 
Le Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 
Lennox, Colonel ; duel, 1789 
Lenoir ; gas, 1861 
Le Notre ; St. James's Park, 1668 
Leo ; popes. Eastern Empire 
Leo X., Pope ; 151:!, indulgences 
Leon, Diego de ; Spain, 1841 
Leon, Ponce de ; America, 1512 
Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519 
Leonardo of Pisa ; algebra, 1220 
Leonidas ; Thermopylae, 480 B.C. 
Leopardi, Italian orator, 1798-1837 
Leopold, (iermany ; Morgarten, 
1315 ; Sempach, 1386 ; Belgium, 
1830 
Lepidus; triumvir, 43 B.C. 
L'Epoe, Abbo de ; 1732-89, deaf 
Le Pique, M. ; duel, 1808 
Le SaL'e, 1668-174T 
Leslie, C. R., painter, 1794-18.59 
Leslie, Sir J., 6. 1766; atmometer 
Lessing, G. E., German philosopher, 

1729-Sl 
Lestock, Admiral ; Tonlon, 1744 



L'Estrange, Sir R. ; newspapers, 

1063 
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane Soc, 1774 
Lever, Sir Ashtou ; museum 
Leverrier, U., b. 1811 ; Neptune, 1846 
Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres, 1773 
Lewis, Sir G. Coruewall, 1806-1803 ; 

Palmerston adm., 1855 
Lewisham, Vise. ; Addiugton ad- 
ministration, 1801 
Leybourne, William de ; admiral, 

1297 
Libanius, orator, 314-363 
Liddou, Lieut. ; northwest passage, 

1819 
Liebig, J., born 1803 ; agriculture, 

chemistry 
Light, P.; Penang 
Ligouier, Lord ; Bute, 1762 
Lilburne, Col. ; Levelers, Wigan, 

1051 
Lilly; astrology, 1647 
Lilly, George, d. 1559; charts 
Lin; China, 1840 
Linacre, Dr., died 1524 ; gardening, 

lectures, physicians 
Lincoln, Abm., 6. 1809 ; U. S., 1860- 

2; administrations 
Lincoln, Earl of; administrations, 

1579 
Lincoln, Levi ; adminis. U. S., 1801 
Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), b. 1821 
Lindley, John, bot., 1799-1865 
Liszt, F. ; music, 6. 1811 
Lindsay, Earl of; Edgehill, 1642 
Lindsay, Sir John ; Madras, 1770 
Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 
Linlithgow, Lord ; Guards, 1660 
Linnsens, C. von, 1707-78 ; botany, 

Linnasan zoology 
Linus, poet,/. 1281 B.C. 
Liprandi ; "Balaklava, Eupatoria, 

1S55 
Lisle, Lord ; administrations, 1544 
Lisle, Viscount ; Portsmouth, 1544 
Liston, J. ; retires, 1838 
Little, John ; Sherwood Forest 
Littleton, Lord ; chancellor, lord, 

1641 
Littleton, Mr. ; Melbourne admin- 
istration, 1834 
Liverpool, Earl of, 1770-1828 ; Liv- 
erpool administration, 1812 
Livingston, Ed. ; admin. U. S., 1831 
Livingstone, D., b. 1817; Africa 
Livius. Titus, historian, d. IS 
Llewellyn ; Wales, 1194 
Lloyd, Bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Lloyd, Charles, Esq. ; Junius, 1769 
Llovd, Mrs. Catharine ; quackery, 

1831 
Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase. 1845 
Locke, J., 1632-1704 ; physics, Car- 
tesian, coin 
Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 
Lockver, Major ; duel, 1817 
Lofting, John, thimble, 1695 
Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 
Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; 

burned, 1322 
Lombe, Sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
London Dock Company ; trials, 1S51 
Londonderry, Ld. ; see Castlereagh; 

suicide, 1822 
Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
Long, Sir R. ; administrations, 1660 
Long, St. John; quack; trials,1830-l 
Longfellow, H. W., b. 1807 ; authors 
Longinus ; philosopher ; killed, 273 
Longley, Abp. ; York, 1860; Ripon 
Lon'gstreet, General, Chickamauga, 

1863, United States 
Lonsdale, Bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Lonsdale, Earl of; duel, 1792; Der- 
by administration, 1852 
Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
Lopez, Sir Manasseh ; Grampound ; 

trials, 1819 
L'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries ; 

1564 
Lorraine, Chas. of; Lissa, Mohatz, 
1687 



532 



INDEX. 



Lorraine, Claude, paiuter, 1000-82 
Lorraine, Dulie ol'; Crecy, 1346 
Losinga, II. ; Norwich, 1U1>1 
London, C. J., 1783-1S43 ; botany 
Lougliborougrli ; attorney general ; 

coalition, 17S3 
Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
Louis; France, Spain, 1724 
Louis III. ; landgrave, 1130 
Louis XI., " Christian ;" blood, 

posts, 1470 ; Provence 
Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 
Louis XIII. ; Lmiis d'or, 1G40 
Louis XIV'. ; Dieu-doune, Nantes, 

16S5 
Louis XVIIL ; Hartwell, 1S07-1S14, 

France 
Louis, King ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
Louis-Napoleou ; France, 184S, and 

11. 
Louis-Philippe ; France, 1830 
Louis, prince of Condc; Jarnac,1569 
Louisa-Maria, infanta ; (Spain, 1840 
Louise, Queen, died 1850; Belgium, 

1S32 
Louth, Lord, trials, 1811 
Louvel ; trials, 1820 
Lovat, Lord; conspiracy, trials, 1747 
Lovejoy, E. P. ; Alton Kiots, 1831 
Lovel, trials, 1812 
Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
Lowell, J. R., &. ISIO; authors 
Lowther, Vise. ; Wellington adm., 

182S 
Loyola, Ignatius : Jesuits, 1534 
Luby, Thomas ; Fenian, trial, 1805 
Lucan,Earl of; trials, 1850 
Lucan, killed, 05 ; Rome, Cordova 
Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 
Lucian, about 120-200 
Lucilius ; satire, 116 B.C. 
Lucretia, died 47 B.C. ; Rome, spin- 
ning 
Lucretius, d. 52 B.C. 
Lully; nitric acid, 1287 (music), 1633 

-72 
Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 
Lunardi,*M. ; balloons, 17S4 
Lutatius : naval battles, 241 B.C. 
Luther, Martin, 1483-1546 ; Angus- 
tins, Lutheranisni, Dort, Protest- 
antism, Augsburg, Calvinists, 
Worms 
Luther, R. ; planets, 1852 
Luxemburg, Marshal ; Enghien, 

1692 
Luxmore, Bishop ; Bristol, 1807 
Lycurgus ; Sjjarta, S81 B.C. 
Lyell, Sir C, 6. 1797 ; geology, man 
Lynch; trials, 1S17 
Lj-ndhurst, Lord, 1772-1SC3 ; chan- 
cellor; Lord Canning adni.,lS27; 
Wellington adminis., 1828 ; Peel 
administration, 1834, 1841 
Lynedoch, Ld. ; Barrosa, 1811 ; Ber- 

gen-op-Zo im, St. Sebastian 
L3'on, Captain ; northwest passage, 

1821 
Lyon, General Nath'l. ; Springfield, 
Boonevillc, Wilson's Creek^isei 
Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 
Lysander ; Sparta, 405 B.C. 
Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C., Corus 
Lysippus ; Lysistratus ; sculpture, 

busts, 328 B.C. 
Lyttelton, Geo., Lord ; dreams, 1779 
Lytton, E. Biilwer, novels, b. 1805, 
guilds 

M. 

Jlacadam, J. ; macadamizing, 1819 

Macarthv, Sir Chas. ; Sierra Leone, 
Ashantees, 1824 

Macartney, Earl; duel,17S6; China, 
1793; India 

Macaulay, T. B., 1800-1859 ; Mel- 
bourne administration, 1837 

Macbeth; Scotland, 1057 

MacCabe ; robliers, 1091 

Macclesfield, Earl of; chancellor, 
lord high, 1718 

MacCormack ; reaping machine, 
1831 



Macdonald, Capt. ; Prussia, 1861, n. 
Macdouald, Marshal ; Parma, Tre- 

bia, 1799 
Macdonalds massacred ; Gleucoe, 

1092 
Macduflf, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
Macfarlaue, S. ; trials, 1844 
Macgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849 
Machiavelli, N., 1409-1527 
Mack, Genera! ; Ulm, 1805 
Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
Mackay, Gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1089 
Mackintosh, Sir James, 1705-1S32 
Macklin ; Bible, books 
Mackliu, C, actor, d. 1797 
Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
MacLeod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
Maclise, I). ; paiuter, b. 1811 
MacNamara, Captain ; duel, 1803 
MacNaughten,Mr. ; trials, 1761,1843 
Macready, W. ; actor, b. 1793 
Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Macrobius ; writer, d. 415 
M'Carty, Gen. ; Enniskillen, 1089 
M'Clellan, Gen. George B., b. 1826 ; 

Peniusular Campaign 
M'Clellaud,Robt. ; administrations 

U. S., 1853 
M'Clernand, General J. A. ; Yicks- 

burg, 1863 
M'Clintock, Capt. ; Franklin, 1859 
M'Clure, Captain ; Franklin, 1850 ; 

northwest passage 
M'Cook, Gen. A. D. ; Chickamauga, 

1803 
M'Culloch, Hugh ; administrations 

U. S., 1SC5 
M'CUilloch, J. R., polit. econ., b. 1789 
M'Dowell, Gen. I ; Manassas, 1801 
M'6ill,Mr. ; trials, 1S42 
M'Intosh, General; duel, 1777 
M'Kenzie, Mr. ; duel, 17SS 
M'Lachlau, Jessie : trials, 1863 
M'Laue, Louis ; admin. U. S., 1833 
M'Lean, John ; adminis. U. S., 1823 
McNaghten, Sir W.; killed, 1841 
M'Neill, Sir J. ; Scbastopol, 1855 
M'Pherson, Gen. J. B., A-. at Deca- 
tur, 1864 ; Atlanta Campaign 
Madan, Bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madiai, the; Tuscany, 1852 
Madison, James ; United States, 
President, 1809 ; administra.U. S. 
Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths 
Magee, J. ; trials, 1S13 
Magellan: killed, 1521; circumnav- 
igation, Philippine 
Magi ; fire-worshipers, Epiphany 
Magnus, King, Norway, Sweden 
Magnrder, Gen. J. B. ; Peninsular 

Campaign, 1S02 
Maguire, Captain ; Franklin, 1848 
Magus, Simon ; Simouians, heretics 
]\Iaimonides ; Jewish writer, d. 1208 
Maitland, Cajitain ; France, 1815 
Maitland, Sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
Major; couchology, 1675 
Malachi prophesies about 397 B.C. 
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clan- 
ships, Alnwick, Dunsinane 
Malebranche, N. ; philosopher, 1638 

-1713 
Malherbe ; French poet, 155C-16'S 
Malibran, Madame ; music, 1808-30 
Mallet, R. ; earthquakes, seismome- 
ter, 18,')8 
Malmesburv, Lord, 6. 1607 ; Derby 

administrations, 18.52, 1858 
Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1028-94 
Maltby, Bishop ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1766-1834, polit. econ. 
Miilzel, J. : metronome, 1815 
Manasseh, Ben Israel : Jews, 16.5T 
Manby, Capt ; life-preserver, 1809 
Manchester, Earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1620 
Manchester will ; trials, 18.^4 
Mandeville, Vise. ; administrations, 

1620 
Manes; killed, 274 ; Manichajans 
Manfred; killed, 1200; Naples 
Manilas ; Cimbri, 102 B.C., Rome 
Manners, Lord John ; Derby adm., 
1852, 1S5S 



Mannings ; murderers, trial, 1849 
Manny, Sir W. ; Charter House, 

1371 
Mausel, Bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
Mansfield, C. B. ; benzole, 1S49 
Mansfield, Lord ; att. general, 1754 ; 
Dumblain, 1715; fictions in law, 
Kmg's Bench 
Manuel ; Eastern Empire, Trebi- 

zond 
Manutius, see Ahhis 
Mar, Earl of; Harlaw, 1411 ; trials, 

1831 
Marat ; stabbed ; France, 17C3 
Marcellus ; Rome, 212 B.C. 
March, Roger, earl of; rebellions, 

1398 
March, E. ; rope-making, 1784 
Marchmont; trials, 1858 
Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 
Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp., 161 
IMarcus Curtius ; Rome, 302 B.C. 
Marcy, Wm. L. ; admin. U. S., 1845 
Mardonius ; Mycale, Plattea, 497 B. 

C. 
Margaret (governes.s of the Nether- 
lands, 1559) ; beards 
Mai;garet of Anjou (queen of Henry 
VL), d. 1481 ; Tewkesbury, Tow- 
ton, Wakefield 
Margaret of Norway: Calmar, 1S03 
Margaret ; queens (Edward I.) 
Margratf; beet-root, 1747 
Maria!- Antoinette ; France, 1793 ; 

diamond necklace 
Maria da-Gloria ; Portugal, 1820 
Maria-Louisa, died 1847 ; France, p. 

318; wills (Napoleon's) 
Maria-Theresa; Germany, 1711 
Marius, d. 80 B.C. ; Ambrones, Cim- 
bri 
Markham, Abp. : York, 1776 
Marlborough, Duke of, 1650-1716 ; 
com. -in -chief, marshals, Blen- 
heim, Douay, Liege, Lisle, Mal- 
plaquet, Oudeuarde, Ramilies 
Marlborough, Earl of; admiListra* 

tions,lG2S 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
Marmont, Marshal ; Salamanca, 

1812 
Marmontel, J. F., 1723-99 
Marot, Clement; poet, 1495-1544 
Marsh, Bishop ; Llandafl', 1810 
Marshall, John ; admin. V. S., ISOO 
Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
IMarshall, T. R. ; trials, 1859 
IMartel, Charles ; France, 714 
Marten, Maria ; trials, 1S2S 
Marth ; planets, 18.54 
Martial ; epigrams, /?. 100 
Martin, John ; painter, 17C0-1S54 
Martin, Jon. ; fires York minster, 

1829 
Martin ; popes, 649, ct srq. 
Martin, Rev. G. ; suicide, 1860 
Martin, Richard ; animals, 1822 
Martyr, Peter, d. 1501 
Marvell, A.; (7.1078; ballot 
Mary I., 1510-58 ; England, queen, 

1553: Calais 
Mary II., 1662-94 ; England, queen, 

1689 
Mary Queen of Scots, 1542-87; Scot- 
land, Carlisle, Edinburg, syca- 
more,Langside,Lochleveu Castle, 
Fotheringay 
Maryborough, Lord ; postmaster, 

1835 
Masaniello ; Naples, 1047 
Maskelyne, Dr. N. ; Greenwich, 

1705: Schiehallien, 1772 
Maskelyne, N. ; Venus, Greenwich, 

almanacs 
Mason. John Y. ; admin. U. S., 1844 
Mason, Mr. ; United States, 1801 
Massena ; Zurich, 1799 ; Almeida, 

Busaco 
Massey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 
Massev, W. ; India, 1805 
Massil'lon, 1063-1742 
Mathew, Theobald, died 1S50 ; tem- 
perance 



INDEX. 



Mathews, Charles ; actor, 1TT6-1835 
Mathias; Anabaptists', 1534 
Matilda, Coimtess ; Cauossa, 1077 ; 

Italy 
Matilda, Denmark ; 1772; Zell 
Matilda (Enii)resf^) ; Enu'laud, 1135 
Matilda, qucL-iis (Stephen) 
Matilda, (jueens OVilliam I.) : Ba- 

veux tapestry, lOOG 
Matthew, T., Archhp., York, IGOG 
IMatthews, Admiral ; 'f otllou, 1744 
INIaiid. See Matilda 
Maule, Fox (Lord Panniure), Kus- 

pell administration, 1840 
Maunsell, Col. ; iMeal-tnb Plot, 1679 
Maupertuis, P. L. dc, 1698-1759 ; lat- 
itude 
Maurice, F. D. ; 6. 1S05; workiug- 

nieu's colleiTO, 1S54 
Mausolus ; 377 B.C., mausoleum, 

wonders 
JIaximiliau ; emperors, Germany, 

1493 ; Mexico, 1864 
Maximin; Rome, emp., 235; giants, 

persecutions 
Mazarin, Cardinal; France, 1643; 

tontines 
Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving:, l.')32 
:Mead, Dr. Itichard, 1073-1754 ; inoc- 
ulation 
Mead, Geo., Gen., h. 1S16 ; United 

States, 1803 
Mca;::her; Ireland, 1S43 
Medhurst, Francis 11.; trials, 1839 
Medici ; Medici family 
IMedicis, Catharine de, d. 15S9 ; Bar- 
tholomew, St. 
Tilediua-Sidonia, Duke of; armada 
3U'don ; Athens, 1044 
jVIehemet Ali ; B^ypt, Syria 
Meitrs, R. J. ; administrations U. S., 

ISIT 
Meikle, A., thrashiuo' machine, 1776 
Melaucthon,Phil., 1497-1560; Augs- 
burg Confession 
Melas, General ; Marengo, ISOO 
Melbourne, Viscount ; Melbourne ; 

trials, 1S36 

Jlellon, Miss (afterward Duchess of 

St. Albau's), lirst appearance, 1795 

Jlelville, Lord ; impeachment, ISOO 

Memnon said to invent alphabet, 

lS-22 B.C. 
Menander, d. 291 B.C., drama 
Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-4S 
Mendizabal, Spain, 1835 
Mendoza, Pedro de ; Buenos Ayres, 

1530 
Menou, General ; Alexandria, ISOO 
Mentschikofl', Prince ; Holy Places, 
1853 : Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- 
ish War 
Mercator, Ger., 1512-94; charts 
Meredith, W.M.; admin. U. S.,1S49 
Merovoeiis, Merovingians, France, 

44S 
Mesmer, Frederick Ant. ; mesmer- 
ism, 1760 
Metastasio, Peter, poet, 100S-17S2 
Meiellus; Achaia, 147 B.C. 
Metius; telescopes, 1590-1609 
Meton ; irolden number, 432 B.C. 
Mclterni'ch, Prince, 1773-1859 
Metz, M. de ; reformatory, 1839 
Meux and Co. ; porter 
Meyer, Simon ; Saturn, 1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer, J. M., 1794-1864 ; music- 
al composer 
Mezentius ; indiction, 312 
:Micah prophesies about 750 B.C. 
Slichael Angelo Buonarotti, 1474- 

l.'->64 
Michael ; Eastern Empire 
Michaelis, J. W., Bib. critic, 1717-91 
^Michelet, J., historian, h. 1798 
Jliddlesex, Earl of; adminis., 1621 
Midilleton, Con; 1683-1750 
]\Iiddleton, John ; ciants, 157S 
IMiddleton; N.W. passage, 1742 
Middleton (or Slyddelton), Sir 

Ilu^h, I5r>.'s-i(i;il, New River 
Miecislas: Poland, 902 
Miiruel, Dom. : Portuiral, 1824 
Mildmay, Sir J. II. ; trials, 1S14 



Mildmay, Sir Walter ; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Mill, James, historian, 1770-1836 
Millais. J. K., h. ]s2;i, painter 
Miller, llugli ; geology, suicide, 1856 
Miller v. Salonions ; trials, 1S5'-' 
Millie, Mr. ; trials, 18:;9 
Milman, II. II., h. 1791, historian 
Milosch ; Servia, 1815 
Miltiades; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
Milton, John, 1008-1074 ; Paradise 
Lost, Cripplegate, English litera- 
ture 
Mina, d. 1830 ; Spain, 1835 
Minos; Crete, 1015 B.C. 
Minto, Earl of ; ludia, governor 

general, 1807 
Miramon, General ; Mexico, 1859 
Mires, M. ; Mexico, 1801 
Mister, Josiah ; trials, 1S41 
Mitchell, Adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1801-2 
Mitchell, D. ; aquarium, 1853 
Mitchell ; Ireland, 1848 
Mitchell, Sir'F. ; victualers, 1621 
Mitford, Sir John ; att. gen., 1800 : 
speaker, 1801 ;—W., History of 
Greece, 1744-1827 
Mithridates the Great, 131-63 B.C. ; 
Pontus, comets, electuary, massa- 
cres, omens 
Mitra, Gen. B., Buenos Ayres, 1859 
Moliat, Colonel ; wrecks, 1S,'>7 
Mohammed, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mohammedanism, Mecca, Medi- 
na, Beder, Turkey, Koran 
Mohammed II., died 1481 ; Eastern 
Empire,Turkey,Adrianople, Con- 
stantinople, Albania 
Mohun, Lord ; duel, 1712 
Moir, Captain ; trials, 1830 
Moira, Earl of; India, gov. general, 

1813 
IMole, Count, d. 1855 
Molesworth, Sir Wm. ; Aberdeen 

administration, 1852 
Moliere, Fr. comic dram., 1622-73 
Molinos, 1627-90 ; (Juietists 
Molyneux, Mr. ; absentee, 1738 
Mompesson, Giles ; victualers, 1621 
Monk, General, administrations, 

1660, Guards, d. 1670 
Monmouth, Duke of, 1685 ; rebel- 
lion, Sedgemoor, iron mask,Both- 
well 
Monroe, Mr. ; United States, Presi- 
dent, 1817-21 ; administra. U. S. 
Monstrelet, Eug. de, hist., d. 1453 
Montacute, Marquess of; Man, 1314 

-13 
Montagu, Lady M. W. ; inoculation, 

171S 
Montacrn, Lord ; administrations, 

1661.1-89 
Montague, Mrs., d. 1800 ; May-day 
Montaigne, M. de, essayist, 1533-92 
Montalembert, Comte de ; France 
Montanus ; Moutanists, about 171 ; 

polyglot, 1559 
M(nit'etiore, Sir Moses ; Jews, 1837 
Monteniolin, Comte de; Spain, 1860 

-1 
Montesquieu, 1689-1755 
Monteverde ; opera, 1607 
Monti'errat; assassins, 1192 
Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 

1208 
Montfort, Simon de ; Barons' War, 
Commons, Kenilworth, steward, 
lord high, speaker, Lewes, killed 
at Evesliam, 1205 
Montgoltler, M. ; balloons, 1782 
Montgomery, Comte de ; tourna- 
ments, 1559 
Montgomerv, Mr. ; suicide, duel, 

1803 
Montholon, Comte de; will (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 
Monti, Italian poet, 1754-1828 
Montpensier; France, Spanish mar- 
riage, 1840 
Montrose, Duke of; Pitt adm., 1804 
M(nitrose, Marquess of, executed, 
lO.'jO ; Corbiesdale, Scotland, Al- 
ford, Philiphaugh 



Moore ; almauac, lCOS-1713 
Moore, Anne ; abstinence, 1808 
Moore, Archhp. ; Canterbury, 17S3 
ftloore, Captain ; Franklin, 1848 
Moore ; murdered, trials, 1853 
J.Iooi-e, Sergeant ; leases, 15i!5 
;\Io(ae, Sir Jiiliu, k. at Cc*unua, 1809 
]\Ioore, Sir Jonas ; Greenwich 
Moore, Thomas ; poet, 1780-1852 
Mordaunt, Charles, Viscount; ad- 
ministrations, 1689 
More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
More, Roger ; rebellion, 1051 
More, Sir Thomas, 1482-1535 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1529, lord chancel- 
lor, supremacy 
Moreau, General, 1703-1813 ; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wiirtemberg, 
Dresden 
Morelaud, Samuel; speaking trum- 
pet, 1671 
Morelli ; tourniquet, 1674 
Moretou, John, earl of; Ireland, 

1177 
Morgan ; buccaneer, 1668 
Morgan, Colonel ; Lincoln 
Morgan, Confederate general ; Uni- 
ted States, 1862 
Morgan, Gen. D. ; Cowpens, 1781 
Morland, George, 1764-1804 
Morley, T. ; music, rf. 1604 
Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810 
Moruing Herald ; trials, 1809 
Morning Post; libel, 1792 
Mornington, Lord ; India, 1798 
Morpeth, Viscount (now Earl of Car- 
lisle) ; Melbourne admin., 1835 
Morris, George ; flowers, 1792 
Morris, Mr. ; theatres, 1805 
Morris, Robert ; Banks U. S., 1781 
Mortara, E. ; Jews, 1853 
Mortier, Mar. ; Romainville, 1814 
Mortimer, E. A. ; trials, 1859 
Mortimer, Earl of March ; Berke- 
ley, 1327 
Morton, Archbishop ; Canterbury, 

1486 
Alorton, regent of Scotlan'd, 1572 
Morton, Sir A. ; administrations, 

1628 
:Morton, Thomas ; ether, 1845 
Morton ; trials, 1852 
Moryson, Fynes ; forks 
Mosely, Wolf, etc. ; trials, 1819 
Moses, 1571-1451 B.C. 
Mosquera, Gen., New Granada, 1861 
Moss, Bishop ; Oxford, 1807 
Mosse, Dr. ; Lying-in Hospital, 1745 
Mothe-Guyouj Madame de la ; Qui- 

etists, 1097 
Motley, J. L., h. 1814 ; authors 
Mountaigne, Archbp. ; York, 1623 
Mount-Sandford, Lord, killed ; tri- 
al, 1S2S 
Mouravieff ; Kars, 1855 
Mourzoufle ; Constantinople, East- 
ern Empire, 1204 
Mozart, W. A. ; music, 1756-91 
Mudie, C. ; circulating library, 1842 
Muirhead, J. G. ; trials, 1825 
Mulgrave, Earl ; Liverpool admin- 
istration, 1812, Ireland, lord lieut. 
Mullens, J.; trials. 18G0 
Miiller, F. ; execution, 1864 
Miiller, F. Max ; &. 1823, Vedas, San- 
scrit, lausuace 
Mulot, M. Cartesian well, 1841 
]\Iulready, Wm. ; painter, 1786-63 
Mummins, L., Corinth, 146 B.C. ; 

paiutiug 
Munich, Marshal ; Perekop, 1736 
Munoz, Duke: Sjiain, 1833 
Jlunro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 
Munster, Earl of; suicide, 1842 
Munzer ; Levelers, Anabaptists, 

1524-5 
Murat, Joachim, 1767-1815; Erfurt, 

Naples 
Muratori, L. ; historian, 1672-1750 
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., 1792! 

eeoloiry, British Association 
Murdoch. Mr. ; sras, 1792 
Mnrillo, B. S., 1613-85; painting 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1S41 



584 



INDEX. 



Murrav, Earl of; Scotland, 1567 
Murrav, Lady Aug. ; maiTiage act, 

1793" 
Murrav, Mr. ; pennv-post, 16S3 
Murray, Sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1S34 
Murray, Sir James ; Tarragoua,lS13 
Musa ;" Spain, 712 
Musffius, rf. 1-413 B.C. 
Musgrave, Abp. ; Hereford, 1S37 
Musgrave, Sir Kichard ; duel, 1S02 
Musiiat, Mr. ; steel, ISOO 
Myddelton, Sir Hugh, 1555-1631 ; 

Kew River 
Mylne,E. ; 173J-1S11 
Myron ; sculptor,/. 4S0 B.C. 
Mytton, General ;" Wales, l&i5 

N. 

Nabis; Sparta, 206 B.C. 

Nabonassar, /. 747 B.C. ; astrono- 
mv 

Naciiimoff, Admiral ; Sinope, 1S53 

Is adar ; balloon, 1S03 

Xadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, 
Afghanistan, Cabul 

Jsahum prophesies about 713 B.C. 

Nana Sahib; Cawnpore, India, 1S57 

Napier, Admiral Sir C, Portugal, 
Sidon, Baltic, ls&4 

Napier, Gen. Sir C. ; Meeanee, 1S43 

Napier, Lord ; China, Edinburg, 
United States, 1S56 

Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1S44 

Napier of Merchiston; logarithms, 
Napier's bones, 1G14 

Napoleon Bonaparte, 17C9-1S21, p. 
212; confederation, legion of hon- 
or, models, notables,Cairo,Egypt, 
Elba, Foutainebleau,Malta,Mam- 
elukes, St. Helena, Simplon, vac- 
cination ; his battlci: Acre, Areo- 
la, Asperne,Auerstadt,Austerlitz, 
Bantzen, Borodinp, Castigiione, 
Charleroi, Dresden, Eckmifhl, Es- 
sling, Eylau, Friedland, Hanau, 
Italy, Jena, La Rothiere, Leipsic, 
Ligny, Lodi, Lutzeu, Marengo, 
Montereau, national guard, Pul- 
tusk, St. Dizier, Simplon, Tilsit, 
Troyes, Vienna, Waterloo, Wurtz- 
burg 

Napoleon III., 6. ISOS; p. 212; Bou- 
logne, Strasburg, Cherbourg, Ita- 
ly, Magenta, Solferino 

Napoleon Jerome ; p. 212 n. 

Napoleon, king of Rome ; p. 212 

Narses ; East. Empire, 552 ; Goths, 
Italy, Rome 

Narvaez, General ; Spain, 1S46 

Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, ISIS 

Nasmyth, J. ; steam hammer, 1S3S 

Nasmyth, Lieut. ; Silistria, 1S54 

Nasr-iil-Deen ; Persia, 1S4S 

Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. 

Nebuchadnezzar ; Jews, 605 B.C., 
Tvre, Babvlon 

Necho; Egypt, 634 B.C. 

Neil, Colonel ; India, 1S57, Allaha- 
bad, Benares 

Neilson, J. ; 1702-1SG5 ; blowing 
machine, 1S2S 

Nelson, Horatio; admiral lord, 175S 
-1S05; Nelson 

Nelson, John ; adminis. U. S., 1S44 

Nero ; Rome, emperor, .'54 

Nesselrode, Comte de, 1770-1S62 

Newcastle, Duke of; Pelham adm., 
1749 ; Newcastle adminis., 1754 ; 
Aberdeen adm., 1S52 

Newcastle, Marquess of; Marston 
Moor, 1644 

Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1S44 

Newman, Rev. J., and Achilli ; tri- 
als, 1S52 ; Tractarians 

Newport, Sir John ; Exchequer, 
1834 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air ; 
binomial ; coin ; diamond ; as- 
tronomy ; Royal Society ; hydro- 
statics ; gravitation ; mechanics 

Ney, Marshal, 1769-1S15 ; Denne- 
witz, France, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, 
Ney 



Neyle, Archbishop ; York, 1632 
Niccoli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436 
Nicephori, emperors; Eastern Em- 
pire, S02-963 
Nicephorus ; comets 
Nicholas ; Russia, 1S25-55 
Nicholas V., Pope, 1447-55 ; St Pe- 
ter's, Rome 
Nichols, Colonel ; New York, 1664 
Nicholson ; trials, 1S13 
Niebuhr, B.H. ; historian, 1776-1S21 
Niopce ; photography, 1S14 
Niger, P. ; Rome, enip., killed, 194 
Nightingale, F., born 1S20; Scutari, 

S'ightmgale 
Niles, J.M. ; adminis. V. S.,1S40 
Niuns ; Assyria, 2059 B.C. 
Nisbet, Sir John ; advocates, 16S5 
Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1S55 
Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
Noailles, Marshal ; Dettingen, 1743 
Norfolk, Thomas, duke of ; admin- 
istrations, 1540 ; people 
Norman, Robert ; magnet, 1576 
Norman, Sir J. ; mayor, 14'>3 
Normanby and Buckingham, Duke 

of; Godolphiu administra., 1702 
Normanby, Marquess of ; Ireland 

(lord lieutenant), 1S35 
North, Bishop ; Winchester, 17S1 
North, Lord ; North adminis., 1770 
North, Sir F. ; king's counsel, 1603 
Northampton, Henry, earl of; ad- 
ministrations, 1609' 
Northumberland, Algernon, duke 

of; Derby adm.inistration, 1S52 
Northumberland, Dudley, duke of; 

administrations, 1551 
Northumberland, Earl of; coaches, 

Man 
Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 

Ireland (lord lieutenant), 1703 
Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 129S 
Norton, Sir Fletcher; attorney gen- 
eral, 1703 
Norton v. Lord Melbourne ; trials, 

1S36 
Nostradamus ; almanacs. l.^GG 
Nott, General; Ghiznee,iS42 
Nottingham, Earl of; administra- 
tions, 16S4 
Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, 

715 B.C. ; calendar 
Numitor; Alba, 795 B.C. 
Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 

O. 

Cakes, U. ; artillerv, 1672 
Oakley, Sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 
Gates, T. ; Gates's Plot, 167S 
Obadiah prophesies about 5S7B.C. 
O'Brien, King ; Limerick, 1200 
O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1&4G, 1S4S 
O'Counell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1S47 ; 
duel, 1315; agitators, duel, eman- 
cipation, repeal, trials (1831, 1844), 
Ireland 
O'Connell, Mr. ^Morgan ; duel, 1835 
O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots, tri- 
als, 1798 
O'Connor, Fergus, <?.1S55; Chartists 
O'Connor, Rocrer : trials, 1817 
Ochus ; Persia, 350 B.C. 
Octavius ; Rome, 37 B.C. 
Odin; Sweden, 70 B.C. 
Odo, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 941-53 
Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
Odoacer ; Italy, 470, Heruli 
O'Donnell, General ; Spain, 1341 
(Edipus; Bceotia, 12G6-76 B.C. 
CEnotrus ; Arcadia, Greece, 1710 B. 

C. 
Oersted, H. C, 1777-1S51 ; electrici- 
ty, 1S19 
Ogle, George ; duel, 1302 
OL'lethorpe, General ; Georgia, 1732 
O'Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1303 
Osvges; deluge, 17G4 B.C. 
O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1313 
O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 
Gibers, M. ; planet, 1302 
Oldcastle, Sir John ; burnt, 1418 
Oliphant, Sir William ; advocate 



Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
Oliver, L.; trials, 1353 
Ollendorff, H. G. ; linguist, 1803-65 
Ollivaut, Bishop ; Llandaff, 1S49 
O'Loghlen, Sir M. ; Roman Catho- 
lics, 1S3G 
Omai; Otaheite 

Omar, Caliph, 634 ; Alexandria, Ali 
Omar Pacha; Citate, Montenegro, 
Oltenitza, Ingour, Russo-Turkish 
War, 1355 
Ommaney, Captain ; Franklin, 1850 
O'Moore. Rory ; Carlow, 1577 
O'Neil, Miss ; appears at Coveut 

Garden, 1314 
O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre, Black- 
water, 1593 
Onslow, Sir R. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Opie, John ; painter, 1761-1S07 
Oppian, poet,/. 171 
Orange, Prince of ; Quatre-Bras, 

1315 
Orange, Wm., prince of ; Holland, 
Maestricht, revolution, 1572 ; En- 
s\a-aA, 1639 
Oi-belliana ; Circassia, 1357 
Orellana ; Amazonia, liMO 
Orestes ; Mycenre, Sparta, 1175 B.C. 
Orlila, M. J. ; phvsic, 1733-1353 
Orford, Earl of; "Admiralty, 1709 
Orloff, Count ; diamonds, 1772 
Ormoud, Earl of; combat, 144G 
Ormond, Jiimes, duke of; Ireland, 

p. 205 
Ormond, Marquess of; Eathmines, 

1649 
Orr, Isaac ; air-tight stove, 1836 
Orr, William ; trials, 1797 
Orrery, Earl of; Orrery 
Ortega, General ; Spain, 1360 
Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1354 
Osborne, Sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1G72 
Oscar; Sweden, 1844 
Osgodebv, Adam de ; master of the 

rolls, 1295 
Osgood, Sam'l. ; admin. U. S., 17S9 
Ospina ; New Grenada, 1357 
Ossorv, Lord ; tea, 1C66 
Osym"andyas ; Egypt, 2100 B.C. ; 

observatories, painting 
Othman; Turkey, 1298 
Otho ; Rome, eriip., 69 ; German}', 

936; Greece, 1832-62 
Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1302 
Ottocar; Bohemia, 1197 
Oudinot, Marshal ; Rome, 1S49 
Outram, Sir James ; 1305-63 ; Mo- 

hammerah, India, 1857 
Overbury, Sir T., poisoned, 1613 
Ovid ; poet, d. 13 
Owen, R. D. ; apparitions, 1360 
Owen, Richard, b. 1804 ; odontogra- 
phy, paleontology, zoology 
Owen, Robert ; So'cialists, 1334 
Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 
Oxeuden, Sir George ; Surat, 1664 
O.xford, Earl of; Godolphin adm., 

1702; Oxford adm. 
Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1340 
Oxford, John, earl of; yeomen, 1436 



Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 
Paddon, Lieut. ; takes Cerbere,lS0O 
Paget, Lord ; duel, trials, 1809 
Paget, Lord William, v. Cardigan, 

trials. 1844 
Paget, Sir A. : trials, 1808 
Paget, Sir William ; adminis., 1547 
Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
Pakington, Sir John ; Admiralty, 

1353 
Palafox, General ; Saragossa, 1809 
Palamedes ; alphabet, backgam- 
mon, battle, dice, chess, 030 B.C. 
Palestrina ; 1529-94, music 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1513-80 
Palliser, Sir Hugh ; Ushant, 177S 
Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1306 
Palma, Cardinal, shot ; Rome, 1843 
Palmer; duel, 1315; trials, 13,56 
Palmer, J. ; mail-coaches, 1784 



INDEX. 



535 



Palmerston, Henry, ViBConnt; 17S4 

-IbOS ; Palmerslon 
Panizzi, A. ; BriiiKh Museum, 1S50 
Panraure, Lord : Kugsell adm., 1S51 
Paoli, Pascal ; Corsica, 17.03 
Papachiu, Admiral ; flair, 1CS8 
Papin ; gteam-cn<riue, lOSl 
Papiueau ; Cauada, 1S37 
' Papirius Cursor: sun-dial, 2i>3 B.C. 
Paracelsus; cffed 1041 ; alchemy 
Parini, Guis. ; poet, 1729-99 
Paris, Count of : 6.16^; Orleans 
Park, MuD^o; died 1805; Africa 
Parker, Adm. ; CopenhageD. ISOl 
Parker, Archbp. Matthew ; Canter- 
bury, l.W".; Litur<ry, Nag's Head 
Parker, Caplaiu ; Boulogne 
Parker (mutineer) : trial.", 1797 
Parker, .Sir Peter: Bellair, 1S14 
Parker, Thomas, Lord : chancellor, 

lord, 171S 
Parke.*, Consul ; China, 1 SCO 
Parma, Duke of; Yvres, 1590 
Parma, Prince of: Antwerp, 1585 
Parmeuio: Macedonia, 3-2'J B.C. 
Paruell, Sir Henry; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1V^5 
Parr, Thos. ; ]4S:;-1C35: lontrevity 
Parrhasius : painting,/. 3^1 B.C. 
Parr}-, E. : northwest pag.?age, ISIS 
Par-sons, Bp. ; Peterborougli, 1613 
Parsons family; Cock Lane ghost, 

impostors, 1TC2 
Parsons, Theopb. : adm. U. S., ISOl 
Pascal, B.; 1023-1C02; air, calcula- 
ting machine, barometers 
Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1&54 
Pasteur, M. ; fermentation, 1661 
Patch. Mr. ; trials, 1S06 
Pate, Lieutenant ; trials, 1S50 
Patercnlus : died 31 
Paierson.W. ; bank, 1694; Darien 
Paton, Miss : at Haymarket, 1S22 
Patrick, St. : preaches, 433; Ardagh, 
Armagh, Dublin, isles, shamrock 
Paul ; see .^arpi 
Paul L ; Kussia, 1790 
Pauin. ; pope, 14C4; purple 
Paul, Sir. J., etc. ; trials, lb55; fraud- 
ulent trustees 
Paul, St. ; martyred, 65; popes 
Paulding, J. K.": admin. U. S., 1S3S 
Paulinus; bells, 400 
Paull, Mr. : duel, 1S07 
Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
Pauhis; Abrahamites 
Paulus Emilias; Cannae, 216 B.C. 
Paulus, Marcus : compass, 12G0 
Paasanias ; Sparta, 4S<:i B.C. ; Pla- 

tiea, Macedon, 336 B.C. 
Pausias, of Sicyon, 300-330 B.C. ; 

painting 
Paxton, Sir Joseph ; 1S03-65 ; ex- 
hibition of 1851 ; Crvstal Palace 
Payne, Mr. G. : duel, ISIO 
Peabody, G., b. 1795 ; London, 1S62 
Peace, the Prince of; Spain, 1806 
Pearce, etc. ; gold robbery, 1S57 
Peckham, Abp. ; Canterburj'. 1279 
Pedro (Peter) ; Portugal, Brazil, 

1S22 
Peel, Captain Sir F. ; India, 1858 
Peel, Col. : West Australia, 1828 
Peel, Sir Robert ; 17SS-1S55: Peel, 
adm. (we note), 1 834-1 t>ll ; acts of 
Parliament, conservative, com 
bill, duel, 1S15 ; income-tax, tariff 
Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1.069 
Pelham, Bp. ; Bristol, 1807'; Nor- 
wich, 1857 
Pelham, H. : Wilmington adminis- 
tration, 1742 ; Pelham adminis- 
tration, 1744 
Pelham, Sir W. : engineers, 1622 
PelisFier, Due de Malakhoff; 17S4- 

18.'54; Algiers, Dahra 
Pelletier; quinine, 1820 
Pellew, Sir Ed- ; naval battles, 1795 
Pelouze, F. J., b. 1807, formic acid 
Peltier, M.; libel, trials, 1803 
Pemberton, Gen. J. C. ; Vicksburg, 

1803 
Pemberton, Sir Frs. ; king's bench, 
16S1 



Pembroke, Earl of, Godolphin ad- 
min., 1702: lord lieutenant : Lin- 
coln; protectorates; Salitbury; 
Admiralty 
Pengelly.W. : man 
Penu, Aamiral : Jamaica, 1C55 
Penn,Wm. ; d. 1718; Pennsylvania, 

Quaker 
Penny, Captain ; Franklin, 1850 
Pepe,' General F. ; Naples, 1820 
Pepin ; France, 7.52 ; Ferrara 
Pepys, Bishop ; Worcester, 1841 
Perceval, Spencer ; 7n. 1812; Perce- 
val 
Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterbum, 1388 
Percy, Lord ; Dui'ham, 1346 ; Ho- 
me! den 
Perdiccas ; Macedon, 4.54 B.C. 
Perdita, Sirs. Robinson : theatres, 

1779 
Pereire, M. : credit mobilier, 1852 
Pere^Ta; Uruguav. 18.06 
Pericles ; Athens.'469 B.C. 
Perillus: brazen bull. 570 B.C. 
Perkin Warbeck : Warbeck, 1492 
Perkin, W. H. : aniline, 18.07 
Perkins; engraving; copper-plate 

printing, 1819 
Perreans: forgery; trials, 1770 i 

Perreira: deaf and dumb 
Perring, John : mayor, 1603 
Perry, Com. ; Lake Erie, 1813 
Perri-, Lieutenant ; trials, 1864 
Perrv,Mr. ; trials, 1810 
Perseus ; Pvdna. 168 B.C. 
Pergigny,.LG.,6.1S0S; France, ISCO i 
Persias," 34-65 : satires 
Perugino, Paolo. 1440-1524 
Peter the Cruel; 3Iontiel. 1309 
Peter the Great : 1672-1725 ; Rus- 
sia, Deptford, Petersburg, Nan-a, 
Pultowa 
Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
Peters, C. H. ; planets, 1862 
Potion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
Peto, S.M., 1809; diorama. 1855 
Petrarch, 1304-1374 ; Petrarch, son- 
nets 
Petre, Sir Wm. ; administra., 1547 
Petronius Arbiter, d. 66 
Petronius : Ethiopia, 22 B.C. 
Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
Petty, Lord H. ; GrenvilJe admini-s- 

tration, 1807 
PettVjWm. ; Roval Society, 1660 
Peze"t, J. A. : Peru.18C.5-5 
Phalaris ; brazen bull, 599 B.C. 
Pharamond : France. 418 ? 
Pharaohs ; Eg>pt, 18'.»9 B.C. 
Phamaces ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 

744 B.C. 
Phaedrus writes fables, 8 
Pheidon, fl. 809 B.C. ; coinage, sil- 
ver, scales, weights 
Phelps, Mr. ; theatres, Sadler's 

Wells, 1844 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias,/. 438 B.C., statues 
Philip,!).; France, Macedon, Spain, 

Hesse, Orieans, 1640 
Philip, St., Neri ; oratorios, 1550 
Philip the Good ; Burgundy, Hol- 
land, 1419-67 
Philip the Great, killed 336 B.C. ; 
Macedon, JEioVia, Chaeronaea, 
Locri, .-J38 B.C. 
Philip II. ; Spain, 1.0.06 
Philippa, Queen (Edward HI.) ; 

Durham, 134C 
Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
Phillip, Governor; Australia, 17SS 
Phillips; duel, 1728 
Phillips, J. T., British Association, 

1831 : fire annihilator, 1649 
Phillips, Wendell, abolition 
Philopoemen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. 
Philpott, Bishop ; Worcester, 1861 
Phipps, Capt. ; northwest passage, 

1773 
Phocas ; Eastern Empire, 602 
Phocion : killed, 317 B.C. 
Phoronens; Argos (1807 B.C.), sac- 
rifice, laws 
Photius Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 B.C. 



Piastns: Poland, 842 
Piaz-zi, M. ; jjlanet, 1801 
Pichegni: Mannheim; killed, 1SC6 
Pickard, Sir II. ; lord mayor, 1357 
Pickering, T. ; adminis. U. S., 1795 
PJcton, Gen., trials, 1806; Quatre- 

Bras, Waterloo, 1815 
Pierce ; United States, President, 

1853; administrations U. S. 
Piers, Archbishop ; York, 1589 
Pigot, Da^id Richard ; Exchequer, 

1816 
Pigot, Lord; India, Pisot diamond, 

1802 
Pisot, Major General ; Malta, 1800 
Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
Pilkington, Bishop ; Liturgy 
Pillow, General G. ; Belmont, 1861 
Pilpav; fables 
Pindar, 522-i39 B.C.— Peter (Dr. 

Wolcot) ; trials, 1807 
Pinel, M. : lunatics, 1792 
Pinkney, Wm. ; admin. U. S., 1811 
Pinzon; America South, 1500, Peru, 

1663 
Pisander; navalbattles, 394 B.C. 
Pisistratus; Athens, 527 B.C. 
Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 
Pitt : diamond, 1720 
Pitt, William: nee Chatham, Earl 
Pitt,Wm. ; 1759-1506; Pittjidmin- 
istration. 1763; India Company, 
East, reform, duel, 1798 
Pius : popes, 142 et seq. 
Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 
Pius YIL ; concordat, 1801 
Pius IX. ; Pope, 1646 ; papal ag- 
gression, conception 
Pizarro ; America, 1.024 
Plato, 429-347 B.C. ; academies, an- 
atomy, antipodes, names, Sicily 
Platts, John : executions, 1547 
Plautus, &. 164B.C. : drama 
Pliny the Elder, 24-79 ; pearls, Ve- 
suvius : the Younger, d, KK) 
Plumer. Sir Thomas; attorney gen- 
eral, 1812 
Plummer. Eugenia ; trials, 1860 
Plunket, Ld. ; lord chancellor (Ire- 
land). 1830 
Plutarch,/. 80 ; 'biogTaphy 
Pococke, Admiral ; Cuba. 1762 
Poerio, C. ; Naples, 1850-59-00 
Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
Pofctiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 1089 
Poinsett, J. R. ; admin. U. .S., 1837 
Poitevin, 3L ; balloons, 1852-58 
Pole. Archbp. ; Canterbury, 1556 
Pole, Wellesley ; mint, trials, 1625 
Polignac, Prince de ; France, 1830 
Polk, Gen. L., k. on Pine Mountain, 

1SC4 : Atlanta campaign 
Polk, James ; United States, Presi- 
dent, 1845; administrations U. S. 
Pollio.C. ; slavery. 42 B.C. 
Pollock, General G. : India, 1842 
PoUock, Sir Frederick ; attorney 

general. Exchequer, 1S34-1644 
Polo, Marco, write? about 1298 
Polybius,207-122B.C. : signals, tel- 
egraphs, Achaia, physic 
Polycarp mart^-red 166 
Polvdorus; Laocoiin 
Pomare; Otaheite, 1799 
Pompey, killed 48 B.C. ; Rome, 

Spain, Pharsalia 
Pond, J.; Greenwich, 1811 
Pontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 B. 

C. 
Poole, A- ; auricular confession, 

1853 
Pope, Alexander, 16SS-1744 : Alex- 
andrine verse, satire, Homer, 1714 
Pope, Gen. J. ; Manassas, United 

States, 1 862 
Popham, Sir Home; Buenos Ayres, 

Cape, trials. 1807 
Poppaea (wife of Nero); masks 
Porsenna; labvrinth, 520 B.C. 
Person, Prof., 1759-1805 : -svriting 
Porter, Admiral D. D. ; Vicksburg, 
18C3 : Red River Campaign, 1864 
Porter, J. M. ; adminis. V. S., 1543 
Porter, Peter B. ; admin. U. S., 1823 



536 

Porter, Sir Charles ; Limerick 
Porteus, Bishop; Loudon, ITST 
Porlliiiid, Duke of, PortUmd adm., 
1783 : Ireland (lord lieutenant) ; 
Junius 
Portman, SirWm.; King's Bench, 

1554 
Portsmouth, Earl of; trials, 1823 
Posidoui us, /. 86 B. U . ; atmosphere, 

moon, tides, air 
Potamon ; eclectics, about 1 
Potter, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 173T 
Pottinger, Sir H. ; China, 1841 
Pouchet, M.; spontaneous genera- 
tion, 1859 
Poussin, N., painter, 1594-1665 
Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, Col- 
onels : Wales, 1647 
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
Power, Mrs. Mary ; longevity, 1853 
Powys, Bishop ; Man, 1S54 
Poyer, Colonel ; Wales, 1647 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles,/. 363 B.C. ; mirrors 
Premislaus; Poland, 1295 
Prescott, William ; 1796-1859 
Preston, Lord ; conspiracy, 1691 
Preston, W. B. ; admin. U. S., 1849 
Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, 
1720-1788 ; Pretender, Falkirk, 
Preston-pans, Culloden 
Pretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 

1854 
Prevost, Sir George ; Plattsburg, 

1814 
Priam ; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. 
Price, Adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 
Price, Mr. ; duel, 1816; alchemy 
Prichard, Dr. ; ethnology, 1841-7 
Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1823 
Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, nitrous gas, 
oxygen, fluorine 
Pride,"Colonel ; Pride's purge, 164S 
Prim, Gen. Juan, 6. Isl4 ; C'astelle- 

jos, Guad-el-ras, 1860, Sjiain 
Prince, H. J. ; Agapemonians 
Prior, M. ; poet ;" 1664-1721 
Prisciilian : Gnostics, 384 
Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, execu- 
tion, 1865 
Probert ; trials, 1824 
Probus, Rome, emp., 276 ; massacre 
Propertins; poet, 26 B.C. 
Proudhon,P. de. ; Socialist, 1309-65 
Prvnne,W. ; lawyer, 1600-70 
Psammetichus, 650 B.C. ; Egypt, 

labyrinth, languages, sieges 
Pseusennes, 971 B.C. ; Egypt 
Ptolemy (astronomer), r/. 161 
Ptolemy; Egypt, Bible, Septuagint, 
Ipsus, pharos, arithmetic, acade- 
mics 
Ptolemy, Epiphaces, 205 B.C. ; 

Egypt, Rosetta 
Puckerinsj, Sir John ; chancellor, 

lord high, 1592 
Pncrin, A. W., 1811-1852, decorative 

art 
Pnllen, Captain ; Franklin, 1852 
Paltene}', Mr. ; Ilalilax adm., 1714 
Pulteiiey Sir James ; Fevrol, 1800 
Pnrcell, Henry ; music, 1658-95 
Purchas, Samuel ; 1.577-1628 
Purdon, Colonel ; Ashantees, 1826 
Purefoy; duel, 1788; trials, 1794 
Pusey, Dr. E.,6. 1800: Puseyism 
Putnam, Gen. I., 6. 1718 ; Bunker 

Hill, 1775 
Pye, Henry J. ; poet laureate, 1790 
Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
Pyrrho ; skeptics, 334 B.C. 
Pyrrhus, 281 B.C. ; Macedon, Epi- 

rus, Tarentum, Asculum 
Pythagoras,/. .5.55 B.C. ; acoustics, 
astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, 
the globe, harmonic strings, 
shoes, solar system, spheres 

Q- 

Quekett, Prof. ; histology, 1857 
Quentin, Col. ; duel, 1815 ; trials, 
1814 



INDEX. 

Quevedo, Spanish writer, 1570-1047 
(^uintilia; (Juintilians 
Quintin ; libertines, 525 
Quintus Fabius, 291 B.C. ; painting 
(^uiros ; New Hebrides, 1606 

R. 

Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
Rachel, Mademoiselle, d. 1858 
Racine, J. ; dramatist, 1639-99 
Radclifle, Dr. John ; Radclifl'e 11- 

brar)', 1737 
Radetzky, Marshal, died 1858 ; Aus- 
tria, Novara, Italy, 1848 
Radnor, Earl of; administrations, 

1684 
Rae, Dr. ; Franklin, 1848 
Raglan, Lord ; Russo-Turkish War, 

18.57 
Ragotski ; Transylvania 
Raikes, Mr., 17S1 ; Sunday-schools, 

education, infanticide 
Raleigh, Sir W., 1.552-1618; dress, 
Pennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 
England 
Rame.ses: Egypt, 161S 
"Ramirez IL ; Semiucas, B.C. 933 
Ramsay, David ; combat, 1631 
Ramsay, Sir George ; duel, 1790 
Ranee, Trappist,"l662 
Randall, A. W. , admin. U. S., 1866 
Randolph, Bishop ; Bangor, Lon- 
don, 1809 
Randolph, Ed. ; adminis. U. S., 17S4 
Randolph, J. ; duel, 1S26 
Randol])h, T. ; post-office, 1581 
Raphael, 1483-1520 ; cartoons 
Raphael, Alex. ; Roman Catholics, 

1834 
Rarey, J. S. ; horse, 18.58 
Ratazzi, U., b. 1808 ; Italy, 18(52 
Ranch, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857 
Ravaillac kills Henry IV., 1610 
Rawdon, Lord ; Camden, 1781 
Rawliuson, Col. Sii>H., h. 1810 ; As- 
syria, Babvlon, Behistun, 1844 
Ray, John, 1628-1705 
Ray here : Bartholomew's, 1100 
Raymond, Lord ; attorney general, 

1725; King's Bench 
Reaumur, d. 1757 ; light 
Reaj', Lord ; conibat^lOSl 
Reay, Miss, killed ; trials, 1779 
Rcbeccaites ; trials, 1843 
Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
Redesdale, Lord ; att. sen., 1800 
Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
Reece, R. ; bogs, 1849 
Reed, Andrew, 1787-1802 ; orphan, 

idiots, incurables 
Reeves, Mr. John ; Levelers, 1792 
Regnier, General ; Kalitsch, Maida, 

Ximera, ISll 
Regulus,250 B.C. ; Carthage 
Reich, P., and Richter, T., indium, 

1863 
Reichenbach,C. ; 6.1788; paraffiue, 

1831; odyl 
Reichenstejn ; tellurium, 1782 
Reichstadt,Duke de; France, p. 212 
Reid, General ; India, 1857 
Reiubauer; trials, 1829 
Rembrandt ; painter, 1600-74 
Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 

1086 
Remy, St. ; Rheims 
Renata, Maria ; witchcraft, 1749 
Renaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 
Reunie, J. (17-61-1821), and Sir J. ; 
breakwater, 1812 ; Waterloo 
bridii'e, London bridt^e 
Reschid Paclia ; Turkey, 1853 
Reuchlin, J., reformer, d. 1522 
Reuss; engraving 
Reyuere, Richard : sherifl', 1189 
Reynolds, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 
Reynolds, Captain ; trials, 1840 
Reynolds, George ; duel, 1788 
Reynolds, Sir Joshua ; royal acade- 
my, 1708 
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 1723-92 
Riall, General ; Chippewa, 1814 
Ricasoli, B., 6. abt. 1803 ; Italy, 1861 



Rice, Spring (Lord Mor.teagle) ; ad- 

miuistratTons, 1834 
Rich, Richard, Lord ; chancellor, 

lord, 1547 
Richard I., England, 1189 ; Acre, 
Ascalon, Coeur de Lion, dieu ex 
mon droit, laws, Gleron, naviga- 
tion laws 
Ricliard III., 1485 ; Bosworth 
Richardson, H., 1852 ; life-boat ; — 

Samuel, 1689-1761 
Richardson, Sir John ; naturalist, 

1783-1865, Franklin 
Richelieu, Duke of; Closterseveu, 

17.57 
Richmond, Duke of; Rockingham 
administration, 1782, etc. C lie- 
land, duel 
Richter, J. Paul, German novelist, 

1763-1825 
Ridel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 

lord, Ireland 
Rider, William ; silk hose 
Ridley, Bishop, burnt, 1554 
Riego" put to death, 1823 ; Spain 
Rienzi, N., 'm. 1354 ; tribune, Rome 
Riguet, M. ; tunnels 
Rinuccini, Octavio, b. 1621 ; opera 
Ripon, Earl of; Goderich adminis- 
tration, 1827 
Rivers, Earl, m. 1483 ; Ponifret 
Rizzio, David, m. 1566 ; Scotland, 

France, Naples 
Robert, duke of Normandy; Tinch- 

ebray, 1106 
Robert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 
Roberts, D.,R.A.,rf. 1864 
Roberts, M. O. ; electricity (Athin- 

tic telegraph), 1853 
Robertson, Captain ; trials, 1862 
Robertson, Dr. Wm., hist., 1721-93 
Robespierre, F. M. ; Reign of Ter- 
ror, France, 1793-4 
Robin Hood ; robbers, archery, 11S9 
Robinson, F. ; Godei'ich, luiie 
Robinson, James ; ether, 1S48 
Robinson, of York, murdered ; tri- 
als, 1S53 
Robinson, R., 1735-1790 ; Indepen- 
dents 
Robinson, Sir Thomas; Newcastle 

administration, 17.54 
Robson,W. ; trials, 18,56 
Rochainbeau ; Yorktown, 1781 
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, philoso- 
pher, 1613-80 
Rochester, Earl of; adminis., 1679 
Rockingham, Marq. of; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1765 
Roderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 
Rodney, C. A. ; administrations LT. 

S.,1S07 
Rodney, G. ; Eustatia, 1781 
Rodolph of Hajisburg; Austria, 1278 
Rodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 1410 
Roebuck, J. ; duel, ISiS; Sebasto- 

pol 
Roger ; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
Rogers, John, burnt, 15,55 
Rogers, Samuel, poet, 1763-18.55 
Ro2;gewein; circumnavigator,East- 

er Island, 1722 
Rohan, Cardinal ; diamond neck- 
lace, 1780 
Rollin, Chas., historian, 1661-1741 
Romaiu, M. ; balloons, k. 1785 
Romilly, Sir J. ; solicitor general, 

master of the rolls, 1851 
Romilly, Sir Samuel; criminal law, 

suicide, 1818 
Romney, Geo., painter, 1734-1802 
Romulus Augustulus ; Western 

Empire, 475 
Romnlus ; Rome, 753 B.C. ; calen- 
dar. Alba, aruspices 
Ronalds, F.; electric telegraph, 1823 
Ronge, J. ; kinder-garten, 1851 
Rooke, Sir Geo. ; Gibraltar, 1704 ; 
snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 
Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 
Roper, Colonel ; duel, 1788 
Rosas ; Buenos Ayres, 18.52 
Roscoe, W., historian, 175,3-1831 
Rose, Sir Hugh ; India, 1858 



INDEX. 



537 



Roseberry, Conntess of; trial?, 1S14 
Ro.'-oc rails', General ; Stone Kiver, 

lS(i2 ; Chickamau<ra, 1SC3 
Ross, CJoloiiel ; dueling, 1S17 
lios?. General ; Baltimore, Wash- 
ington, 1S14 
Ross, General ; Bladcnburg, 1814 
Ross, Sir J. ; Franklin, northwest 

passage. 1848 
Ros?e, Karl of ; telescopes, 182S ; 

Roj-al Society, 184S 
Kosser. Mr., and Miss Darbon ; tri- 
als, 1841 
Rossi, Count, m. 1S48 ; Rome 
Kossini, G., mus. comp., b. 1T92 
Rostopehin ; Moscow, 1812 
Rothesay, Duke 
Rothschild, Auselm (the first), died 

181-J 
Rothschild, Baron ; Jews, 1849 
Roubiliac. sculptor, d. 1762 
Roupell, VV., M.P. ; trials, 1802 
Rousseau, Gen. L. ; Atlanta Cam- 
paign, 1SC4 
Rousseau, J. J., philos., 1T12-TS 
Rowan, A. II. ; trials, 171)4, 1S05 
Rowe, Nicholas ; poet laureate, d. 

1715 
Rowlev, Adm. J. ; Bourbon, ISIO 
Roxana; Macedou,311 B.C. 
Roxburgh, Duke of, 1812 ; Boccac- 
cio 
Rozier, !M. : balloons, 1783 
Rubens, P. P., painter, 1577-1640 
Rudbeck, Ol. ; thoracic duct 
Rudolph ; Austria, Germany 
RuhiukorflTs induction coil, 1851 
Rnnjeet Singh ; Afghanistan, 1818 ; 

diamonds 
Rupei't, Prince, 1619-82; engraving, 
Rirmiugham, Edgehill, Marstoii 
Moor, Naseby, Newark 
Ruric; Russia, 802 
Rush, Bloomfield, the murderer; 

trials, 1S49 
Rush, Richard; admiuis. U. S., 1814 
Ruskin, John, art critic, b. 1819 
Russell, Adm. Edw'd. ; La llogue, 

1692 
Russell, C. ; suicide, 1856 
liussell. Colonel ; guards, 1660 
Russell, J. Scott, borti isn8 ; fires, 

steam navicratiou, wave 
Russell, Lord'John, 6. 1792 ; Russell 
administration, note; Aberdeen, 
rcf )rm 
Russell, Lord W., m. ; trials, 1840 
Russell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, 1857, 

1S61 
Ruthven, Mr. ; duel, 1836 
Rutland, Duke of ; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 1784 
Ruyter; see De Buyter 
Ryder, Sir Dudley ; King's Bench, 
1754 



Sabatta, Levi ; 1066 
Sabine, General Edw. ; Royal Soci- 
ety, 1S61 ; magnetism 
Saclievcrcl, Dr. V High-Church par- 
ty, 1709 
Sackvillc, Lord George ; Miuden, 

17.^)9 
Sadleir, John ; suicide, 1856 ;— Dr., 

1S58 
Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 
Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1683 
Sadler. Sir Ralph ; adminis., 1540 
Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1S02 
Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 300 
St.'Arnaud, iMarshal ; Russo-Tui'k- 

ishWar, Alma, 18.54 
St. Charo ; Concordance, 1247 
St. Cyr, Jlarshal ; Dresden, 1813 
St. George, Mr. ; trials, 17i)8 
St. John, Henry, afterward Lord 
Bolingbvoke ;"Osford adm., 1711 
St. John, John de ; treasurer, 1217 
St. John Long ; quack, 1830 
St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1015 
St. John, William ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1547 



St. Leonards, Ld. ; chancellor, lord 

hi-'h, 1852 
St, Mars, M. de ; iron mask 
St. Ruth, General ; Aughrim, 1091 
St. Vincent, Earl; Admiralty, 1801 ; 

Cape St. Vincent 
Saladin, 1130-93 ; Ascalon, Damas- 
cus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
Sale, Lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
Sale, Sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 
Salisbury, Bishop of ; assay 
Salisbury, Countess of; garter 
Salisbury, Earl of, 1004 ; coronets, 

Orleans 
Salisbury, Marquess of; Derby ad- 
ministrations, 1852, 1S58 
Salisbury, Robert, earl of; admin- 
istrations, 1003 
Salkeld: Delhi, 1857 
Sallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, 

1055 
Sallust, died 34 B.C. ; Mauritania, 

Catiline 
Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835; mayor 
Salt, Titus ; alpaca, 1852 
Salvator Rosa, painter, 1015-1073 
Sal viati. Dr. ; mosaic, 1861 
Salvino degli Armato ; spectacles 
Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
Samuel rules Israel, 1140 B.C. 
Sauballat; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
Sancho, King ; Portugal, Spain, 970 
Saucroft, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1678 ; 

bishops, EuLrlaud 
Sanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
Sandwich, Earl of; adminis., 1000 ; 
naval battles, Solebay, Aix-la- 
Chapelle 
Sandys ; administra., 1742, 1767 
Sandys, Archbishop E. ; York, 1577 
Sapor; Persia, 240 
Sappho ; writes Oil B.C. ; Sapphic 
Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 B.C. 
Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1022 ; thermome- 
ter, blood 
Saul, Jews, 1096 B.C. ; Ammonites 
Sauniarez, Sir Jas. ; Algesiras, 1801 
Saunders, Com. ; Franlilin, 1849 
Saunders, Sir Chas. ; Chatham ad- 
ministration, 1766 
Saunders ; trials, 1853 
Saussure, d. 1799 ; hygrometer 
Savage, Archbishop"; York, 1501 
Savage, John ; Babington's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Savage, R., poet, 1700--i3 
Savage, W. ; printing in colors, 1819 

-22 
Savarv, Capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 
Savary ; trials, 1825 
Savonarola, Jerome : burnt, 1498 
Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 
Sawtre, Sir William ; btirning alive, 

1401; Lollards 
Saxe, Count ; Fontenoy, 1745 
Save and Sele, Lord, 'administra- 
tions, 1000 
Saye, Lord, beheaded 1450 ; Cade 
Sayers, T. ; boxing, 1860 
Scauderbeg ; Albania, 1443 
Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 
Schamyl ; Circassia, 1859 
ScheelCj 1742-86; nitrogen, oxygen, 
prussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
tosrraphy, glycerine, chlorine 
Schefter, Ary, painter, 1795-1858 
Scheibler, M. ; tonometer, 1834 
Schciner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1025 
Scheutz ; calculating machine, 1857 
Schiaparelli ; planets, ISOl 
Schilders, General ; Silistria, 1854 
Schiller, F., poet, etc., 1759-1845 
Schimnielpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
Scblegcl, W. ; 1767-1836;— F., 1772- 

1829 
Schmidt; organs, 1682 
Sclurfi'er, Peter; printing, 1452 
Sclumiberg, Captain ; naval battles, 

1811 
Schombcrg, duke of; Boyne, Ire- 
land, Londonderry, Carrickfer- 
gus, ios;> 
Schniiiburgk, SirR. ; Victoria regia, 
1S3S 



Schiinbein, M. ; gun-cotton, 1840, 

ozone 
SchriJeder; piano-forte, 1717 
Schriitter ; phosphorus, 1845 
Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C. (missionary), d. 1798 
Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder, 1320 
Schwartzenberg, Prince of ; Dres- 
den, 1813 
Schwerin, Marshal ; Prague, 1757 
Scipio Africanus ; honor, Nuinan- 

tia, Rome, Zania, 202 B.C. 
Scott, Dred; United States, 1857 
Scott ; dueling, 1821, 1836 
Scott, G. Gilbert, architect, 6. 1811 
Scott, Gen. Winticld, b. 1786 ; Mexi- 
co, 1847 ; United States, 1861-2 
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832; Waverley, 

Abbotsford 
Scribe, E., dramatist, c?.1861 (set. 80) 
Scudamore, Lord ; apples 
Seabury, Samuel ; bishoprics, 1784 
Seaforth, Earl of; thistle, 1687 
Seal, J. ; trials, 1858 
Searle; planets, 1S5S 
Sebacou ; Egypt, 737 B.C. 
Sebastiani, Marshal ; Talavera, 1809 
Sebert ; Westminster Abbey 
Seeker, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 1758 
Sefton V. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
Sejanus, d. 31 

Selden, J., 1584-1651 ; seas, poet lau- 
reate 
Seleucus Nicator ; Seleucides, Syria, 

omens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. 
Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 
Selkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fernan- 
dez, 1705 
Sellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 
Semiramis, Queen ; Assyria, eu- 
nuchs, 2007 B.C. 
Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 
Seneca, put to death-, 65; Cordova 
Sennacherib; Assyria, 710 B.C. 
Sennefelder; lithography, 1796 
Sergius ; popes, nativity, 090 ; puri- 
fication, Koran 
Sertin-ner, morphia, 1803 
Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; Uni- 
tarians, Arians, blood 
Serving 'Tullius ; coins, census, 506 

B.C. 
Sesostris ; Egypt, 1618 B.C. 
Setalla ; burning-glasses 
Severus, Rome, eiiip., 193 ; Britain, 

Roman walls, Memphis, 202 
Seward, W. H. ; adminis. U. S., 1861 
Sextns Pomiieuis ; IMylfe, 36 B.C. 
Seymour r.Butterworth; trials, 1862 
Seymour, Edward, duke of Somer- 
set ; administrations, 1547 ; pro- 
tectors. Admiralty 
Seymour, Lady ; tournament, 1839 
Seymour, Lord ; duel, 1835 
Seymour, Sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, Sir M. ; China, 1856 < 
Shadwell, Thomas ; poet laureate, 

d. 1092 
Shaftesburv, Earl of; administra- 
tions, 1072 (present earl, b. 1801) 
Shakspeaiv, W., 1.564-1616 ; Shak- 

speare, drama, mulberrv-tree 
Shalnianeser; Assyria, 730 B.C. 
Sharp, A.; circle (squared), 1717 
Sharp, Archbishop ; Scotland, 1679 
Sharp, Granville ; slavery, 1772 
Shaw, Sir James ; mayor, 1805 
Shaw, Sir John ; Greenock 
Shcares, the Messrs. ; trials, 1798 
Sheddcn r. Patrick; trials, 1S60 
Sheepshanks, R.; astronomy,stand- 
ard, 1855 ; Sheepshanks's dona- 
tions, 1858 
Shell, R. L. ; mint, 1840 
Shelburr.c, Earl of; Shelburne ad- 
ministration, 1782 ; duel, 1780 
Sheldon, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1063 
Slicldon, William ; tapestrv 
Sbclley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 
Shci)|);ird, Jack ; execution, 1724 
Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 1811 
Sheridan, Gen. Phil. ; Winchester, 
l.'-04; Grant's Virginia Campaign, 
1805 



538 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
1S16 ; Grenville administration, 
comedy, theatres 
Sherman, General ; United States, 
1S61 ; Atlanta Campaign, lyU-4 ; 
Sherman's March, 1SU4-^ 
Shillibeer ; omnibuses, 18-29 
Shipley ; Arts, Society of, 1754 
Shirley, Bishop ; Man, 1S46 
Short, Bp. ; Man, St. Asaph, 1S41 
Shovel, Sir Cloudesley ; Sicily, 1707 
Shrewsbury, Duke of; admiu., 1714 
Shrewsbury, Earl of; Patay, 1429; 

Castillon, 1453 
Shrewsbury peerage cases, trials, 

185S, 1S59 
Sibour, Archbishop ; France, 1857 
Sicard, Abbe ; deaf and dumb, 1742 
Siddous, Sarah ; retired, 1819 
Sidmouth, Henry Addiugton, Vis- 
count, died 1S44 ; Addiugton ad- 
minis., ISOO, green bag, speaker 
Sidney, Sir P., 1554-86 ;— Algernon, 

1617-S3 ; Rye-House Plot 
Si6yes, Abbe ; Directory ; France, 

1799 
Sigel, General F. ; Carthage, 18G1 
Sigismuud ; Germany, Bohemia, 
Hungary, Nicopolis, Poland,Prus- 
sia 
Silius Italicus, poet, d. 101 
Sillim, Mr. ; trials, 1803 
Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
Simmons ; trials, 1808 
Slmnel, Lambert ; conspiracies, re- 
bellion, 184G ; Stoke 
Simon Magus; Adrianists, Simoni- 

ans, 41 
Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 

Sim'plicius, St. ; collar of SS., 1407 
Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 
Simpson, the tmveler; suicide, 1840 
Siudercomb ; conspiracy, 175G 
Singh, Runjoor ; Aliwal, 1846 
Sismondi, C., historian, 1773-1842 
Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
Sixtus ; popes, 119 
Sixtus v., Pope ; interdict, l.'iSS 
Skrzynecki, Geu'l. ; Praga, Wawz, 

1831 
Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 
Sligo, Marquess Of; trials, 1812 
Sloanc, Sir Hans, 16G0-1727; apoth- 
ecary, Jesuit's bark, British Mtt- 
seum, Chelsea 
Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
Smart; chimneys, 1S05 
Smeatou, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 

1759 
Smeaton, Sir John ; Wigan, 1648 
Smethurst, T. ; trials, 18.59 
Smirke, R. ; post-office, 1825 
Smirke, S. ; British Museum 
Snfith,Adam; 1723-1790; political 

economy, 1776 
Smith and Markham,captains,duel, 

trials, 1830 
Smith, C. B. ; adminis. U. S., 1861 
Smith, Captain ; duel, trials, 1830 
Smith, Dr. R. Angus ; air, 1S5S 
Smith, Dr. Southwood ; 1790-1861 ; 

sanitary legislation, 1832 
Smith, Gen. A. J. ; Red River Cam- 
paign, 1864 ; Mobile, 1865 
Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 
Smith, Joseph ; Mormons, 1827 
Smith, Jos. ; savings' banks, Mor- 

monites, 1S23 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
Smith, Miss, v. Earl Ferrers ; trials, 

1S4G 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; Escheqxter, 

trials, 1S41 
Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
Smith, Rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
Smith, Rev. Sidney, 1771-1845 
Smith, Rob't. ; adminis. U. S., 1805 
Smith, Samitel Sidney ; trials, 1843 
Smith, Sir C. Eardley ; evangelical 

alliance, 1845 
Smith, Sir Harry ; India, Aliwal, 
Kaffraria, 1850 



INDEX. 

Smith, Sir J.E. (botanist), 1759-182S 
Smith, Sir Sidney ; Acre, 17'.i9 
Smith, Thomas, lord mayor, 1S09 
Smith, William ; geology, d. 1840 
Smithson, J. ; Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, 1846 
Smollett, Tobias, novels, etc., 1720- 

71 
Smyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 
Smyth, W. H., astronomist, 1T8S-65 
Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 
Soames ; cocoaiiut-tree oil, 1S29 
Soane, Sir J., architect, 1753-1837 
Sobieski, Johu ; Poland, Cossacks, 

Hungary, Vienna 
Socinus, Faustus (d. 1562) and Lse- 
lius ; anti-Trinitarians, Arians, 
Unitarians 
Socrates, 468-399 B.C. ; Athens, phi- 
losophy 
Solomon ; Jerusalem, 1004 B.C. 
Solon ; Athens, 594 B.C. ; laws, tax 
Solyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, Vien- 
na, 1529 
Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, Mo- 

hatz, 1526 
Somers, Lord; admin., 1690; corn 
Somers, Sir Geo. ; Bermudas, 1609 
Somerset, see Seymour; Admiralty, 

1859 
Somerset the black declared free, 

1772 ; slavery in England, note 
Sophia Dorothea, c?. 17116; England, 

queens (George I.) 
Sophia, Princess ; Hanover, 1659 
Sophocles, 4S5-i05 B.C. ; tragedy, 

drama 
Sorel, Agnes ; jewclrv, 1434 
Sostratus; Pharos, 2wo B.C. 
Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 

1541 
Soult, Marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, 
Oporto, Orthcs, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 
Toulouse, Villa Franca, Douro 
Southard, S. L. ; administrations U. 

S.,1S23 
Southey, Robert, 1774-1843 ; poet 

laureate 
Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
Sparks, George; trials, 1853 
Speed, James ; adminis. U. S., 1864 
Speilman, Sir Jno. ; paper-making, 

Dartford, 1590 
Speke, Capt., 1827-64; Africa, 1863- 

64 
Spencer, Earl; Grenville adminis., 

1806; Roxburghe Club 
Spencer, Johu C. ; administrations 

U.S., 1841 
Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
Spenser, E., 1553-98 ; allegory, poet 

laureate, verse 
Spert, Sir Thomas ; Trinity House, 

1512 
Spina, Alexander de ; spectacles, 

1285 
Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
Spohr, L., musical com p., 1783-1859 
Spollen, James ; trials, 1857 
Spurgeon, C. H., born 1834 ; Surrey 
Gardens, Crystal Palace, Taber- 
nacle 
Spurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
Stackpole, Captain ; duel, 1814 
Stackpoles, trials ; 1853 
Stacl, Madame de, novelist, d. 1817 
Stafford, Archbishop ; Canterbury, 

1443 
Stafford, Lord ; Popish Plot, 1680 
Stafford, Marq. of, cl. 1803 ; Blooms- 
bury 
Staiues, Sir William ; lord mayor, 

1800 
Stair, Earl of, died 1707 ; Gleucoe, 

1692; Dettincren, 1743 
Staite ; electric light, 1848 
Stalker, General; Bushire, suicide, 

1857 
Stanbery, H- F. ; admin. V. S., 1866 
Stauberry, John ; Eton, 1448 
Stanhope, Charles, Earl; 17.52-1816; 
printing-press ; present earl (be- 



fore, Lord Mahon, the historian), 
b. 1805 
Stanhope, Colonel ; trials, 1816 
Stanhope, Earl ; Halifax adminis- 
trations, 1714 
Stanhope, Hon. Col. ; suicide, 1825 
Stanhope, Lieut. Gen. ; Minorca, 

1708 
Stanislaus ; Poland, 1704 
Stanley, Bishop ; Norwich, 1837 
Stanley, Edward, Lord, b. 1826 
Stanley, Lord; see I>c)-b^, 1820 
Stanley, Lord, of Alderley, b. 1802 ; 

Aberdeen, Palmerston adminis. 
Stanley, Sir John ; Man, 1400 
Stanley, Sir W.; chamberlain; Bos- 
worth, 1485 
Stanton, E. M. ; adminis. U. S., ISCO 
Stapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 
Stapleton, Walter, Bishop ; Exeter, 

1319 
Stark, Gen. J. ; Bennington, 1777 
Statins, Latin poet (Thebaic),/. 79 
Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1S40 
Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials; 1S07 
Steele, Sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler, 

Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat Clulj 
Stcenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 
Stephen, Pope ; England, Hungary, 

997; Poland 
Stephens, Miss ; theatres, 1813 
Stephens, Rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1.551 
Stephenson, Geo., 1781-1848 ; rail- 
ways, Chat Moss, safety-lamp 
Stephenson, R., 1S03-1S59 ; tubular 

bridges 
Sterne, Laurence, humorist, 1713-68 
Sternhold, T. ; Psalms, 1555 
Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 
Stewart, Captain ; Franklin, 1850 
Stewart, Col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
Stewart, Dugald ; philosopher, 1753 

-1828 
Stewart, Duncan ; Cesarean 
Stewart, General ; Madras, 1783 
Stewarts, trials, 1829 
Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
Stigand, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 10C2 
Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
Stock, Dr. ; Sunday-schools, 17S1 
Stockdale ; trials, 1826 
Stoddart, Dr. ; Times, 1812 
Stoddert, Benj. ; admin. U. S., 1798 
Stopford, Adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 
Storace, Madame, d. 1S17 
Storck ; Levelers, Anabaptists, 1524 
Storks, H. ; Ionian Isles, 1859 
Stormout, Viscount ; Portland ad- 
ministration, 1783 
Strabo; geography, writes 14 
Strachan, Admiral Sir Rd. ; Havre, 

Walcheren, 1809 
Straduarius ; viol, 1700-22 
Strafford, Earl ; Admiralty, 1712 
Strafford, Lord ; beheaded, 1641 
Strangford, Lord ; bribery, 1784 
Stratford, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 
Stratford de Redcliffe, Lord, b. 1788 
Strevens, Mr. ; trials, 1657 
Strickland, Hugh ; natural history, 

1811-53 
Stringham, H. S. ; Hatteras Expe- 
dition, 1862 
Stromeyer; club-foot, 1831 
Strongbow ; Ireland, 1176 
Struensee, Count ; Zell, 1772 
Strutt, Edw. ; Aberdeen adm., 1S52 
Struve, F. ; astronomy, 1793-1864 
Strzelecki, A. ; Australia, 1840 
Stuart, Alexander, Marquess 
Stuart, A. II. ; adminis. U. S., 1850 
Stuart, Conf. Gen. ; United States, 
1862 ; Peninsular Campaign, 1862 
Stuart, General ; Cuddalore, 17S3 
Stuart, Sir John ; Maida, 1806 
Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes 
Sturmius ; magnet 
Sturt, Capt. ; South Australia, 1830 
Succoth (St. Patrick), preaches, 433 
Suchet, Marshal ; Valencia, 1812 
Sudbury, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1375 
Sue, Eugene, novelist, 1804-57 



INDEX. 



539 



Suetonius, C. T., writes lis 
Suetonius Paulinus; Mcuui, 01 
SufFoIli, Thomas, Earl of; adminis- 
trations!, 1S40 
SuflVein, Thos. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Sugclen, Sir KcUv. (afterward Lord 
St. Leonards) ; chancellor, lord, 
1S52 
Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842 
Sullivan, INlr. ; Lima, 1857 
Sulpicius, Serving ; civil law, code, 

53 B.C. 
Sumner, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1S48 
Sumner, Bishop ; Llandafl", lS-26 ; 

Winchester, 1827 
Sumner, C. ; United States, 1856 
Sunderland, Earl of; admin., 1GS4 
Surajah Dowlah ; Black Hole, In- 
dia, Plassev, 1757 
Surrey, Earl of ; Flodden, 151.0; Eo- 

mau Catholics, 18-29 
Susariuu and Dolon ; comedy, 5u2 

B.C. 
Susse.^, Duke of; marriage, 1793 
Sutter, Captain ; California, 1847 
Sutton; air-pipe, 1756 
Sutton, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 1S05 
Sutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817 
Sutton, Thos.; Charter House, 1611 
Suwarrow, Marshal, 1730-1800 ; Al- 
essaudria, Ismai.'!, Novi, Parma, 
Poland, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 
1799 
Swan, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 
Swartwout, J. ; duel, 1802 
Sweyn ; Denmark, 985; England 
Swift, Dean J., 1CG7-1745 ; Drapier 

Letters 
Swynfeu ; trials, 1858 
Sydenham, Floyer, d 1788 ; literary 

fnnd 
Sydenham, Lord ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834 
Sydenham, Thomas, 1624-89 
Sydney, Henry, Viscount ; Ireland, 

lord lieutenant, 1690 
Sydney, see Sidneij 
Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; bri- 
bery, 1776 
Sylla ; Rome, Athens, 86 B.C. 
Symington ; steam-engine, 1789 
Symouds, Rev. Symou ; Bray, 1533- 
53 



Tacitus, M. C, historian, about 62- 

100 ; Rome, emperor, 275 
Tait, Bishop ; London, 1856 
Talbot, H. F. ; photography, calo- 

type, etc., 1840 
Talbot, Miss Augusta ; trials, 18.51 
Tallard, Marshal; Blenheim, 1704 
Talleyrand, 1754-1838 ; Beuevento, 

weights 
Tallis^ Thomas, musician, d. 1585 
Talma, actor, d. 1S26 
Tamerlane, d. 1404 ; India, Damas- 
cus, Tamerlane 
Tandemus ; Adamite 
Tanev, Roger B. ; administrations 

U.S., 1833 
Tankcrville, Ford, Earl of; admin- 
istrations, 1699 
Tantia Topee; India, 1857 
Tarqnin ; Rome, kings. Sibylline 

books 
TarquiniusPriscus; cloaca, 588 B.C. 
Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, 
Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 
Van Dienien's Land 
Tasso, Torquato, poet, 1544-95 
Tate, Nahum, d. 1715 ; poet laureate 
Tatian, about 170; aquarians, eu- 

cratites 
Tattersall, R. ; races, 1766 
Tnurosthertes ; carrier pigeons 
Tavernicr; pearls, 1633 
Tawell, John ; trials, 1845 
Taylor, Bishop Jeremy, 1613-07 
Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 
Taylor, Gen. Zachary ; President U. 
S., 1849 ; admiuis. U. S. ; Buena 
Vista 



Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
Tavlor, Rev. Robert ; atheism, tri- 
als, 1827, 1831 
Taylor, Rev.W. ; blind, bells, 185.5-6 
Teba, Couutess; (Empress) Prance, 

1853 
Tekeli ; Hungary, revolts, 1676 
Teleki ; Austria, 1860 ; Hungarj', 

1861 
Telesphorus ; Lent, 130 
Telford, T. ; chain bridges, 1819 
Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 
Tempel ; planets, 1861 
Temple, Earl ; Newcastle adminis- 
tration, 17.57 
Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 
Tenisou, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 
Teuuant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 
Tenniel, John, b. 1820 ; Punch 
Tennyson, Alfred, b. 1809 ; poet lau- 
reate 
Tenterdeu, Lord ; King's Bench, 

1818 
Terence, 195-159 B.C. ; drama 
Terentius Varro; Cannse, 216 B.C. 
Tcrtullian writes 197 ; cross, Mou- 

tauists 
Tcucer, Troy, 1.502 B.C. 
Teynham, Lord ; trials, 1833 
Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 1811-03 
Thales, Miletus ; globe, 640 B.C. ; 

Ionic sect, moon, water, world 
Thalestris; queens 
Thanet, Earl of; riots, 1799 
Tliccla; Alexandrine Codex 
Thcmistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, 

480 B.C. 
Theobald ; civil law, 113S 
Theocritus ; verse, 265 B.C. 
Theodore ; Corsica, 1730 ; Samos, 

keys, lathe 
Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 
Theodosius ; Eastern Empire, 379 ; 
Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre, 
paganism 
Theodosius the Younger ; acade- 
mies, Bologna 
Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 
Thcophrastus, 394-287 B.C. 
Theopompns ; Ephori, funeral ora- 
tions, Sparta, 353 B.C. 
Theseus ; Athens, 1235 B.C. 
Thesiger, Sir F. ; solicitor general, 
1844 : attorney general, chancel- 
lor, lord high, 1858 ; trials, 1850 
Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 
Theveuot, M. ; coffee, 1602 
Thierry; Holland, 9.36 
Thier.s, M., b. 1798 ; France, 1836 
Thirleby ; Westminster, 1.541 
Thomas, Colonel ; duel, 1783 
Thomas, General George H. ; Mill 
Spring, 1862 ; Chickamanga, 1863 ; 
Nashville, 1864 
Thomas, Phil. F. ; administrations 

U. S., 1860 
Thompson, Jacob ; adm. U. S., 1857 
Thompson, Major ; suicide, 1832 
Thompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 
Thompson, Smith; administrations 

U. S., 1818 
Thompson, William ; lord mayor, 

18-8 
Thomson, James (the "Seasons"), 

1700-48; Richmond 
Thomson, Mr. Poulett ; Melbourne 

administration, 1835; calico 
Thornton, Abraham ; api)eal, 1817 
Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 
Thorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 
Thorwaldsen, 1777-1840 
Thoth ; mvthologv, 152 B.C. 
Thrasvbulns; Alliens, 403 B.C. 
Thucydidcs, 470-404 B.C. 
Thnriow, Lord ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1778 ; great seal 
Thnrtell, J. ; executions, 1824 
Thyra ; Dannawerke 
Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 

emperor, 14 
Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, 

132 B.C. 
Tilnillus, Latin poet, 50-18 B.C. 
Tieck, L., German poet, 1753-1853 



Tierney, George ; duel, 1798; Gode- 

rich 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tigranes; Armenia, 93 B.C. ; Pon- 

tus 
Tildesley, Sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1051 
Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype 
Tillotson, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 

Universalists 
Tilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palati- 
nate, Lech 
Times newspaper ; Times, trials, 

1790 
Timoleon ; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 
Timour; see Tamerlane 
Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1520 
Tippoo Sahib ; Madras, Seringapa- 

tam, Mvsore, 1792 
Titian, 1477-1576 

Titus, Rome, emperor, 79 ; Jerusa- 
lem, Tyre, arches 
Tofts, Mary; impostor, 1726 
Toler, Mr. ; m., tri:Us, 1853 
Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 1812 
Tolmidas; Coronea, 447 B.C. 
Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 
Tomline, Bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 

1820 
Tompkins, D. D. ; adm. U. S., ISIT 
Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798 
Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 
Tonti, Laurence ; tontines 
Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1S12 
Tooke, W. ; prices 
Torreuce, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
Torrens, Lieutenant ; duel, 1806 
Torres ; Australasia, 1606 
Torricelli; (/. 1647; air, microscopes 
Torrington, Herbert, Ld. ; Walpole 

administration, 1727 
Totila; Italy, 541 

Toucey, Isaac ; admiuis. L^. S.. 1846 
Toussaiut, 1794 ; Hay ti, St. Dbmiu- 

go 
Tower, Mr. ; volunteer in 1S03 and 

1860 
Townley, G.V. ; trials, 1863 
Townsheud, Lord ; duel, 1773 ; Ire- 
land " 
Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
ham, and Grafton admin., 1705-7 
Train, Mr. ; street railways, 1800 
Trajan ; Rome, emp., 98 ; Trajan's 

pillar, Dacia 
Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 

Windsor 
Treby, George ; Walpole adm., 1721 
Tresylian; King's Bench 
Trevelyan, C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
Trevethick ; steam-engine, 1802 
Trevor, Sir John ; speaker, 1004 
Troas; Troy, 1374 B.C. 
Tronbridge, Sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
True Sun,' prop, of; trials, 1834 
Trnmau, Ilanbury & Co. ; porter, 

1815 
Truro, Lord ; chancellor, lord, 1S50 
Truxo, Louisa ; longevity, 1780 
Tucker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
Tuckctt, Capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
Tuite, murderer; trials, 1813 
Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
Tull, William ; posting 
Tulloch, Colonel ; Sebastopol, 18.55 
Tullus Ilostilius; Alba, saturnalia 
Tunstall, Bisliop; administrations, 

152'.i. arithmetic, privy seal 
Tnrenne, Marshal, 1011-1075 
TnrnbuU, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
Turner, J. W., 177.5-1851 
Turner, ]\Iiss ; trials, 1827 
Turner, Richard ; teetotaler, 1831 
Turner, Syd. ; reformatory, schools, 

1849 
Turner; trials, 1817 
Turpin, or Tilpin, Bp. ; writes S13 
Turton, Bishop ; Ely, 1S45 
Tusscr; agriculture, 1562 
Tyce, Johii ; taffeta, 1.598 
Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astrono- 
my, platonic year, globe 
Tyler, John ; President U. S., 1841 ; 
administrations U. S. 



540 

Tyler, Wat; killed, 13S1 
Tyndiil, William ; martyred, 1536 
Tyiidall, J. , Royal Institute, 1853 ; 

magnetism, Mont Blanc, 1S5T ; 

calorescence 
Tyndarus ; Sparta, 1490 B.C. 
Tyrconnel, Earl of; Ireland, 16S7 
Tyrone; rebellion, 1599 
Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 

epithalamiuni, 536 B.C. 



U. 
Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 
Uliilas, Bishop ; Bible, about 373 
Ulloa, Antonio ; platinuin, 1741 
Ulpiaii (lawyer); slain, 228 
Ulysses ; T"ojan War 
Upshur, Abel P. ; admin. U. S., 1S43 
Upton, Colonel ; Sebastopol, 1S30 
Urban ; popes, 223 
Urban 11. ; communion, crusades, 

1094 
.Urban VIII., Pope, "Eminence," 

1030 
Ursula, St. ; Colnnjne, Ursulines, 

1537 
Usher, Archbishop ; Articles, 1614 
Usher, J. P. ; admiuis. U. S., 1863 

V. 

"Valens ; Eastern Empire, Western 

Empire, 304 
Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
Valentia, Lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, 

1790 
Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
Valentinian; Western Empire, 364 
Valerian : persecutions, 2.57 
Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
Vallicre, Madame dela; midwifery, 

1063 
Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
Vanbrugh, Sir J. ; 1670-1726, Clar- 
endon printing-office, opera 
Van Buren, M. ; President U. S., 

1837 ; administrations U. S. 
Vancouver ; northwest passage, 

Vancouver, 1790 
Van der Ilevden ; fire-engines, 1663 
Van Dorn, Gen. Earl ; Corinth, 1862 
Vandyck, 1.599-1041 
Vane, Sir Henry ; administrations, 

1040 
Van Eyck ; painting, 1306 
Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 
Van Leyden ; engraving on wood, 

1497 
Van Marum; electricitv, 17S5 
Van Mildert, Bp. ; Ll'andaft', Dur- 
ham, 1S26 
Vausittai't, Nicholas; Liverpool ad- 
ministration, 1812 
Van Tromp ; Holland, naval bat- 
tles, Portland Isle, 1653 
Varole, M. ; optics, 15.38 
Varro: writes "de Ke Rustica,"37 
B.C. ; grammarians, illuminated 
books 
Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 06 B.C. ; 

code, digest 
Vasali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 
Vasco de Gama ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
Vattel, E. de, publicist, 1714-67 
Vanban, S., 1033-1707; fortiflcations, 

Cherbourg 
Vaughan, Mackav, etc. ; trial, 1S16 
Vanchan, Sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 
Vauqueliu ; chromium, gluciuum, 

1798 
Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1015 
Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ;— Lope de, 1502 

-163.5, poets 
Velasquez,painter, 1599-lCCO; Cuba, 

1511 
Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
Venner, T. ; Anabaptists, 1001 
Vere Street Gang; trials, 1816 
VergenneS; M. de ; notables, 17SS 
Vermandois, Count de ; iron mask 
Vermuyden, Cornelius ; levels, 1621 
Vernet, 1714-1789 ;— Horace, 1789- 
1803 ; painters 



INDEX. 

Vernon, Adm. ; grog, Porto Bello, 
1739 

Vernon, Archbishop ; York, ISOS 

Verres ; Sicily, 70 B.C. 

Verrochio, Andrea ; plaster, 1466 

Vesalius ; anatomy, surgery, 1533 

Vespasian ; Rome, emp., 69 ; am- 
phitheatres. Coliseum, Rhodes 

Vespucius, Americus, 1498 

Victor Amadous; Sardinia, 1630 

Victor Emmanuel, 6.1820; Sardinia, 
1849 ; Italy, 1800 

Victor, Marshal ; Talavera, 1S(I9 ; 
Barrosa, Witcpsk 

Victor ; Pope, 193 

Victoria, Queen, b. 1819 : England, 
Scotland, Ireland, India 

Victory, Espartero, Duke of; Spain, 
1840 

Vidil, Baron de ; trials, 1801 

Vieta, Francis; algebra, 1590 

Vigilius ; Pope, .537 

Villars, Marshal ; Malplaquet, 1709 

Villeueuve, Adm. ; Tralalgar, 1S05 

Villeroy, Marshal; Brussels, 1095; 
Ramilies, 1706 

Villiers, Bishop; Durham, 1860 

Viiliers, Sir George; adminis., 1615 

Vincent, B., Royal Institute Libva- 
rv Catalogue,"lS57; Bible inde.^, 
1848 

Vincent, II. ; Chartists 

Virgil, 70-19 B.C. 

Virginia ; killed, 449 B.C. 

Vitalianus; Pope, 057 

Vitellius ; Rome, emperor, 69 

Vitruvius; about 27 B.C. ; ink 

Vivier; trials, 1842 

Volta, Alex., 1745-1S2C ; electricity, 
Volta 

Voltaire, F. M. A. de,lC94-177S ; mis- 
cellanist 

Von Fuchs, Dr., died 1850 ; water- 
glass, steroochromy 

Vortigern ; Wales, 447 

Voss,''poet, 1751-1826 

Vyse, Mrs. A. ; trials, 1SC2 

W. 

Waddington; trials, 1820 
Watrer, C. ; Admiralty, 1733 
Waghorn, Lieut., d. 1849; Waghorn 
Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 

1823; obelisk, bank 
Wake, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 1715 
Wakelield, Ed. Gibbon ; marriages, 

S. Australia, trials, 1827 
Wakelield, Eliz. ; savings' banks, 

1S04 
Waldesrave, Bishop ; Carlisle, 1800 
Waldegrave, Earl of; trials, 1S41 
Waldemar; Denmark, 1157 
Walden, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1398 
Wales, George, prince of, v. Times; 

trials, 179o'; regency 
Walker, General"; filibusters, Nica- 

ratjua, 1855; executed 1860 
Walker, George ; Londonderry, 

Boyne, 1089 
Walker, Mr. ; Vauxhall, congela- 
tion, ice. 1782 
Walker, Robt. J. ; adm. U. S., 1845 
Wall, Governor ; trials, 1802, Goree 
Wall, Mr. Baring; trials, 1833 
Wallace, Sir W.; exec, 1305; Fal- 
kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
Wallaces; trials, 1841 
Wallenstein, Albert, General, 1583- 

1634; Merklenbura: 
Waller, Sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
Wallis. circumnavigator; Otaheite, 

Wallis, 1760 
Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
Walpole, Sir Robt., 1676-1745; Wal- 
pole administra. ; sinking fund 
Walpole, Spencer Horatio ; Derby 

administration. 18.52-1858 
Walsh, IMrs. ; murdered, trials, 1832 
Walsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1.571 
Walsin^ham, Lord; attorney gen- 
eral, 1760 
Walsingbam, Sir Francis ; admin- 
istrations, 1587 



Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 
Walter, J., 1739-1812 ; Times, 1785 
Waltheof ; beheading, 1076 
Walton, Brian, 1600-01 ; polyglot - 
Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
Walworth ; Blackheath, mace, 1381 
Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 

1852 
Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's 

cases, 1829 
Wardle, Colonel ; impeachment, 
Wardle w. Duke of York; trials, 
1809 
Warham, Abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; 

administrations, 1509 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1850 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatres 
Warren, Admiral Sir John Borlase ; 

naval battles, 179S 
Warrenne, Earl of; Dunbar, 1296 
Warrington Gang ; trials, 1800 
Warrington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 
Wartou, Thomas ; poet laureate, 

1785 
Warwick, Earl of ; Barnct, St. Al- 

ban's, Wakefield, 1460 
Warwick, Juo. Dudley, earl of; ad- 
ministrations, 1551 
Washington, George, 17.02-99 ; Uni- 
ted States, Yorktowu, Virginia ; 
administrations V. S. 
Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1783- 

1805 
Wathen, Captain ; trials, 1834 
Watson, Admiral ; India, 1756 
Watson, Bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 
Watson, Sir Wm. ; electricity, 1740 ; 
lightning conductor ; trials, 1817 
Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
Watt, Jas., 1730-1819 ; steam-engine 
Watteau, Ant., French painter, 1684 

-1721 
Watts, Isaac, 1073-1748 ; hymns 
Watts ; theatres, trials, 18.59, suicide 
Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1700 
Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
Weathershed, Archbishop ; Canter- 
bury, 1229 
Webbe, Sam., musician, 1740-1819 
Weber, Carl von, 1786-1820 ; music 
Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; adminis- 
trations U. S., 1841 ; Ashburtou 
treaty, 1842; United States 
Webster, Dr..; trials, 1842 
Webster, Noah ; Dictionaries, 1841 
Webster, Sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
Wedgwood, Josiah, 1731-95 ; earth- 
en-ware. Wedgwood (porcelain) 
Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
AVeld, Mr. : Trappists 
Welles, Gideon; administrations U. 

S.,1S61 
Wellesley, Marquess ; India, 1798 
Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 182S 
Wellesley Pole v. Misses Long ; tri- 
als 1825 
Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 
Wellesley, Sir A., see Wellrixiton 
Wellington, Duke of, 1709-1852 ; 
Wellinsrton; commander-in-chief, 
duel, 1829; trials, 18."0 
Wells, Lord Lyon ; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 1438 
Wells, W. ; dew. 1814 
Wensleydale, Lord ; peers, 1857 
Werner, A. G., 1750-1817 ; geology, 

1775 
Weslev, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans 
West, Benjamin, 1738-1820 ; Royal 

Academy, 1792 
Weslbury," Lord Chancellor ; Pal- 

merston administration, 1861 
Westertou v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
Westmacott, Sir R., 1775-18.50 
Westmeath, Lord ; trials, 179G 
Westmoreland, Earl of ; Ireland 

(lord lieutenant), 1790 
Weston, Richard, Lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1(;28 
Wetherell, Rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 
Wetherell, Sir Chas. ; attorney gen- 
eral, 1826; Bristol 
Weyland, Thomas de; bribery, 1288 



INDEX. 



541 



Wevmouth ; northwest passage, 

l(ju2 
Weymouth, Visct.; Graftou admin- 
istration, 17G7 
WliaiiuliiTc, Lord; Peel adm.,lS34 
M'liartoii, ]\l i!<s ; marriages, 1090 
\Vh;irt(iii, Thomas, marquess of; 

Halifax administration, 1714 
Wliately, Abp. K., 1787-1803 ; logic, 

etc. 
Wheatstone, C, horn 1S02 ; stereo- 
scope, electricity, 1SB4 ; electric 
telegraph, and clock 
Wheeler, Sir Huarh ; Cawnpore, 1857 
Whewell, W., philosopher, b. 1795 
Whiston, W., theologian, d. 1752 
Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide, 1315 
White, H. K., poet, 17S5-1S0G 
Wliite, Tlios. ; Sion College, 1623 
Wliitelield, G., 1714-70; Whitelield, 

Wesleyans, 1741 
Whitehead, W., d. 1785 ; poet lau- 
reate 
W'hitelock, Gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 

1807 
Whitgift, Abp. ; Canterbury, 15S3 
Whitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 
Whittiugton ; lord mayor, 1405 
Whittlesey, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 

13GS 
Whitworth, Earl ; Ireland, 1S13 
Whitworth, Mr. ; cannon, Shoe- 

burvni^'^s, 1802 
Wl)vt(.', Ma j. Gen. ; Deraerara, 1790 
Wickluun, William of, 1324-1405 ; 

education, Oxford, Winchester 
Wicklifl'e, C. A. ; administrations 

U. S., 1S41 
Wickliffe, John, h. 1324 ; Wickliff- 

ites, Bible 
Wieland, C. ; German miscellanist, 

1733-1813 
Wigram, Bishop ; Rochester, ISOO 
WilberfVn-ce, Bishop ; Oxford, 1S46 
Wilberforce, W., 1759-1833; slave- 
trade 
Wild, Jonathan ; executed 1725 
Wilde, Sir James; Probate Court, 

1803 
Wilfride, Bishop ; Chichester, 673 
Wilkes, Captain ; circumnaviga- 
tion, 1833; United States, 1861 
Wilkes, John; North Briton, obe- 
lisk, warrants ;. Wilkes, duel, 1703; 
trials, 1704 
Wilkie, Sir D., painter, 17S.5-1841 
Wilkins, Dr. ; Wadham, 1613 
Wilkins, William ; administrations 

U. .S., 1S44 
William; Holland, Scotl.and 
William I., lOGO; England, Battel 
Abbev, conquest, Domesday, cas- 
tles 
William II. ; England, 1087 
William III.; England, lOSO, revo- 
lution, Boyne, Eughien, Jc maiii- 
ticmlrai, New Forest 
William IV. ; England, kings, 1S30 ; 

admiral 
Williams, Ann : trials, 1753 
Williams, David, d. 1816 ; literary 

fund 
Williams, General Thomas; Baton 

Kou'.'c, 1802 
Williams, Gen. W.F. ; Kars, 18.55 
Williams, John, Dean ; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Williams, Koger; America, 1035 
Williams, see liiirking 
Williamson, Sir Joseph; adminis- 
trations, 1029 
Willoni.'hby de Eresby, Ld. ; cham- 
berlain, lord great, 1020 
Willou-hby, Lieut. ; Delhi, 18.57 
Willou<.'hbv, Sir Hugh; northwest 

l)assau'e,l.'').'')3 
Wills, General ; Preston, 1715 



Wilmington, Earl of; Wilmington 

administration, 1742 
Wilson, <.;apt. ; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Wilson, Capt. W. ; United States, 

lS02,jio('(; 
Wilson, H. II. ; Sanscrit professor, 

1832 
Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 

1802 
Wilson, Professor John, 1TS5-1854 
Wilson, Sir A. : Delhi, 1857 
Wilson, Sir Robert ; Lavalette, 1815 
Wilton, Earl of; trials, 1859 
Winchelsey, Archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1293 
Winchester, Geueral; Frenchtown, 

1813 
Winchester, H. ; mayor, lord, 1834 
Winchester, William, marquess of; 

administrations, 1554 
Winchilsea, Earl of; duel, 1S29 
Winchilsea, Earl of; Wilmington 

admin., 1742 ; Bath admin., 1746 
Windebank, Sir Francis ; adminis- 
trations, 1035 
Winder, Gen. ; Bladensburg, 1814 
Windham, General; India,l857 
Windham, W. P. ; trial.?, 1801-2 
Windham, Wm. ; Grenville admin- 
istration, 1806 
Windischgratz, Prince ; Vienna, 

1848 
Winstanley ; Eddystone, 1096 
Winthrop, Major T., k. ai Big Beth- 
el, 1801 
Winwood, Sir Ralph ; administra- 
tions, 1012 
Winzingerode, Gen. ; Kalisch, 1813 
Wirt, Wm. ; administrations U. S., 

1817 
Wirz, H. ; Andersonville, 1804 
Wiseman, Cardinal Nicholas,' 1802- 
65; ecclesiastical titles, papal ag- 
gression, Rome, Ireland, 1858 
Witherings, Thomas ; post-office, 

1031 
Witherington,W.,painter,17S6-lSC5 
Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 
Withing, Rich. ; Glastonbury, 1539 
Witikiild (Saxon chief), 779-785 
Wittgenstein, Gen. ; Polotsk, Wi- 

tepsk, 1812 
Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 
Wodehouse, Lord ; Ireland (lord, 

lieutenant), 1804 
Woden ; Wednesday 
Wiihler, F. ; alumiiiium, 1827 
Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar ; 

trials, 1807 
Wolcott, Oliver ; admin. U. S., 1795 
Wolfe, General ; Quebec, 1759 
Wollius; anemometer, 1709 
Wollaston, Wm., 1700-1828 ; cryo- 
jihorus, camera, blow-pipe, palla- 
dium, rhodium 
Wolseley, Sir Charles ; trials, 1820 
Wolsej', Cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adm., 
1514 ; Hampton, Whitehall, York 
Wood, IMatlhew ; mayors of Lou- 
don, 1815 
Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
Wood, Sir Charles ; Russell adm., 

1840; Palmerstou adm., 1S55 
Woodbridge ; duel, 1728 
Woodburv, Levi ; administr.ations 

U. S., 1834 
Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 17SG 
Woodmason ; ruling machines 
Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817, 1S55 
Woolley,Mr. ; trials, 1863 
Worcester, Edward, earl of; admin- 
istrations, 16-1 
Worcester, .Marquess of; steam, tel- 
egraph, 1C>03 
Wordsworth, Wm., 1770-1850; poet 

laureate 
Wottou, Sir Edward ; sugar, 1540 



Wouvermans, painters, 1020-83 
Wray, Sir C. ; King's Bench, 1673 
Wrede, Geueral ; Hanau, 1S13 
Wren, Sir Christopher, architect, 

1032-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, 

Greenwich, monument, St. Paul's, 

Walbrook 
Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1S09 
Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
Wriglit; Merca"lor's charts, 1556 
Wright, Sir Robert ; King's Bench, 

1087 
Wrioihesley, Lord ; admiuis., 1547 
Wnrmser, Gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Wyat, Sir Thomas ; rebellions, 1654 
Wyld, S. ; globe, 1851 
Wynkyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; 

printing 
Wynn,W. ; Canning admin., 1827 
Wyon, W., medalist, 1795-1851 

X. 

Xavier, Francis, 1506-52 ; Jesuits 

Xenophanes ; Eleatic sect. 535 B.C. 

Xenophon ; anatomy, couriers, cym- 
bals, retreat of theGreeks,401 B.C. 

Xerxes; Persia, 485 B.C. ; Mycale, 
Salamis 

Ximenes, Cardinal, 1437-1517 ; pol- 
yglot 



Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
Yeh, Commissioner; China, 1857 
Yelverton, Major ; trials, 1860 
Yonge, Sir George; Shelburue ad- 
ministration, 1783 
York, Bishop; Ely, 1781 
York, Cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, Duke of, 1762-1827 ; York 
York, Jas., Duke of; Solebay, 1672 
Yorke, Chas., chancellor, lord high, 

1770 
Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Yorke, Sir Philip, attorney geueral; 

King's Bench, 1733 
Young, Brigham, b. 1801 ; Mormon- 

ites 
Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
Young, Edward, poet, 1081-1765 
Young ; impostors, 1092 
Young, Major ; Prescott, 1838 
Young, Thomas, 1773-1829 ; Royal 

Institution, color, spectrum 
Youugiuan,W. ; executions, ISOO 

Z. 

Zacharias ; Pope, 741 
Zaleiicus ; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. 
Zamoyski, Count; Poland, 1862 
Zechariah prophesies about 520 B. 

C. 
Zeno (Stoic),/. 299 B.C. ; Eastern 

Empire, 474 
Zenobia ; Palmyra, 203 
Zenon ; Armenia, 18 
Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
Zephyrinus; Pope, 202 
Zeuxis,/. 397 B.C. ; painting 
Zimmerman ; physiognomy, 1776 
Zinzendorf, 1700-60; Moravians 
Ziska; Bohemia. 1417 
Zoe; Eastern Empire. 1034 
Zollicofler, General ; United States, 

1801 ; Mill 8[;ring, 1802 
Zoroaster (supposed author of 

"Zendavesta"), about 565 B.C. ; 

lire-worshipers 
Zosimus; alriiemy, 410 
Zumnlacarregui (Carlist) ; k. near 

Bilbao, 1885 
Zumpic, M. ; piano-forte, 1760 
Zurbauo, Geueral ; Spain, 1844 



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